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~ A STU-DY OF THE WORLD‘S '-

’ THESIS AAA THE DEGREE or M. A

'Pnom‘odtc Ranjoh "Ha-nsdah Acha-‘r’jea

" .1932

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PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.
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The undersigned, a committee of the
Department of Economics

have examined a Thesis entitled

A Study of the World's Jute Industry

Presented By

Promode Ranjon Hansdah Acharjee,

candidate for the degree of X. A.,
and hereby certify that it is

worthy of acceptance.

FQWMW
flaw/AW

 

4/ f/zz

A STUDY

OF

THE WORLD'S JUTE INDUSTRY

A STUDY OF THE‘%OELD'S JVTE IHDUSTRY

THESIS

Submitted to the Faculty of
The Michigan State College
in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the

degree of Master of Arts.

By

Promode Ranjon Hansdah Acharjee

ACKNOWLEDGHENT

The writer desires to avail himself of
this opportunity to express his sincere appreci-
ation of the many helpful suggestions and kindly
criticisms of Dr. Harald S. Patton, Head of the
Department of Economics, in the preparation of

this thesis.

9375 1

Chap. I.
Chap. II.
Chap. III.
Chap. IV.
Chap. V.
Chap. VI.
Chap. VII.

Chap. VIII.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Jute.as in Industrial Product 1
Jute Growing in India 6
marketing of the Indian Jute Crop 16
Jute Manufacturing 34
The Jute Mills of India 43
The Jute Export Trade of India 56

Jute Manufacturing and Consumption in Countries
Outside of India and International Competition. 74

The Outlook of the Jute Industry 109

Table

Table
Table
Table
Table
Table

Table

Table
Table

Table
Table

Chart

10.
11.

I.

INDEX
of
TABLES AND CIARTS

Indian Production, Domestic Consumption
and Exports of Jute

Statistics of the Jute Crop Outturn

Number of Looms in Calcutta Jute Hills

Indian Jute hills and Their Dividends, 1912-21
Principal Exports of India

Indian Exports of Jute and Its Manufactures

Value of the Exports of Total Raw Jute and
Principal Jute Manufactures from India

Export of Raw Jute From India
Exports of Gunny Cloth From India

Exports of Gunny Sacks from India

Jute Import and Export of Principal Consuming

Countries.
Diagram of the Shift System in the Calcutta Kill

Page

45
48
56

58

59
61
64

66

52

-

‘A'JLIZLD ' S J1EE; IDUSTRY

 

CZLXi" - "TI.

 

Q, Jlite as an Ind istrial Product.

 

othni cal Co=rscterls.1cs of Jute: -

LIJ

lo

 

The term "Jute" mace its first appearance in Ln3lis h usaje, it is
believed, in 1746, when the captain of the East India Company's ship "flake"
noted in his 103 that he had sent on shore "60 bales of 3~uny with all the
jute rcpe belon:'in3 to the Company". (1) In 1795, the directors of the East
India Company receiv& a bale of finer, sent by T. Box our31, which he des-
cribed as "the jute of the natives". This same fiber ha d bee n imported
earlier under the 3en3ali name of "55%". The term "jute" which came into
geneial uss3e in En ;land durin3 the ninete nth centur; agpee rs to have b en
derived from "jhot" or "jhout" S:nskr it, "Jaht") the vernacular name of
this substance, in the province of Crissa, Where Oriya, one of the purest
of the Sanskrit lan3ua3es, is spoken.

Jute is a'bast fiber, or in other words, it is the bark lyin3 be-
twe en the outer be h and the pith of the stem. This fiber is obtaineu from
two species of cochorus (net. 0rd. Filiac case, the linden fardly), C. Capsularies
and C. Clitorius. Both of these species are indi3enous to the province of

fil, althoug h varieties are found widely scattered. The Jews' mellov
(C. Clitorius), mentioned in the'book of JOb (2) is one, and another variety
is used in Panama for rm skin: a brew si :ulS r to tea. C. apsularies has a
rounded fruit and C. Clitorius a long pod. The former produces a fiber supe-
rior in color and strength,‘but inferior in len3th to the latter.
(1) new liglish Dictionary, "Jute".

