I . - ..... THE CITRUS INDUSTRY OF THE STANN CREEK VALLEY, BRITISH HONDURAS Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY MICHAEL G. WHITE 1968 THESI S IIIIII IIIIII LI B RAR Y Michig 111 State MW‘V Uri xersity 6685 ABSTRACT THE CITRUS INDUSTRY OF THE STANN CREEK VALLEY, BRITISH HONDURAS by Michael G. White This thesis constitutes a survey and analysis of the citrus industry of the Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. The Stann Creek Valley has been the center of British Honduras citrus production since 1913 and will probably retain this position in future years. Now respon- sible for 90 per cent of the citrus production, and for the entire export of processed citrus products, this valley has become the second most important agricultural region of British Honduras. Its production therefore affects both the local and colony-wide economy. Since the total-budget of British Honduras is approximately BH $20 million, and revenue from the export of citrus products averages $4 million, the citrus industry is a significant element in the government's attempt to balance trade and the economy. Citrus producers in the valley total 125 and can be classified into two types: "commercial" (large-scale) and "subsistence" (small-scale). Seventy acres of citrus is currently the minimum requirement for profitable citrus Michael G. White production. Therefore, only five of the growers can be considered "commercial" producers, in that citrus is pro— duced at a profit. The remaining 120 growers are "subsis- tence" producers, since they normally produce citrus at little or no profit, and this as a secondary occupation. While the growers are aware of modern agricultural methods, usually these techniques are not utilized because they are considered too costly to permit a profit from citrus cultivation. Two foreign-owned enterprises, with different end products, have been established in the valley to process the citrus fruit. In addition, both companies possess large amounts of citrus acreage of their own. The British Honduras Fruit Company is a subsidiary of Salada Foods, Inc., of Toronto, Ontario, and the Citrus Company of British Honduras is owned by the Sharp interests of Jamaica. Uti- lizing the most advanced processing technology, the plant of the British Honduras Fruit Company, constructed and placed in operation in the 1962-63 agricultural season, produces solely frozen orange concentrate. The Citrus Company was established at its present location in 1948 and employs the technology of twenty years ago in its produc- tion of canned grapefruit segments, citrus juices, and concentrates. The two processing companies serve different markets but face similar marketing problems. The British Honduras Michael G. White Fruit Company ships to North American consumers, whereas the United Kingdom is the principal destination for Citrus Company products. Because the Stann Creek Valley is a high-cost producer, both companies have difficulty in sell- ing their products in foreign markets that are Open to competition from other citrus producing countries. The lack of regular shipping schedules forces the construction and maintenance of storage facilities by the companies. Lacking a deep-water port and adequate loading facilities, the trans-Atlantic ships of the Citrus Company must anchor nearly one mile offshore and load by a lightering system, using costly hand labor. The British Honduras Fruit Com- pany, which uses shallow-draft, refrigerated ships that can dock at the Commerce Bight pier, is saved this added cost. The citrus industry of Stann Creek would benefit greatly from a deep-water port facility and guaranteed foreign markets. Although numerous physical, social, and economic problems exist in the citrus industry, the development potential of the Stann Creek Valley is significant. A major conclusion of this thesis is that acreage in citrus orchards within the valley could approximately double, but economic problems, especially the high cost of pest and disease control and low citrus prices, discourage the adop- tion of scientific horticultural techniques and large-scale foreign investment. In other words, the future for the Michael G. White citrus industry in the valley does not appear promising, despite an apparent potential, and the industry is now in an almost static condition. The utilization of modern techniques, the assurance of higher citrus prices, the control of pests and diseases, the initiation of adequate government aid programs, and the establishment of some form of economic tie with other countries are prerequisites for the further expansion of the citrus industry in the Stann Creek Valley. THE CITRUS INDUSTRY OF THE STANN CREEK VALLEY, BRITISH HONDURAS BY Michael G. White A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Geography 1968 475123.32 "7.2., /- 92.2w 6? TO Marilyn PREFACE This study is an evaluation of the status and potential of the citrus industry of the Stann Creek Valley of British Honduras. It is a result of the author's inter- est in Latin America and concern for this last vestige of British colonialism on the mainland of the Americas. Since the official governmental emphasis in British Honduras is upon agricultural development, the study should be useful as an appraisal of one of the colony's principal crOps and its potential for future development. Data for the study has been derived from personal interviews, observation, and library research. The maps are based in part upon those produced by the British Hon- duras Land Use Survey Team, in 1959, and topographic- cadastral maps of the Stann Creek Valley, published in 1966. Field research was conducted during the period from December, 1967, to February, 1968. Appreciation is hereby expressed to the many per- sons who rendered assistance and c00peration during the gathering of materials for this study. I am particularly indebted to the following persons, agencies, and libraries: the staff of the Reference Division of the Michigan State iii University Library; the staff of the Library of British Honduras; Mr. Eric W. King, Chief Agricultural Officer of British Honduras; Mr. Albert Grant, Chief Draftsman of the Land Survey Department of British Honduras; Mr. Eustace Bradley, Chief Forestry Officer of Stann Creek District; Mr. Richard N. Wedderburn, Agronomist, Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, British Honduras; and the staff of the District Agricultural Station in Stann Creek. Mr. Eugene Ysaquiree, of Belize City, deserves special mention for his aid to the author in the field research. Throughout the preparation of this thesis, several professors and graduate students in the Geography Depart- ment of Michigan State University gave both aid and encour- agement. I am especially grateful to my thesis advisor, Dr. Clarence W. Minkel, and to Dr. Paul C. Morrison, second reader, for their constructive criticisms and suggestions. Finally, I am deeply grateful to my wife, Marilyn, whose devotion and assistance made possible the field research and preparation of this thesis, and to my parents, whose personal sacrifices and assistance made possible a college education. iv PREFACE . TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . CHAPTER' I 0 INTRODUCTION 0 I O O O O O O O The Problem . . . . . Procedure . . . . . . The Study Area . . Summary of Findings . II. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . Early Period, 1913-1948 . . Modern Period, 1948- 1968 . . Citrus Legislation . . . . The Citrus Industry, 1968 . III. CITRUS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING Producers and Processors . Citrus Cultivation . . . . Planting Practices . . . Fertilization . . .'. . Maintenance and Sanitation Harvest . . . . . .I. . . Citrus Processing . . . . . Transportation and Marketing Summary . . . . . . . . . . IV. PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING PROBLEMS Physical Problems . . . . . Accessibility . . . . . . Topography and Soils . . . V Page iii vii ix l—‘(hU'lub I-‘ 15 19 25 30 34 35 44 44 53 57 60 65 72 73 74 75 76 CHAPTER Page vegetation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 77 Climate I O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 78 Social Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Economic Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Production Costs and Mar et Prices . . . 88 Labor Availability and Costs . . . . . . 92 Agricultural Credit . . . . . . . . . . 96 Diseases and Pests . . . . . . . . . . . 98 V. PROSPECTS FOR THE CITRUS INDUSTRY . . . .~. 110 Labor 0 O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O 110 Citrus Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Economic Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . 118 Future Development . . . . .1. . . . . . . 125 sumary O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 132 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 vi Table 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. LIST OF TABLES Export of Fresh Oranges and Grapefruit from British Honduras, 1937-1948 . . . . . . . Exports of Fresh Grapefruit from British Honduras, by Country of Destination, 1939—1944 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Citrus Production in British Honduras, 1954-1967 c o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Dollar Value of Citrus Exports, 1945-1965 . Commercial Citrus Producers in the Stann Creek Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Annual Fertilizer Applications for Young Citrus Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Citrus Processing and Shipping by the British Honduras Fruit Company (Salada), 1965—1966 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Annual Citrus Production Costs per Acre Using Ideal Practices . . . . . . . . . . Wages Rates for Citrus Labor in the Stann Creek Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimated Grapefruit Loss to the Mexican Fruit Fly in the Stann Creek Valley, 1966 Minor'Citrus Pests, Their Effects, and Measures of Control . . . . . . . . . . . Effects of Nitrogen Fertilizers on Citrus Yields per Tree 0 o o o o o o o o '0 o o 0 Yield of Grapefruit Trees, with Magnesium (Keiserite) Fertilizer . . . . . . . . . vii Page 19 21 23 32 38 52 7O 89 94 106 108 115 115 Table Page 14. Effect of Lime on Citrus Yields . . . . . . . 116 15. Fertilizer Applications According to Tree Size 0 O O I O O O O I O O O O O O O O I O 117 16. ExPenditures for Establishment and Operation of a lOO-Acre Citrus Farm in the Stann creek valley 0 O O O O O O I O O O O I O O 130 viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Map 1. Location of British Honduras . . . . . . . 2. British Honduras and the Stann Creek Valley 3. Commercial Citrus Producers of the Stann creek valley 0 o o o o o o '0 o o o o o o 4. Stann Creek Valley: Subsistence and Commercial Citrus Production . . . . . . 5. Soils of the Stann Creek Valley . .1. . . . 6. Stann Creek Valley: Possible Large-Scale Citrus Development Sites . . .w. . . . . Figure 1. Percentage of Citrus Growers Utilizing Recommended Horticultural Practices (graph) 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 2. Citrus Production on Mountain Slopes in the Stann Creek Valley (photograph) . . . . . 3. Subsistence Production of Oranges in the Stann Creek Valley (photograph) . . . . . 4. Commercial Orchards of the Citrus Company of British Honduras near Middlesex (photograph) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Grapefruit Canning by the Citrus Company of British Honduras (photograph) . . . . . . 6. Filling Five-gallon Pails with Cold Orange Concentrate at the Plant of the British Honduras Fruit Company (Salada) (photograph) . . . .,. . . . . . . . . . ix Page 39 41 45 126 36 37 37 37 61 61 Figure Page 7. Unloading Oranges for Storage before ProceSSing (photograph) o o o ‘ o o o o o o o 63 8. Juice Extraction from Oranges by the Citrus Company of British Honduras (photograph) . 63 9. British Freighter at Anchor at Commerce Bight (photograph) . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 10. Loading Barges at Commerce Bight, the Port Facility for the Stann Creek Valley (phOtograph) o o o o o ‘ o o o o ' o o o o o o 67 11. Range of Monthly Rainfall in the Stann Creek valley, 1950-1960 (graph) 0 o o o o ' o o o o 80 12. The Effects of Market Competition on Stann Creek Valley Citrus Production (diagram) . 87 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION , Forestry has traditionally dominated the economy of British Honduras. It formed the basis of the colony's development from the first settlement in the seventeenth century until 1959, during which time logwood and other forest products accounted for approximately 80 per cent of the total domestic revenue. Forest exploitation formed the raison d'etre of British Honduras, and it provided sufficient exports to make practical the importation of essentially all necessities.l Since 1955, the value of forest products has decreased rapidly. This is evidenced by a reduction of their share of the total exports, from 76 per cent in 1955 to less than 50 per cent in 1959. The decline of the forest industry has been due largely to uncontrolled cut- ting, which drastically reduced the number of trees suitable for exploitation, and the lack of reforestation programs or long-term efforts in forest management. Hurricane Hattie, 1D. A. G. Waddell, British Honduras, A Historical and Contemporary Survey (London: Oxford University Press, 1961T7 p. 102. in 1961, with its destruction of the few large remaining forests in accessible areas, emphasized the fact that British Honduras must now search for other economic resources. With independence anticipated, the primary problem for British Honduras is the development of a viable economy. To reduce imports and increase exports, to promote tourism, and to significantly enlarge the industrial sector of the economy are goals the government of British Honduras hopes to attain. In other words, to minimize economic dependence upon Great Britain or the United States, British Honduras must produce Belizean2 products to be marketed both at home and abroad. IUI expansion of agriculture is seen as the primary answer to a decreased importance of the forest industry. The agricultural potential of British Honduras has long been recognized as substantial, and farm production has now supplanted forestry as the largest single contributor to the colony's economy. British Honduras ". . . may be able to increase agricultural exports and at the same time supply more of its own food needs if current agricultural develop- ment plans materialize."3 Presently, agriculture supplies 2British Honduras and Belize are used interchange- ably. Belize will be the official name of the country after independence. 3U. S., Department of Agriculture, The Agriculture and Trade of British Honduras, ERS-Foreign 209, prepared by Mary S. CoynerITWashington, D. C., January, 1968), p. iii. an estimated 28 per cent of the gross domestic product, 60 to 80 per cent of total exports, and employment for about one-third of the labor force. A statement from Latin American Report epitomizes the general belief in the agricultural future of British Honduras: During the last 10 years, great strides in increased land use have been scored. Yet for all of this, less than 10% of the land is being actively utilized. Some idea of the tremendous potential can be gathered from a United Nations Survey which stated that the country has some 2.2 million acres of land well suited for agricultural use, and that soil and climatic conditions are suitable for a wide range of agricultural enter- prises.4 Export crops form the primary basis of the agricul- tural economy. Second in importance to sugar among exports, citrus products account for approximately 15 per cent of the gross domestic product of British Honduras. Citrus exports were valued at BH $345,000 in 1946, but by 1960 the figure had risen to BH $3,133,000.5 Exports are directed primarily to the United Kingdom, Canada, France, and the Fiji Islands. The main center of citrus production in British Honduras is the fertile Stann Creek Valley. 4"A New Look at Belize," Latin American Report, VI, No. 8 (September-October, 1967), p. 26. 5 BH $1.00 is equal to US $.70. The Problem The purpose of this study is to analyze the citrus industry of the Stann Creek Valley of British Honduras and its prospects for future expansion. More specifically, answers have been sought to the following questions: 1. What physical properties of the valley favored the initiation of citrus production at this location? To what extent has the historical development of the citrus industry influenced present production techniques? How does government legislation affect citrus production and processing in the valley? What are the current trends in planting, cultiva- tion, maintenance, harvesting, and processing of the citrus crop? What are the effects of marketing procedures and transportation methods on production? What are the physical problems of citrus production within the valley? What is the status of citrus research and agricul- tural extension programs? What social problems exist in the Stann Creek Valley which might inhibit expansion of citrus production? What economic problems may be decisive in relation to further development of citrus acreage? 10. What are the overall future prospects for citrus production in the Stann Creek Valley? Procedure Most of British Honduras has experienced important agricultural development only since 1961, while the Stann Creek Valley has had citrus production as its economic basis for more than thirty years. Citrus of the Stann Creek Valley currently comprises about 90 per cent of the British Honduras crop, and the entire citrus processing industry is located within the valley. The valley was selected for this study since it represents a conspicuous departure from the traditional agricultural activities in British Honduras, namely commercial sugar cane cultivation and primitive subsistence agriculture. Published data for this study were obtained from the Michigan State University Library in East Lansing, Michigan, the Library of British Honduras in Belize City, and various government agencies in British Honduras. Direct data were obtained by means of approximately thirty interviews with knowledgeable persons in Belize City, Central Farm, Stann Creek Town, and the Stann Creek Valley. The field work in British Honduras was accomplished during the period from December, 1967, to February, 1968. The Study Area British Honduras is located in the southeastern part of the Yucatan Peninsula of Central America, roughly between 16° and 18° North Latitude, as shown in Map 1. It is bounded by the Mexican territory of Quintana Roo on the north, Guatemala on the south and west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east. It extends 174 miles from north to south and sixty-eight miles from east to west. Slightly larger than Massachusetts, the total area including the cays is 8,867 square miles. The specific study area, the Stann Creek Valley, occupies about 125 square miles in the east-central portion of this British Crown Colony (Map 2). The valley extends twenty-five miles from west to east, but is only eight miles wide at the widest point. Ten miles from the Carib- bean Sea, it narrows to only four miles in width as forma- tions of the Maya Mountains fade beneath alluvial material, which extends eastward to the Caribbean coast and Stann Creek Town. The Stann Creek Valley is described in the Chronicle of the West Indies Committee as the "valley of the orange blossom promise."6 It is located thirty—five miles by sea and 105 miles by road south of Belize City, the capital, 6U. S., Department of Agriculture, The Agriculture and Trade of British Honduras, p. 4. GULF OF 25 __ MEXICO r0"— JAMAICA3: ....