THE. SUBJUNCTWB m EARLY AMERICAN ENQUSH Thesis ‘fo'ythe Deg‘rpo of M. A. MICl-‘HCAN STATE COLLEGE. ’ h Lucile Strong Fryer 1944 . '- -s- _, PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. ‘ 4 Q .5... I . t ' A- . ' . " ’ - "W lawma'tg fig-..» '3‘ ': -_-. , 6/01 cJClRC/DateDuepBS-pJS This is to certify that the thesis entitled "T19; Sub-[awn in foam. am;m Englisl. '1 presented by M. LALCC‘L Show? pry.” has been accepted towards fulfilment of the requirements for M. A. degree in Emlf§5 (1mm Major professor Date 3|. ng‘lfl; THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN EARLY AMERICAN ENGLISH by Lucile Strong Pryor A THESIS Submitted to the Graduate School of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of English 1944 THEb‘ib Contents Chapter Page Preface i I The Sources 1 II The Subjunctive 19 III The Materials ' , 35 Outline The Subjunctive in Independent Statements A. In Wishes and Imprecations B. Quasi-imperative with let G. §2g_. would have The Subjunctive in Dependent Statements A. In Noun Clauses B. In Adjective Clauses C. In Adverb Clauses IV Bibliography 72 Preface I mm attempting in the following pages to study the subjunctive in early colonial literature. The materials for the study I have drawn from.books, pamphlets, letters, diaries, and histories published in New England or by res- idents of New England in the period 1630-1730. I have been somewhat restricted by the material which was found to be available and accessible. Much of the material which I wished to examine was found to be in the William L. Cle- JIents Library, Ann Arbor, and not available for my purposes. I was fortunate in obtaining from.the library of the Univer- sity of Michigan several volumes of the Massachusetts Society Collection, as indicated in Chapter I. I was obliged to use a number of selections which were modernized in the spelling, but since my interest lay not in the spelling but in the verb forms, which were not likely to be different from.the original, it seemed permissible to use them. In no sense can this be said to be a complete study of all published works even in this small area and in this relatively short period, as the entire number of published works in this country between 1629 and 1700, according to Charles Evans, American Bibliograph , is nearly one thousand-4958, to be exact. The materials examined range from intimate diaries to formal histories, from.personal letters to sermons and instructions to young theological students. Naturally there is likewise diversity in the education, status, and back- ground of the various authors, which include housewives, eXplorers, adventurers, soldiers, governors, lawyers, and divines: but there seems to be no appreciable differentia- tion in their use of the subjunctive. The second part is devoted to a consideration of the subjunctive as treated by such grammarians as Sennenschein, Jespersen, Curme, Brown, Krapp, Onions, Poutsma, and others. The third part is a detailed presentation of the ci- tations gathered from.writings of the various authors. These citations, which number nearly five thousand (4986), have been classified first according to form and second according to use, and are considered by means of the out- line presented in the table of contents. ii Chapter 1 The Sources Matthew Craddock, Letter to Captain Endicott. Matthew Craddock (or Cradock) wrote the letter to Captain John En- dicott April 17, 1629. It was printed in the first volume of Hazard's Collection of State Papers. It was reprinted in the Massachusetts Historical Society Collection, second series, VII. Although Craddock was never a resident of New England,_because of some unexplained change in plans, he was of great importance in the settlement of the new colony, sending over six ships, giving generously of his means to secure and equip colonists. His standing is re- vealed in the fact that he was_named as governor in the charter granted in 1628 to the “Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England."1) I used the letter as found in the Massachugetts Historical Society Collection. Referred to as 01. William Bradford, Of Plimoth Plantation. Bradford. began writing his history about 16:50 and completed Book I, which includes the landing of the pilgrims at Plymouth Rock, probably a year or two later. Book II was written be- 1) National Cyclopedia of American Biography, V, 426. tween 1646-1650. .The history remained in manuscript form for over two hundred years, but it was known to, and uti- lized by, such early historians as Morton, Hubbard, Prince, and Hutchinson.2) Book 1 was finally published in 1841, and the whole manuscript in 1856. It was reprinted in 1897 and 1901. Bradford was a native of Yorkshire, and ‘his English is that of an educated man, though not a learned one, deeply versed in the Genevae-not King James~~version of the Bible. It is not without conscious art, for he freely employs alliteration and other conscious devices of "3) I examined pages 1-107 contemporary English literature. of the edition published in Boston, 1901. Referred to as WB. Thomas Shepard, Selections. Thomas Shepard wrote the Sincere Convert in 1641, which went through twenty-one ed- itions between 1641 and 1812. His Private Diary was pub- lished in 1747. Shepard came to New England from.England in 1655. He was pastor of the church at Newtown (Cambridge) and established his ministry so firmly that Cambridge was lchosen as the site for an institution of learning, later es- 4) tablished as Harvard College by John Harvard. Among many 2) S. E. Morison, "William.Bradford," Dictionary of Am- erican Bio a h , II, 559-563. 3’ IBIa., £63. 4) E. H. Dewey, "Thomas Shepard,' Dictionary of Ameri- can Biography, XVII, 75. notable contributions he made to early colonial secular and religious life, one of the most interesting is his plan for providing assistance for "Such students as may stand in need. Thus he founded the tradition of scholar- "5) I have not been able to obtain either ships in America. the Sincere Convert or his diary, but I used selections from.both found in the Library of American Literature.6) Referred to as T8. Nathaniel Ward, The Simple Cobler of Agaggg. Ward published The Simple Cobler of Agawam in England in 1645 under the pseudonym of Theodore de la Guard.7) A fourth edition was published in 1647. It was reprinted in the Force Tracts, III, Boston, 1846, and by the Ipswich His- torical Society, 1905. An edition was published in Bos- ton, 1713. Nathaniel Ward, author, clergyman, son of a Puritan minister, came to Massachusetts in 1654. Under co- ver of an amusing satire he protested in The Simple Cobler against toleration; nevertheless it is a landmark in early American literature and in its pungent style and whimsical vigor is still read with interest. I examined the whole of the text in the 1905 edition, "with facsimiles of title 5) E. H. Dewey, "Thomas Shepard," Dictionary of American Bio a h , XVII, 75. 6; Libragz of American Literature, ed. E.C. Stcdman,I,216. 7) E. H. Dewey, Nathaniel Ward:1r Dictionary of American BiOEEREhI, XIX, 454. page, preface and headlines, the text in antique type.8) Referred to as W2. Robert C. Winthrop, Life and Letters of John Winthrgp. Robert C. Winthr0p was a descendant of John Winthrop. John Winthrop's Journal of the Transactions and Occurrences in the Settlement of Massachusetts was published in Hartford in 1790. It was later published in Boston in 1825 as The History of New England and is included in Original Narra- tives of Early American History, 1908. Life and Letters of John Winthrgp was published in Boston by Robert C. Winthrop, 1864. John Winthrop came to Salem in 1630, serving at var- ious times as governor, in which position "his mind, more than any other, arranged the social state of Massachusetts; Massachusetts molded the society of New England.'9) His grave and measured style of writing lend dignity to the journal which is frequently called his History of New Eng- 1229 and is a source book of the greatest importance.lo) I examined pages 1-45 of Life and Letters of John Winthrgp. Referred to as W1. Anne Bradstreet, The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung up in America. 8)Nathanie1 Ward, The Simple Cobler, Ipswich Historical Society, 1905, Title page. 9)Thomas Seccombe, "John Winthrop,” Dictionary of Nation- a1 Bio a h , LXII, 230. IO)J. T. Adams, "John Winthrop," Dictionaryggf American Biography, xx, 411. The poems of Anne Bradstreet were published in Lon- don in 1650. A second edition appeared in 1678, another in 1758. Anne Bradstreet was born in England but came to New England with her husband in 1630. The daughter and wife of two governors of Massachusetts, she was an exceptionally cultured woman who must have sadly missed her girlhood ad- vantages in the crude surroundings of early New England. That her large family and pioneer experiences did not rob her of mental alertness is evidenced by the fairly large number of poems she was able to produce. "But Anne Brad- street was not a poet; she was a winsome personality in an "11) For the purposes of this investigation I unlovely age. examined 117 pages of the WOrks of Anne Bradstreet, edited by John Harvard Ellis and published in New York in 1952. Referred to as Bl. Edward Johnson, Wonder-Working Providence of Sion's Saviour in New England. Jehnson began writing Wonder-werk- ing Providence about 1650, and published it in London in 1654. It was again published in Andover in 1867. It was reprinted in the Massachusetts Historical Society Collection, second series, V. Edward Johnson was born in England in 1598, coming to Boston in 1650 and founding Woburn in 1640. fii 11) Samuel M. Tucker, Cambridge History of American Lit- erature, I, 154. He was there proprietor, clerk, selectman, deputy to the General Court. He wrote the Wonder-Working Providence not so much as history as a justification to the enemies of Massachusetts of its divinely ordained success. For that reason it is not to be trusted for historical details, al- though it gives a clearer picture of the life of the times because of the many homely and somewhat irrelevant facts incorporated than do the accounts of the more intellectual 12) I examined pages historians like Bradford and Winthrop. 1-95 of the reprint in the Massachusetts Historical Society Collection, second series, V. Referred to as J2. - John Mason, Brief History of the Pequot War. Mason wrote the Brief History of the Pequot War in 1656 at the request of the General Court, but it was printed in Relation ' of the Troubles that Have Hapnd in New England (1677) by In- crease Mather, who was apparently unaware that Mason was the author.13’ It was reprinted in 1756 under the title A Brief History of the Pequot War, and again in the Massachusetts Historical Society Collection, second series, VIII. John Mason was an influential colonial soldier and magistrate, coming from England to this country in 1655, where he helped 12) S. E. Morison, "Edward Johnson," Dictionary of Am- erican Biography, X, 95. 15) G. P. Bauer, "John Mason," Dictionary of American Bioggaghy, XII, 567. found Windsor on the Connecticut. In the ensuing Indian troubles he won his chief claim to distinction. I examined the entire history (thirty pages), as found in the EEEEE‘ chusetts Historical Society Collection, second series, VIII. Referred to as M5. Ferdinando Gorges, A Briefe Narration of the Originall Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the Parts of America. Sir Ferdinando Gorges wrote the Briefe Narration in 1658. It was first published in London in 1658, and later appeared as Part II of America Painted to the .2122! published in 1659. Another edition was published in Boston, 1857. It was reprinted in the Massachusetts His— torical Society Collection, third series, VI. Gorges pro- bably lived from 1566 to 1647, was a naval and military commander, governor of Plymouth, and the father of English 14) America Painted to the Life is a series colonization. of pamphlets edited by his grandson. One of these, A Briefe Narration, is of value, and the basis of all the other ac- counts of Gorges' colonial work. The others, though pro- fessing to be partly written bv the old knight, are in re- 15) ality crude compilations of little worth. I examined l4) Dictionary of National Biography, XXI, 241. 