(2) "For want and famine they vere solita ‘3;.... "he cut up mellows bv the
. . ‘“ v *
bushes, and Juniper roots for their meat". Job “"" 3,4.

J-nUL'

2.

Intured jute plants a e from five to fifueen feet in hei .3111; with
cylindrical stocks about the thickness of the forefingger. The st ems are of
different color, green, purple, and 11111:; but the color does not seem to af-
fect the quality of the fiber. The leaves are li3ht 3reen an tapering, four
to five inches in ength and one and one-half inches in breadth. The flowers
are whitish-yellow and are found in cluster of two or three Opposite the leaves.

The smoothness of the stem of the jute plant and the absence of
branches except at the tsp, make it possible to octe- in a long, strai 3ht fiber,
which is much more easily retted or separated from the boon than flax or he: , .
The jute fiber, however, is decided1 inferior to flax an d hemp fiber in
strength and tenacity On account of the peculiar cellular structure, the walls
of the separate cells composing the fioer vary much in thickness at di‘f" ere11t
points in the jute plant, and this causes the sin31e strands to be of unequal
stre113th. Jute is more woody in te:—:ture than either flax or hemp and its
fiber bleaches with facility, up to a certain point where it will take bril-
liant and delicate shades of dye. It is very difficult, however, to convert
it into pure white color by bleaching. It is hi3hly mfg-roscop‘ic in nature.
when kept in a dry place the moisture content ray not be more 13111.11 six per
cent, but in a damp condition, t is capable of absorbin3 as much as 23 per
cent. Such charact aristics as tnis mahzs jute one of the most perishable of
fibers, esp ecially if it is exposed to alternate moisture and dryin3. For
commercial us es, the cha1:~.cteristics which are si3nifica11t in jute fioer are:
color, luster, softness, strerrjh, length, firrmiess, uniformity and absence
of roots. These qualities vary rr out]; according; to the eed used, the cli-
matic conditions of growth, and the ease in cultivation. The comaercially

Prepared stalks are those possessing; a clear, whitish color with a long uni-

form fiber.

‘ J- 7‘ ‘
2. Indusuriel 1.ses -

 

Before the jute fiber was introduced to the Ccoidezfiszl world, it

U2

(1)
(A
.J
1.)
O
H
Sr
P
H

wus widely u ed in India (- ' in Bengal) for c turies in t‘. 1e 11.11113-

(1;

of such articles as core-5.30, 13-1131 er 5.11:1 cloth. L‘.~1.r1.1ents of thin jute cloth

E.
«D

were worn by e: rules of the3 ‘ ri 1it tribes 1131;.r the foot of the Lii1.1—.l1=.;'es,

and in various localities among the very poor a cloth of jute or of jute
nixed with cotton, was used as e $leit on which to sleep. Jute canvas wus
also used for the so .ils of co m1try bouts. Cth3r ninor native uses of jute
are flom cloth, painters' brush (for whitownshin3 wells), hnnnochs, swin3-
i113" shelf for earthen pots, not 011's and muscles.

Another use of jute 1n Bengal, which use later to o3-cone famous,

was in the 1.15.1111: of coarse bags. During the orties jut e b1. 5 1133:.11 to be

4- ,1 ~ . .. J- 4.2 ' «-31-. r1 -4— .~. -. 1. - : -, .
sent fr31113‘o1131-11, .0 one 11.1.1133, coast, one-re the, .Jere used for 31.13.131.13.

.—_———.~———~ —1
.V’fl’fi

«1‘

811 31m. It was about this ti..1e 1-150 tint .31111'11ios be3z.n to be 2-3;: 1ted to the
United st tes for xvramir; cotton bales.

4.