__ \ BRITISH ”Ex'90 5 \ HONDURAS \. fo.—l . .5.— GUATEMA , :' LA; HONDURAS .,—-° /. f, I ax““ '7‘” GAmwwEAN 554 EL SALVADOR' "NICARAGUA ,0 4o #70 "w... LOCATION OF #0 BRITISH HONDURAS W- [90 160 MIN can 04) AN IO— COSTA \RI CA * ._ PANAMA ,5 Map 1 MEX/CO CUBA-“\M d) {0/— JAMAICA3: ..._.. BRITISH MEXICO I '\ HONDURAS \. SUATH -. '5‘ E . g “A”; HONDURAS _,,..: j. I" ’ .7“ - '3'. CA RIBBEA N SEA ’0 .4 0084” LOCATION OF BRITISH HONDURAS 90 25" Map 1 09 _ HETUMAL .r .. I . MEXICO I COROZAL ./ /.L , COROZAL Y I-I. ”A él f "’\ ~- I "‘ I- — —: Q$ I 9 A" : ORANGE d I WALK 2 CITY 5 l ‘ . TURNEFFE : i v _ ~ ISLANDS : f 3 0"“. I ncgNTRAL , _’ FARM ‘ CAYO _1. STANN CREEK TOWN \‘ "oo‘. BRITISH HONDURAS AND THE I ' STANN CREEK VALLEY . 'PUNTA I GORDA _.., ‘ TOLEDO D STAC‘NLL::EEK I o 1.0 m--~":;u MI... 39 ALL i l Map 2 and possesses certain physical characteristics ideal for the cultivation of citrus: (1) a fairly free-draining soil, (2) a frost-free climate, and (3) at least sixty inches of rainfall annually. Soils in the middle and upper parts of the valley are excellent for citrus.7 A11 soils are formed on, or derived from, potash-bearing rocks. Those of the western valley are shallow skeletal soils derived from the Maya Mountains, which consist of shales, fine sandstones, and quartzite.8 The eastern terraces are comprised of a wide range of soil types. However, they are predominantly sandy alluvium and, thus, are fairly free-draining. The Stann Creek Valley has a tropical, rainy climate (KOppen Af). The average maximum temperature is 85°F., the average minimum is 71°F., and the average annual humidity 85 per cent. Rainfall varies in amount from year to year (90 - 120 inches) and areally within the valley, increasing westward toward the mountains. Precipitation is concentrated in the months from May to December and tends to occur in trOpical thundershowers, which account for large amounts of rain within relatively short periods 7A. C. S. Wright, Land in BritishHonduras; Report of the British Honduras Land Use Survey Team (London: Her Majesty‘s Stationery Office, 1959), p. 165. 8 Ibid., p. 164. 10 of time. However, the valley is also subject to day-long drizzles. The number of rainy days ranges from 150 to 200 per year. Cold air masses and hurricanes form distinct elements in the climate of the valley. The cold air masses, or "northers," from the North American interior push southward across the Gulf of Mexico during the winter season and result in temperatures from fifteen to thirty degrees below normal. Hurricanes, with their high winds and heavy rain- fall, not only threaten human life but also cause heavy fruit dr0p and bud damage to citrus trees. Unfortunately, these natural disasters occur from August to October, when the buds are forming and the fruit is beginning to ripen. Severe hurricanes pass directly through the Stann Creek Valley approximately once every thirty years, but since the hurricane track has been moving slightly southward during the present century the valley may receive more frequent visits from such devastating storms in the future. Citrus requires at least sixty inches of rainfall per annum for ideal production without irrigation. Receiv- ing a total of from ninety to 120 inches of rainfall, dis- tributed throughout the year, the Stann Creek Valley possesses a moisture excess which must be drained away and the citrus groves prOperly ventilated to prevent tree and fruit diseases. 11 The natural vegetation of the valley is a broadleaf forest, with few lime-loving species. Negrito, banak, and cohune palm trees are abundant. Hurricane Hattie of 1961 destroyed the tallest tree canopy, and now the uncleared areas, which comprise over one-half of the valley area, consist largely of jungle growth. Cleared areas used for citrus are covered with grasses which do not seriously inhibit soil aeration and which protect the soil against erosion. Inhabitants of Stann Creek Town and the valley number roughly 5,000. They include Creoles, who reside in town; Caribs, who inhabit the town, but are attracted to the valley by seasonal work in the orchards and facto- ries; Jamaicans, who are primarily residents of the valley and are remnants of a 1932 settlement scheme; and Mayan Amerindians, who are seasonal workers and milpa agricul- turalists and are considered to be the best field workers of the valley. Arabs and Asiatics, a very minor population element in terms of numbers, form a significant part of the merchant class. Summary of Findings Since the first planting of citrus in 1913, orchards in the Stann Creek Valley have expanded to include 8,000 acres and more than 560,000 trees. Production totals 12 nearly 900,000 contract boxes of fruit per year.9 The number of growers has risen steadily to more than 120 in 1967. Two processing companies have also initiated fruit production in the valley: the Citrus Company of British Honduras, owned by the Sharp interests of Jamaica, and the British Honduras Fruit Company, Operated by Salada Foods of Canada. Thus, citrus forms the predominant economic activity of the Stann Creek Valley and is second in impor- tance only to sugar as an export product of the colony. Production levels of citrus in British Honduras are, however, subject to wide fluctuations due to physical and economic problems. Hurricanes and heavy rainfall can cause widespread bud damage and fruit drop, resulting in a partial loss of the annual crop. Low prices on the world market may result in low production, since the growers will neither fertilize nor use preventive sprays if prices fall below a certain level. Crop losses due to pests and dis- eases may then range from 10 to 20 per cent. A lack of orchard maintenance also results from low prices, causing yields to be significantly reduced by weeds and grasses that utilize many of the soil nutrients required by the trees. In addition, shortages of labor for harvesting Operations can reduce production, since the fruit will drop and spoil rapidly unless picked soon after ripening. 9Contract boxes contain 80 pounds of grapefruit or 90 pounds of oranges. 13 The marketing of citrus products also presents difficulties. Stann Creek Valley citrus depends upon world price situations and market potentials. If world citrus production is greater than usual, increased competition from foreign sources in such markets as Canada and the United Kingdom drives prices downward and injures the economy of British Honduras and the Stann Creek Valley. Further orchard expansion and investment will depend upon economic and agricultural develoPments not only in British Honduras but also in the rest of the world. Citrus research can lead to less expensive production, for example, through the development of disease-resistant species of citrus. Due to the superior quality of fruit, perhaps the Stann Creek Valley should be increasingly devoted to the production and marketing of fresh fruit rather than processed products. The general outlook for the valley at present is not bright, but future events could rapidly alter the picture to resemble the "boom period" of the 1930's and 1940's. CHAPTER II HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Since its inception, citrus cultivation in the Stann Creek Valley has been primarily dependent upon world markets and prices. Therefore, historical events, both domestic and foreign, have alternately stimulated and hin- dered citrus production and have significantly affected agricultural traditions and techniques. An analysis of historical background helps to explain the present land- scape Of the valley, in addition to the "citrus mentality" of the producers. The history of citrus production and processing in the valley can be divided conveniently into two periods. Grapefruit production dominated the first interval, from 1913 to 1948. After 1948, an emphasis upon orange produc- tion became paramount, and its importance continues to the present. Since April, 1967, government control and regula- tion of both citrus production and processing has presented a new aspect of the industry deserving separate considera- tion and analysis. 14 15 Early Period, 1913-1948 Although various historical records mention citrus being grown in British Honduras since 1859, the citrus industry of the Stann Creek Valley is of more recent origin.10 In 1913, the first grafted citrus trees were imported from Florida and planted by Dr. S. O. Browne, who had the orig- inal idea; Mr. A. E. Vine, Manager of the British Honduras Syndicate, Ltd.; and Mr. W. A. J. Bowman. Each of the three growers imported 300 grapefruit trees, sufficient for a total of fifteen acres of land at 60 trees per acre. Primary advantages for the initiation of citrus production in the Stann Creek Valley included: (1) a trOpical climate with more than the minimum rainfall required by citrus, (2) proximity to a port facility, and (3) large tracts of suit- able land available at low cost. After Operating at a loss for the first twelve years, during which time the primary difficulties were pests and low yields, two of the three citrus pioneers decided to sell their holdings.11 In 1924, Browne retired to Jamaica, selling his prOperty to Bowman, who promptly loBritish Honduras, Agriculture Department, British Honduras Citrus Production (Belize City: Government Print- ing OffiCe, 1955), p. 3. 11W. A. J. Bowman, "Citrus Culture in British Hon- duras, The Development of the Citrus Industry in the Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras" (unpublished manuscript, 1955), Library of British Honduras, p. 2. 16 introduced new varieties from Florida and California. Vine, who returned to England to retire, sold his land to the government of British Honduras for the establishment of the Boys' Industrial School at Pomona. Also in 1924, a government policy to increase the acreage of citrus was formulated and a nursery was estab- lished for the sale of budded trees to prospective pro- ducers. This action led to expansion of the industry. The first shipment of citrus, 3,756 cases of fresh grape- fruit, was made to Canada in 1925. Shipments to England followed, with sales being handled by the British Honduras Government Agricultural COOperative Society. An emphasis upon high fruit quality and appearance accompanied the increase in plantings. Colonel A. P. Bell- house, H. T. A. Bowman, and other developers joined the ranks of growers as budded trees became available from the Government Agricultural Station at Stann Creek. Grapefruit exhibits were sent to the Imperial Fruit Show in Great Britain, where the Boys' Industrial School won the gold and silver medals at the Fruit Show, Manchester, England, in 1928. The superior quality and appearance of the fruit was further attested by W. A. J. Bowman's winning of the gold medals at the Fruit Show, Birmingham, England, in 1929, and Daacester, England, in 1930. 17 By 1931, grapefruit cultivation had expanded to 450 acres. During that year Mr. G. G. R. Sharp, of the Sharp interests of Jamaica, purchased Middlesex, a forest reserve at the western end of the valley, from the British government and immediately began planting grapefruit. He was thus directly responsible for the expansion of its cultivation in the valley to 800 acres by 1937. Private enterprise, meanwhile, had taken over the marketing of citrus fruit from the British Honduras Govern- ment Agricultural Cooperative Society. A packing plant for fresh fruit was first erected in Stann Creek in 1933, being transferred to Pomona at the end of 1942. Its daily capa- city was 100 boxes per hour during the months from September to April. W. A. J. Bowman was the chairman of the company, known as the British Honduras Citrus Association, until it was dissolved in 1948. Fresh fruit became the principal export from Com- merce Bight, the port facility two miles south of Stann Creek Town, but develOpment of canned citrus products fol- lowed the discovery that nearly 40 per cent of the fruit grown were too large to be acceptable for the export market.12 Canning of grapefruit segments and juice began at the Citrus Association plant in 1935. The plant capacity was five cases per day, each case containing twenty-four 12Wright, Op. cit., p. 119. 18 nineteen-ounce cans. The average annual export of fresh fruit during the period 1934-1940 was 50,000 boxes, from a total production of 60,000. Canning of segments and juice utilized most of the remaining 10,000 boxes, since domestic consumption totaled only about 1 per cent of the annual harvest. Table 1 illustrates the volume of citrus exports, 1937-1948, and reflects the decline during World War II. Table 2 shows the dislocation of the fresh grape- fruit market caused by the war.13 Grapefruit orchards in the valley, which currently approximate 900 acres, have not undergone significant ex- pansion since 1942. This is due to the lack of shipping facilities during the war and because of the subsequent limited market at home and abroad for fresh grapefruit and processed products. Grapefruit production has therefore declined in relative importance, and the orchards are suf- fering plant losses through age and disease at the rate of 1 to 3 per cent annually. Neither replacement nor new plantings of grapefruit trees are presently being under- taken. 13Throughout this study all export figures for citrus pertain to the Stann Creek Valley, since this area provides the entire export crop of British Honduras. 19 TABLE 1 EXPORT OF FRESH ORANGES AND GRAPEFRUIT FROM BRITISH HONDURAS, 1937-1948 (Boxes, 80 pounds net) Year Oranges Grapefruit Total 1937 3,429 20,793 24,222 1938 422 50,858 51,280 1939 838 61,804 62,642 1940 2,226 55,848 58,074 1941 1,746 5,809 7,555 1942 734 263 997 1943 2,965 6,443 9,408 1944 3,336 2,545 5,881 1945 3,592 2,260 5,852 1946 6,117 1,071 7,188 1947 2,688 874 3,562 1948 2,214 1,380 3,594 Source: Citrus Industry of British Honduras, Jamaica, Trinidad, J. Henry Burke. Modern Period, 1948-1968 Although grapefruit production in the valley ex- ceeded that of oranges until 1957, emphasis after 1948 was placed upon increasing the acreage in orange groves. Prob- ably the decline of grapefruit to a secondary position had 20 its beginning in the 1941-1942 agricultural season, when the British Ministry of Food contracted the Stann Creek citrus factory to provide single-strength orange juice to the United Kingdom.14 Due to a lack of shipping facilities, however, the factory was forced to close in 1943 and did not reOpen until 1948. Yet, the impetus for orange produc- tion had been established, and when the Ministry of Food contract for single-strength and concentrated orange juice was renegotiated in 1948, the acreage in oranges began a rapid expansion that has only recently tapered off. Another factor in this growth was the general desire of British Caribbean territories to develop new crops to diversify their agricultural economies.15 After the British Honduras Citrus Association was dissolved in 1948, its processing plant was purchased by the new Citrus Company of British Honduras. The present canning section of the factory at Pomona was constructed at the same time, and new machinery was imported from Britain. Although citurs plantings in the valley increased from less than 1,200 acres in 1935 to more than 6,000 by 1957, the Citrus Company was able to process the greater production 14Interview with Eric W. King, Chief Agricultural Officer of British Honduras, January 2, 1968. 15Great Britain, Caribbean Commission, Central Secretariat, Caribbean Market Survey: Citrus (Port-of- Spain, Trinidad: Kent House, 1956): P. l. 21 by means of longer Operating hours and modern facilities. Not only did the factory introduce up-to-date industrial methods but it also caused an awakening of the resident pOpulation to the monetary value of man's labor and the bargaining power of a labor force.16 TABLE 2 EXPORTS OF FRESH GRAPEFRUIT FROM BRITISH HONDURAS, BY COUNTRY OF DESTINATION, 1939-1944 (Boxes, 80 pounds net) Cayman Year UK Canada Bermuda Mexico Islands Panama Total 1939 50,919 10,368 305 160 52 -- 61,804 1940 37,991 16,061 1,226 570 -- -- 55,848 1941 -- 5,300 302 207 -- -- 5,809 1942 -- -- -- 165 -- -- 165 1943 -- -- -- 2,481 -- 3,962 6,443 1944 -- -— -- 2,233 -— 312 2,545 Source: Agriculture of British Honduras, Constance H. Farnworth. 16Interviews with Frank Sharp, owner of the Citrus Company of British Honduras, January 11, 1968, and R. Castillo, President, Southern Christian Workers Union, Stann Creek Town, British Honduras, January 29, 1968. 22 As citrus production expanded (Table 3), the Citrus Growers Association of British Honduras became more prom- inent. Formed in 1951 by Henry Bowman, the Association's major objectives were: (1) to promote, foster, and encour- age the growing of citrus, (2) to promote the orderly and proper delivery of citrus, (3) to promote the extension and welfare of citrus farming as an industry, (4) to aid in settling disputes which might arise between members of the Association and the citrus packers and processors, and (5) to act as agents for all members of the Association.17 Citrus yields attained record levels in the 1960- 1961 agricultural season. The Citrus Company of British Honduras was not able to process the entire production, and the surplus of fruit totaled 60,000 boxes. Anticipating a continuation of this condition, the government of British Honduras made known the need for a second processing factory. In late 1962, Salada Foods, Inc., of Toronto, Ontario, owner of the present British Honduras Fruit Com- pany, investigated the possibilities of growing and proces- sing citrus in British Honduras. A decision was made to purchase 1,000 acres of uncleared land and 545 acres pre- viously develOped by the Colonial Development Corporation in the Stann Creek Valley, with the intention of utilizing the entire holdings for orange orchards. A modern factory l7Bowman, op. cit., p. 25. 