15) Ibid., 245. fifty-one pages of the reprint in the Massachusetts His- torical Society Collection, third series, VI. Referred to as 61. Nathaniel Morton, New England's Memoriall. Morton wrote New England's MemoriallZ (printed at Cambridge in 1669), at the request of the commissioners of the four New'England colonies. In 1676 he prepared a longer account, which taken largely from.Bradford's papers was printed in the Congregational Board's edition of the Memoriall, 1855. Nathaniel Morton was born in the Netherlands and came to P1ymouth.in 1625, where he was a member of the household of Governor Bradford, his uncle by marriage. He was his uncle's clerk and agent and later became one of the most influential men at Plymouth, a distinction he held for over forty years. Well educated, he became custodian of Bradford's writings after Bradford's death, and was con? sidered the best informed man at Plymouth on Pilgrim his- 16) I examined pages 1-106 of the edition published tory. in 1855. Referred to as NM. John Josselyn, An Account of Two Voyages to New Eng- lggg. Josselyn wrote two volumes dealing with.New England, ione of which is entitled in full An Account of Two Voyaggs 16) Roland Greene Usher, 'Nathaniel Morton," Diction- ary of American Biography, XIII, 261 to NewiEnglandyWherein you have the setting out of a Ship, with the charggs; The Prices of all necessaries for fur- nishing a Planter and his Fgmily at his first coming; A Description of the Countrnyatives and Creatures, with their Merchantil and Physical Use, (1658-59, 1665-71). It was first published in London in 1617 and again in 1675. It was reprinted in the Massachusetts Historical Society Collection, third series, 111. It appears that Josselyn was a surgeon and physician, his writings revealing an ed- ucated scientific mind, though he was at times too credu- lens of reported facts.17) I examined 158 pages of the edition found in the Massachusetts Historical Society Col- lection, third series, VI. Referred to as J1. Daniel Gookin, Historical Collection of the_lndians in New England. Daniel Gookin was a sincere friend of the American Indian,and the Historical Collection is one of three books he wrote about them; the exact date of their writing and the original publication I have not discovered. None was published until long after his death. Born in England or Ireland in 1612 Gookin came to this country, where he founded Worcester and later was major general of the military forces of the colony. He was twice ruler of 17) Fulmer Mood, "John Josselyn," Dictionary of American Biography, ed.. Dumas Malone... X, 219. 10 the "praying Indians" and defended them zealously during 18) I used the edition of Historical King Phillip's War. Collection reprinted in the Massachusetts Historical So- iety Collection, first series, I. Referred to as G2. Mary Rowlandson, The Sovereignty & Goodness of God, Together with the Faithfulness of His Promises Displaygd; Being a Narrative of the Captivity and Rggtauration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson. Mrs. Rowlandson wrote the record of her captivity some time before 1682, the date of its first publication in Cambridge. A London edition under a slight- ly different title appeared within a few months; also two second editions the sameyear in Cambridge and some thir- ty reprints and editions since then. No cepy of the first edition is known. _In 1950 the Narrative was republished as a part of Lancaster's celebration of the three hundredth anniversary of the founding of the Massachusetts Bay, with the title The Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of_Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, edited by Frederick Lewis Weis. This edition was copied from an edition photo graphically reproduced from.a rudely printed capy in the Prince Cel- '1ection of the Boston Public Library. Mary Rowlandson was probably born in England, but her father was one of the 18) J. T. Adams, "Daniel Gookin," Dictionary of American Biography, VII, 417. 11 ' wealthiest of the original proprietors of Lancaster, Mass- achusetts. She was married to the minister Joseph Rowland- son, and was captured by the Indians when Lancaster was burned in 1675-6. After eleven weeks of almost unbearable cruelty and hardships she was ransomed and returned to her family. She wrote her story as a "memorandum.of God's deal- ings with her and to declare the Works of the Lord.'19) It was widely read both here and in England and even today ap- peals to the reader because of its simplicity and sincerity, in addition to its "pure, idiomatic and sinewy'English."2O) I examined the entire story of seventy-nine pages, of the edition published in Boston, 1950. Referred to as R1. William Hubbard, A General History of New England. ‘William.Hubbard wrote the history some time after 1688, since in that year the General Court voted to give him £50"in order that a record of God's care over the people of New’England might be preserved for posterity."21) It was not published until 1815 in the Massachusetts History ical Society Collection, second series, volumes V, VI. He borrowed.much of his material from.Morton's Memoriall and Winthrop's Journal, and in turn his book was utilized by Cotton Mather and Thomas Prince. This wholesale bor- 1' 19) Lewis Harke, "Mary Rowlandson," Dictionary of Amer- ican. 31° 9. h , XVI, 202a A 20) M. C. Tyler, History of American Literature, II, 139. 21) J. T. Adams, William Hubbard,'_fiictiona3y of Amer- ican Biography, IX, 333. 12 rowing accounts for the many identical citations mentioned in my investigation. Hubbard came with.his father from England to New England in 1655, where he graduated from Harvard with the first class in 1642. When thirty-five he was ordained a minister and was an influential leader in the struggle for freedom of thought and toleration, since he opposed the tax collection program of the Andros gov- ernment and the witchcraft hysteria. I examined 111 pages of the edition published in Cambridge, 1815. Referred to as NH. Increase Mather, An Essay for the Recording of Illus- trious Providences. Mather wrote the Essay, published in 1684, perhaps as an outgrowth of his interest in scientific matters, which was evidenced by his formation in Boston of a society for the discussion of scientific questions. It I was later published in London in 1890. Increase Mather was born in Massachusetts and brought up in.a strict Puritan household. He graduated from.Harvard in 1656, later study- ing and living for some time in England. He returned to New England in 1661, becoming one of the most influential divines‘of the period. He wrote over one hundred thirty books and pamphlets, all in a style "strong in its simpli- city and directness though usually without brilliance."22) . 22) Kenneth B. Murdock, "Increase Mather," Dictionary of American Biography, III, 593. 15- The Essay for the Recording of Illustrious Providences re- sembles many other tales showing God's intervention in the affairs of every-day life, but running through it is the viewpoint of a man with a more scientific approach who occasionally explodes current superstitions. I examined 118 pages of the edition published in London in 1890. Re- ferred to as IM. George Fox, A Journal or Historical Account of the Life, Travel, Sufferings,_of George Fox.. Fox wrote the story of his life as an outgrowth of his spiritual fer- vor and as a testimony to the moving power of communica- tion with God. It was first published in London in 1694. Editions appeared again in 1709 and 1765. There have been . nine other editions, from.l800 to 1924.23) George Fox was born in Leicestershire about 1654, the son of a weaver. He does not appear to have had much formal schooling, early becoming an itinerant preacher. He spent two years in the American colonies, where he was influential as the found- er of the Society fo Friends.24) In one sense he does not belong in this investigation, since he was never a resi- dent here, but he was deeply interested in the religious life of this country, as evidenced by his labors of two 23) The Journal of George Fox, Revised by Norman Penney, Preface. 24) 8. Austin Allibone, Critical Dictionary, 625. 14 years here, and is representative of religious leaders of the period. I used the edition published in 1924, and went through the first five chapters, pages 1-102. Re- ferred to as GF. Samuel Sewall, The Selling of Joseph and Di :1. The Selling of Joseph is a pamphlet published in Boston in 1700. It was reprinted in the Massachusetts Historical Society Collection, fifth series, VI. The pamphlet is of interest from the fact that it is the earliest work against slavery printed in Massachusetts. It presents the unusual spectacle of a rich Puritan merchant pleading for the 25) I examined the text as rights and liberties of slaves. it is reprinted in the Massachusett§_gistorical Society Collection edition of 1897. Referred to as Sewall. 2i_gy.‘ Samueleewall recorded the daily events of his life over a period of fifty-five years, 1624-1729, with a lapse of eight years. it was first published by the Maser achusetts Historical Society in 1878. Sewall, though born 'at Bishopstoke, England, in 1652, came to New England with his parents when but nine years old. A graduate of Har- vard, Sewall held various political and judicial offices almost until the close of his life. A clear picture of the New England world of that time emerges from the read- 25) J. T. Adams, "Samuel Sewall," Dictionary of American Biography, XVI, 611. 15 ing of his diary, which reveals him.as a rich merchant, conventional, a strict Puritan forever engrossed in thought of death, yet playful,'affectionate, honorable, strong, and fearless. His strong sense of Justice was revealed in his public acknowledgement of wrong-doing on.the bench (in con- nection with the witchcraft trialsLZ 6) and his pioneer . championing of the Negro has been referred to in connection with the Selling of Joseph. I read one hundred pages of the edition of the Qiggy prepared by Mark Van Doren and published in 1927. Referred to as 81. Cotton Mather (1662-1727), Magnalia Christicana and Manuductio ad Ministerium. The Magnalia, an extensive his- tory of seventeenth century New England, was first published in London in 1702 as a folio volume of 788 pages. The first American edition did not appear until 1855. Written by a man of considerable scholarly attainments, of intellectual honesty, with access to the most authentic documents, the Magnalia has been of invaluable aid to all historians of early New England history.27) Mather's style is dull, his work shows evidence of hasty writing, but his language is unquestionably representative of the best of the period. He is certainly one of the most important as well as most 26) J. T. Adams, "Samuel Sewall," Dictionary of American Bio ra h , WVI, 611. 275 Cotton Mather, Maggalia, ed. Thomas Robbins, Preface,V. 16 prolific writers in the period under consideration, and ranked high as a clergyman, scholar, editor, historian. He published nearly four hundred books, sermons, etc. He was elected a member of the Royal Society in 1713. I examined the whole of Book 1, 104 pages, of the 1855 American edi- tion, and it is to this edition that all references are made. Referred to as M02. Manuductio ad Ministerium, somewhat later than the Maggalia, was published in Boston in 1726. Of this ed- ition there are three known variants, all with the same title-page, bearing the same imprint and the date 1726.28) A facsimile reprint, edited for the Facsimile Text Society with a bibliographical note by Thomas J. Holmes and Kenneth B. Murdock was published in 1938. The Manuductio has been rated somewhat higher than the Magnalia, being "written heartily, with real enthusiasm.for the subject and with greater directness and simplicity of style than the author has shown in any other work.'29) I examined pages 1-78 of the facsimile reprint of 1938. Referred to as M01. Sarah Kemble Knight, The Journal of Madam Ignight. Sarah Kemble 1tonight recorded the events of a journey she- made to New York in 1704, in her diary which remained in 28) Cotton Mather, Manuductio, ed. Thomas J. Holmes, Preface, i.p 29) M. C. Tyler, History of American Literature, II, 85. 17 manuscript form until 1825, when it was printed in New ‘Yerk. It was reprinted in New York, 1935. Madame Knight was a woman of unusual educational and legal abilities for her time, possessing, as is apparent from her diary, humor, keen perceptions, and toleration. Her undertaking, unac- companied, the perilous trip to New York, and her activities as administrator of considerable business, mark her as ex- 30) I examined the entire ceptional in more ways than one. Journal of seventy-one pages, as reprinted in New York, 1935. Referred to as Kl. Cadwallader Colden, The Historyof the Five Indian Nations. Cadwallader Golden, son of a Scotch.minister, came to this country in 1710, where he published in Phila- delphia in 1727 a History of the Five Indian Nations. An edition was prepared by Robert Waite and published in New York in 1902. Golden became a very influential man in New York, regarded as the bestfinformed man in the new world on the affairs of the BritishrAmerican colonies. In ad- dition to theology he studied medicine, later practicing the profession for some time in Pennsylvania. He had a keen scientific interest and was an associate of Franklin in his scientific investigations; altogether he was a man 30) Sidney Gunn, "Sarah.Kemb1e Knight," Dictionary of American Biography, X, 468-9. 