O
C.)
P.
C

5.111 s introduction into the ..3ste:11 ‘-..-’orlr , the industrial

uses of jute have e:-:311*.:143.ed until today its consumption is 32.00311 0-11;; to

cotton, exceedin3; all other ozztile fibers, as he..3 even wool.

é
H)
F4
:4.
l l
r
.
U)
H-
’4
p. .4
V i
U
{:5
p...»
5. a

The Lain use of jut stodgy is for 1.15.1:111; bags and covers. The
.‘

/

covers are use. for 1.33.33 1i113; r111: cotton for the L‘nit ed L‘ntes 131d 1;;pt; and I
the bags are used for shi31'33i113 coffee from Brazil, wool fro111111sore.ali.{
ni‘rute 'r 13 Chile, su31~1r frOn Cubs, Jest Indies and oth: r c-1111ries, 312.1113

sine, 11.1st15.lie., Iscific C051 of t-1e Lnit ed 1.11:. 3.. 5.111 ot21.r Coun-

tries. Jute sucks are likewise employed in the distribution of se lt, c<3:.1e;1t,

fertilizers and other che'...ics.ls. Hence, jute carrios the .10“l(l"‘ w .1..t>r1Cls.
Its other uses, hon-ever, bring it even nearer to the 39.112.31.31 ‘ublic

OI "ll notions than does this pri;.1..r:; one. ferns are spun out of it, and wLWL

101

(D

Woven the jut cloth forms the f01 1nd: tions of c; rpets, r1133, oilclotns, 11nd

4o

linoleums, as well as webbing for upholstery, tailors' padding, etc.
histed jute yarns are made into twines of various sizes and strengths;
the post offices and the merchants are the heaviest consumers of twines,
as it is used in tying packages.

Since the nineties of the last century world consumption of
Jute has approximately doubled. In 1895-96, the indicated total con-
sumption of the world.was 5,051,000 bales, while for 1925-26 it was
8,860,000, thus showing an average annual increase of 127,000 bales.
From that date up to 1930 the annual consumption exceeded 10,000,000
bales, the peak being reached in 1926-27. It is also significant to \
note that since 1906 the consumption of raw Jute in India has exceeds
ed the export every year until 1950. On the average, however, the
world consumption of Jute has increased. In the following table is
given the quantity of raw jute consumed by the Indian mills, the
quantity exported, and the total disappearance for 5-year intervals

from 1895-96 to 1920-21 and yearly thereafter to 1951.

Iahle l - Indian Production, Domestic Consumption and SKEOrtS oi Jute
(In thousands of bales of 400 10. on h) (1

v

 

 

 

:
: Into Si;ht
Year : : ingorts and z
( July 1 t o : Taken by : .‘Jet iii-.1: ed 0 ount r3: 20th.].
June 51) : Domestic : consumption, :
: mills : hand looms :
1905-06 3,427 4,656 8,003

1909-10 4,259 4,509 8,778
1914-15 5,010 5,157 9,477

1925-26 5,555 4,015 9,551

193i-29 5.555 4,928 10,a35

1929-30 5,952 4,945 11,000

 

(l) U. 3. Department of Commerce, Special Bulletin 622, Textile Divi-
sion, January , 1952.

6.

Q
A

"71‘ --,,‘ ”1.;
Lulu; 1.4.. II.

 

CO

Jute Growing in Indi

 

l. .. one one for 3e .:'1 31's no tuial 1110;117:101;- in Jute Growing.

Damp heat is favorable for jute grouilg, but excessive moisture is
injurious. to is grown in high as well as low lands; but the former need

adequate wet or supply. ihe jute crog can stand floods, ”out my be injured
by heavy storms during; growth. ‘1he rich loam soils serve best for growth

of the jute crop. The most suitable temperature range during the :..irov.in3
season varies from 60 to 100 degrees 11‘. 3911-511 furnishes all the above con-
ditions and hence 3:911 111 proler grows about 85 per cent of the etal croy,
the no i lisorln districts of 33111511" and (mi so. gyros 9 nor cent 1:111ile 11:31am

01‘ 5,843

sugpli es a‘s out six per cent. i119 Province of 3a 5:321 has an ares.
square miles, 110.51 is the most dense y pepuluted province of India, suggort-
i115; over 48,000,000 (1) inhabitants, of which 423 per cent are Hindus and
54 per cent Il’dhalzhmdan. The latter, composed mini; of pines-nits, are con-
entrated lonely in ”-sto :11 Bengal.