23 with refrigeration units for frozen citrus concentrate was erected within a period of three months on the property, 14.5 miles west of Stann Creek Town. The fully automated processing section of the factory produced both grapefruit and orange concentrate until 1967, when a decision was made to process oranges only. TABLE 3 CITRUS PRODUCTION IN BRITISH HONDURAS, 1954-1967 (boxes)* Year Oranges Grapefruit Total 1954-55 80,000 215,000 295,000 1957-58 195,000 188,000 383,000 1958-59 281,000 220,000 501,000 1959-60 450,000 250,000 700,000 1960-61 718,000 261,000 979,000 196l-62** 190,000 101,000 291,000 1962-63 940,000 231,000 1,171,000 1963-64 859,000 268,000 1,127,000 1964—65 856,000 243,000 1,099,000 1965-66 952,000 248,000 1,200,000 1966-67 700,000 236,000 936,000 *Oranges: 70-pound boxes, 1954-1965; 90-pound boxes, 1966-67. Grapefruit: 80-pound boxes. **Production reflects damage by Hurricane Hattie, September, 1961. Source: Annual Agricultural Reports, Stann Creek District AgriculturaIIStation. 24 Price competition between the Citrus Company of British Honduras and the British Honduras Fruit Company in the purchase of fruit naturally resulted from establish- ment of the new factory. In April, 1963, Salada initiated Operations and Offered growers BH $2.80 per box of oranges. The Citrus Company of British Honduras, which had been paying BH $.90 per box, was forced to raise its price to BH $2.00. Thus, Salada (British Honduras Fruit Company) represented a formidable challenge to the Sharp interests, which had enjoyed a monopoly in citrus processing during the previous fifteen years. Although the competition remained intense, prices offered gradually declined. During the years 1964-1966, the price paid by Salada per box of oranges fell from BH $2.25, to $1.57, to $1.25, while the Citrus Company was offering BH $2.00, $1.15, and $1.00. During the 1966-67 agricultural year, Salada suffered an economic collapse, because of a great increase of citrus production in the United States, and could give only BH $.50 per box for oranges, which was $.30 below growing costs. Sharp was also forced to lower prices, to BH $.80 per box, but was able to secure most of the valley's citrus. Though Salada was again able to pay BH $1.25 per box of fruit during the 1967-68 season, compared with Sharp's $.90 per box, it was unable to secure more than the minimum number required to maintain operations. The growers now fear that prices 25 might again fall and that they will be subject to adverse economic tactics by the processing interests. The government of British Honduras, concerned with the intense competition, declining prices, and the rela— tionships between growers and processors, initiated legis- lation to regulate the industry. Consequently, on April 1, 1967, the Citrus Ordinance was signed into law by the colonial governor, thus ushering in a legal factor in the historical development of citrus in the Stann Creek Valley. Citrus Legislation The Citrus (Processing and Production) Ordinance, 1261, "provided for the control and regulation of the citrus industry and the production of citrus fruit."18 The Ordinance states that "no person shall import into or export from this country any citrus, whether fresh or processed fruit, except in accordance with the terms and conditions of a valid license issued to them by the Minister of Natural Resources after consultation with the Citrus 19 Control Board." Licensing conditions also apply to any citrus processor. l8British Honduras, Citrus (Processing and Produc- tion) Ordinance, 1967 (Belize City: Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 1. 19 Ibid., Section 3, p. 5. 26 The legislation gives the Minister of Natural Resources power to require any producer or processor to reserve for domestic sale and consumption any portion of the citrus produced or processed in British Honduras.20 It also reserves the right of the Minister to fix the price, with due regard to the world price situation, of fresh and processed citrus fruit sold within the country. Regulations on purchases by processors are elab- orated in Section 7, Clause 3: Every processor shall during every year of Operation accept and pay for in accordance with the provisions of this Ordinance, including any contract made hereunder, all mature and merchantable citrus delivered to him by producers holding valid licenses to deliver citrus to him provided that a processor may be exempted from the provisions of this subsection if owing to any disaster of nature, major breakdown of equipment, unfavorable market trend, circumstances caused by crop failure or shortage, inability to procure packing and/or shipping or supplies, act of God, war or war conditions, embargo, fire, flood, accident, strike, riot, transportation difficulties, or any other cause or considerations beyond the control of the processor, the Board after consultation with the Association (of growers) permits him to declare a temporary shutdown or that his year of Operation has come to an end.2 Government regulation of the citrus industry was implemented through the formation of a Citrus Control Board. Membership of this Board is composed of the Per- manent Secretary of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Trade, the Chief Agricultural Officer, one representative 20Ibid., Section 5, p. 6. 21Ibid., p. 6. 27 of each processor, a number of representatives from the growers' association (one of whom must be the Chairman) equal to the number of representatives from the processors, and three persons appointed by the Minister of Natural Resources who have no connection with the citrus industry. Financial support of the Board is provided equally by the processors and the Citrus Growers' Association, of which each grower is a compulsory member at a cost of BH $.02 per box of fruit marketed.22 The Board has the power and duty: (1) to employ such officers and servants upon such terms and conditions as it may deem fit; (2) to request, receive, and deal with returns from processors and from the Association; (3) to authorize the Citrus Growers' Associa- tion to issue licenses to producers for the purpose of delivering citrus to processors; (4) to be the final ar- bitrator in disputes between any processor and the Associa- tion; (5) to advise processors and the Association on any matter in connection with this ordinance; (6) to advise the Minister of Natural Resources on the granting of licenses to exporters and importers of citrus and on the control of sales of fresh or processed citrus for domestic consumption, including fixing of prices; and, (7) to hear and determine appeals by any person aggrieved at the refusal by the 22Interview with Karl Gabrouel, a citrus producer in the Stann Creek Valley, January 11, 1968. 28 Association to issue a license to him or at the terms and conditions of his license.23 Finally, the Citrus Control Board may make regulations for the control of the citrus industry: (1) concerning the form of licenses, application for licenses, reports, returns, and other documents; (2) prescribing the records to be kept and the returns to be made by all licensed persons; and, (3) requiring every producer to show his license to deliver citrus to the processor at the time of the first delivery.24 The British Honduras Citrus Growers' Association, formed in 1951, was dissolved by the Citrus Ordinance and was replaced by the Citrus Growers' Association. The primary objectives of the new Association, as outlined by the Ordinance, are: 1. To promote, foster, and encourage the growing of citrus . . . and the extension and welfare of the citrus industry. 2. To assist in the preparation of, or the settling of, terms for contracts between producers and proces- sors, and with labor. 3. To assist in settling disputes which may arise between producers and processors, producers and 1a- borers, and producers. 4. To act as agents for the individual producers or any group of them. 23Citrus Ordinance, Section 16, pp. 9-10. 24Ibid., Section 17, p. 10. 29 5. To make suggestions to the Minister of Natural Resources on any matter affecting the interests of the producers. 6. To buy, sell, and deal in fertilizers, agricul— tural implements, and supplies for the benefit of producers. 7. To endeavor to obtain for, and to extend finan- cial aid to, any Association member who requires such aid in continuing cultivation.25 To become a member of the Citrus Growers' Associa- tion, a grower must own one acre or more of fruit-bearing trees and have delivered to a processor within the last twelve months at least twenty boxes of citrus. A provi- sional membership status is possible for those producers who have one or more acres of non-bearing citrus trees. However, provisional members cannot vote or hold office in the Association. Operations of the Association are directed by a Committee of Management. Consisting of nine persons, the Committee must be composed of full members of the Associa- tion elected by their peers.26 This committee has complete control over the income, capital, and prOperty of the Asso- ciation. It may authorize any person to enter and inspect the citrus orchards of any member of the Association. The Committee must submit an annual return to the Citrus Control Board so that the Board can determine the acreage, location, 251bid., Section 22, pp. 12-13. 26Ibid., Section 37, p. 18. 30 and age of the citrus orchards of each Association member and the deliveries of citrus made by him to the processors.27 Finally, the issuance of producer licenses to members of the Association desiring to deliver citrus to the processors is a function of the Committee of Management. To meet yearly expenses and provide citrus research facilities, the Association may levy and collect a fee upon all citrus delivered to processors. The fee for research purposes is BH $.033 per box, while that for Association expenses is BH $.02 per box. The Ordinance stipulates that total fees shall not exceed BH $.0533 per box, except with approval by the Minister of Natural Resources. At present, the maximum fee is collected. The Citrus Industry, 1968 Citrus production has become of major significance in the economy of British Honduras since the decline of the forest industry. Citrus is now second only to sugar in value of exports and is equally important to the colony's economy.28 The Stann Creek Valley accounts for 90 per cent of the citrus production, and all of its export. While the export value of citrus has increased through time, it fluctuates widely with variations in 27Ibid. 28Waddell, p. 91. 31 annual yields. As long as output reaches 1,000,000 boxes per year, the export value approximates BH $4,000,000. This value represented 44 per cent that of agricultural exports and 25 per cent that of total exports in 1964.29 Table 4 illustrates the export earnings from citrus from 1945 to 1965. The fluctuations in yields and prices, resulting in "boom" and "gloom" periods in the Stann Creek Valley, can affect adversely both the Belizean and valley economies. Therefore, citrus tends not to be a stable commodity upon which British Honduras should base a large segment of its total economy. Although there are formidable problems to be resolved, citrus production continues to be the dominant motivating force in the valley. Extensive areas cleared of forest growth are now utilized for citrus cultivation. Yet, development has slowed considerably since 1965, and only a substantial rise in world prices can revive large- scale expansion similar to that of the 1950's. The Citrus Company of British Honduras has partic- ularly influenced the "citrus mentality" of the valley producers. Due to its economic importance in the valley during the past twenty years, growers tend to apply those agricultural techniques employed by the Citrus Company. 29G. Clayton et al., Report of the Tripartite Economy Survey of British Honduras (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, May, 1966), p. 18. 32 TABLE 4 DOLLAR VALUE OF CITRUS EXPORTS, 1945-1965 Year Fresh Juice Segments Concentrate Total 1945 5,270 -- -- -- 5,270 1946 4,700 -- 339,300 -- 344,000 1947 3,900 -- 416,900 -- 420,800 1948 3,200 -- 429,500 -- 432,670 1949 235,000 -- 293,300 -- 528,310 1950 298,000 -- 245,100 -- 543,100 1951 105,000 -- 626,600 -- 731,620 1952 154,000 -- 657,500 -- 811,500 1953 122,000 -- 726,700 -- 848,730 1954 110,000 -- 988,400 -- 1,098,350 1955 117,000 —- 817,500 -- 934,530 1956 71,000 899,000 1,009,000 374,000 2,353,000 1957 7,000 240,000 773,000 325,000 1,345,000 1958 4,000 720,000 677,000 411,000 1,812,000 1959 106,000 705,000 502,000 586,000 1,899,000 1960 192,000 1,604,000 722,000 569,000 3,087,000 1961 125,000 1,369,000 248,000 1,737,000 3,479,000 1962 5,000 785,000 570,000 49,000 1,409,000 1963 365,000 1,447,000 1,080,000 1,909,000 4,801,000 1964 259,000 1,533,000 229,000 2,679,000 4,700,000 1965 11,000 1,067,000 998,000 1,747,000 3,823,000 Source: British Honduras, A Historical and Contemporary» Survey, D. A. G. Waddell (1945-1955) and Annual Abstract of Statistics, British Honduras (1956- 19651. 33 Unfortunately, not all of these practices are beneficial to growing citrus under tropical conditions. For example, close spacing of trees to receive higher yields per acre has resulted in an increase of gummosis, a disease which leads to the demise of trees, since excess moisture in the orchards is retained under conditions of poor ventilation. At present, few producers employ the scientific methods advocated by horticultural specialists, and the current production level of citrus reflects this fact. CHAPTER III CITRUS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING The Stann Creek Valley has become the second most important agricultural area of British Honduras, producing approximately 700,000 boxes of oranges and 230,000 boxes of grapefruit annually. Although the industry is physically concentrated within the valley, other areas are affected financially by citrus production. This is particularly true of those that supply much of the labor force employed in the orchards. Fluctuations in production therefore affect not only the prosperity of the Stann Creek Valley, but also that of the district and the entire colony. Citrus is grown in the valley under varying degrees of technology. Some commercial as well as most "subsistence“ producers use horticultural techniques not recommended by research personnel. But the British Honduras Fruit Company (Salada) and approximately twenty other growers practice scientific techniques considered ideal for tropical citrus production. Thus, while the great majority of producers attempt to obtain yields with the least amount of agricul- tural input, and with unscientific planting and spacing, a small number are determined to achieve higher yields through use of improved methods. 34 35 Since the predominant agricultural tradition is that of the milpa farmer, innovative techniques and horti- cultural research have tended to be ignored (Fig. 1). However, faced with introduction of more advanced technol- ogy by Salada, increased government emphasis upon scientific methods, and empirical evidence of inferior results from poor agricultural practices, the citrus producers have become more aware of improved orchard procedures. Through the ensuing years, the producers should overcome their "milpa" outlook toward agriculture and adapt increasingly to new ideas that can aid citrus production. With wide— spread adoption of modern techniques, including disease and pest control measures, the Stann Creek Valley will be able to produce substantially greater citrus yields. Producers and Processors Two classes of producers reside in the valley, the more affluent and influential being those owning more than seventy acres of citrus (Figs. 3 and 4). These growers Operate at a profit and can therefore be considered commer- cial producers. At present only five growers, among more than 120 in the Stann Creek Valley, own sufficient acreage to be considered in this category. Two additional growers own more than seventy acres of potentially productive land, but have not as yet developed it. Table 5 lists the com- mercial citrus producers and their respective acreages in 36 00. 0O 00 OF 00 00 0* nautam 2:22.95 mmo_._.o MJJ<> 243.300 (L. .I S MIL. >2zu : 444) xuuco 224k» zio». xuu1 vs 21¢». .......... ...... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... _.____ :2. _ __ ._.. :r.:_:__ ._.____:::_: \mu. _..: 252V. .‘8‘. -=-- :2: --‘=‘~6=’n\, '* 3+ 42 Valley by a number of factors. These included: (1) a frost-free climate with more than adequate rainfall for citrus production; (2) large tracts of fertile land avail- able at low costs; (3) a stable government and monetary situation; (4) a British colony which adheres to Western ideology; (5) proximity to a port facility; (6) previous establishment of citrus; and (7) easily accessible water supplies. In addition, the Sharp interests established the processing factory for their Citrus Company of British Honduras at Pomona because this location, twelve miles from the coast, was at the center of the valley. The two companies produce different end products, but both need assured fruit supplies to function at a profitable level of operation.33 The Citrus Company of British Honduras processes fresh grapefruit for export in the form of canned sections and single-strength juice, and oranges as single-strength juice, sweetened orange oil, 60° brix concentrate,34 and essential oils. The British Honduras Fruit Company, of Salada Foods, Inc., produces frozen orange concentrate for export in 65° brix. Both processing companies previOusly produced grapefruit con- centrate for export in 58° brix, but this was terminated 33Interview with Eric King, January 2, 1968. 34The degree of "brix" refers to the amount of fruit solids present in the processed concentrate, rather than the temperature of the concentrate. 43 by Salada in 1966 and by the Citrus Company in the 1967-68 agricultural season because of the decrease in market demand. With both companies processing oranges, the demand for fruit is much greater than the supply. The older, more established Citrus Company receives a greater share of the annual orange production, although it usually offers at least BH $.30 per box less than Salada. This fact demon- strates the tie between the valley residents and the Citrus Company, which has become virtually a socio-economic institution. If further expansion of citrus acreage takes place, or if present yields per acre increase, Salada will be able to operate at increased efficiency and profit. While the Citrus Company processes at full capacity, Salada operates at only 35 to 45 per cent of this figure. Since Salada is a fully automated unit, operation at less than 55 per cent of capacity means Operating at a 1033.35 Approximately 400,000 boxes of oranges are necessary per season for eco- nomic production, but growers were expected to provide only 150,000 during the 1967-68 harvest. Instead of producing over 950 pails of frozen orange concentrate per twenty-four 35Interview with S. A. Spross, Manager of the British Honduras Fruit Company, January 22, 1968. 