18 of rare attainments, too lightly regarded by posterity,51) I went through the whole of Part 1, pages 1-106, of the edition of 1902. Referred to as CO. The Charters and Laws of Massachusetts Bay County. This collection of charters and laws was published probably about 1700. I examined a cOpy obtained from.the Chicago Public Library. Referred to as Charters. 31) Alice M. Keys, "Cadwallader Golden," Dictionaryyof American Biography, IV, 286, 19 Chapter II The Subjunctive The subject of mood or mode has received considerable attention from.grammarians. In one of the briefest defin- itions Kruisenga defines mood as "forms of the verb that serve to indicate the mental attitude of the speaker to- wards the action, occurrence or state expressed by the verb."1) Ramsey calls attention to the fact that among American writers the spelling mode is replacing the form £229, used especially in England, which replacement he at- tributes to the desire to distinguish between mode, coming from.Latin mgggg, manner, and Eggg,‘or state of mind, with 2) This statement might have which it has no connection. been true in 1892, when it was made, but a check of lead- ing texts shows that good is used by Goold, Curme, Grat- tan, Helfenstein, Jespersen, Kennedy, Kittredge, Krapp, Kruisinga, Nesfield, Leonard, Onions, Poutsma, Sonnenschein, Tanner, while Baker, Cross, Fowler, and Harvey use the spelling £293. A. c. Smith, in his Anglo-Saxon Grammar, says that "Usage sanctions mggg, but the better spelling would be mode. It is from the Latin.modus, whereas mood 1) E. A. Kruisenga, A Handbook of Presentday English, 92. 8) Samuel Ramsey, The English Language and Grammar, 440. 20 (temper) is Old English mod."5) In the fifth edition of ‘Webster's Collegiate Dictionagy under mood we find: "Gram. Distinction of form in a verb to express the manner in which the action or state it denotes is conceived, whether as fact, or as a matter of supposal, wish, possibility, etc; a set “ of forms expressive of one of these modal forces. English has the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative moods; verbal phrases with.modal force (as with Igulg, should, etc.) are loosely called moods, as conditional, potential, etc." wyld's gniversal Dictionagy of the English Language gives mood as '(gram.) Designation, by the change of form in the conjugation of a verb, of how an act, event, etc., is con- eeived, as a fact, as possible, desirable, etc.: indica- tive, subjunctive moods, etc." Ramsey himself uses the spelling mood, in defining the several moods as "different ways in which the speaker regards the action of which he speaks as related to himself."4) He points out that this is really not a definition, since it may likewise be true of other distinctions, but at least it has the merit of be- ing true as far as it goes. In fact he makes the statement that it is possible to regard all variations of the verb- forms which do not have to do with number, person, voice, '3) A. C. Smith, Anglo-Saxon Grammar, 71, 4) Samuel Ramsey, 02. cit., 441. 21 or tense, as in reality distinctions of mggg. A somewhat different definition of mood is that given by Goold Brown, who says that "Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which expresses the being, action or pas- sion in some particular manner."5) Still another brief definition ofmood is that of Curme, who defines mood as "a grammatical form denoting the style or manner of pred- ication."6) Grattan shmply rewords preceding definitions when he states that "moods of the finite verbs are forms which express certain mental attitudes toward the content of a sentence."7) A very old book, old at least in com- parison with some mentioned, is that of Thomas Harvey, pub- lished in 1869, who states that "Mode is the manner in which the action, being or state is expressed."8) Almost identi- cal with this is Baker's definition that "Mode or mood is the manner in which the verb is used,"9) and Kittredge's that "Mood is that property of verbs which shows the manner d."10) Poutsma's in which the action or state is expresse definition limits the verb's meaning to the attitude of the speaker: "By mood we may understand a form of the finite 5) Goold Brown, The_Grammarof English Grammars, 337. 6) George Curme, Syntax, 390. 7) J. H. G. Grattan, Our Living Language, 237. 8) Thomas Harvey, An Elementary Grammar of the English Inn a e, 97. 9) J.-%. Baker, Correct English Complete Grammag, 169. 10) George L. Kittredge, Advanced English Grammar, 115. 22 verb by means of which the speaker expresses his mental at- titude towards the fulfillment of the action or state ex- "11) Since all of these defini- pressed by the predicate. tions go back to the question of the idea or thought in the mind of the speaker regarding the action or state expressed by the verb, it seems the statement made by Ramsey, that good in this case has no connection with.mggg, a state of mind, is a distinction without a difference.. One last def- inition, which seems to me the least meaningful, is that of Sonnenschein, one of the greatest of these scholars. He II defines mood as a group of tenses which have a similarity of meaning."12) Grammarians vary in their treatment of mood.from those who attempt to distinguish among seven or eight moods to those who classify all forms under as few as three. Goold Brown defines five moods in his grammar--the infinitive, the indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the imperative.13) E. A. Cross says that "So far as inflections are concerned there is very little left of mode in modern English. We have only the indicative and a scrap or two of the wreckage of the subjunctive. This does not mean that modern English is lbmited in its expressiveness. By 11) H. Poutsma, Mood and Tense of the English Verb, 10. 12) E. A. Sonnenschein, A New English Grammar, 61. 13) Goold Brown, The Grammar of English Grammars, 337. the use of modal auxiliaries (may, gag, etc.) we express every shade of meaning possible to the Anglo-Saxons. These auxiliaries were once set up by grammarians in a system of verb phrases as potential mode, but since they are always combined with regular indicative forms, none of the modern grammarians recognize the potential as a separate mode."l4) Curme limits the number of moods to three, the indicative, 15) Jespersen says that subjunctive, and the imperative. although many grammarians include the infinitive and the participle with the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, he does not see how they can be coordinated with these three. He also points out that the indicative is sometimes called the fact- mood, the subjunctive the thought-mood, and the imperative the will-mood. He does not agree with the state- ment made by Sweet that they express different relations between subject and predicate, since it is much.more correct to say, as Brugmann, Oertel, and Noreen do, that "they ex- press eertain attitudes of the mind of the speaker towards the contents of the sentence, though in some cases the choice of a mood is determined not by the attitude of the actual speaker, but by the character of the clause itself and its relation to the main nexus on which it is dependent."16) 14) E. A. Cross, Fundamentals in English, 327. 15) George 0. Curme, S tax, 390. 16) Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar, 313. RR 24 This is a distinction which is not brought out by all gram- marians, and by way of illustration Jespersen has a foot- note in which he gives two French examples, "ma femme veut que je lui obeisse? or "ma femme ne croit pas qu'il vienne," in which it is clear that, though the subjunctive is used, it has no reference whatsoever to the frame of mind or the desire of the speaker, but rather to that of the speaker's "femme." In considering the specific mood called subjunctive, some attention should undoubtedly be paid to the mood as it is defined and is used in the Latin language. Sonnenschein says that "the subjunctive mood has the same kind of mean- ing as the English subjunctive but is more widely used."17) In another section of the text he states: "The uses of the subjunctive mood may be divided into three classes: A-- Those in which it denotes what is to be done; B--Those in which it denotes what would happen under certain imagined conditions; C--Those in which it has been so much weakened that it differs little from the indicative in meaning. The first two uses have something in common, and it is possible that use.B grew out of use A. Use C is clearly of later origin than the other two."18) 17) F. A. Sonnenschein, A Latin Grammar, 56. 18) Ibid., 147. 25 Elmer divides the subjunctive in Latin in independent sentences into three general divisions: 1, volitive, 2, optative, 3, would-~should subjunctive (the so-ealled "po- tential"). In addition to these independent uses the sub- junctive is also used in dependent clauses of result, pur- pose, characterising, egg clauses, and in certain substan- tive clauses. As to the forms of the subjunctive, it is important to note that there are no future tense subjunctive forms in Latin, the idea of futurity being expressed by the present subjunctive, for example, in the case of desires.19) Hotz says that "the integrity of the English verb has been so much affected by that corruption of English grammar which began in the eleventh.century and is accomplished in Shakespeare, that the subjunctive mood is distinguishable in modern English but in a few forms of the verb. The so- ealled.meda1 verbs shall, will, may, gradually lost their presentive meaning, and to supply the want of a clearly distinguished subjunctive mood, assumed a purely symbolic function, in which they appear just where once the true subjunctive lived its most vigorous and intimate life."20) We find as wide a variation in the treatment of the subjunctive as in the definition and enumeration of moods. Vi — 19) He Ce Elmer, Eatin Gramar; 187. 20) Gerold Hotz, On the Use of the Supjunctive Mood in Anglo-Saxopy 1. 26 Brown defines the subjunctive as "that form of the verb which represents the being, action, or passion as condition- al, doubtful, and contingent: as, If thou_goL see that that thou offend not: See thou do it not. Rev. x1x,lo. The subjunctive mood is so called because it is always sub- joined to another verb. It usually denotes some doubtful contingency, or some supposition contrary to fact."21) Very similar to the above is Fowler's definition, which states that the "subjunctive mode is that form of the verb which expresses conditional assertion; as, if he were here; though he write. It is used for doubtful existence. Subé junctive, from subjungere, to subjoin, is eo-called because the tenses of the subjunctive mode are generally subjoined "22) In this connection it is interesting to other verbs. to note that Fowler makes an exception not made by Brown, namely that it is "ggnerally subjoined to other verbs," whereas Brown makes the unqualified assertion that it is always subjoined to another verb. Poutsma's definition of mood has been given, in which he states that "mood is a form of the finite verb by means of which the speaker expresses his mental attitude towards the fulfillment of the action or state expressed by the predicate." He goes on to say that "this attitude may be 21 Goold Brown, The Grammar of English Grammars, 338. 22 W.C. Fowler, The English“Langpage in Its Elements and Forms, 311. 27 one of uncertainty. It is symbolized by that form.of the finite verb which is commonly called the subjunctive."23) He makes a distinction between a simple verb form.and a verb group-~stating that when the latter serves as a substitute for a subjunctive mood it may be styled a periphrastic subjunctive, in contradistinction to which the subjunctive proper may be called the inflectional subjunctive. He also differentiates between the subjunctive and conditional, classifying in the latter "the fulfillment of the action, or state, either as being contrary to some known fact, or as being a more supposition with regard to the future or present, made merely for the sake of argument."24) He calls the use of the subjunctive in main sentences optative, chief- ly met with in invocations and imprecations, the subject of the sentence being (a) the name of the Deity, (b) the name of the person or thing on which a curse is invoked, the sentence being mostly passive. After pointing out that the subjunctive mood is not so much used now as formerly, Sonnenschein says that "most subjunctives cannot be distinguished from.indicatives by their £23111. Nevertheless the meaning of the subjunctive is quite different from.that of the indicative, and this 23IIPoutsma, Mood and Tense of the English Verb, 27. 24) Ibid., 28. 