:‘iinety-three per cent of the total pogulntion in Bengal is clos-

sii‘ied as rural. The urul pOQulation consists chiefly of "ryots" (or

peasants) each of 171101.: is nevi-111;," e11;:u,_";ed, with the assistance of his 3:11.1il;',

H-

in the cult 11’? tion ofa farm of one half to two and one-half acres. '21-:
abundant su::1.::1;.' of fern: labor accustomed. to the arduous conditions involved,
explains the chat-.11, successful cu tivstion of the jute crop in 31.1111, which
is grown independeztly 0:; t he peesatn s and is not a yluntation enterprise.
The densely 1.10 Opulatei ares. of 3e:1_‘;z:l consists of on alluvial plain,

1121:1011 has been formed 1);,“ a deposit 1‘ silt from the two great rivers out erinj

(1) ensue of 19223m01ed 47,695,;36 peOgle.

Wanna-1“

it.

7.
The sun; 23 £10.. 8 east‘.’1:-‘.r';‘1 and she 31:111.- ..':.;.1ut:' est IL.I"3., until they
unite in the nort 21er1n part of the province and
channels, all 0

nr-.o out into numerous
"Albh flow southerly to

the

Bay of 391L:.l, f0 1min; an
enormous delt Like other

del es of the world, it poss

esses the flat
and 1ert111t; , re loved by inundations ind hence has a. 'r1.t
importance.

(- .

agri cu lt ural

Pu? .her, being Situated in a semi-tr0”iCal belt, over Which
passes the '

rain hearing southwestern

monsoon, it receives ample rainfall.
Ience it is ~rell equipped to produce a cron v1icq Orors Quickl; Such a
delta region is also well adauued for the methods. practiced in e"trr
the fiber from the plant after ‘

Au-c.Ct i113
. csting, as amgle
water is neceos

113;.) ly 0 f sto
seary for such on Operation.

of the delt Us afford 1m

9r

Pinball :1" tile flurflé rous CILS 'cinLe ls
—. 41.. -~... —
r—v‘ ‘ V .I

#”—~

mi 1130

“-1

ans ortation lor the raw jute to one calcitta

In senwal today out of the total arcs ol 8
27.7 million acres

279 square miles,
are sown to crows. 0f tnis.20.9 million acres are de-
voted to rice, which forms the staple food of the poo; :le there; of the
remainder, 2.4 million are soon to jute. (l). The ge.san.s in Ben ul are
primarily interested in sowing rice 10“ their own consumgtion, and in ju e
as their rnone" crog. (2) '
nltnotu h numerous experimental of 'orts 111 the 3 win;
have been undertaken els ”1

oijw
e in India, and such countries as Cochin-Chini,

Japan, Java, 31‘... Russm, Brazil and the southern s

"th,

J.

yet no practical cox1p

.ates of Iforth America,
tive results have‘be en obtn n1ed. (v). Hone of the e
(l) 192 :‘25
(2) According to one auth rwt , 100 liounds 01 green jut ;ields only
45-; W1 3 of finer.
(3) Putnam's Economic Atlas, p. 49a.

3.

countries Dossess all uhe factor 3 he seer? for success, name L, l. s ll

distributed rainfall throughout the growing period of the crOp, with light
showers and ample sunshine in the early stages, 2. a fertile alluvial soil,
5. abundant water at the right teIp3re ure for ret Ln“ end for the cheap
trsnsyort of fiber, 4. a erge pogulstion in need of a reliable none: orOp
like jute, and 5. a network of'buging and jute sressin; agencies for the
re id disposal of the produce. (1). hence for th se reasons serious com-

‘

setition from 0&1 r countries and from ofi1 er darts of India are not like 1;-

J. n.

to threete11 the mononoly enjo"ed ov Bengal.