44 hour, three-shift day, Salada was able to average only 400 pails in a twelve-hour, two-shift day.36 Citrus Cultivation To supply the two processors with adequate quan- tities of fruit, further expansion of orchards or higher yields per acre are necessary. Each of these solutions, however, presents numerous problems. Both involve primarily financial considerations. Higher yields per acre are dif- ficult to attain, due to poor agricultural practices by the great majority of producers. High yields, potentially greater than those obtained in Florida and California, cannot be achieved in the Stann Creek Valley until more scientific techniques, including disease and pest control, are practiced by the growers. PlantinggPractices In planting citrus, growers must take into consid- eration the various soil types and conditions. Deep, sandy soils are preferable, so that air can readily reach the tree roots and thus prevent gummosis and other fungus diseases. The Stann Creek Valley soils are generally sandy alluvium and therefore more porous than the heavier clay soils found elsewhere. The principal soils of the valley are shown in Map 5. 36One pail contains five gallons of frozen orange concentrate and weighs approximately fifty-one pounds. 45 m mm: ttoo £23 :2.» 5.6.30 u. ac» .. 1.3 .2...» 2.. 9 5004 3:3 ale.- »oaoo; : .0 ..... 395.22.: a. v10 ..... I .20 no...» 0...... loo-tau o. 3:! too... :5 :50 .2000 soon... a I... 2...; 332.... v u __ _j _ , “mm”... Icon .230 2...; Save-o o I ._.-0.. =8 :5. 2.... £22.00 5 2... .325 :33...» n _ _...” nvcou 0...; 0!...08 0 (004 :3 3:. 32¢ .0130: a no.0 2... 03:31 a icon 0:000 030:...» _ «:58 :9. 9.33.5 E «556 go. 32:3 so: D ¥IIIE >333 xuuco 2.25 m:... .3 3.3 III: _.__III___I. ____ ___I__§__I__=____==_=.=_____. III—._....._n_____________.._.__._._....._.__.__.__._.__ _ _ _ ._ _... III... _______________________________________._____._.___ _______I_______ _...:___ ________ =____...__..__...__.__.. ___r__...__ ._..... ___.._._._I_________ ________.._____ ___. ._..... IIIIIIIII. _... _..___.___..._.______.__________.________.__.__.__.._ 5...... _..... ___-._.....r.../. ._.___________=_ E ___—_... =:__=__=_I ___._.___.__..._. ___—=— = ___ _________________.___=___________ .III_.I_______II III—III. IIII ___IIII_ __IEII. ._..... ,_.._.__ .__ _ _ _ __ __________._____.___ _______________ _. . N —==="\-a ,-—-"' _— _— = ’=.--..:1-::= 46 Consideration must also be given to drainage. This is necessary so that excess water will be removed before it can cause damage to the trees. Tropical rainstorms are usually intense, and drains must therefore be constructed to handle large quantities of water. To insure good drain- age, citrus rows should be cambered. The purpose of the mounds is twofold: (1) to make sure seedlings are above water, so as to prevent gummosis, and (2) to insure against attack by the Citrus Root Weevil (Pachnaeus litus), which rings the collar of young trees just below the ground surface.37 Since drainage is also aided by sloping topog- raphy, many orchards have been planted on slopes ranging from 15° to 45°. Erosion is slight, due to the rapid growth of grasses among the trees. Before citrus is planted, the natural vegetation must be cleared. Almost all growers clear their land by machinery especially adapted to this type of work. After the vegetation is cleared and burned, the ground is cambered in preparation for citrus. Due to the high annual rainfall, no supplemental irrigation facilities are required. The actual planting of trees is conducted in four operations. First, seeds are planted in seedbeds. Then, when the plants are approximately three months old and at 37M. K. Chopin, "Planting Your Citrus Groves," Radio talk by the Principal Agricultural Officer, December 2, 1964. 47 least four inches tall, they are transplanted to nursery beds. Three months later, when the plants are twelve inches tall, they are again transplanted to nursery rows. Finally, an additional six months later, the plants are budded and removed to orchard rows. During each of these steps, the weaker plants are discarded, with the result that only 40 per cent of the original number survive to the final stage.38 The following guidelines have been'formulated by the Agriculture Office to aid growers in the care of new plantings: 1. Keep nurseries fertilized and free of weeds. 2. Select budwood from bearing trees which have yielded well for at least two years. 3. Do not use overgrown or discarded plants. 4. Stake plants after budding to insure straight growth. 5. Use only virus-free budwood. 6. Plant the citrus tree with the bud union eighteen inches above the ground so that any disease present in the soil cannot reach it.39 New citrus groves should be planted in cambered rows twenty-five to thirty feet apart, so as to allow plenty of space for root growth. Two months are required 8Interview with Jaime Usher, a citrus producer in the Stann Creek Valley, January 10, 1968. 39Agricultural Service, Planting Citrus (Belize City: Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 7-8. 48 for the plant to establish itself adequately. The best time for planting is in November, when the rainfall and soil moisture decrease and when there is little danger of hurricane damage. All planting must be done by hand. Most citrus growers in the valley use scientific growing and budding techniques, except for the spacing of trees. Whereas horticultural research indicates the ideal spacing for grapefruit to be 30 by 30 feet, and for oranges either 30 by 15 feet or 24 by 24 feet, growers have used such measurements as 20 by 20, 18 by 18, 15 by 15, and even 12 by 12.40 The purpose of closer spacing is to increase yields per acre. Severe problems of ventilation arise, however, when the trees reach maturity and the branches intertwine. Without adequate ventilation, the moisture in the orchard increases and gummosis becomes prevalent. The growers must usually then clear alternate rows of trees to reduce tree damage and loss. Thus, the profit gained through temporarily increased yield is eventually offset by diseases and tree removal. Only through empirical evidence of widespread diseases and rising maintenance costs in the closely spaced orchards have proper spacings been adopted, and that by only a small percentage of the 4 growers. 4OIbid., p. 8. 41Interview with Alberto Navarette, District Agri- cultural Officer, Stann Creek, January 5, 1968. 49 Fertilization A fertilizer program requires variation only for exceptional soil groups in the Stann Creek Valley, since climatic conditions in the valley are relatively homoge- neous. The amount and quality of the citrus crop are not determined solely by the ratio and rates of nutrients used, however, but are also influenced by cultural practices and the environmental conditions of previous years. Deficiencies in citrus nutrients, which include nitrogen, phosphorous, magnesium, potassium, plus minor traces of boron, zinc, iron, copper, manganese, molybdenum, calcium, and sulfur, are readily recognized through leaf and soil analyses. Leaf analysis indicates the ability of a plant to obtain nutrients from the soil, whereas a soil analysis indicates the reserve of plant nutrients avail- able.42 Together, these analyses reveal the amounts of nitrogen in the soil, whether or not the producer is apply- ing the correct nutrients, and whether or not the grower should use acidic or alkaline nitrogenous fertilizers. Analyses are necessary to keep the orchards productive, to anticipate nutritional problems before they occur, and even to reduce fertilizer costs.43 42C. C. Weir, A General Citrus Fertilizer Program, Citrus Research Bulletin No. 8 (St. Augustine, Trinidad: University of the West Indies, October, 1967), p. l. 43C. C. Weir, Leaf and Soil Analyses as Guides for Citrus Fertilizer Practices in the West Indies, Citrus Research Bulletin No. 1 (St. Augustine: University of the West Indies, 1966), p. l. 50 The Agricultural Service lists the following soil nutrients and their deficiency effects: 1. Nitrogen: uniform loss of chlorophyll (chlorosis) occurs. 2. Phosphorous: smaller trees and leaves than normal, and the fruit is rough and coarse with a thick rind.‘ 3. Potassium: no affect on yield, but acids and juices are reduced, and oranges have smaller and thicker rinds. 4. Magnesium: affects yields only when extremely deficient, but leaves become yellow. 5. Boron: brown colors in the rag and rind of the fruit, and the rind becomes thick. Fruit drop also occurs. 6. Zinc: leaves become smaller, and white patches appear between veins of the leaves. Yields are reduced. 7. Lime: "lock-up" of nutrients by acidic soil, so they are not available to plants. - 8. Copper: rust spots appear on the branches and fruit. 9. Iron: yellow-brown colored leaves and pronounced leaf veins develop. 10. Manganese: yellowish colored leaves predominate.44 Concerning citrus nutrients, the University of the West Indies Citrus Research Unit reports that: The content of trace elements is rather low in most citrus producing areas in the West Indies and British Honduras. The conventional method of estimating the nutrient status of citrus trees is by determining their total content in appropriate leaf samples. . . . There exists, however, a "symptomless deficiency zone" where 44Agricultural Service, Citrus Fertilizer (Belize City: Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 2-11. 51 trace element content is low, but there is no corres- ponding deficiency symptom appearing. Another limitation to visual diagnosis is the danger that the effects of diseases, insects, water shortage, waterlogging, or even sun scorch may be confused with nutrient deficiency symptoms.45 Application of fertilizers should follow certain basic principles. With younger trees, fertilizers should be applied along the tree drip circle (the extent of the branches) or just outside of it. Fertilizer, when used for older trees, is spread over the entire ground surface because of the wider root systems. Fertilizers are applied twice each year, six weeks before the first blossom and six 46 The correct mixture for weeks after the second blossom. trees ten or more years old is approximately 700 pounds of calcium nitrate per acre per year, or 500 pounds of 21 per cent nitrogenous fertilizer, 200 pounds Triple Super Phos- 47 Fertilizer phate, and 100 pounds Muriate of Potash. application for bearing trees also depends upon the average number of boxes of fruit obtained per tree. Non-bearing or very young trees require variable applications, according to age (Table 6). 45Citrus Research Unit, University of the West Indies, Citrus ResearchL¥l966 (St. Augustine, Trinidad: University of the West Indies, 1966), p. 39. 6Oranges bloom December-January and April-May, while grapefruit bloom February-March and May-July. 47Agricultural Service, Citrus Fertilizer, p. 7. 52 TABLE 6 ANNUAL FERTILIZER APPLICATIONS FOR YOUNG CITRUS TREES Quantity per Tree Total Quantity Tree Number of per Application per Tree per Acre Age Applications (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) 1 4 .25 l 100 2 4 .50 2 200 3 3 1.00 3 300 4 2 2.00 4 400 5 2 2.50 5 500 6 2 3.00 6 600 Source: Planting Citrus, British Honduras Agricultural Service. Soil and leaf analyses are not readily available to citrus growers in the valley, due to the large capital outlay and trained personnel requirements. Also, many growers simply do not follow recommended practices. Only the larger producers fertilize their orchards, and then only at irregular intervals. Most of the smaller ones cannot afford the cost of fertilizers, which have to be imported, and they, therefore, do not realize the benefits to be gained. Without fertilizer, citrus yields in the valley are only about one—half of what might otherwise be expected. 53 An interesting technique is employed by the Citrus Company of British Honduras, in which mashed orange rind is applied to add nutrients to the soil. Unfortunately, this also results in an increase of the Mexican Fruit Fly (Anastrepha ludens). This fly attacks not only the fruit of the CCBH, but also that in neighboring orchards, thus decreasing production throughout the valley. The disposal of citrus waste should probably be accomplished by some other method, such as in compost piles or in feed for cattle. Maintenance and Sanitation High temperatures, rainfall, and humidity make the control of grasses and weeds a more serious and continuing problem in the trOpical Stann Creek Valley than in subtrop- ical citrus growing areas.48 To insure at least minimum acceptable yields, orchard maintenance and sanitation are prerequisites. Otherwise, grasses and weeds rob the citrus trees of the soil nutrients that are necessary for adequate growth and fruit production. Since grasses and weeds in the citrus orchards grow approximately eighteen inches every six weeks, various control devices are necessary. The common method, used by 481. Kasasian, Weed and Grass Control in Citrus Groves, Citrus Research Bulletin No. 3 (St. Augustine, Trinidad: University of the West Indies, 1966), p. l. 54 almost all growers, is bush-hogging and cutlassing. Pulled by a tractor, several mowers cut the grass at approximately one acre every fifteen minutes. cutlassing involves the use of a machete to cut the remaining vegetation surrounding the trunks of the citrus trees. The cost of this Operation, employed every six to seven weeks, is relatively inexpen- sive: BH $3.25 per hour without outlassing and BH $6.00 with the added labor. This explains its widespread use. Chemical weedkillers, recommended by the Caribbean Citrus Research Unit in the Stann Creek Valley, should probably be used for orchard maintenance, although there is a lack of agreement on this point on the part of person- nel of the Agricultural Station. If these chemicals were employed, the principal advantages would include the fol— lowing: (1) tree stems are not damaged (making entry points for pests and diseases) as in cutlassing; (2) weed- killers can be useful on land too stony, too rough, or too steep for machines; (3) weedkillers can be combined with insecticidal or fungicidal ground sprays; and (4) long- range costs of weedkillers is less than that of bush-hog operations.49 There are three types of weedkillers available to valley citrus producers: 49Io KasaSian' OE. Cit-p pp. 1-20 55 l. Contact foliage treatments (chemical cutlasses): kill only those parts Of a plant with which they come into direct contact and are most effective on young weeds and softer growth in shade. Effective control is from one to two months, but spray drift must be avoided by the Operator when spraying is being done. 2. Systemic foliage treatments: chemicals absorbed and travel throughout the plants, killing shoots and roots of susceptible plants. Therefore, the plants do not send out fresh growth. Best results are obtained in shade, the effects lasting two to four months. These sprays are slow-acting, and rain decreases their effectiveness. 3. Soil-acting (residual) treatments: act through soil where residues prevent growth. Best results are obtained if the spray is mixed with either Of the above. These treatments are most active on young annuals, being very effective in preventing germination of weed seeds, and have telling results for three to six months.50 Weed control is one of the growers' biggest items of expenditure, and though weeds aid in preventing erosion, they also compete with the citrus trees for soil nutrients, sunlight, and water.51 For a single application, weed- killers are likely to cost about the same as bush-hogging and cutlassing. Once started, however, costs of the former Operation fall progressively, whereas those of the latter remain constant. The more effective weed control by chem- icals can result in substantial increases in citrus yield. 5°Ibid., pp. 2-3. 51Interview with R. N. Wedderburn, Agronomist, Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, Stann Creek, January 6, 1968. 56 Chemical weedkillers have not been adopted by valley producers, due to the fact that no precedent has yet been established. The inertia of the smaller producers will not be broken until the large growers utilize this technique.52 The passiveness results not only from the success of the traditional practice Of cutlassing, but is also a matter of economics. Cutlassing has been the mode of orchard maintenance since citrus production began in the valley. All weedkillers would have to be imported, and spraying apparatus would probably have to be rented either from the Agricultural Station in the valley or from one of the three largest producers (CCBH, Salada, or Henry Bowman). The cost of spraying weeds and grasses is therefore prohib— itive to most of the smaller growers, unless they own equipment cooperatively, and even the larger growers consider it more profitable to use the Older bush-hogging and cutlassing techniques. If citrus prices increase to the extent that a greater profit can be realized, and large producers adOpt chemical weedkilling, the smaller growers will no doubt overcome their bias toward scientific methods of orchard maintenance. 52A survey of fifty growers, by the author, revealed that thirty-seven will not use this method Of orchard main- tenance until either the CCBH or H. T. A. Bowman attempt weedkiller Sprays and prove their usefulness.