28 enables us to recognize subjunctives. And some subjunc- tives differ from indicatives in form.as well as in meaning; for example, the third person singular of the present sub- junctive differs in form from.the same person of the pre- 2 5) He points out that the reason for the sent indicative. decline of the subjunctive is the habit we have acquired of using shall, may, should, gguld, might, with the infinitive to form equivalents of past subjunctives; nevertheless he states that the subjunctive itself is the only proper form of expression in some sentences. In making clear the mean- ing of the subjunctive he says "it is shown.most clearly by its present tense, which expresses that something is to be ggpg_or shall be done."26) Under this heading he makes three divisions. The first is chiefly used in the third person and in sentences where the thing that is to be done by the person spoken of is at the same time desired by the speaker; every soldier kill his prisoners; lgngglive the ‘Eipg. The second is also used in the first person plural, expressing what is desired or requested of a number of per- sons, including the speaker: make we our sword-arm doubly strong, and lift on high ourygaze. He states that in this~ case Egg: and liEE are subjunctives by the meaning, not the form. The order of words also shows that they are not in- 25) n. A. Sonnenschein,mA;New English Grammar, 62. 26) Ibid., 28. dicative. The third use of the present subjunctive is very common in several kinds of subordinate clauses--noun-clauses, which express that the thing which is to be done is desired or purposed, ip prospect or supposed. He points out that in some of the examples he has given the present indicative might have been used, but that in such a case "these pres- ent indicatives would be used with a special meaning; they would, in fact, be equivalent to subjunctives. It is a mistake to say (as is often said) that the subjunctive mood has practically disappeared from modern English; it is quite common. But it is true to say that the equivalent expresr' n27) sions are still commoner. After enumerating the uses of the past subjunctive, he has an "Obs. The past indica- tive is sometimes used after as if, but it always has the "28) meaning of a past subjunctive. (The scoring is mine.) Kennedy says that "a verb is usually subjunctive in mood when present or future meaning is given to a past- tense form. Distinction.in mood is no longer as clear- cut as it was in an earlier day when conjugational endings "29) were more numerous. Kruisinga states that the subjunctive is used in two 27) E. A. Sonnenschein, A New_Eng1ish Grammar, 65. 28) Ibid., 74. 29) A. G. Kennedy, Current English, 529. 50 functions, namely as an optative, and as a potential. "The difference of tense (present and preterite) does not always serve to express differences of time, the preterite being used often in a way that is similar to the modal past tenses of the indicative.30) Onions defines the subjunctive as "a mood of will; in its simplest uses it expresses desire, and all its uses can be traced to this primary meaning, which may be denoted by shall or should. Thus the subjunctive is closely allied in "31) This is the only definition meaning to the imperative. I found making this comparison. After commenting on Sonnenschein's statement that the meaning of the subjunctive is distinct from that of the in- dicative, Jespersen complains that Sonnenschein never tells what exactly that meaning is. He himself says “Nor would it be possible to find one formula that should cover all the various uses of the subjunctive in any one Aryan lan- guage. The nearest approach is contained in the term thoughtvmood, or perhaps better, non-committal mood, as apposed to a downright statement; something is mentioned with a certain hesitation or doubt or uncertainty as to its reality, but even this vague definition is not always 30) E. A. Kruisinga, Handbook of Presentday_English, 95. 31) C. T. Onions, Advanced'EnglishfiS_ tax 114. 31 to the point, for sometimes the subjunctive is used for what is downright imaginary or unreal (Ware ich doch reich!) and sometimes for what is downright real (Je suis heureux que tu sois venu). The truth seems to be that the subjunctive was at first vaguely used in a var- iety of cases which it is impossible logically or notion- ally to deliminate as against the use of the indicative, and that each language took its own course in sometimes restricting and sometimes extending its sphere of employ- ment, especially in dependent clauses. The vagueness of the meaning of the subjunctive facilitates the transition of.a present subjunctive to a future indicative as in the Latin forms in.:§g, and the extension of the second person singular in the strong verbs from the subjunctive to the indicative, e.G., 0.E. gggggg In.many cases the levelling of the two moods may have been brought about by formal coalescence, but even apart from that there is in many lan- guages a strong tendency to get rid of the subjunctive. In Danish and in Russian there are only a few isolated survive als; in English the subjunctive has since Old English times been in retreat, though from the middle of the nineteenth century there has been a literary revival of some of its u uses. In Romanic the subjunctive is less used than in Lat- in, as seen most clearly in French in conditional sentences (s'il etait riche il payerait), the last form having sprung from.the Latin indicative (pgcare habébat). This extensive movement away from the subjunctive could hardly have taken place, had one mood been felt as decidedly the mood of fact and the other as the mood of thought, and we get near- er to the actual facts if we regard the indicative as the mood chosen when there is no Special reason to the con- trary, and the subjunctive as a mood required or allowable in certain cases."52) As to the present use of the subjunctive, Krapp has the following to say: "The most important contemporary change is that which is affecting the subjunctive mood. Practically, the only construction in modern‘English in which the subjunctive is in living, natural use is in the condition contrary to fact, if I were you, I shouldn't do i5. Elsewhere, although it may still be employed with some subtle distinctions of thought, there is always a trace of consciousness in its use; it has more or less literary or archaic flavor."33) There are considerable differences, as I have indicated in the interpretation of the subjunctive mood by various grammarians. Jespersentthinks it silly to call verb-phrases (made up of the so-called ”modal" auxiliaries and their in- finitives) forms of the subjunctive. He says that the only 32) Otto Jespersen, The PhilosOphy of Grammar, 217-8. 33) George P. Krapp,—Modern English, 289-290. reason grammarians have ever done so is that they were car- rying over into English a phraseology acquired from the study, of Latin and German. To him.the only subjunctives are those few forms of the verb pg--third person singular, present and past, and.third person singular present of other verbs-- which are actually different in £253 from the indicative. So far as I have been able to determine, he would classify phrases with.ppplg, might, would, should, as simply indic- ative forms. Though he nowhere in Modern English Grammar, Essentials of English Grammar or the Philosophy of Grammar makes such a statement, I fail to see how such an interpreta- tion can be avoided. In Essentials of English Grammar he makes the statement that the indicative is used in all or- dinary statements and questions. From.simple matterbofb fact sentences it has been extended to many sentences in which formerly the subjunctive was used, so that now it is the normal mood of English verbs. He then states that the subjunctive is used in main sentences to express a (realiz- able) wish, and in dependent clauses it used to be used to express diffidence, uncertainty, hesitation, etc., but now it may be considered a literary trick to remove the style from everyday association. All that he has to say of verb phrases in this discussion is that the imaginative use of preterites, and especially could, might, ought, would, 34 should, was originally proper to the preterite subjunctive. Since these verb phrases are not classified as subjunctives, and certainly are not imperatives, by the process of elim— ination he must consider them indicatives. It would seem that the possible interpretation of all of these definitions indicates that there are two schools of thought regarding the subjunctive. There are those who would limit the term subjunctive to these forms which are actually different from the indicative, and those who are concerned primarily with the meaning inherent in the use of a form. The greatest exponent of thefirst theory is Jespersen, while from.the evidence of statements made in their writings it would appear that the second theory is held by Sonnenschein, Brown, Fowler, Kennedy, Nesfield, Onions, and Poutsma. Chapter III The Materials The list of source material is arranged chronologi- cally in order of writing or publication. A key to ref- erences is given at the right. Matthew Craddock, Letter to Captain Endicott Cl William.Bradford, Histopy of Plimoth Planta- tion WB Thomas Shepard, Selections TS Nathaniel Ward, The Simple Cobler of Aggwamm W2 Robert Winthrop, Life and Letters of John Winthrop W1 Anne Bradstreet, Poems Bl Edward Johnson, Wonder-workipg Providence J2 John Mason, Brief History of the Pequot War M3 Ferdinando Gorges,.mmerica Painted to the ‘pggg le Nathaniel Morton, Newaleand's Memoriall NM John Josselyn, Account of Two Voyages Jl Daniel Gookin, Historical Collection G2 Mary Rowlandson, Story of Captivity R1 William Hubbard, History of New England WH Increase Mather, Illustrious Providences IM George Fox, Journal GF Samuel Sewall, The Sellingyof Joseph Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christicana Sarah Kemble Knight, Journal Cotton Mather, Manuductio ad Ministerium Cadwallader Golden, Historyyof Five Nations Samuel Sewall, Riggy gparters and Laws of Massachusetts Bay Colony Sewall MC2 K1 M01 CC 81 Charters 37 I. The Subjunctive in Independent Statements A. Expressing Wish and Imprecation.1) 1. The formal subjunctive appears naturally very ex- tensively in wishes. I have about eighty-five citations from.nineteen of the authors. There are none from Cold- en, Hubbard, Knight, and Shepard, but that may be due to the character of their writings. This is by far the com- monest use of the subjunctive in independent statements. "The Lord 222 into ye equitie of my cause, and give us quiet minds" (ms 68) "Graunt thee remember what thou'st done" (B1 28) "But Blessed forever pg_the name of the Lord" (GF 26) "The Lord make all mankind sensible thereof" (G2 208) "The Lord continue and increase them" (J2 44): "God_take them.away, or ease us from them" (M02 26) "Gpd pg)merciful to us, and receive us to himself" 1M 5 "God have you all in his keeping" (NM 56) "blessed pg_the Lord for it" (R1 76) . "The Lord humble mm kindly and let his breaking my Imr age in my Son pg a means to it" (31 29) . ' "If they have carried away-~farre them.well" (W2 36) "Lord pg merciful to us" (NM—3'4")— "The Lord make us a blessing indeed" (R1 76) "And woe pg to them that so undervalue" (W2 20) "All which he bringe to pass who is able" (W2 75) "and the Lord prosper your endeavour" (Cl 119) 1) Some grammarians include sentences expressing con- cession as one of the uses of the subjunctive in independent clauses. "Concessions are expressed by the Subjunctive: Be it so. Happen what might." (Onions, Advanced English Syptax, 48.) If the Be it so expresses concession, it is really a dependent clause with the main clause implied. If it is supposed to mean Let it be so it does not express con- cession but a wish. Therefore I have considered concessive statements in dependent clauses, where I believe they belong. 38 The formal subjunctive is otherwise current in legal language: "Now 352! all men by these presents" (G2 75). The Chapters and General Laws havesuch legal expressions as "be it enacted" (Charters 60, 79), I There may be a question as to whether some of the forms are imperative, as, for example, "Lord, help the‘~ young people of Boston" (M01 104), "Lord, help us to numr ber our days" (M01 104). The comma is the only thing that distinguishes these instances from those above from.Sl, NM, R. It is interesting to note the form of the pronoun in the citation from W2 36, formed apparently on the an- alogy of "fare thee well." Perhaps the following citations should not be class- ified under wish or imprecation. They are, however, for- 1mal subjunctives in independent clauses. Some of them are what has been termed expressions of "modest desire." "Therefore it were a most desirable thing" (G2 167) I'11: were to be desired that those Gentlemen would con- sider' (J2 12) "It were much to be desired that all people would take notice" (J2 30) "and it were to be desired that the churches wouldggath- er" (J2 32) "That were to insnare both him and herself" (W2 67) "Farre Better were it for men to make an end" (W2 34) "It were the best piece of charity" (M02 102) 'Truly 'twere to have been wished (M02 66) "and it were to be wished her elder Sister would follow" (J2 8) 39 There are about five hundred and fifty citations of phrasal subjunctives in independent statements. The phras- al subjunctives formed with would + the infinitive and would + the past participle number over three hundred. In about fifty citations gpplg seems to retain its original idea of willingness or desire. "Some againe fell in utter dislike with Virginia,and would doe nothing if they went thither" (WB 55 ome would kee ye boate for fear they might be amongst Indians" ("B 106) "The French would not stay one day" (00 77) "and I would—pay them for it"(GF 5:5) "and would rather lose her life than seek help" (G2 155) "he would not App’me go aboard no more" (J1 230) "they would destrgy both.him.and his" (M3 145) "the ministers would gladly serve that man" (M02 98) "The mariners would not p33 to new sails"(IM 3) ( "Mr; Shrimpton would not take any blame to himself" 81-34 "I begged them.to let me see the Englishman,but they would not (R1 62) "The fleshe waxed wanton,& would no longer weare the yoake" (W1 99) ‘ Some grammarians would not agree with my classification of all of the citations above;for example,Sennenschein class- ifies would.meaning desire or willingness as an indicative. "The past tense ngig_is used as a past indicative to denote willingenss. It is used as a past subjunctive when it refers to present or future thac,"2) For the purposes of comparison I have nevertheless listed 12213 as subjunctive when it re- tains its original meaning of desire or willingness. eff. a. sonnenscheinyaTIe'w English Grammar,75-76. 