2. Princicel Jerieties of Jute and Their Localization.

The hull: of the jute or 01 is grown in the U'lta and the tri a11'ulzr
area in the north, between the Brahmngutra and the Gan;es rivers. 1 portion
of the C109 is gr wn soutn of the Ganges river around Ce.lcutte; but the
major portion of he crop is produced on the north and ee.st of t21is river
and in the section drained and at tiznes inundated b" the Jrehheuutre river.
The crop is mainly 5r Till in .1231; 3e11,. l, .11 m a 31.19.1131? part in Sou th 3-3;1;:;.l
and still smaller f‘recti01 1n the neighboring districts of Assam, Behnr,
and Crissa.

The district of Lymens1n3h which lies directly'on the north of
the Bacon and to the east of the co ”fl ence of the Ganges and 3F&HLLZutr&
rivers, is the largest producer of Jute. The bulk of the jute produced
in this district is celled l. "SereJ junji", which is 501 er and liJhte1
in color but not vcry strong. Its gain subdivisions ere "Firsts", "Li ht-

ings', and ”fianrts"; ”Firsts” bein* the medium and t11e ot1ers low 3r.

"SsregjunJ1" 18 also pronuced 1n the Leone district. Ehe district of :;CC&

(1) Ioward, Cron Erodu ction in India ( 934 , 9. 136-13 .

~- :'~ - . ' ' . ~.~1 40-. ‘ o -' ‘ ‘ A" -- 7". . . a 1‘ ‘ 3- " ‘-'~ I 4-. —\ fi 1" ‘,‘.- '\ p
3111111038 2. "-.;.~.:‘e. ~4-.-11.}l' jute, 11.11031 11-. suro11_., -.:.r’l CJ‘. rouge- 1.1.1-1, o1

. O '-- . w‘ : -: ."u ~ r1 -: ‘J- ‘ ,-. -.‘ ‘ ' 5" \¢‘ 7 ._ -‘ ‘l‘. L.
:30d 3 i1ni1: dielitg. it is suod1v1c31 11.0 "Jinonu’, succus' “n1 otn r

.v _I ‘ v.‘ . l. __ 1 “ ‘.' '_ i .4 .‘ I. ' ._ _ y - ' T“",v . + 9 ‘1-
grudes. "1ureind1nj1” and "seshjgunji' use used :0: 1s11nq t11e b3s u j1se
, -. r‘ 1 «x1. 1. \ ' 1.. ..» f, 1..- 1' ~.,.. L‘. — . L:
urns. Tue 0. "hou' uh” (or h3oru; jute, comesxi1h.1, 1ron one secu1ons
1.. .11- .. °. ..'v n. ' +4. 9 . -, .1 ., w 2.-.; - '.-~,-°
aro11d Junerjunj3 and -1r1d3ur.1. l8 str “J sut Airch end of 1n-e:10r

r 311 ‘s chieily 1sei for rope :exingo The jute grow 1 i11 d st- icts
caround _...lc......., such 9. lice-31;“, 1113.-., oessore and -1e twenty-four
Terguncs is called 4. Duisee (or Des i) w1ich “sins loo 1. It run as in
color from purest white, r3d, co_.psr, sh1te and black, and is very soft,
long and fairly strong and used for curp3t yarns ezd the gunny trade.