‘ Eleven growers said they would not use the sprays at all, and two growers would use the sprays if they could afford the cost. 57 Orchard sanitation involves not only weed and grass control, but, more significantly, the general upkeep of the trees and grounds. In other words, annual pruning and disposal of defective fruit are integral parts of citrus cultivation. Pruning is necessary to prevent dead or dying wood from damaging other limbs or fruit and to stimulate fruit production. Any fruit drop that occurs must be col- lected to prevent pests and diseases from using the decaying fruit as a host. Unfortunately, few producers give adequate attention to sanitation problems. Among fifty growers interviewed in the Stann Creek Valley, controlling over 3,000 acres of citrus, only thirteen, with approximately 900 acres, followed sanitation procedures as recommended by the Agricultural Station and the Caribbean Citrus Research Unit. "Subsistence" production of citrus as a secondary source of income is especially subject to inad- equate orchard sanitation. Harvest The harvest of grapefruit and oranges is accom- plished at different times and by different means. Grape- fruit trees bloom twice, February-March and May-July, and the fruit matures seven months later. The fruit is har- vested by two persons, a picker and a catcher. The actual picking is done with a thirty-foot pole, with snippers attached, the fruit being cut at the stem and caught by the catcher before it falls to the ground. Grapefruit is 58 harvested from September to February and totals approx- imately 200,000 boxes per year, each box weighing eighty pounds. The variety of orange tree determines the month Of blooming and the period of time before maturation. Early oranges, the Washington Navel and Hamlin, bloom April and May and mature eight months later. The late variety, the Valencia, blooms in both December-January and April-May and takes eleven months to mature. All oranges are picked by hand, from aluminum ladders which are used to avoid damaging the trees. The harvest takes place from the end of Septem- ber to early May, and the yield is nearly 800,000 boxes of ninety pounds each. Grapefruit and oranges differ in volume of yield. Grapefruit yields range from 200 to 300 boxes per acre, depending upon the variety, tree density, age and quality, and soil fertility. Yields generally average about three boxes per tree, with eighty to ninety fruit comprising each box. While the yield in boxes per acre for oranges is near that of grapefruit, many more fruit (100-130) comprise a contract box. There are also more trees to an acre than in the case Of grapefruit.53 The average yield Of oranges is 1.8 boxes per tree, or one-half the Florida average, and 53There are commonly 70-75 grapefruit trees and 100 orange trees per acre. 59 far below the potential of six boxes if scientific methods were employed by citrus producers.54 Trees are usually six years of age or older before they bear enough fruit to harvest, although younger trees can produce commercially if planted on fertile soils. Maximum yields of oranges are achieved from trees that are eight to twelve years Old, and decreasing yields then occur until the trees become unprofitable at about twenty-five years of age. Grapefruit trees, however, Offer a profitable harvest until thirty-five years Of age. Harvest Operations are complicated by the absence of an adequate labor force. Whereas most of the small growers help one another, the larger producers are contin- uously seeking laborers throughout the harvesting season. The recruitment of labor from the neighboring district of Cayo has been necessary for the Citrus Company since its great increase of orange plantings during the 1950's. Both the British Honduras Fruit Company and the Citrus Company attract harvesters from Stann Creek Town, as well as from rural areas Of the valley. Labor recruitment adds to harvesting costs, since the companies must provide most workers with daily transportation to and from the job. Housing is sometimes supplied, particularly to workers 54Interview with Dr. Gordon Maliphant, Director of the Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, University of the West Indies, January 25, 1968. 60 from the Cayo and Toledo Districts, so some construction has taken place at Pomona and Middlesex. After picking,the fruit is brought to a grove location where it is put into boxes. The boxes are then placed on a tractor-drawn trailer or carried by hand to a roadside location to be collected by the processing company with which the producer has a contract to sell his fruit. From here the fruit is taken to the factory, by truck or tractor, where it is processed. Citrus Processing The two citrus processing companies of the Stann Creek Valley produce different end products (Figs. 5 and 6). Those of the Citrus Company Of British Honduras include canned grapefruit segments, single-strength grapefruit and orange juice, juices for the soft drink industry, essential Oils, and concentrates of orange juice. The British Hon- duras Fruit Company produces only frozen orange concentrate, although frozen grapefruit concentrate was also produced until the 1966-67 season. While frozen concentrate better maintains the flavor of the natural fruits, the high cost of factory equipment is a disadvantage.55 The factory in this case required an investment Of approximately BH $500,000. 55Great Britain, Caribbean Commission-Central Secretariat, Caribbean Market Survey: Citrus, p. 7. 61 Figure 5. Grapefruit canning by the Citrus Company of British Honduras. Women comprise the entire labor force in the tedious task of hand cutting and packing the fruit. The two workers in the center examine each fruit-filled can for citrus worms before it is conveyed to the cooking and sterilizing unit. ' Figure 6. Filling five-gallon nails with cold oran2e concentrate at the plant of the British Elonduras Fruit Company (Salads). The autoratic fillinz device epitomizes the completely autovated, rodern technology of this company. 62 The BH $160,000 canning plant of the Citrus Company processes 150 cases Of canned grapefruit sections per hour, each case consisting of twenty-four twenty-ounce cans. Grapefruit are placed in baskets, an average Of twelve fruit in each, and dipped in hot water. The skins are then easily removed. After a bath in alkali solution to elim- inate the pith, the grapefruit are cut into sections and packed in cans by hand. The cans are then sent through a cooker and sterilizer by conveyor, and finally sealed and packed for shipment. Oranges are stored in wooden bins until they are ready for processing (Fig. 7). Then, by a series of machines, they are washed, bisected, and squeezed (Fig. 8). The juice flows into a series of vibrating stainless steel containers, which separate pulp from the juice, and is then piped to an analyzing room for brix determination and a decision on the amount of sugar required. Water is evap- orated from the juice, and the necessary sugar is added. Finally, the warm concentrate is sealed in metal barrels for industrial soft drink purposes or in twenty-ounce cans for consumer sale. The British Honduras Fruit Company uses the most modern techniques in the processing of oranges into frozen concentrate. As with the Citrus Company, the oranges are stored in wooden bins, which are limed to prevent mold. The fruit is washed and then proceeds to a completely 63 Figure 7. Unloading oranges for storage before processing. The shaded, wooden storage bins are in the back- ground. Fipure 8. Juice extraction from oranges by the Citrus Company of British Honduras. Plant equipment and operation represent the juice concentrate tech- nology of 1948. 64 automated unit. Juices are squeezed from the oranges by a machine which cuts inside the rind and crushes-the orange. There are six machines of this type, graded according to size of oranges, and each machine Operates at the speed of five oranges per second. The juice flows to stainless steel containers, which separate the pulp by vibration. The water content is reduced by evaporation. Through a thermodynamic process, the remaining juice is cooled to approximately 40° F. The amount of sugar necessary for the concentration is determined and automatically added. The sugar is blended in while the temperature drOps to 16° F. Metal five-gallon pails are lined with plastic bags, placed on a platform scale set at the prescribed weight, and filled with chilled orange concentrate from overhead pipes. When a weight of fifty-one pounds is attained, the valves automatically close. The lids are then clamped on the pails, which are taken into the refrigeration unit main— tained at a temperature Of -25° F. Waste products from fruit processing are handled differently by the two companies. The Citrus Company collects the waste, grinds it up, and spreads it over the orchards to serve as fertilizer. Salada also grinds its waste material, but dumps it in a compost pile a few miles into the jungle. Both methods have the disadvantage of raising the incidence Of Mexican Fruit Fly in the valley. 65 Both companies Obtain water from the Stann Creek river system. The Citrus Company pumps water directly from the main stream, while Salada has ponded a tributary. Both purify the water before use by means of a charcoal—sand filter system. Since processing of the citrus adds little pollution, the water can be returned directly to Stann Creek. The concentrating and canning machinery of the Citrus Company was installed in 1948, and no new additions have been made. Thus, the machinery represents a technology of twenty years ago. In contrast, the British Honduras Fruit Company uses the most advanced technology and can therefore process fruit more rapidly, cheaply, and effi- ciently. Of course, this is true only if both processors Operate at capacity. If the Citrus Company Operates at capacity and Salada functions at only 40 per cent, the former easily has an economic advantage. Transportation and Marketing Transportation and marketing are integral features of the citrus industry of the Stann Creek Valley. Citrus production and processing require a road network to bring the fruit to the processors and to transport the end prod- ucts to storage areas and to Commerce Bight, the port for Stann Creek. Marketing Of the citrus products is a constant problem shared by both processing companies because Of the 66 intense competition presented by citrus from other producing countries. Transportation and marketing difficulties increase the cost of production and processing. Expansion of citrus acreage within the valley will be aided greatly by planned improvements and future developments. Transportation of citrus products is solely by road. A railroad once extended from Pomona to Commerce Bight, but this was torn up and the materials used for construction purposes after a disastrous hurricane. Stann Creek Road is the major artery. It has an asphalt surface and extends for fifty miles from Commerce Bight northwest- ward to Roaring Creek, the new national capital site. Feeder roads, totalling about seventy-five miles in length, have earthen surfaces and extend to economically important areas of the valley. The citrus orchards are therefore accessible by truck. The use Of tractor-trailer units is less common. The port facility for the export Of citrus products is at Commerce Bight, two miles south of Stann Creek Town. This location is thirteen miles east of the Citrus Company plant and sixteen miles east of Salada's. Docking facil- ities are poor and accommodate only ships with less than twelve-foot draft. Ocean-going vessels of twenty-foot draft, used by the CCBH, must anchor about a mile offshore and are serviced by lighters (Fig. 9). Salada owns and uses converted LCT's and LCI's, which can tie up at the 67 Figure 9. British freighter at anchor at Commerce Bight. Due to shallowness of the water. ocean-going vessels anchor approximately one mile offshore and are serviced by lighters. Figure 10. Loading barges at Commerce Eight. the rsort facility for the Stann Creek valley. All lahor is bv hand. and each truckload from the Citrus Company of British Honduras (usually 500 cases of canned Grapefruit sections) is transferred in approximatelv fifteen minutes. 68 dock. This, of course, decreases its transportation and loading costs. Due to the differing locations of anchorage, loading methods and costs differ between the two processors. Salada transports frozen orange concentrate by truck from its factory to the dock, paying private drivers BH $7.50 per trip. At Commerce Bight the refrigerated LCT or LCI is loaded by hand. Since truck capacity is only five tons, loading the ship takes approximately two days and one night. The Citrus Company loads trucks with citrus products from its warehouses at Pomona and Stann Creek Town, the private truckers being paid BH $7.50 per trip from Pomona and BH $3.00 from Stann Creek. All labor is piece work with established wages. Since lighterage is necessary, the cargo is unloaded from the trucks to barges (Fig. 10). Only two barges can anchor at the dock, but each has a capacity of 5,000 cases or ten truckloads. The barges are towed by a tug to the ship, which Operates out of Liverpool, England, making Belize City and Commerce Bight the last stops after Kingston, Jamaica, and Tampico and Veracruz, 56 Mexico. If no weather problems arise, the ship can be 56The tug and barges are rented from the Belize Estate and Produce Company at a rate of BH $150.00 per day of twenty-four hours for the tug and BH $75.00 per day for the barges. Travelling time from Belize City is also included. 69 loaded within three days, but poor weather conditions and rough seas cause smaller barge loads, longer loading times, and more costly charges for the ship. The Commerce Bight port facilities are badly in need of improvement, and plans are being formulated for future development. Tidal and shore currents cause silting, and dredging is necessary to allow ships and barges to dock. Hoping to achieve a hurricane-proof facility, the government of British Honduras has initiated construction of a 600- foot pier out to a depth of twenty-two feet. The total cost is estimated at BH $300,000, but only BH $20,000 has been allotted annually because of concurrent construction costs of the new capital city. Completion by 1972 is proposed, but work on the project is currently suspended. A new deep-water port is proposed for the Northern Lagoon, approximately twenty-five miles north of Stann Creek Town. This facility would handle all ships currently serving British Honduras and would reduce transportation and labor costs for the processors. Regular shipping schedules might then be established, since excessive loading times and other difficulties would be diminished. A road from this complex will extend southward to Stann Creek Town and connect with the Stann Creek Valley Road. Shipping from Commerce Bight to foreign markets takes place predominantly during the latter months of the agricultural year (January to July), when peak production 70 is attained by the processors (Table 7). During the winter months Salada exports from Commerce Bight to Tampa, Florida, since the St. Lawrence Seaway is closed until mid-April. From Tampa the exports are transported in bond to Toronto by refrigerated Thermo-King tractor-trailer units. When the Seaway Opens, shipments move directly to Hamilton, Ontario, for distribution. TABLE 7 CITRUS PROCESSING AND SHIPPING BY THE BRITISH HONDURAS FRUIT COMPANY (SALADA), 1965-1966 Oranges 65° brix Shipments processed produced (5-gallon Month (90-lb. boxes) (gallons) pails) September --- --- --- October 4,389 2,614 --- November 4,298 4,194 --- December --- --- -—- January 28,757 22,800 9,716 February 47,671 40,206 --- March 81,568 67,968 12,998 April 88,823 68,106 14,500 May-June 78,063 68,696 25,000 July --- --- --- August --- --- --- Source: Annual Agricultural Report, 1966, British Honduras Agriculture Department. 71 Shipping problems are the concern of both processing companies. Since no regular schedule exists for Commerce Bight, the processors are somewhat dependent upon the whims of shipping companies and the availability of space on cargo vessels. However, a ship can usually be secured, in 57 Added to the costs view Of the high profit to be gained. of irregular shipping schedules are transportation to, and maintenance of, storage facilities. The two companies not only produce different end products, but also export to different markets. Salada's market is solely North America, chiefly Canada, while those of the Citrus Company include the United Kingdom, Fiji, France, and the West Indies. Neither of the companies process citrus products for the domestic market, although some fresh fruit is sold by individual growers for distri- bution to Belize City. The Citrus Company markets its products through two sales agents in London, while Salada sells through its sales department in Ontario. The sales agents for the former are F. Kassel and Company and the McPheason Trading Company, Ltd., and their commission is 5 per cent of the selling price. Subsequent distribution of the citrus products depends upon conditions in the United Kingdom and foreign markets. Canned grapefruit sections are generally 57Interview with S. A. Spross, January 22, 1968. 72 consumed in the United Kingdom, but single-strength grapefruit juice is re-exported to Fiji and the West Indies. Orange concentrate is marketed in the United Kingdom, the Ministry of Food purchasing 15 to 20 per cent of the total. Single-strength juice is shipped to the West Indies, while essential Oils are shipped to France, Trinidad, and, at times, to Canada and the United States. Summary Citrus production and processing in the Stann Creek Valley are handicapped by economic, social, and physical problems and are currently in a static condition. Modern technology has come to the valley, where it has clashed with the traditional "milpa mentality." Because of the latter, modern horticultural research and techniques have largely been ignored, except when proved to be of value by the large growers. But, some of these leaders, such as the Citrus Company of British Honduras, also use poor agricul- tural practices. If scientific methods of producing citrus can be achieved, and if modern port facilities and trans- portation networks are constructed, perhaps the economic problems of citrus production can be resolved. The fol- lowing chapter analyzes the problems of production and processing, and prospects for expansion of the citrus industry in the valley. CHAPTER IV PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING PROBLEMS Agriculture in the tropics is subject to certain adverse physical conditions not encountered in other parts of the world. With respect to citrus cultivation in British Honduras, conflicting viewpoints and inadequate information further complicate the evaluation of potential development. Difficulties are reflected in a lack Of communication between government personnel promoting modern technology and the growers practicing traditional agricultural methods. Finally, production is hindered by a lack of experience and the limited financial resources of the growers. The important tasks of developing contacts with the many small farmers, of acquainting them with the basic principles Of modern agricul- ture, and especially of inculcating such principles in the more receptive younger generation are vital to any agricul- tural endeavor or governmental program.58 Although British Honduras has the best natural con- ditions in the Caribbean area for citrus cultivation, the 58David L. Gordon, The Economic Development Programme Of British Honduras (WashingtOn, D. C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1955), p. 14. 73 74 Stann Creek Valley producers and processors are plagued by a series of interrelated physical, social, and economic problems.59 Any proposals for future expansion of the citrus industry must take into consideration the integrated effects Of such factors as climate, soils, pest and diseases, tradition, market conditions, and financial resources. The solution of problems related to these factors would lead to greater productivity and prosperity for the industry. Physical Problems Factors of climate, vegetation, topography, and soils affect the location of citrus orchards within the Stann Creek Valley. The employment of modern technology, however, can decrease the effects of any detrimental condi- tions. If there is widespread adOption of scientific land clearing techniques and modern horticultural research, citrus yields in the valley will increase significantly and producers will realize a profit on their initial investment. But the profits accrued from greater citrus production must be rein- vested for a period of at least five years, if high levels of citrus quality and quantity are to be assured.60 59J. Henry Burke, Citrus Industry Of British Honduras, Jamaica, Trinidad, Foreign Agricultural Service, Report NO. 88 (April, 1956), p. 1. 