40 The use of would which Sonnenschein classifies as a subjunctive referring to present or future time occurs in about seventy citations. "there would be no great certainty" (WB 39) "some would be desirous to know the manners" (00 53) "to relieve five men-~would be great injustice" (G2 165) "that would hardly make one year last" (WM 75) "Humanity would complain of me" (M3 147) "But neither of these would pass" (M01 28) "The Lord hereby would make us to acknowledge" (R1 5) "the sons and daughters would become like Jacob" (81 18) "my heart would ever be ready?"(wl 93) "I would now 323 on th? best peece of Souls-leather I have,dld I not fear I should break my.A11" ('2 32) In addition to expressing_desire or referring to pres- ent or future time,would is occasionally used to indicate habitual or customary action. I have over fifty such in- stances. "for an hour together a daemon would beat" (IM 111) "she would lift up her hands and eyes" (W1 88) "she would fall a-weeping" (R1 17) "They gpuld pick up old bones and scald them" (R1 68) "one of the professors would pra "(5F l3) "he would commonly be cutting ofztheir hair and the truth together" (J2 20) "he would shower down the water" (M02 78) "He let his pursuers come near and then would dart from.them" (00 9) In addition to the would + infinitive forms given above,there are fifty examples of would have + the past participle. "how willingly I would have borne my part" (WB 79) "they Eghlflehale_sen£2me up to the Parliament" (GF 39) "the willinglyWaad her is " J1 2 1) "would they have covered t w th some shlfts" ($2 50? There are not nearly so many citations of should and should have as there are of 22222 and would have. I have less than fifty examples of should + the infinitive and 'sheuld have + the past participle. "I should overcharge my weak head" (WB 89) "it should make us adore the soverainty of God" (B1 68) "those chief men should keep a correspondence" (CC 87) "Those that go for discovery should keepinstructed" (G2 159) "The planters are or should be restless pains takers" (J1 549) "good men should be inciteg to endeavour" (IM 94) "Christians should carry_it to all the world" (81 19) "The bill should have been paig" (G2 215) The expression "it should seem" occurs a number of times. Curme says:"We often use the regular form of the principal proposition of a theoretical conditional sentence as a form.to express an opinion modestly: It 22212 (some- 5) times,in accordance with older usage,should )seem so." "We have reckoned,it should seeme,without our host"(WB 70) "For shiping,it should seem,is set" (WB 60) Citations with.mig2t + the infinitive and might have + the past participle number about fifty. "it might be sundry of ye things feared " (WB 35) "Out of great numbers I might pick my choice" (Bl 110) "they mig2t buy the spirit with the letter" (GF 78) "possi y men and women.might_pass over it" (G2 145) "every year's experience might add something" (WH 14) "it mig2t with equal-some solemnity be shown" (M01 36) "Many instances hereof might be *roduced" (NM 9) "Now mi t we hear mothers and children crying" (R1 5) ml§% "one t have Been suddenly as it were surprised" (M02 83) "the history'might have been.mentioned" (IM 41) 22) "neither mig2t I bow or scrap? with my leg to anyone" (GF —3) George 0. Curme,3y2tax,367. 42 In his American English Grammgg Fries states that in the letters examined in his investigation made at the request of the National Council of Teachers of English "Comparatively few instances of mig2t appeared in the Standard English letters (eleven in all),but only one in- stance in the Vulgar English materials. Should seems to be used very infrequently in the Vulgar English.materials -- much less frequently than in the Standard English letters and would proportionately more frequently. In the Vulgar English letters should appears in only 4.5 per cent of the instances as against 95; per-cent_of would.In the Standard English.materials should is used in 26.6 per cent as against 73.4 per cent of would." 4) This proportion is strikingly in agreement with the proportions of would,should,and.might in my citations. Phrasal subjunctive forms with could number about one hundred and fifty. "but ye people were rune away & could not be seen"(WB 100) "Alas,thy ships and cars could do no good" (B1 117) "a more proper Opportunity cofild - be" (00 157) "I could speak much of these things" (GF 20) "This people were a potent nation and could raise about 3000 men" (G2 148) "More rarities of this nature I could.make known" (J1 36) "they could not endure that Yoke" (M3 148) "I could wish you would make it a Rule" (IM 22) :I could tell the Lord as Hezekiah did" (R1 45) ‘ 4) Charles Carpenter Fries,American English Grammar,181, _There is a question as to the mood of the larger part of my could citations. "yet being a strong man,he could not be stayed" (G1 60) "sometimes the company could scarce tell"l(WH 82) "neither Indian nor English could he meet" (J1 229) "seeking to quench it,but cofild not" (32 45) "none of those wretched Fortune-tellers could forsee" (M01 99) "but the people ran away and could not be seen" (NM 29) "I could hardly bear to think of the weary steps" (R1 32) "she knew Jesus‘CHFlst and could speak to him" (TS 220) "we could not prevail with him by any means" (M3 145) I have estimated that about four-fifths of the 22222 citations express ability in the past. Perhaps the explana- tion is that at this period 22212 had not developed its pres- ent modal tinge of expressing possibility. Curme says: "Mig2t,1ike shouldzhas lost its indicative function. Mg: and.22g22,like 222;; and should,are both felt as subjunc- tives,both referring to the present or future,differing from each other only in the degree of probability which they ex- press. £22_is developing in the direction of 22y." 5) I do not wish to hmply that there is any marked connection between the findings of this investigation and those of Fries; but of the examples of 22222 in the Standard English letters of his investigation half are subjunctive,a proportion quite diff- erent from.the one-fifth I have noted. In his discussion of the use of could Fries presents the followinginterpretation: 5) George 0. Gurme, Syptax,410. can,could,OE meaning as full word,knowledge;know how Later developments of meaning,general ability,possibility, 6) permissiongsanction.‘ It would seem.possib1e to deduce from.this table and from the preponderance of citations in which could expresses ability that in the seventeenth cenr tury the principal use of could was the second above,gen- eral ability.The modern increase in the use of the subjunc- tive is referred to by Curme: "The common people instead of neglecting the subjunctive,as is so often claimed,are crea- ting new and clearer subjunctive forms in accordance with their-natural tendency toward concrete expression." 7) B. Expressing Quasi-imperatives with let. Some grammarians classify sentences with let under the imperative; others under a so-called optative. I have about one hundred and fifty citations with let. "let it be remembered" (M01 31) "ret all people know"r (J2 57) "not it please your Majesty" (62 142) "Is? the reader make a pause" (NM 22) "let his holy name be raised" (NM 80) "Iet not God.impute sin 91) "lett not thy grace faile me" (v1 95) ' "Set the redeemed of the Lord as: so" (R1 71) Only four can be classed as true imperatives. "But Captain Stoddard was reached and said,'Let the youth speak" (GF 14) """ 6) Charles Carpenter Fries,American English Grammar,175. 7) George 0. Curme,Sy§tax,4l4. "Lampett said ,flgg'him.§peaki" (GF 67) "let me alone,let me o,sath that Angell" (B1 72) "I_Eray let me-drive half a dozen plaine honest Country—fiobnails"_(w2.82) Tabulated on the basis of the form of the pronoun used,we find: leg with 113,23 times;l_e_t with 133,231 times; leg with 331333 or 311313.17 times; leg with h_i_m,10 times; l:£.'1th.£fiy9 times; let with.indefinites (all,any per- son.no man.every'man,none,such))19 times. It will be noted that the pronoun after lat is in the accusative case. In this connection Sonnenschein says: "The verb let in the sense of gllgg or‘ggugg takes mu accusative and an'object- infinitive. But a sentence containing the imperative of let with an accusative and an infinitive is often equivalent in meaning to a sentence containing a subjunctive of desire with its subject in the nominative case;for example,let us sing a) equals sing we." Of the one hundred and fifty citations of let,sixteen are in the negative. "let me not be counted a Zoitus for saying" (M01 39) "Is? us not be wanting" (Cl 119) "IE? them.not make any—excuse" (CC 50) "let them.not wonder" (J2 10) "0 let it not be said of you" (M02 100) "let not the Circaean Cup intoxicate you" (M01 42) "Let not God impute Sin" (SI §I) An instance of the same sentnnce occurring in the writ- ings of different authors is the following: 8) E. A. Sonnenschein,New English Grammar,85. 46 "let your wisdom.and godliness appear" (NM 18) "122 your wisdmme and godlines appeare" (WB 81) C. Expressing conclusion with had (would have) In this section there are about fifty citations,with all the authors represented except Craddock,Josselyn,Ggr- ges,Mason,and Winthrop. "and if he had not nominated, he pag:not been free" WB 51 "otherwise all had been dashed and undone" (WB 74) "els I think we had been hoff’way at Virginia" (WB 86) "is it likely they had had this, if ye first viage had not been made" (WB 100) , ' '-—- "The Indians had destro ed them, if Corlear had not con- trived their escape" (CC 16) ~ "the French.pgg not gained so great Advantage, if they had not carefully observed" (CC 115) "their rebellion against the English had been long since cured or pgevented" (GI 22) "If they)had not mit the vessel, they Egg all perished" IM 13 "The providence of God was seen--which otherwise 22g not been" (NH 55) "Had Captain Standish so done, he pad been carried to a wrong port, from which he Egg certainly made attad re- turn" (NH 95) "Had they been carried unto Hudson's River in all prob- ability this feeble number had been massacred" (M02 51) In regard to the use of had meaning would have, Onions states: "The uses of the Subjunctive are as follows: 3. In the principal clause of conditional sentences implying a negative (55). Should, Quld, could, m, M (204) and in poetry 1352 (would be), p59 (would have) are now the only verbs which occur. I would not tell, if I knew. 9) If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died." 9) C.T. Onions, An Advanced English Syntax, 117. 