"Grey Duises" is of the highest nurh, "Josse" or "303i" are rather stronger

1

.- 1 4.. r -'-. 1. . .- , ° - J.._'. . n . * .' .~ . .—-. ,.—. 1",.
and setter ior stinni1j uni 1s UDouldud 1rom a "neisee" t-,e. rncse 1c1r

'3‘

are the main classes und3r o11ich jute is sold. (1). It enq'be mentionei

(U
c‘f'
C1"
‘1
(
S‘
*3
$‘\
H
(J
C.)
C)
0
IM
c 1‘
y
r—f
(D
<1
C
11
(”J
ci-
0
F '3
d-
; J
’J
(D
C...
{I
c 1'
(1)
v
M

:evere ex,02‘re Ulll cuuse
‘ .L “ .. 1., ,‘J. . ., 1... 1- r....‘ 1 .. ,91- 4. 1-- .1'
jute to o3ccn3 OllotlE, en ALrSn, end m1ut color does not e13ec. the s 1n-
' ‘. “ ‘I‘ I‘ . 4‘ . " '\ C. . “ ‘ ‘\ 'T ‘5‘” .1 ~ I v -' fi'“ -r-." " ~. ~‘."\ ‘: ~~ ..

n11; quulities o1 jute or ylsj e .11 1n,ortunu hurt 1n.Q-uu1nQ.

U

"- p :'~».~.- II Let P ‘- " “"| ’ ' I .l'.'~. "l7‘ .\ J-T .' ‘ ‘1“ ‘l- “H." .‘ " ..
The iOllUJlAu melJ s1ous he vur1utions 11 one enhuul 3-01uct1tn

 

3 0f the the CPO” L. 'tO“.l‘l’l
_ S

’-
‘I

eason Grog outturn hereon Grog outtu'n
duly l-July 30 Jul" l-Ju‘" 30

‘L‘d

1913-14 9,537 932-33 5,988
1914-15 10,099 1‘35—2 4 8,893
1915-16 8, 202 19:34-25 8,764
1916-17 8,462 925-26 9,036
1917-18 8,737 1926-27 13,136
1918-19 7,737 927-28 10,288
1919-20 9,181 1923-39 9,918
1930-21 7,792 192‘-ZO 10,835
1921-22 7,395 930-31 ll,~54
(A) Figures frox Dundee prices current ior L 12-193 m1d U. 9. ..3;‘3

Conwerce deports for 1927-1932, Lot. 29, 1:28 and :30. 1, 1:5 .

(1) Chowhury, in his book ”Jute in ?engel =ivided jute into five cl_s es
and included Ulte rive or (L rturye) 8.3 one. Ultariys, vhich n .“s
nort113rn, is one of t11e f u1est varieties of jute and comes free n3rt111n

" - ~ ./ ~1- ‘
1-.‘I-‘11'~It'.l"‘. 1 If)- "W1 .3 )f‘W' "01+ ‘71\1. n1-\ :a- J-‘-— _,‘..._1. ‘3 , . ‘ ' -

‘
Of C". 1.91:- we tlUl gull

The preparation of t‘11e soil for the crOp ;enersll: begins as

soon as possible, after
old method of farming is sti

wooden plough with an iron or
or, in rare cuses, by a gai:
in order to pr e;ere the soil

verel
method. .sftsr ploughing a l;
00“hi together is drawn over

side by side. This

necessar; for thi

tI1e wei;ht

ladder while driving.

ll carried on in songsl.

.1n “L a
udeouiuel; with such

.lougnin s are nece ssury. Isrrowin; 1s

hft3r the ledderin;

Isrch and Avril. Th e”e

h single bladed

steel point, drawn by a pair of bullochs,

of'buf f£.loes, is used 10r ploughing. hence,

primitive equipment se-

do

also carriei on by the same

odor, which COhSlS s of several wooden 30133
the field, sometinis 0” iour anizrl s hiv schsi

ul) tle LE? '8 ClOCS;
who stead on the
is

process, a wooden mallet

used to break up the obstinate clods left in h3evy soils.

the neighbori :3 sections of

fiber is
peasants

crOps in a three years' cour

from the rivers. The lack

lection is said to be the cause of deterioration in jute

ger hart of the or o is

produced in somewhat higher lends
r0t.—2te the jute cr0p with rape,
se in some of the