60Interview with Alberto Navarette, District Agricul- tural Officer, Stann Creek, January 5, 1968. 75 Site selection for citrus orchards involves the following considerations: 1. Access: Because citrus products are bulky, good roads are necessary for transportation to processing plants and to the port facility at Commerce Bight. 2. Topography: Level or undulating land is best suited for citrus cultivation and permits the use of machinery. 3. Soil: Deep, fertile, well-drained loams are ideal for citrus production. 4. Vegetation: The existence of jungle growth makes land clearance difficult and costly. 5. Rainfall: A minimum of sixty inches is necessary, unless supplementary irrigation is possible. A short drought is desirable to insure good blossoming. 6. Sunlight: Citrus requires a maximum exposure for best production. 7. Wind: Tree growth is hindered by continuous high winds, which disturb the moisture balance of the trees and leave them readily susceptible to insect attacks. Winds also result in branch and fruit damage.61 Accessibility The Stann Creek Valley suffers no severe problems regarding access to local or foreign markets. Though shipping schedules are irregular, the citrus processors have adopted mathis situation by producing solely products that can be kept in storage. Road conditions within the valley are adequate to enable maintenance machinery, 611. Hosein, Citrus Growing in‘Trinidad, Citrus Re- search Bulletin No. 7 (St. Augustine, Trinidad: University of the West Indies, 1966), pp. 3 and 4. 76 Sprayers, and harvesters to reach the orchards. The asphalt, two-lane Stann Creek Road extends the entire length Of the valley and connects with the Western Highway at Roaring Creek, fifty miles from Stann Creek Town, and with Belize City. All secondary routes converge on Stann Creek Road. Such access problems as do exist are encountered primarily in summer when the effects are least detrimental. During this period the maximum monthly rainfall occurs, and rivers reach their highest levels. Since bridges exist only on the Stann Creek Road, the method of crossing most rivers is by fording them at shallow places. Due to heavy rainfall during the summer and early autumn months, the dirt feeder roads become impassable for vehicles at times (Figure 11). Fortunately, during the months from June to August the fruit is maturing and the only labor necessary is for spraying and maintenance, both of which can be accomplished whenever good weather conditions prevail. Topography and Soils Although tOpography is an important locational factor for citrus in subtropical climates, it is less significant in the trOpics. Flat or nearly level land is a necessity in subtrOpical areas to reduce the effects Of erosion and to provide ease of irrigation. But the Stann Creek Valley does not suffer serious erosional problems, though rainfall is more than adequate for citrus production. 77 Vegetation growth is rapid and luxurious among the citrus trees, which grow well on lepes of 30 to 45 degrees (Figure 2, p. 37).62 The alluvial soils of the Stann Creek Valley are generally sandy, deep, fertile, and free-draining, yet exhibit three characteristics which plague citrus producers. First, there is a significant variation of soil character— istics within any given area. The British Honduras Land Use Survey Team has mapped twelve soils within the valley (Map 5, p. 45). Second, due to the high annual rainfall and high relative humidity, the soils of the Stann Creek Valley exhibit excessive acidity. The Optimum soil pH for citrus is from 5.5 to 6.5, while most soils in the valley are 5.0 or lower. Liming is therefore necessary to increase yields. Finally, soils in the valley tend to be deficient in manganese and zinc, and these minor elements must be added to the soils through fertilizer applications. Vegetation The heavy annual rainfall in the Stann Creek Valley results in luxurious vegetation growth. Since Hurricane Hattie, in 1961, most of the area originally in rainforest has been occupied by jungle growth, and prospective citrus producers are faced with greater land clearance problems 62See Appendix B. 78 and rising costs. Once orchards are established, grasses grow among the trees and must be cut at least eight times per year. The grasses create a maintenance problem, yet are beneficial in that they aid soil aeration and stabilization. Climate In the location of citrus orchards, a primary concern of growers is suitable climate. The Stann Creek Valley offers the advantages of a frost-free climate, abundant rainfall, long hours of sunshine throughout the year, and a short drought period which stimulates blossoming. In addition, cold fronts from the North American interior decrease the temperature to daily averages Of about 65° F. during the months November to April, thereby stimulating tfiree growth and fruit production. ‘ Winds and heavy rainfall are probably the most significant climatic problems affecting the Stann Creek citrus area. Winds of thirty miles per hour can result in fruit damage and drop, plus disturbing the moisture balance of the trees. The upper branches of orange trees are strained when winds in excess Of fifty miles per hour are experienced. However, the compact nature of the orange trees makes them far less vulnerable to damage than are grapefruit trees. Very few citrus trees will be toppled even if winds attain hurricane force (seventy—five miles 79 per hour minimum), because of their intricate and extensive root system.63 Heavy rainfall can take place at any time of the year and result in reduced production. The greatest rain- fall occurs in the late summer months in the form of thundershowers (Figure 11). These tropical storms cause blossom damage and, when the fruit is maturing, fruit drOp and spoilage. An indirect result Of heavy rainfall is the increase of fungus diseases and insect attacks on the citrus. The diseases and pests result from pools of water in the groves. Even with alluvial soils and good drainage tech- niques, the soil becomes saturated, and the excess water will neither drain off nor percolate downward. Fortunately, the valley has long hours of sunshine and a high rate Of evaporation to aid in ridding the orchards of the surplus. Relative humidity averages 85 per cent annually in the valley but causes few difficulties. However, grass and weed growth is stimulated, there is an increased incidence Of fruit molds, and precautions must be taken in the storage of fresh fruit for processing. Both companies store fruit in shaded and ventilated wooden bins and process it as rapidly as possible. The British Honduras Fruit Company 63Hurricane Hattie, which passed directly through the Stann Creek Valley, had winds of over 200 miles per hour. Yet, tree damage to citrus was very slight, less than one-half of l per cent. 8O w. m J... .q. :5... nu 6 w d L 5 L mu. m m v“. T T .. A E u u m R L w w .y. L m M Y. .A A A m m.” v w w m T. K" m u m m a .. w M M ( M m m // .y/\.. m E S V ..... m R % //////% 7| AMWWM/fl72/WWWWMWWWWWWWV .. m w m 5 00:0... Figure 11 British Honduras, Annual Agricultural Reports, 1950-1960. Source 81 also lines the sides and floors of its bins with lime to reduce the effects Of humidity.64 Since British Honduras lies within the trade wind belt, the dominant wind direction of the Stann Creek Valley is from the east. During the months from August to early November, wind direction is from the southeast, and the valley is threatened by hurricanes. These trOpical storms do not usually cause severe damage to the trees, but, depending upon the month of occurrence, can have devastating effects upon the annual fruit yield. If a hurricane occurs in August, all grapefruit will be lost, as will early oranges and many of the maturing fruit. Tree damage is generally slight, with grapefruit being more vulnerable than orange trees. The following year will see citrus yields nearly as high as before the disaster, but completely normal yields 65 will not be achieved for approximately five years. While hurricane losses are apt to be exaggerated, they must be regarded as a negative element in Stann Creek Valley agriculture.66 64Interview with S. A. Spross, Managing Director, British Honduras Fruit Company, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras, January 17, 1968. 651bid. 66F. L. Engledow, Report on Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, and Veterinary Matters (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1945), p. 17. 82 Hurricanes affect the valley on the average of once every five years, and extensive damage occurs once every twenty to thirty years. While they present serious problems, no effective protective devices have yet been developed against the high-velocity winds. Unfortunately for the citrus producers, the hurricane track in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea has been moving southward during the present century, and the Stann Creek Valley may therefore receive more frequent visits from devastating storms in the future. While physical handicaps to citrus production in the valley are not excessive, they must be taken into consideration if further expansion of citrus acreage is contemplated. Most perplexing are the climatic problems, since growers have little control over such phenomena. Social Problems Citrus production and processing can be seriously affected by the social conditions and conflicts that exist among the peOple. Producers and processors must consider the cultural background of the population, if ecOnomic success is to be achieved. If traditions in a developing country are violated or ignored by foreign investors, economic ruin may result. Thus, before any foreign invest- ment is made, a thorough study of economic, policital, and social institutions should be undertaken by qualified 83 personnel and their recommendations carefully considered by management. A lack of harmony with cultural traditions is currently affecting the British Honduras Fruit Company of Salada Foods, Inc. Entering the valley during the 1962—63 agricultural year, without previous study of cultural factors, the company erected a fully automated factory. It was designed to Operate at 70 per cent capacity, or more, with three eight-hour shifts daily, seven days a week. This alienated the local population by going against the following labor practices: (1) Thursday and Sunday of each week are days of rest, (2) no work is to be done after nightfall, and (3) automation is generally avoided, since it reduces the total employment. Further alienation resulted from the fact that Salada was a large North American "intruder" that had purchased extensive areas Of land, expected the resident labor to flock to its facilities, and was Opposed to Operating as a socio-economic institution such as the Citrus Company had become. Residents of the area also feared that Salada might meet with total failure, as has happened to numerous other large foreign enterprises in British Honduras. Since the disastrous agricultural year of 1966-67, when it offered growers only BH $.50 per box of oranges, the British Honduras Fruit Company has found itself in serious economic circumstances. Operating at only 35 to 84 45 per cent capacity, Salada is presently weighing the advantages of selling its property. Meanwhile, the Citrus Company of British Honduras has maintained a more pater- nalistic attitude toward producers and has consequently retained both their loyalty and a viable economic status. The social inertia of the growers is, in fact, a major complaint of government Officials in British Honduras: . . . the citrus industry has lost the aggressive- ness and determination that it showed in former years. Somewhere along the line, growers have lost the motivation that used to impel them forward. They have become complacent, even careless—-and in a way recon- ciled to what amounts to an outmoded paternalistic system. One thing is certain, the Old fire has gone. 67 Another problem is the increasing antagonism between large and small growers in the valley. The Committee of Management of the Citrus Growers' Association consists of nine members, all of whom are elected by the full membership. Members of this committee, however, must together have produced at least 15 per cent of the total fruit delivered by producers to processors during the preceding year of Operation.68 This powerful committee is currently composed of three large growers and six small ones. The smaller growers, however, are increasingly aware of the inferior 67Speech by A. Hunter, Minister of Natural Resources, at Research Day, Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, Stann Creek Valley, January 26, 1968. The Belize Times, February 4, 1968, p. 2. 68British Honduras, Citrus (Processing and Produc- tion) Ordinance, Section 27, p. 14. 85 economic and political position to which they have been relegated.69 Henry Bowman, the third largest grower in the valley and the largest non-corporate grower, is Chair- man Of the Association and sole supplier of insecticides and fungicides. The Citrus Company Of British Honduras has the only large-volume sprayer and allows only the large growers and company foremen to use it. With pests and diseases becoming of such great significance in citrus production, the conflict between large and small growers is likely to increase. The small producers will undoubtedly expect the large growers to pay most Of the cost required to rid the valley of these problems. Finally, the small producers are most affected by the high cost of production and low prices, and they are thus most vocal in demanding higher prices by the processing companies. Social problems are not foremost among citrus production and processing difficulties, but they do form an undercurrent Of dissatisfaction. To operate an economic enterprise, producers and processors must contend success- fully with local attitudes and customs. If contacts with modern production techniques continue, and citrus prices increase, perhaps the effect Of existing conflicts will tend to decrease. 69Interview with Dr. Gordon Maliphant, Director, Caribbean Citrus Research Unit Of the University Of the West Indies, January 27, 1968. 86 Economic Problems Citrus production in the Stann Creek Valley has been increasingly affected by economic problems. Declining yields, rising production costs, a disregard for improved techniques, and low prices for citrus have all adversely affected the citrus industry. Other Obstacles to develOpment include: (1) poor communication facilities with Belize City, the economic focus of British Honduras; (2) a poor internal transportation system; (3) inadequate agricultural credit; (4) a shortage of harvesting labor; and (5) high incidence of pests and diseases within the valley. The decline of prices for citrus has significantly affected the Stann Creek Valley growers. Since the growers must produce and processors must sell at competitive world prices, the following factors are relevant to profitable Operation: (1) returns from the sale Of citrus products; (2) quantity Of fruit available for export; (3) the value of citrus by-products; and (4) the productivity Of other citrus areas of the world. The latter factor is extremely important to the economy of the valley, and of British Honduras, since intense competition in foreign markets can drive local prices downward. The valley is a high-cost producer, and citrus is its leading export product. Low prices can therefore depress both the local and colony-wide economy. Figure 12 shows the effects of market competition 87 NH ousmflm mozuo.02. umu44<> 0.? 0.4.“. «no.0... cw’OJ 20:05.50”: mach; mun—(w mDKLLO >WJJ(> m ZO_P_.PUQ!OO m huxc<1 umzwkz. 04103 2. umm44<> xmwmo 22flco .uflco nonmomom msupflu cmoopfiuoo .mmma .nonowmom msuuflo ”condom .powammm soon to: mOHSmmmE HOHuGOO popcmfieooou mocflm .pmumomcfl no: muo3 moon» Eoum wanna .cBocxcs mommoqo .poummmcH ucoo Mom om ao>o oaoz moon» anm pflpnm .czocxcs mommoq n .empmsapmmm om~.~H smH.H~ asa.a so masses mss.o mmm.m me o omom mousse: smm.a mms.s em ma mmuom ms~.H msm.~ Hm ma omnma Hos.a «ms.a we ma wanes ems moo.m em a salsa o--- ..... 004 H ma n--- uuuuu cos m NH ems sme.s «ma m sue MAmoxon Ca mommoqv .mmxon cw. ommmnom mo>ouw mo mcofiumooq pamww pmumOMCH pawww pmummmcchoz Hmnfisz umommawz some .wmqq«> swamp zzmem mes zH was sHpmm zaonms mes OB mmoq sHpmmmmmmo omemszmm OH mdmde 107 ants to the entrances. Three methods have been devised to destroy the nest and the queen ant: (1) Carbon bissulfide or methyl bromide is blown into the nest and the vapors set on fire, (2) aldrin dust is blown into the nest or dieldrin solutions poured into the major Opening, and (3) protein baits in the form Of small green pellets, and consisting of aldrin and other chemicals, are used to attract the ants, which carry the bait back to the nest. The protein bait method is usually very effective, but disadvantages include high cost (BH $5.00 per pound of bait), lack of attraction to ants when the ground is wet or the pellets are not fresh, and the fact that applications must be after dark since the ants are primarily nocturnal in nature. Various types of sprays eliminate most citrus pests, with the exception of the ground mole, which must be trapped and killed; the Drunken Baymen Wasp, the nest Of which must be discovered and destroyed; and the citrus nematode, which is reduced by fumigating the citrus seed beds and treating budded plants with fumazone. The mole kills the citrus trees by feeding on the roots, as does also the nematode, while the wasps feed on young shoots and bore holes in the fruit. The magnitude of the mole and nematode problem depends upon rainfall, soil type, agricultural practices, age and condition of the trees, and the amount of available soil water. A summary of minor citrus pests is presented in Table 11. 