47 As I understand this definition, I should say that the im- plication is that pag2meaning‘gguld have is used chiefly in the principal clause of conditional sentences implying a negative. This does not seem to be borne out by the ex— amples I have collected; of the thirty-three citations there was the following distribution in if-clauses and in main clauses: six were negative in both main and if-clause, thirteen were positive in both, fourteen were negative in if—clause, positive in main clause. This gives a total of twenty-seven positive in the main clause, out of thirty- three examples, which does not seem to be in line with Onions’ statement. A number of sentences are noteworthy in that they con- tain both.hag and would havg: "If he that once muzzled the lions had not miraculously restrained them, these p59 all been devoured! and so He kept their enemies from such attempts, as would otherwise have soon annihilated this poor handful of men" (M02 54) "Resolving to keep such a mean in the division of their lands as should not hinder the growth of the planta- tion-~which example and practice it had been well for New England it had been longer followed; for then, probably, though they had had fewer plantations, those which they had would have more easily been defended against assaults" (WK 199) "but the chair danced up and down, and had like to have cast both man and boy into the fire; and the child was afterwards flung about in such a manner, as that they feared that his brains gguldlhave been beaten out" (IM 106) "Now we were in a more wretched condition than if we had been swallowed up by the sea, for then we had been de- liverd out of the extremities we were now in for want of meat and drink; and thus had we wherewithal to subsist as much as would keep us from starving" (IM 47) "for had they gone to HudsonTE River, it had proved dangerous-~whereby they gould have been in great per- 11" (WH 22) "they 22$ assuredly saved themselves much labor, which I dare presume they would have spenp worthily" (J2 2) II. The Subjunctive in Dependent Statements A. In Noun Clauses 1. After verbs of saying, thinking, per- ceiving, knowing, showing. The formal subjunctive appears frequently in noun clauses after verbs of saying, Epinking, perceiving, know- lpg, showing. There are the following formal subjunctives in this section of the classification. "I pray God direct us, and give us that spirit" (WB 52) "And David's men said see, we p3 afraid here" (WB 49) "I beseech you, brethren, that the house of God which you are pg not shaken" (WB 81) "ye pilott said, ye Lord pg mercifull to them" (WB 105) "That admitt this p33 the true God and that 233 his word" (B1 8) j "to see that major part of watch.pp_sufficient able men" (Charters 85) "He sometimes wished that I were a little while with Judge" (GF 69) "for God knows they pg the cause of much blindness" (M02 26) "my Desire is that my Brother have given him" (31 88) "it were well for a King if hee'had no will at all, but -were all reason" (W2 66) "I know the governor of Canada dare not enter ' (CC 85) "to see that none meddle" (J2 35) "the capital pg equally divided" (NH 49) "that he be accounted" (WH 4 "that every person be rated" (WH 48) Phrasal subjunctives in this section number about four hundred. The following table will give an idea of the dis- tribution of the auxiliary forms. could pgplg should mlgpp total say 15 52 14 4 62 think 4 16 18 12 49 perceive l l -- -- 2 know ‘ -- 5 -- 2 7 show 1 -- 5 l 5 answer 2 5 -- l 8 assure -- 5 l 5 7 believe 5 5 l -- 7 conceive l 5 2 5 11 find 4 4 -- -- 8 see 5 7 5 -4 15 tell 15 29 24 4 72 hope -- 14 4 5 25 miscellaneous lg, 59_ pg .11 lgz 64 160 110 48 585 The miscellaneous verbs are accuse, acknowledge, acquaint, add, allow, apologize, certify, conclude, consider, confess, consent, convince, cry, declare, deny, doubt, endure, ex- pect, forsee, imagine, imply, inform, judge, mean, object, observe, offer, own, predict, pretend, preswme, prevail, prophecy, remember, reply, report, scruple, signify, so- licit, speak, suggest, suppose, suspect, threaten, under- stand, warn. "Colonel Slaughter said he could admit of no proposals" (cc 155) "He said he would oe" (WB 46) "Then he said I should not s eak contradicting" (GF 72) "The French were conceited before that they thought they could not escape" (CC 18) "I had thought they would as soon have gone to Rome" (WB 66) "Methinks I might_perswade myself" (M02 56) "He seem' ittle to heed it and said I might be th r " ($1 82)E0} ' e e "I never had thought that this should have come to the Press" (M5 128) "I perceived there would be too much for one time" (IM 54) "when he perceived he could not bring about his end" (vs 60) "H? knew)it would trouble them.and hinder ye bussines" WB 74 "not knowing what might follow" (R1 56) "And the Lord showed me that suchr-should come" (GF 17) "showing how they could not consent"w(Sl 44) "the Lord showed me that I migpt not 333 and drink" GF 2 "It was answered him, they could not hinder it" (NM 68) "But he gave her this answer that he would cleave to God" (92 199) "He assured them that he would act with such vigour" CC 85 "Beleeving not a Limbertong'd sister among them.could outdo Madam Hostes" (K1 5) "I conceived it could not be esteemed a monopoly" (Cl 67) "I(found)that I could give its extremms a polarity" IM 76 "They found it would not pg? (we 58) "Seein no persuasions of her good spouses could pre- vail (R1 2) "seeing less provisions of clothing would serve" (WB 56) "when she see no perswasions would cause me to stay" Kl 66 "he told them the English kept the plague under ground and could send it amongst them when they pleased" (wn 71) "I told the President I could do nothing" (SI 58) "I told her no, I would nottpp accessory" (K1 5) "and told him I should speak according to the Scriptures" GF 72 "We are told--that they might set their hope in God" (M02 96) *— "and they allowed it might be an Injury" (00 XXI) 10) There are two interesting substitutions for saz: "they now gave forth that we would eat out one another" (GF 94) "for when we had gone a little way, on a sudden my mistress ives out, she would go no further, but turns back again" (R1 36) ‘ "was I sent forth to declare that all might come to Christ" (GF 72) "We replyed, that we thought it was too early for them to fight, but they might take their opportunity" (M5 150) "And because they foresaw that this wilderness might be looked upon as a place of liberty, and therefore might in time be troubled"(NM 99) "Yonnondio acquainted us some time ago that he would speak" (CC 61) "he threatened that he would raise the Devil" (GF 58) "did often solicit that one-~wouId endeavour to join" G2 18 "for they presumed they should not be troubled" (WB 58) "My opinion is that the Brethren should send Messengers" CC 87 "came running into our house crying out they should all ‘gzg" (J1 500) "Sathan suggests to me, that I should sinne" (W2 100) "supposing the English might be a bar in their way" (NH 70) "and yet confessed to h s ends, that he could never gap the time" (M02 55) "they imagined that the sea-calf could not be struck" IM 93 "I(judged I could in justice doe no less than endeavour" $1 97 "I thought I could as well have died as went back" (R1 57) There are two identical expressions used by Rowland- son and Fox which do not exactly come under this classifi- I cation. They are perhaps used after said or romised, imr plied: "Then he bid me come again, and he would tell me many things" (GF 5) "there came an Indian and bid me come to his wigwam.and he would give me some pork and ground nuts" (R1 59) 2. After verbs and other expressions of rejoicigg, grieving, wonderigg, complainigg. In noun clauses after verbs of rejoicing, grievigg, ‘ wonderigg, complainipg there is but one formal subjunctive: "Only 'tis pity, that instead of one poor feeble Ameri- can there pp not more than thirty men" (M02 55) I have about thirty phrasal subjunctive citations in noun clauses following verbs and expressions of rejoicing, etc. The distribution of auxiliaries after verbs of £37 joicing, etc., is as follows: three could, three would, twenty-one should, no might. "I was grieved that any who made professions of religion should do so" (GF 2) "Mr. White being grieved that so good a work should be suffered to fall to the ground" (WH 108) "and I am ashamed and grieved that you should be thus abused" (GF 75) "sory we)are that ther should be occasion of writing" WB 75 "bewaylinge that she could not then be assured" (W2 87) "and therefore pittie these ships should come back empty" CC 118 "it is pity but that they should be observed" (IM 96) "'Tis pity there should be more caution used" (SI 17) "but it is pitty it should be lost" (W2 26) "it is pity'men of gifts should live upon men's gifts" W2 41 '—— "A thousand pitties it is such gallant Spirits should spend their lives" (W2 72) "and they were much troubled that I should be in prison" GF 36 "But my relations were much troubled that I would not g2 with them to hear the priest" (GF 6) "So takeing leave of my company, tho' with no little Re- luctance that I could not proceed with them.on.my Jorny" Kl 25 "Unkas is)not well pleased, that the English should pass" G2 191 "knowing how well pleasing it will be to the Lord, that they should have encouragement" (M02 71) "and hence was gIdd she could read my notes" (TS 220) "Nor is itt less to be wondered att, that any of the posterity of Adam should ly hid so long" (NH 26) "not without marveling that your selfe should trouble us" (WB 62) "Yet it seems strange we should be put to hhm" (WB 59) "It was something strange to the people that I would not g3" (GF 51) Perhaps the verbs boast and object and the adjectives just and loath belong here as much as under any of the other categories of noun clauses. "that sometimes boasted of their strength--and what they wopld do and bring to pass" (NM 59) "When my heart objected, can you be content that Christ should lose his Honor, and his Ordinance be blemished?" T 21 "and just it is that such as undersell them should not reinherit them in haste" (W2 49) "as being loath his kingdom should gpe downs, the trueth revaile, and ye churches of God reverts to their an- cient puritie, and recover their primitive order" (WB 5) 5. After impersonal expressions it is right, it is wrong, it is necessary, etc. In noun clauses after impersonal expressions there are two formal subjunctives: "is it not enough that great persons be lulled asleep" (MC2 31) "Whereas it is thought fit that a Patent of Incorporation be granted" (01 64) _ ‘ I have about twenty-five phrasal subjunctive citations. The distribution of auxiliaries after impersonal expressions is as follows:' three could, no would, sixteen should, four migh . "itis possible it might be executed not on him that most deserved, but on him.that could best be spared" (WH 77) "For it is not possible that any good things should '1 come. (W1 80) . "Indeed Europeans will hardly think it possible that Men could make such a march" (00 159) "it is not impossible but a considerable number of them 54 might withdraw themselves; and might_pass farther" (G24146) "declaring that he thought it impossible for one not familiarly acquainted with the Dutch should so imi- tats" (IM 97) ‘___ "and unto whom.it is reasonable we should give" (M02 57) "it seem? unreasonable that any people should pray" J2 11 "it's rational, that it should operate (J1 246) "I 8“ how fit it was that the will of Christ should be done" (T8 17) "That vast country-~it was thought meet should be divid- _o_g" (ws 35) "As it was necessary that there should be a Moses" (J2 54) "It was now evident thatthe Indians could no longer be amused with words, and that-~the French would carry1r (CC 157) "It appears that great care should be had" (IM 68) "it seemed they could not find ye bay" (WB 47) 4. After the verb to fear and equivalent expres- sions. After the verb to fear and equivalent expressions there are no formal subjunctives. The phrasal subjunctives num- ber about twenty-five. The distribution of auxiliaries after the verb to fear, etc., is as follows: one pgplg, seventeen ggplg, three should, three plgp_. "for his)wife expressed her fears that God would bring" NM 79 "which put them in some fear that ye shipe could not be able" (WB 91) -—' "Bid me not feare--we should be over" (El 12) "made them fear that country would be too hot" (M02 48) "for fear it would prove but Old Darknesse" (J2 2) "In somuch that for fear it should prevails" (WB 27) "it was feared they mi ht all‘have perished" "WH 58) "looking that every Hour would be the last" (R1 15) "which he feared they would find to their cost" (WB 74) "feared much that this priest would do me--mischief" (GF 47 ' 55 "but some feared he would not goo" ($1 95) "They were afraid that the Mohawks might have" (00 115) "The elders were afraid--the wantonness--would not bear" WH 66 "for they apprehended that she would retain enough" NM 20 "and fearing lest they might discover us" (M5 156) "fearing they would lose all their corn" (WH 74) "The tailor came-fearing I would complain of him" (GF 55) 5. After verbs and expressions implying an act of the will. In noun clauses after verbs and expressions implying an act of the will there are four formal subjunctiveszu "it is ordered that whosoever the court shall appoint do take care that all such Indians be delivered" (00 28T— "we renew the Request that six Indians be delivered" (G2 177) "and ordered that Mr. Mather be acquainted" (31 51) "Our Ax is always in our hands, but take care that you ‘pg timely ready" (CC 147) Of the phrasal forms there are about one hundred. The distribution of auxiliaries is as follows: five could, forty-five would, twenty-two should, twenty-three might. "King James ordered-—that he should persuagg" (CC 92) "it was ordered that the Patent should be looked into" (G1 68) . "Yes, God forbid but we should have hope" (GF 55) "I wish the town could be made too hot for these" (M02 99) "and wish'd this success mitht not hinder her" (81 52) "I wish no man else would W2 65) "I most humbly beseech you--that you would please to arme your mind" (W2 54) "And so praing that I might receive" (01 68) "and prayed me that I would not be troubled" (R1 18) "my prayers-~that he would so gpide and gpard you" (NM 19) "I(most earnestly implore-~that you would not deferre" W2 63 ' "It was hard to persuade myself that ever I should be 56 satisfied with bread again" (R1 78) "and begged of God that he would find" (IM 44) "God's promise that he would--drive them.out" (WH 60) "Mr. Hale pleaded he migpt not lgy his hand" (81 54) "it was resolved that every one should plant corn" WH 79 "my resolution being such I might make some use" (G1 59) "It was agreed that the Mohawks shouldgjgin" (CC 158) "it was agreed that part of the church should go before" NM 15 "My Design was that the Genius of the Indians might ap- pear " (cc LIII) "he importuned.me that I would put forth power" (02 194) "I(was willing that the beauties might become visible" M01 41 "the justices gave leave that.