108 TABLE 11 MINOR CITRUS PESTS, THEIR EFFECTS, AND MEASURES OF CONTROL Pest Damage Control Orange Dog Leaves Picking by hand Caterpillar Citrus Weevil Roots Aldrin Scales Fruit Malathion and Oil Rust mite Leaves and fruit Zineb (sulfur spray) Aphids Young growth Systemic insecticides Blue-green beetle Leaves . Barium fluosilicate Leaf-cutting Bee Leaves and Malathion maturing oranges Source: Interview with Caribbean Citrus Research Unit personnel. Diseases and pests are serious handicaps to citrus production in the valley. The physical structure of the valley is favorable for an aerial spray program, if the cost is not prohibitive, as a possible solution to citrus losses thru pests and diseases. Aerial spraying may, in fact, be the only feasible method of eliminating the disastrous effects of the Mexican Fruit Fly. If a protein bait is sprayed, a blanket spray is not necessary, thus reducing the normal cost to BH $250.00 per hour. Despite the fact that the government has experimented with "crop- dusting," the most economical system of large-scale pest control, it has never followed thrOugh with practical applications. Utilizing chemicals non-toxic to humans 109 and animals, the application of a simple three-spray cycle can be as effective as previous work using ground equipment.85 Since 10 to 20 per cent of the total yield, and approximately 1 per cent of the trees, are lost annually as a result Of these depredations, a scientific spray program is needed if the potential productivity of the valley is to be realized. Canopy and soil spraying, however, cannot correct the lack Of vigor and premature aging of trees, where factors such as poor drainage or poor nutrition pre- vail. Conversely, fertilizer applications are of reduced value if foliage and fruit are attacked by diseases and pests and prOper control measures are ignored. Thus, spray- ing must be accompanied by prOper nutrition and good cultivation techniques, if production levels are to increase significantly. 85Interview with Dr. Gordon K. Maliphant, January 27, 1968. CHAPTER V PROSPECTS FOR THE CITRUS INDUSTRY The future Of the citrus industry in the Stann Creek Valley appears somewhat bleak, but much depends upon the availability of foreign markets, adequate labor supplies, and citrus research. Raising production levels is as much a necessity as is the development Of markets for citrus products. Although the future Of the citrus industry seems to depend primarily upon probabilities, it is currently at a crossroads and can become either a liability or a distinct asset to the economy of British Honduras. Labor There is little prospect of obtaining adequate labor supplies for expansion of citrus acreage within the valley. Large numbers of unemployed persons reside in Belize City, but they do not accept jobs in agriculture. Therefore, the need exists for large-scale seasonal importation of agricul- tural labor from other areas. Labor is presently recruited from western Cayo District and the southern part of Toledo District. Additional labor may be available from these sources or may one day become available from the new capital, 110 111 to be located fifty miles west of Stann Creek Town at Roaring Creek.86 NO program for large-scale foreign immi- gration is contemplated by the government. Low labor productivity, which is explained by the lack of an agricultural tradition and by the seasonal nature of agricultural Operations, is a situation which numerous agents are attempting to improve. Influenced by the government's emphasis on the need for high labor productivity, for the "economic betterment of an independent Belize," the large producers are offering higher wages and the added incentive Of bonus pay. As yet little progress has been achieved. The Stann Creek Valley remains a high- cost, low-volume citrus producer and will probably continue to be so. Any expansion by foreign investors must involve foreign field managers, due to the inexperience of native residents. Investors must, however, be familiar with local labor conditions and local customs. Foreign field managers must be prepared to stay for an extended period of years so as to sufficiently train members of the resident population to occupy managerial positions. Citrus Research The development of citrus research facilities in the Stann Creek Valley has closely paralleled the increase 86Interview with Allan Arthurs, Stann Creek District Representative, January 5, 1968. 112 in citrus production. First established in 1933, a district agricultural station is located in the valley to provide budded citrus plants (6,000—9,000 per year) to growers and to conduct experiments to determine the best strains of crops. In 1940, the station was disbanded in favor of a corps of farm demonstrators charged with carrying out experiments and demonstrations on the individual farmer's land, with the farmer participating. These individuals usually have more than an elementary education and have some informal on-the-job training in agriculture. The "agstat" was revived in 1950, however, and today both agencies are in Operation. The government's awareness of the importance of agriculture to the total economy is reflected by the increased support of agricultural education and extension programs from BH $98,000, in Development Plan II (1958-1964), to $359,000 in Development Plan III (1964-1970). Agricul— tural training is provided by Lynam Agricultural College, established in the valley in the mid-1950's. Offering secondary education with full academic programs in agricul- ture, and teaching modern agricultural techniques, its impact has continued to grow.87 Despite its rudimentary facilities and pioneering nature, Lynam is already making 87Interview with Father Kramer, Director, Lynam Agricultural College, January 10, 1968. 113 an important contribution to scientific agriculture in British Honduras.88 In fact, some Of its graduates are away studying on specialist programs at the university level, and a few have already taken positions such as Plant Pathologist with the Department Of Agriculture.89 In addition, the school provides budded citrus plants at BH $.25 each to any producer interested in replacing Old trees or planting new acreage. Beginning in January, 1967, with the construction of its station in the valley, the Caribbean Citrus Research Unit of the University of the West Indies has become the principal center Of citrus research in British Honduras. Staffed with only an agronomist, secretaries, and several field workers, totalling six persons, the unit is primarily concerned with study Of the life cycle of the Mexican Fruit Fly and the effects of sprays and protein baits upon this and other pests. Some study of premature fruit drop and Wee-wee Ants, and possible eradication treatments, has also been conducted. Funds were approved by the United Kingdom in April, 1968, for the unit to expand its research program and to deal especially with some of the urgent problems of disease and pests currently facing the citrus industry. 88The Belize Newsletter, Office of Information, NO. 11 (up to March 11, 1968), p. 2. 89Ibid. 114 Even before its permanent establishment in the Stann Creek Valley, the Caribbean Citrus Research Unit conducted numerous experiments concerning the effects Of fertilizers upon citrus yields and fruit quality (Tables 12, 13, and 14). Basic factors involved in yield and quality include fruit size, color, rind thickness, juice content, total soluble solids, total acids, and the sugar- acid ratio. As a result of these tests, growers have been given the following advice and information: 1. If fertilizers are applied to orchards, the quantity should depend upon tree age, production capacity of trees, and nutrient status of the particular orchard. 2. A mixed fertilizer of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium (16-8-16) should be used for best results. 3. Fruit maturation time will be delayed by large applications of potash fertilizer. 4. Citrus yields increase by one or two boxes per tree if soils are limed to reduce acidity. 5. Liming the orchards should be accomplished with pulverized limestone to insure adequate percola- tion through the soil.. 6. Lime should not be applied with other fertilizers, since the nitrogen and phosphorous content Of the soil will then be reduced. 7. The addition of nitrogen to the soil should be accomplished by using calcium ammonia nitrate rather than sulphate of ammonia, which may result in higher yields but also increases soil acidity. 8. Magnesium is necessary for citrus, two to three pounds per year being ideal for oranges and five to eight pounds for grapefruit. 115 TABLE 12 EFFECTS OF NITROGEN FERTILIZERS ON CITRUS YIELDS PER TREE Yield with Calcium Experimental Yield with Sulphate Ammonia Nitrate Field of Ammonia Application Application (boxes) '(boxeS) l 2.5 2.0 2 2.5 1.9 3 2.4 1.8 4 1.9 1.4 5 2.1 1.3 6 1.9 1.7 7 2.3 2.2 8 2.3 1.7 9 1.8 1.6 Source: Citrus Research, 1966, Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, University of the West Indies. TABLE 13 YIELD OF GRAPEFRUIT TREES, WITH MAGNESIUM (KEISERITE) FERTILIZER Treatment Average Yield per Tree per Year per Tree per Year (boxes) A (six pounds) B (twelve pounds) C (eighteen pounds) D (no treatment) mmmm e e e e 00.5mm Source: Citrus Research, 1966, Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, University of the West Indies. 116 TABLE 14 EFFECT OF LIME ON CITRUS YIELDS Yield per Tree Orchard Location Not Limed Limed (boxes) Melinda 1.5 2.6 Pomona 2.1 4.0 Agstat 1.8 ‘ 2.5 Middlesex 2.2 3.6 Lynam 1.8 2.7 Melinda Road 1.6 2.8 Sources: Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, Citrus Company of British Honduras, and Stann Creek District Agricultural Station. A new fertilizer program has been presented by Dr. C. C. Weir, of the Citrus Research Unit. Fertilizer quantities depend primarily upon soil texture and tree size, rather than tree age (Table 15). The tree size is measured as the diameter of the area covered by the tree. Within the orchard, twelve representative tress are selected and the average.size Obtained. 117 TABLE 15 FERTILIZER APPLICATIONS ACCORDING TO TREE SIZE Tree Diameter First a Second in Yards Application Application Elements (pounds per tree) (pounds per tree) 2 l 1.5 3 2 2 Applied 4 3 2.5 when 5 4 3 deficiency 6 5 4 symptoms 7 6 4 appear 8 7 5 aSix weeks before blossom. bFour to five months after blossom, with 20 per cent nitrogenous fertilizer. Source: A General Citrus Fertilizer Program, C. C. Weir. ‘Research on the develOpment of virus-free strains Of budwood has been conducted not only by the Citrus Research Unit but by the District Agricultural Station as well. There are six steps in the develOpment of virus-free citrus: 1. Testing of local commercial varieties to find those which are virus-free and can be used as budwood material. 2. Search for naturally occurring nucellar Valencia orange and Marsh grapefruit, the predominant citrus species in the valley. 118 3. Production of nucellars, which require fifteen years before budwood is available. 4. Introduction of virus-free plants from other countries. 5. Rootstock trials for the viruses tristeza, psorosis, exocortis, and xyloporosis. 6. Registration Of all citrus nurseries and enforcing regulations that compel the use of only virus- free budwood for citrus plants. In summary, the value of demonstration and prOpaga- tion work depends largely on its accessibility, and, with the availability of both the Agricultural Station and the Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, no grower should feel that research facilities are lacking or inadequate. At these two facilities citrus growers can see a variety of improved techniques in use, Obtain disease-resistant budwood, and seek advice on agricultural problems. If the facilities are used and scientific practices adopted, greater citrus yields and diseaSe reduction can result. Only through continuous research can citrus horticulture develop and prosper. Economicygpportunities Economic opportunities exist for Stann Creek Valley citrus producers and processors, but are presently restricted 90Nucellar seeds are found within the citrus fruit and bear the same characteristics as the parent tree, except that they do not contain the virus. The seeds produce trees more vigorous and having higher yields than the parent tree. Nucellar seedlings provide a simple method Of cleansing present commercial citrus varieties of all viruses, without interfering with the characteristics of these varieties. 119 by the lack Of sufficient markets, inadequate price levels, and poor transportation systems. While the opportunities should not be overlooked, and perhaps their implementation should be a governmental policy, economic develOpments within Latin America, Anglo-America, and Europe will deter— mine the degree to which they materialize. The possibility of fresh fruit exports, which command higher prices than those of processed products, per box Of fruit, is economically desirable but unlikely to take place because of four factors. First, the export of fresh fruit depends upon a reliable foreign market. A decline of citrus production in the United States, the Philippines, Brazil, or the Mediterranean countries results in greater Belizean sales. However, foreign markets are usually inundated with citrus from alternate sources, and competition is intense. The United States, for example, is entering the British market behind a citrus promotion campaign by Sunkist, and its citrus tonnage exported to the United Kingdom in 1967 was consequently double that of 1966.91 Second, the export of fresh citrus encounters special problems with respect to blemished fruit, storage, refrigeration, the availability of refrigerated ships, and shipping schedules. Fresh fruit export would necessitate the construction Of a deep-water 91Howard Fox, "Britain--Target for World Citrus," Citrus and Vegetable Megazine, V, NO. 12 (December, 1967), p. 28. - 120 port so as to reduce losses from loading delays, rough handling, and pilferage. A third deterrent to fresh citrus export is the extremely poor marketing system. NO grading for quality takes place, and no market information services are available to growers. There is no wholesale market where fair and reasonable prices are established. Therefore, the citrus growers have no incentive to turn out quality produce which should command high prices. Finally, the harvest of fresh citrus for export requires modes of Opera- tion different from those used when the fruit is to be processed. Care must be taken not to damage or bruise the fruit, and no stems can be allowed. Gloves must be worn by pickers and handlers, harvesting cannot be done when the fruit is wet, and the harvested fruit cannot be exposed to sunlight for long periods.92 Careful supervision is needed at all times. There are at least four possible market areas for fresh fruit exports, one of which is constituted by the former British Caribbean possessions. In all cases, the fruit would have to be of high quality and shipped regularly. A reciprocal trade agreement could perhaps be arranged with Jamaica, which does not have the capacity to feed itself, by which Jamaica would provide light industrial and consumer 92H. Harold Hume, Citrus Fruits (New York: Macmillan COO, 1957) ' pp. 317-318. 121 goods in exchange for citrus products. Barbados also offers Opportunities for fresh fruit sales. The second market possibility is the United Kingdom. All other areas in Europe are closed to British Honduras citrus fruit, due to the intense competition and political considerations. To compete with other citrus suppliers to Great Britain, the Stann Creek Valley must reduce production costs and have an assured, protected market at all times. At present, the valley enjoys a partially assured market only for fresh grapefruit. With its shipments arriving in England at the end of the Mediterranean season, other tropical producers Offer the only competition, but even then countries such as Brazil supply large quantities of fruit. Thus, Commonwealth ties are a necessity, but even this potential market will be lost if Britain enters the European Economic Community (Common Market).93 A third prospect is the internal or domestic market, which is presently underdevelOped but could probably be enlarged through advertising programs, quality control, and improved marketing methods and facilities.94 Preferring fresh citrus fruit to processed products, the population of British Honduras, though small, can significantly increase its citrus consumption. 93Interview with Dr. Gordon Maliphant, January 25, 1968. 94Great Britain, Caribbean Commission, Central Secretariat, Caribbean Market Survey, p. 14. 122 Yet another possible sales area is the Central American Common Market. Political differences between the United Kingdom and Guatemala over control of British Honduras are perhaps the greatest Obstacle, but cultural differences are also significant. Factors to be evaluated in considering closer economic ties with the Central American countries include: (1) the large size of the potential market, four times that of the Caribbean area; (2) the difficulty of selling produce in Central America due to high production costs in British Honduras; (3) the lack of available investment capital for British Honduras in the Central American republics; (4) the necessity of drastic reorientation of trade; (5) the higher living standards in British Honduras than elsewhere in Central America; and (6) the differences in religion, race, and cultural vieWpoints that exist. However, the necessity for the integration of BH into a larger economic community, once independence is attained, has been well stated by Waddell: In a world of artificial markets, quotas, sub— sidies, tariffs, and restrictions, it might well seem advisable for such a small country as British Honduras, which cannot hope to have any significant influence on world markets, to protect its industries by attaching itself in a close and pggmanent fashion to some larger politico-economic unit. 95Waddell, pp. 107-108. 123 Everything considered, the development of an important fresh fruit export does not appear likely in the near future of the Stann Creek Valley. High production costs, intense competition, lack of assured markets, and fluctuating market demands preclude any immediate large-scale programs being initiated. In addition, the outlook for higher citrus prices is not good. The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization has estimated that world supplies of oranges for export by 1970 will be some 10 per cent in excess of estimated requirements. The valley, if continuing to lack protected foreign markets, should maintain its emphasis upon the export of processed citrus products. Since high costs currently inhibit investment in imported fertilizer and sprays, cheaper means of providing these agricultural aids should be found. Costs Of liming the orchards can be reduced drastically if local sources of lime are utilized. It now costs BH $11.00 per ton to freight lime by truck from Cayo District, and with the orchard soils requiring approximately one-half ton per acre, this source is too costly at present citrus prices. Lime could be exploited near St. Margaret's Creek, just beyond the western end of the valley. This dolomitic limestone has not been utilized to date, because a crusher purchased for the purpose does not adequately pulverize the stone and no further investment has been undertaken. British Honduras may not possess the industrial potential 124 to produce commercial fertilizers domestically, but the development of available local fertilizer resources might reduce citrus production costs and allow growers to invest any savings in the importation Of additional fertilizers from abroad. An economic Opportunity lies in the utilization of citrus waste (e.g. orange and grapefruit rinds) for cattle feed. Being palatable, digestible, laxative, and contain- ing a high carbohydrate concentration, citrus wastes present a potentially profitable by-product of citrus processing.96 Better transportation facilities would be needed, however, since the nearest important cattle area is in Cayo District more than sixty miles to the west. A rotary dryer and grinder would also be necessary to process the citrus waste into transportable material, and trucks would be required to distribute the feed locally or ships to carry it to countries of the Central American Common Market. Although possibilities for the utilization of citrus waste have been studied intensively by Salada Foods' British Honduras Fruit Company, no implementation has been projected because of the inadequate transportation facilities and the lack of a large-scale cattle industry within the colony. Expansion possibilities involving the citrus producers and processors of the Stann Creek Valley can only become 96Interview with-S. A. Spross, January 22, 1968. 125 realities if transportation facilities are improved and foreign markets are Opened to citrus products. Further- more, tO make Stann Creek citrus competitive with that of foreign countries, cost factors must be reduced and labor productivity increased. But, the industrial sector of the economy must expand if the first possibility is to be realized, and cultural views toward citrus horticulture must change before the second will materialize. Future DevelOpment Progress in achieving stability of citrus prices, the adoption of improvements in citrus production, and the develOpment of markets will determine the prospects for eXpansion Of the citrus industry in the Stann Creek Valley. Despite the fact that much of the good land in the valley has already been utilized for citrus, acreage in citrus orchards could approximately double.97 The three areas of potential large-scale development are shown on Map 6 and may be described as follows: 1. The Stopper soils, 19- 21 miles from Stann Creek Town. 2. An area due west of Middlesex on rolling granite-based country and on Old river deposits. 3. Along the banks of the upper Mullins River.98 97Interview with R. N. Wedderburn, January 27, 1968 98A. C. S. Wright, op. cit., p. 167. 126 o a... $0 o co 0’ vs teas H H>tU.U! :1 230» xuuxo: 22¢; lllll\\llo ._...(0 I CU)_K .2343! (Uta: XUMUJOO.’ to FOB; >1t‘l00t0h 02—JJOI .NIO. QUIZ: .0J.°D KUI‘OFG V/z nub-m PZUZQOJU>UO mDmka UJu44<> SUUKU ZZ5HH¢ umam musmm mcwm cwswcmo .h Godmoum OGAHMHSOGS «Dawn can mcwsommq ESH>OHH« ou umam mpcmm mcwm mocflamz .m munanuumm 30H can mmmcnmue 30am ssfl>sHH¢ “mam *smao spasm mecflamz .m Houucoo emma pasofimmflo manumaseqa can Ocmm mcfim muwcmnw Op umam Ocmm ocfim ouocosmuo .v audawuuom 30H paw Honucoo Omm3 DHOOHMMHO muflcmnw mmmon mancmw pawn mEmOH mmmumxaflm .m moss: 30H Emoa mmao Ocm Houusoo Hmumz EOH>5HH< umHm muawm Hm>flm mmxcoz .N wuflflfi#uwm 30A Ufimm #MHm Ucmm mmHMOO OMMOCHSE .H coauosponm ammumumz mammumomoe mEmz msuuflo How ucmnmm mnouomm mcwufififlq NMAA¢> mmmmo ZZdBm HEB m0 mAHOm m XHQmemd 145 .mmmH ..Hm pm prawns .m .o .« .smwe mw>usm on: pawn mmusccom cmfluwum onu mo pummwm d "mmusocom nmfiufium ca puma "mousom .GOHDOOOOHQ manuao mom OmNfiHflus mafloms mcoz EOH>OHH¢ umam *EMOH mpcmm saswcmu .NH Edw>saam mcwumasnss “EOOH mucmm Ono Emoa mmmcflmuw 30am cam ODHOMHO ou umam muuwnm c3oun Hommoum .HH mmamcm can mcflumHsOcs shmao wcoz mOGODmOcmm Op umam mpsmm Osflm sommmuuou .OH mpflHflQflmmmoom «Emoa undo Ocm GOflmoum muflcmnw mcflaaom mOGMm mmumoo Monmoum .m #EMOH mcoz EOH>5HH¢ “mam >OGMm mcwm cwsvcmu .m :Owuospoum Hmwnmumz mammumomoa , mfimz manuflu now ucmnmm muouomm mcwuwfiflq Acmsawucoov m xflvcmmmd APPENDIX C UNION AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE CITRUS COMPANY OF BRITISH HONDURAS AND THE SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN WORKERS UNION, 1967-1968 1. Increases in wages of 2.5 per cent for hourly, daily, and piece workers. 2. In the event of any work stoppage beyond the workers' control, four—hour wages will be paid for work less than, and up to, four hours. 'The same agreement is binding for eight hours. 3. Vacation leave or vacation leave pay: a. Male or female workers who work 600 hours or more in any one year of employment shall receive 5 per cent of their total annual earnings up to five years of service; for six to ten years, 6 per cent; and for over ten years, 7.5 per cent. b.r Weekly workers with less than ten years service shall continue to receive two weeks leave with full wages, and three weeks shall be given those with ten or more years of service. 4. Sick leave: each case is considered on its own merits. a. Fully paid sick leave upon verification by a doctor's certificate. b. Fully paid sick leave cannot exceed 12 days in any one year. c. Accident compensation for first three days is only for ship and pier workers. d. In case of death, the deceased worker's family will receive BH $50.00 in addition to the cost of a decent burial. Source: R. Castillo, President, Southern Christian Workers Union, Stann Creek, January 29, 1968. 146 147 APPENDIX D CITRUS VARIETIES OF THE STANN CREEK VALLEY II. Grapefruit (Citrus Paradisi) A. B. C. Marsh seedless Duncan seedless Foster pomelo (pink) Oranges (Citrus Sinensis) A. B. G. H. Valencia Hamlin Parson Brown Washington navel Pineapple Centenniel Temple King Mandarin BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Anderson, A. H.. Brief Sketch Of BriEish Honduras. Belize City: Government Printing Department, 1963. Caiger, Stephen L. British Honduras: Past and Present. London: C. Allen and Unwin,rl951. Dozier, C. L. Ind_genous Tropical _griculture in Central America: LandiUse, Systems, and Problems. Publica- tion 594. Washington, D. C.: National Academy of Sciences-~Nationa1 Research Council, 1958. Engledow, F. L. Report on Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, and Veterinary Matters. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office,’l945. Gordon, David L. The Economic Development Pro ogr amme of British Honduras. Washington, D. C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1955. Hume, H. Harold. Citrus Fruits. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1957. Powell, H. Clark. Review of Grapefruit Production in British Honduras. London: HisiMajesty's Stationery Office,11928. Quayle, H. J. Insects of Citrus and Other Subtropical Fruits. Ithaca, New York: Comstock Publishing Company, Inc., 1938. Sampson, H. C. Report on Development of A riculture in British Honduras. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1929. Thomas, A. N. C. Some Opportunities for Agricultural Investment in British Honduras. Belize City: Government Printing Department, 1959. 148 149 Waddell, D. A. G. British Honduras: A Historical and Contemporary Survey. London: Oxford University Press, 9 . Wright, A. C. 8., et a1. Land in British Honduras: A Report: of the British Honduras Land Use Survey Team. LondOn: Her Majesty' s Stationery Office, 1959. Ziegler, Louis W., and Wolfe, Herbert 8. Citrus Growin in Florida. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1961. Articles and Periodicals "A New Look at Belize," Latin American Report, VI, No. 8 (September-October, 1967), pp. 11-35. "Belize Chevron Aids Lynam College," British Honduras Government Information Service, The Belize News- Crosbie, A. J., and Furley, P. A. "The New Belize--Prospects for British Honduras," Scottish Geographical Mag_ azine, Vol.83, NO. 1 (April, 1967), pp. 53- 63. Fox, Howard. "Britain--Target for World Citrus," Citrus and Ve etable Magazine, Vol. 5, NO. 12 (DecemBer, 1967), p. 28. HOppe, E. 0. "British Honduras," Canadian Geo ra hical Journal, Vol. 39, No. 1 (JuIy, 1949), pp. - . "Labor Conditions in British Honduras," International Labor Review, Vol. 48 (November, 1943), pp. 655-656. Maliphant, Gordon K. "Citrus Research in Some Caribbean Territories," Tropical Science, Vol. VIII (1966), pp. 107-114. "Minister Hunter Speech at Research Day," Belize Times, February 4, 1968, pp. 2 and 8. "Minister Opens Joint Agricultural Show," British Honduras Government Information Service, The Belize News- letter, up to May 6, 1968, pp. 3-4. "Mutual "Report British British British British British British British British British British 150 Co-operation with CIRSA," British Honduras Govern- ment Information Service, The Belize Newsletter, up to March 25, 1968, p. 3. on British Honduras," Latin American Report, V, No. 1 (August, 1962), pp. 2-23. Public Documents Honduras. Agriculture Department. (11 annual issues). Belize City: Printing Department, 1957-1967. Annual Report Government Honduras. Agriculture Department. British Honduras Citrus Production. Belize City: Government Printing Office, 1955. Citrus Fertilizer. Government Printing Office, 1964. Honduras. Agricultural Service. Belize City: Honduras. Agricultural Service. Plantin Citrus. Belize City: Government Printing Office, 1964. Citrus (Processin and Productiog) I967. BeIize City: Government Printing Honduras. Ordinance, Office, 1967. Honduras. Economic Planning and Social Development Office. DevelOpment Policy and Interim Expenditure Program. Belize City: Government Printing Depart- ment, 1960. Honduras. Economic Planning and Social Development Office. Investment Opportunities. Belize City: Government Printing Office, 1967. Honduras. Labor Department. Survey of Wage Rates and Nogmal Hours of Work in Britisé Honduras. Belize City: Government Printing Department, 1968. Honduras. Ministry of Finance and Development. Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1963. Belize City: Government Printing Department, 1963. Honduras.) Ministry of Finance and DevelOpment. Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1966. Belize City: Government Printing Department, 1966. 151 British Honduras. Ministry of Finance and DevelOpment. Trade Report for the Year 1966. Belize City: Government Printing Office, 1967. Burks, J. Henry. Citrus Industry of British Honduras, Jamaica, Trinidad. United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, Report No. 88 (April, 1956). Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1956. Coyner, Mary S. The Agriculture and Trade of British Honduras. United States Department of Agridulture, Economic Research Service, Publication ERS--Foreign 209. Washington, D. C.: 1968. Farnworth, Constance H. Agriculture of British Honduras. United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service Report, Vol. 10, No. 4 (April, 1946), pp. 55-64. Washington, D. C.: 1946. Great Britain. Colonial Office. Agr riculture in the West Indies. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, I942. Great Britain. Colonial Office. Annual Report on British Honduras. London: Her Majesty' s Stationery Office, 1966. ' Spruce, William E. "Basic Data on the Economy of British Honduras," Overseas Business Reports, OBR 64- 63 (June, 1964), pp. 1- -8, United*States Department of Commerce. Washington, D. C.: 1964. United States. Department of State (Foreign Service Economic-Commercial Staff). EconomieTrends and their Implications for the United States--British Honduras. Washington, D. C.: 1967. Reports British Honduras. Government Information Service. .A Balanced Budget--l967. Belize City: Government InfOrmation Service, 1967. British Honduras. Government Information Service. Rural Land Utilization Tax, A Beneficial, Just, ang _guitable Piece of Legislation. Belize City: Government Information Service, 1966. 152 British Honduras. Government Information Service. The 1966 Budget, Modernizingthe Belizean_Fiscal Structure. 'Belize City: Government Information Service, 1966. British Honduras. Office Of the Premier. Development Plan III (1964-1970). Belize City: Government Printing Department, 1964. Clayton, G., et a1. Report of the Tripartite Economic Survey of British Honduree. Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1966. Downie, J. An Economic Policy for British Honduras. London: Her MajestyTs Stationery Office, I959. Great Britain. Caribbean Commission, Central Secretariat. Caribbean Economic Review.' Vol. II (November, 1950). Port-of-Spain, Trinidad: Yuilles Printerie, Ltd., 1950.' Great Britain. Caribbean Commission, Central Secretariat. Caribbean Market Survey: Citrus. Porteof-Spain, Trinidad: Kent House, 1956. Great Britain. Colonial Office. Report of the British Guiana and British Honduras Sepplement CommissiOn, prepared by C. Evans, et a1. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1948. Great Britain. Colonial Office. The West Indian Citrus Industry: Report of the Fact-Finding Mission. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1955. Hosein, I. Citrus Growing in Trinidad. Citrus Research Bulletin No. 7. St. Augustine, Trinidad: University of the West Indies, 1966. Hosein, I. Citrus Viruses and Planpglmprovement. Citrus Research Bulletin No. 2. St. Augustine: University Of the West Indies, 1966. Kasasian, L. Weed and Grass Control in Citrus Groves. Citrus Research Bulletin NO. 3. St. Augustine: University of the West Indies, 1966. University of the West Indies. Caribbean Citrus Research Unit. Citrus Research, 1966.' St. Augustine: University of the West Indies, 1966. 153 van Whervin, L. Walter. A Survey of the Status of the Mexican Fruitfly (Anastrepha ludens) in British Honduras. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West ___,____. Indies, 1966. Wallace, T., Camp, A. F., and Hinton, H. R. Wallace Report: West Indian Citrus Scheme. St. Augustine: Univer- sity of the West Indies, 1958. Weir, C. C. A General Citrus Fertilizer Program. Citrus Research BuIletin No. 8. St. Augustine: University of the West Indies, 1967. Weir, C. C. Fertilizers and Fruit Quality: The Effect of Potassium on Fruit Qualipy, Citrus Research BulIetin NO. 6. St. Augustine: University of the West Indies, 1966. Weir, C. C. Leaf and Soil Analyses as Guides for Citrus Fertiiizer Practices in the West Indies. 'Citrus Research Bulletin NO. 1. St. Augustine: University of the West Indies, 1966. Unpublished Material Bowman, W. A. J. "Citrus Culture in British Honduras; the Development of the Citrus Industry in the Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras." Unpublished book, Stann Creek, British Honduras, 1955. Chopin, M. K. "Citrus Cultivation--Pests and Diseases." Transcript Of a radio talk, Belize City, British Honduras, December 16, 1964. Chopin, M. K. "Fertilizing of Citrus and Insect Control of Pests." Transcript of a radio talk by the Prin- cipal Agricultural Officer, Belize City, December 9, 1964. Chopin, M. K. "Planting Your Citrus Groves." Transcript of a radio talk, Belize City, December 2, 1964. Other Sources Agricultural Department, Belize City, British Honduras. Personal interview with Eric W. King, Chief Agricul- tural Officer, Agricultural Department, Belize City, British Honduras. January 2, 1968. 154 Board of Trade, Ministry of Natural Resources, Belize City, British Honduras. Personal interview with Ernest Smith, Assistant Secretary of Trade, Board of Trade, Belize City, British Honduras.‘ January 2, 1968. British Honduras Fruit Company, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. Personal interviews with S. A. Spross, Managing Director, British Honduras Fruit Company, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. January 17 and 22, 1968. Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. Personal interviews with Dr. Gordon K. Maliphant, Director, Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, University of the West Indies. January 25 and 27, 1968. Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, Stann Creek Valley. Per- sonal interviews with Richard N. Wedderburn, Agron- omist, Caribbean Citrus Research Unit, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. January 6 and 27, 1968. Citrus Company of British Honduras, Pomona, Stann Creek Valley. Personal interview with Frank Sharp, owner of the Citrus Company of British Honduras, Pomona, British Honduras. January 11, 1968. District Agricultural Station, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. Personal interview with Alberto Navarette, District Agricultural Officer, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. January 5, 1968. Economic Planning and Social Development Office, Belize City, British Honduras. Personal interview with Danny Gill, Economic Officer of British Honduras. February 2, 1968. Forestry Station, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. Personal interview with Eustace Bradley, Chief Forestry Officer, Stann Creek District, British Honduras. January 5, 1968. Labor Department, Belize City, British Honduras. Personal interview with E. A. Castillo, Labor Inspector, Labor Department, Belize City, British Honduras. December 27, 1967. Labor Department, Belize City, British Honduras. Personal interview with F. Tillet, Chief Labor Inspector, Labor Department, Belize City, British Honduras. December 27, 1967. 155 Land Survey Department, Belize City, British Honduras. Personal interview with Mr. Card, employee, Land Survey Department, Belize City, British Honduras. February 5, 1968. Land Survey Department, Belize City, British Honduras.~ Personal interview with Albert S. Grant, Chief Draftsman, Land Survey Department, Belize City, British Honduras. January 2, 1968. Lynam Agricultural College, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. Personal interview with Father Kramer, Director, Lynam Agricultural College, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. January 10, 1968. Marketing Board, Belize City, British Honduras. Personal interview with Henry Usher, Chief Officer, Marketing Board, Belize City, British Honduras. February 8, 1968. Ministry of Natural Resources, Belize City, British Honduras. Personal interview with Raymond Fuller, Principal Secretary, Ministry of Natural Resources, Belize City, British Honduras. December 27, 1967. Stann Creek Town, British Honduras. Personal interview with Allan Arthurs, District Representative of Stann Creek, Stann Creek Town, British Honduras. January 5, 1968. ‘ Stann Creek Town, British Honduras. Personal interview with R. Castillo, President of the Southern Chris- tian Workers Union, Stann Creek Town, British Honduras. January 29, 1968. Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. Personal interviews with randomly selected group of fifty growers to determine the percentage of citrus producers utiliz- ing chemical weedkillers. January 7-14, 1968. Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. Personal interview with Karl Gabrouel, Foreman of the Middlesex estate of the Citrus Company of British Honduras. January 11, 1968. Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. Personal interview with Jaime Usher, a citrus producer, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. January 10, 1968. Stone Haven, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. Personal interview with H. T. A. Bowman, leading non-cor- porate grower, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras. January 5, 1968. f1 "I41111111111111“