‘ should have liberty" GF 54 "The Pequots were then bound by Covenant, that none should inhabit their Native Country" (M5 148) "to sue to his majestic that he would be leased" (WB 57) "with an oath that they would kiII me" (GF 96) "he advised them that they should.not hearken" (00 154) "I gave my word I would be his intercessor" (G1 79) "desired that all that coast might be made free" (WH 85) "she desired that the bell might ringg_for hir" (W1 82) "it was his great desire that he would incline" (G2 171) "He had rather the earth should swallow him up" (W2 8) "threatenings were given that they would take (GF 82) 6. In dependent questions and exclamations. In dependent questions and exclamations the formal subjunctive was fairly common. I have twenty-one citations (by far the largest number in any of the noun clauses cited). They are all introduced by whether (whither): "it matters not whether the load pg_more or less" (B1 58) "whether the beast were im ounded or not" (Charters 65) "whether it pp_their'dfity Charters 84) "we know)not whether it be_practised by the Christians" CC 57 "whether it be for thyself or such as live" (01 92) "I asked him7;hether he were willing to have" (G2 194) "there is a Bug, but whether it pg_a Native" (J1 289) 57 "he knows not whether there pg not all done" (M02 27) "whither since he have or no I know not" (IM 84) "Whether this experiment were lawful" (IM 99) "Whether his faith were 0? the Operation" (81 14) "whether the foundation be firmly laid" (Sewall 17) "I question much whether—they were not better speaks plainer English" (W2 57) ' "it matters not a farthing whether he pg a Presbyterian" W2 45 "whether it were so, I cannot tell" (R1 59) "Whether they ii ht be there suffered" (M02 80) "question whether it E: a-woman's work" (Bl 85) "whether this be because Dog's Flesh is most agreeable to Indian PaIEtes, or whether it pg as angemblem" CC 25 "whether these things be done" (00 58) "whether this )3: true ——"—or no (J1 240) "look whether the resounding be on the east" (J1 249) "whether it be of a third sort" (J1 291) "Whether pertdns smitten be dead" (IM 68) There are about ninety phrasal subjunctive forms in dependent questions. The distribution of auxiliaries is as follows: fourteen could, thirty should, eleven.might. thirty-one would. "we cannot conceive why any should car servants" (WB 61) "I asked them what I should do there" (GF 99) "I wondered why these—things should come to me" (GF 5) "I was at a stand whether I should or no" (GF 40) "asked if I would not 0 into the church" (GF 85) "to see what they woul do with.me" (GF 72) "were contriving how they might put me to death" (GF 88) "saw no cause wherefore we should not enjoz" (G1 65) "I asked hum whether he would take upon him. (G2 194) "considering how necessary government would be" (WH 55) "gravely demanded what I would ive him" (El 5) 'enquired of Onkos, what He thought the Indians would g3“ (M5 157) _" "I know not why the Spaniard should go unrivalled" (M02 45) "I h'sked him how he could sleep so" (R1 51) , "Whether they migpt be there suffered freely" (M02 80) "they then began o t ink what should become of them" . NM 50 "they began to think how they might raigg corn" (NM 60) "He knew no whether he should stand or fall'I (R1 65) "asked me what I would_give him to tell me" (R1 65) "I asked him.why then he could not tell it" (81 8) "And I began to think how should it §p_otherwise" (TS 219) "A question arose, whether the skin should be cut"(IM 82) ‘"Samuel Russel wondered how I could live" (IM 56) "she asked who should watch with hir" (W1 87) "to conceive how those women ghould have grace" (W2 26) There is an interesting inconsistency in the following: 17 "Whether he hath failed of some helps from.others which he expected, and so be not well able to goe through with things, or whetfidr he hath feared lest you should-- or whether he have thought by withoulding----we know not" (WB 59-60)~ There are a number of noun clauses which do not clear- fall in any of the preceding categories. "the Government is divided into four Counties, which to shew, they would their posterity should mind whence they came" (32 55-4) "first, that the houses improved should remglp" (WE 50) "Lastly, that so doing their sovereigntord King James would esteem.him as his friend and ally" (NM 40) "and that for these reasons following--that their pos- terity would in few generations become Dutch" (NM 12) "which.made him.aensible that a tree could keep off" WH 56 "wicked s1anders--that I would give a fellow'money" GF 58 "I made a new Covenant that I would reforme" (W1 65) "They had laid their plot that the trOOpers should take every one's name and then command them" (GF 102) "a dark jealousy that I might be somebody" (GF 61) "the end of my coming--was that they might come" (GF 65-4) "assurance that in time I ghould want no undertakers" G1 57 "But that which made them.all stand amazed in the end was that he should go again to justify" (NM 77) "I took it very 111 that you should ever offer" (00 85) "a vision of me that a man in breeches should come" (GF 70) "impression was left that some place might be found" (WH 41) "Dispute was in this, that Coll Dungan gguld force" (00 91) 59 B. In Adjective Clauses The subjunctive appears in adjective clauses in about two hundred and fifty citations. It is not surprising that there are but few formal subjunctives. "and therefore, whatever come of it" (IM 22) "whatever were the honey in the mouth" (WH 100) "with eggs to be in it, whatever it be" ('2 26) "whosoever he pg_shall commit" (Chartdrs 60) "whosoever pg pardoned" (W2 70) "in what pangs soever it pg" (WB 15) "by what other name it pp or shall be called" (G1 75) The greatest number of the phrasal subjunctive cita- tions are introduced by that, eighty-three in number. Again the largest number contain would or would have. "There was one that would fall into a syncope" (IM 72) "he had a brother that would not eat horse" (R1 57) "he that would keep a pure heart" (B1 66) "he that would not drink should a all" (GF 2) "all those that would wilIingly serve the Lord" (NM 54) "we that should he partners of humilitie" (IE 70) "any of tht praying Indians that should come" (00 118) "the first person that should 0 en the door" (J2 50) "the ill consequences that might happen" (00 24) "we have with the best speed that we could" (we 41) "all the success that could be expected" (00 117) "Happy were they that tduld bring in their heads" (M5 148) The handbooks point out that ppg refers to persons and ppgp to things. However, of the eighty-three citations introduced by pplp, forty or nearly half refer to persons, whereas I have only thirty citations of relative clauses introduced by 323. "Indian.enemies, who they were afraid might be laying" (CC 125) "who could not but know that our nation" (G1 58) "who sometimes would ruffle against religion" (G2 191) "who soon might'tOssess themselves" (WH 45) "who could hardly continue so long sober" (J2 51) "it is pity they who have given so many general pardons should want one now" (W2 68) I have ninety adjective clauses introduced by which, the larger number employing the phrasal would form. "a great iron scrue, which would raise ye beame" (WB 92) "some mutton wch shee would broilll (Kl 51) "those things which they suppose would be amulets" (IM 95) "those which should escape or overcome" (WB 55) "license, for—Which they ghould pay a sum" (NM 65) "which should not pass without our acknowledgements" R1 7 "welcomes wch we could not avoid" (Kl 15) "English which yet they could well understand" (NM 59) "WOnders which I might recount" (B1 07 "my design, which I earnestly desired might have been" G2 25 "i? which they mightppromise themselves a freedom" NH 44 . There are about fifteen relative clauses introduced by wmt e "he considered of what advantage it might be of" (00 104) "they bore what saile they could to gett in (WB 105) "giving them what encouragement they could" (GF 88) "the Latin Tongue is what you should labour" (M01 28) "to procure what provisions he codId" (WH 75) "who had)mortgaged what Estate hee could not sell" Kl 49 "procured what corn they could" (NM 55) It is difficult at times to be certain of the prOper classification of clauses introduced by Eggp. I have about thirty citations of clauses introduced by 1233 which are neither adjective clauses nor-dependent questions. The only classification I have been able to put them.under is suggested by Onions when he says "A dependent question may be defined as a question clause in a complex sentence, or a noun clause introduced by an interrogative word."11) It is under this last part of his statement that it seems logical to classify citations like the following: "endeavoured to pbrform what they could" (CC 7) "they fawningly said what mi t I have been" (GF 101) "so I have done what I could G1 48) "did what they could for their defence" (G2 167) "and what they could procure by fishin " (WH 69) "gather what we should wish to write" M02 105) "bid me speak what I thought he would ive" (R1 56) "thanked God for what we might egpect" (Si 59) "Break not with steely blows, what oyle should melt" W2 69 In addition to the preceding citations, there are a few introduced by such as, whereby, whereof, 3;. "the names of such as pg nominated" (Charters 82) "such as pg overtaken with drink" (Ibid., 85) "and such as would adventure with him" (WH l5) "powers granted whereby they might form" (Ibid., 61) "to secure a patent as might Ed able to maintain a ~minister" (J2 40) There are over thirty citations of adjective clauses not introduced by any word. (1’ "he wanted not for the best means the country could 53: ford" (G1 175) "the best encouragement they could" (WH 95) "they make all the sail they could" (J2 55) "the first opportunity I could at" (R1 16) "to attain those ends I shodid attain" (TS 218) There is but one citation in which the omitted relative is in the nominative case. 11) C. F. Onions, An Advanced English Syntax, 76 62 "not only to prevent the disturbance might follow-- and who--might bring in again" (J2 41) C. In Adverb Clauses l. Expressing Time There are about thirty formal subjunctives expressing time. "to see the Devil when they pg alone" (TS 252) "be diligent or els when death come God send" (W2 86) "till satisfaction be made" (Charters 48) "Iron till it 23 thoroughly heat" (B1 54) "till it be found that the dead are there" (WH 104) "till it be of a deep colour" (J2 556) "till shoals of Cod-fish be seen swimming" (M02 44) "till God please I have better acquaintance" (81 119) "till your rest be thoroughly established" (W2 77) "els they were ail cast away (WH 56) "until he have served out the time" (Charters 42) "until theybe‘hrought" (Ibid., 82) "Until this point be gained" (M02 7) "until the Glorious God give you a new heart" (Ibid. 15) "until they be reduced to more civility" (W3 29 "until the circumstances be recorded" (31 19) "untill he take us and wipe away ali tears" (TS 211) "until it be brought unto the fire" (TS 297) "before it be settled" (WB 81) "before they p33 fit soile" (B1 65) "before the case be committed to the jury" (Charters 46) "before his case be entered"_(Ibid. 49) "before the party—be delivered from.prison" (Ibid. 49) "before it were too late"(Wh—78) "before the fruit trees bee blossomed out" (WH 21) "before the seven years he ex ired" (Ibid. 48) "before it be thorow ripeII (32 260) "before it 113 well settled" ‘(NM 18) The phrasal subjunctives number about eighty. The following table indicates the distribution of introductory words and of auxiliaries in this section. 63 . when while till until before‘ ere total "73' ‘ " formal -- ‘TZ" 8 ""T6" ‘33’ 34 would 11 l 1 -- -- -- 13 We 10 -- e 4 1 -- 21 ESEIE?’ ls -- 2 5 19 2 46 EEEEE. .1 .1 :1 '- 2:. -- 2 42 2 25 I7 so ‘2 ‘TTE "when Truth would enter in with grace and peace" (W2 72) "when as ye 61d serpente could not revail" (Bl 13) "till the Ambassador should meet him" (CC 92) "until he could make provision to remove them" (NM 76) "while others would not hear of going" (M02 26) "before they could come at It" (CC 161) "before they could descend" (G1 67) "ere they could come to speech" (NM 43) "e'er his wife could be released" (IM 78) 2. Expressing Place There are no formal subjunctives in this section. 0f phrasal forms there are about twenty. The introductory word is where, and the distribution of auxiliaries is as follows: two would, two should, three could, twelve might. "where they would all attend in readiness" (WB 16) "where and when you should" (W2 55) "where they could find groundnuts" (NM 58) "where he might’be kept securely" (CC 138) "where any person might have opportunity" (G2 212) 3. Expressing Reason There are no formal subjunctives in this section. There are about fifty phrasal forms, with because, since, .15, for that, and for the introductory words. Distribution of auxiliaries and introductory words follows; introductory words are chiefly because and for. 64 because since as for that for total would "‘T7"' "‘=:‘ ‘2: ““==“" "T5 19 should 5 -- -- 1 4 10 could 4 -- 2 l 8 17 might 2 ‘_l _l ;;, _g 6 I5 1 s 8 26 '5 "because this trouble would increase" (WB 51) "because there should any difference be conceived" (WB 75) "since we might see it was not God's will";(Wl 83) "for that they must now conclude they should see" (NH 96) "as they could not do anything" (GF 997' "for miecfiizf'would‘come of it" (IM 35) "for it might Eofiexasperate the Indians" (NM 57) 4. Expressing Purpose There are nine formal subjunctives expressing purpose. "but yt be not tedious" (WB 21) I'to keep-order that none do his fellow wrong" (J2 55) "least I be thought to neglect you" (WB 46) "lest he meet with Jehu's rewards" (Bl e4) "lest you be found fighters against God" (GF 90) "lest there pg any cleft or chink" (Jl 255) I"lest he take advantage--and leave" (NM 16) "lest you be affected with them" (Ibid. 17) "lest they pg left of God to run such a course" (Ibid. 105) The phrasal subjunctives number about one hundred and twenty. The introductory words are pth (used in ninety- four citations) and 1323 (used in twenty-six citations). The distribution of the auxiliaries is as follows: one 12319, thirty-six should, eighty-three pigh_. "we.desire to bow our knees-~that the Lord would be pleased" (W2 24) '"that we should make ourselves the Tools" (CC 76) "speak to the Justices, that they should not oppress" (or 16) "that this might be a warninge" (W1 71) "that they might be the better scanned" (J2 8) I! II that we might finish in order to my return (K1 67) 65 "that we mi t not think strange" (81 15) "that I m.gh comb his head and look over him, for was almost overcome with lice" (R1 44) "that it might no longer hg a roost" (NM 95) "that the rest might eat him and have their lives pre- served" (IM 12) "that they might be turned and believe in it" (GF 65) ”"that what they did should be the boundary" (M02 26) "that we should begin a breach with them" (G2 165) 5. Expressing Result There is one formal subjunctive expressing result. "we must order Matters so that the French be kept in continual Fear and Alarm" (CC 147) The phrasal subjunctive citations occur in about one hundred citations. The introductory words are that (used in forty-one citations), such that (four), so as that (ten), 80 that (forty-seven). Distribution of auxiliaries is as follows; fifteen would, seventy-one could, two should, twelve might. "in such a condition that one might have killed" (GF 55) "so as they should neither ha able to fight nor flie" WB 98) ‘ ' "that so mean a Prince should scape scot free" (J2 47) "s? dispirited that his—Indians could not persuade" CC 82) "so heavy that I could scarce speak" (R1 49) "so feebled with hunger that he could not get his feet out of the mud" (NH 77) 6. Expressing Condition There are nearly two hundred formal subjunctives in conditional clauses. The introductory words are 1;, unless, provided that, except. "if it be required of us" (WB 44) "if your allies—be your slaves" (CC 69) "if any observatiEn be made" (WH 27) "if ever it hp their hard fortune" (K1 44) "if it were possible" (B1 10) "if it were true starlight" (GF 100) "if he were not killed outright" (J1 228) "if I were going for England (81 64) "if he 92:, things will go well" (WB 47) "if any difference ha en" (CC 46) "if the defendant do not then appear" (Charters 50) "if the vision fail"'(Gl 208) "if the sun or moon look pale" (J1 249) "if the patient live" (32 28) "if anything occur" (M02 15) "if there come to the number of fifty" (NM 42) "'if he smite h_ih with an instrument" (S1 52) "if God brings me" (W1 70) . ,"if once within seven years peace rove" (W? 7) "unless it hg_in case of anatomy"( ar era 81) "unless it hp for the desire" (GE 42) "unless it hg polygamy" (NH 28) "unless I were inhuman" (NM 58) “unless he restrain it" (Jl 272) "unless any be ut out" (J2 11) "provided that Efie defect be proved" (Charters 65) "provided that satistaction be iven" (CC 66) "except some impediments do cause WH 49) "except it be magistrates" (J1 558) "except he write bare matters" (M02 29) "except my Husband come for me" (R1 64) "except it were upon unavoidable occasion" (J2 55) There are about seventy phrasal subjunctive citations. The distribution of auxiliaries in if-clauses is shown thus: If—clause Main clause would would 16 would should 2 would ii ght 4 should should 4 should would 19 should could 1 should might 2 might would 5 If-clause Main clause could would —"‘cIcoul Md 1 could might I The predominant pattern is seen to be the sentence which has should in the if-clause and would in the main clause, or would in both. "I have thought if the Lord would but lift up the light, it would bee but light to me" (Bl 8)” "if he would spare their lives we should have as many" (M5 150) "if they would appoint a meeting, I mi t meet" (GF 64) "if the Indians should come, I shoul c oose (R1 9) "if they should there live, and doe well, the jealous Spaniard would never suffer them —long" (WB 57) "if I should not speak loud, ye could not hear me" (W2 85) "if any should happen, theym Mht Eh ink" (CC 9) "if a better way of'living co dwbe‘had, it would draw many" (IE 50) "if Justice could be overthrown-~it should not grieve me to lose" (GE 66) "if we could sayr-what joy might be occasioned" (M02 89) "if they might but en 0 their lives,'tEey would become the English Vassals M5 148) "unless he should declare himself so to be" (J2 2) "in case they should do any harm" (CC 27) "provided he might drink a little of the sweet" (WH 104) "except they could distinguish" (GF 7) "except they would desert the place" (M5 149) In addition to conditional clauses introduced by $2, unless, etc., there are about forty citations of conditional clauses in which there is no introductory word; the condi- tion is expressed by inversion. In every case they ex- press a condition contrary-to-fact. "were I not by strong necessitie" (WB 79) "were earthly comforts permanent, who would look for heavenly" (B1 69) "were it not that the remoteness" (J2 14) "were there but one Town more--it would e" (J2 57) "That famous Castle there, were I but nigh" (K1 16) "Were not the cold climate of New England supplied-- the barrenness would never have brought" (M02 89) "were itt not for the distance offia market" (WH 18) "were my head one of the heads--I would give that head to the Kingdome" (W2 69) :‘might I wish an hypocrite-~I should wish him" (W2 45) "who should—Have tasted of the same cup, had his place of residence and his person been as well—kLown as my selfe" (WB 50) "Had you permitted us to go on, the French would not have been able" (CC 145) "had he taken her alive, neither Bartholomew--cLuld have produced another sight" (Jl 275) "hid not theILOrd beengpleased, the work would have been carried on" (J2 26) "But her Graham's new Hung sow, had it appeared, would affected me as much" ( K1 7) "had not my heart been trebly oak'd--I would have worn the silk-worms motto" (M62 54) "could I have been in Heaven--it would have been a Hell to me" (BI 8) "Could he de-truth them all, he would defie" (we 71) "ShLGId I p_§ the question to the vote, queStionless the major part--would carrv it" (J1 244) "should I hear a Mouse roar Z.ike a Beare, a Cat lowgh like an 5xe--it would scare me" (W2 84) 7. Expressing Concession Formal subjunctives expressing concession number fifty. They are introduced by though, althohgh; a number express concession by inversion instead of an introductory word. "although the ship cabbin be all convenient" (B1 62) "although I were interestedfin all these" (G1 156) "although it Be a digression" (G2 156) "although it bee certaine" (WH 27) "although the order be founded" (W3 65) "although the Gold or Silverfibe of less value" (J1 242) "although he ere far stricken in years" (J2 55) "although it be too true indeed" (M5 155) "although this remnant were blessed" (MC? 60) "although it be an hour or two" TTS 225) "although it‘ESre in hell" (wl e4) "though his person pg_wellcome" (WB 47) "though it discover some infirmities" (WB 86) "though my verse be not so finely spun" (B1 87) "though the ConduEE of Affairs be not to be blamed" (CC 115) "though this were a direction" T31 52) "though the lot be cast into the lap" (WH 81) ' "though a man have light" (W2 11) . "And be the mountains ne'er so high and steep" (B1 116) "be it—presented to view or not, in whose hands soever _Tt be" (Charters 70) "& I am resolved, come life, come deathe, come healthe, come sicknesse; come good report or evill reporte; come ioye, come sorrowe; come wealthe, come povertie; come what may, I will never yield me a prisoner to these enemies" (W1 96) "be they never so Just" (W2 41) "t'o' their commendation be it spoken" (NM :57) "22 it good or evil" (IT‘SSS) "pg_they never so dirty" (W2 41) "be their nature never so good" (W2 68) "Bit _b_e_ he what they will" (B1 105) _"albeit faith 22.not wroLght" (Charters 61) Phrasal subjunctives number about thirty; five would, thirteen should, eight could, three might. "though many times they would eat" (R1 68) "though I could heartily have wished" (M5 126) "though the Indians shouldflnot be athered" (G2 208) "though he mightgprOpound good ends" (Wb 75) "although they would have made their abode" (J2 7) "although she should meet with many afflictions" (W1 84) "although he might‘be trained up" (M3 155) 8. Expressing Cmmparison There are three formal subjunctives expressing comr parison. "so_long's the world doe last" (W2 83) "to let God have his —will as has lease" (v12 54) "as if the terrestrial globe were" (IM 76) Phrasal subjunctives number about one hundred. Dis- tribution of introductory words and auxiliaries is shown by the following table. as-as so-as .33 such-as than total would 6 6 8 7 28 should 1 6 4 6 4 21 could 31* 2 4 7 6 50 iii ght . 3 2 4 2 1 12 If' II' 13' ‘23 15' IEI "with as great solemnity as the conditions of that in- fant plantation would bear" (‘3 66) “you have as much as I should care for" (M01 37) I'as much as two men could 30" (NE 33) ”winds were so fierce as they could not bear" (WB 92) "as long as mi ht be” (IM 19) "not being down so close as should be" (81 71) "so far as he could call" (IE 44) ~ "so far forth as it_mi ht not be" (01 80; "not so good as the flora would-Have them (TS 218) ”as he would they should 0 ) ’as a man should seek for a needle" (J1 253) "to shift as he could" (GI 63) "as one might see by their sneering" (Kl 22) "such afflictions as would crush" (Bl 57) "such a foundation as‘EhouIdpromise" (G1 88) "such time as they might be examined" (62 164) "mere--than would.have maintained" (WE 105) “no more than a child should be afraid" (IM 94) "harder than I could follow"'(KI l3; "but not more than might be ordinary" (IM 85) In addition to the citations introduced with the words mentioned above, there are the following few cita- tions with other introductory words. "and as a people receives, so should they ive" (J2 25) "as if they would have torn our hearts out 1 9) "as thoughe m t co no onger hold out" (W1 95) There are twenty-seven citations containing the ex- pression as it were. Though it is usually a parenthetical expression, it perhaps belongs in this section; "A late observation, as it were by the way, worthy to be noted“ (WB 9) "who by that means might easily (as it were) beseige us on all sides" (62 91) "and the very sould, as it were, of that place" (62 186) "and their bones were flexible, as it were gristles' (J1 253) "to turn Wilderness in an instant, as 'twere" (J2 14) "so fast, as it were, treading" (WH 23 "and as it were, dragged back to duty" (Kl 37) “God of Heaven served as it were a summons" (M02 69) "somewhat come as it were with a pincers" (IM 112) :maintained, as it were, a school of atheism" (NM 91) "was as it were a deep dungeon'I (R1 26) ”and as it were slept' (81 28) "by the way as it were" (W1 66) It will be seen that the only authors who are not repre- sented are Bradstreet, Golden, Craddock, Fox, Mason, Shep- ard, and Ward. They appear not to have felt the necessity for qualifying their statements_with the expression as it were. 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