01

grown along the river sag-.1113 and

’

pas... rt rill; submer ed The finest

country.
possessing loarw'soil. The
mustard, 1 as, tobacco, and othe

better la1£s further back

. -. . -..L',- .1. :\
preger rotation and 01

fie 3r. Lhmuring;

the soil is a rare attexgt 0n the gsrt of the peusenus. Lhnurin; the low-
Lends which e;e suoje to flood, that h oe :1eficiul, is not absolutely
necessury. As these lowlands :13 liable to be submerged, the peasants pre-
gsre and sow the lowlands first an then puss on to the highlunds, which

uitinatel; produces the oest

(1) Howsrd, C103 Pr ouction

94'! .~
.1. L0 131‘.

in

ll.

nave found out that th‘e rapid ,ro*.rth of the plunt and increased yield of
the fiber is cbtu'ned or the an;

ter containin" a fair pro;or ion of nitm~o en to the best jute lands.

Cow-dung 3nd oil-cake serve well for such a purpose, but the linited sup-

plies of both and the cost of the latter 5 ziu in the we" of 910 ress.

However, water h"ncinth (eic-1rniecressipes solms) is plentiful and it is

1/

rich in organic hatter, ucaush, nitrogen and phosghorous. 3"

, applging to
this Heteriel, the Chinese methods of comp ostin; organic matter, which is
not very costly, a very valuable fertilizer can be obtainei.

The sowing season begins on the middle of February and lasts un-

til the end of Key. “Gout l3 inches of re in is eno 5h for the sewing see-

"(D-4

son. The seed is sown by broadcasting at tmi rate of ei;nt to ten UldS
per acre, d epsndirx; on the variet'. narrowing is carried on aft er sowing,
to insure the proper covering. The osl.llwu10n ta 12- as place within a few
days if the soil is sufficiently moist.

Although Bengal is ed.'rsol, suited for growing jute, it proved
to be a poor place to produce good seeds. high humidity, continuous rain-
fell and frequent lack of sunny days interfere with the pollinntion of the
flowers. The water logged conditions of the soil towszis the end of the
season prevent he prOper muturetion of the seed. (1). Cver and above
these, there are no large areas for seed farms. This difficulty th been

partly met by growing improve a varieties for seed purposes on certuin

estates of 3 hc.r rend as sea and in ferost nurseries in Bengu where jute is

used as a foster plant for the young trees. Jfforts are sing made to en-
list vurious loos agencies for seed growing and also to obtain the bulk

of seed growing outside of Be: 1391. It has been found that excellent jute

seed can'be grown in tracts like tudh and Hohi khond, in the United Provinces.

(1) Howard, CrOp Production in India, 1924, p. 138.

After the plants come up, the future crop depends upon the
qualit1r of the soil and also u1on the amount 0: attention "iven to it,
during the various stages of its growth. The young plents need hoeirt
to loosen the sur;ece and. eedinQ should s.ccompsn; it. The plants ma-
ture in 12 to 15 weeks end.there must be at least two thinnings during
this growing period. The plants grow'best when thinned about six inches
apart. If thinned out too much the plants will run ranches, .111ich is
detrimental to the production of long fiber. Cn the other hand, too close
placing will produce stems too 81 enri‘er to fur nis‘n a rzmun rstive "ield.

Tl1e jute crOp needs special attention during the earlier stsjes of its

«1)

growth. Care sheuld be taken to fr e the plants from weevils which breed
in the stems and en the leaves, from caterpillars which stOp the growth
of them 1 min shoot nd fro: n 3,;czsshO1pers.

According to the date of sowing, the plants comma ice to flower

A“

1r on the es ginning of July to the end of October. The cron is read; for

harvesting as soon.ss the flowers appear, for the fiber is in its best
condition then. At this time the plants reach an average height of five
to ten feet and he cutti‘ n; is commenced with sickles. icccrdin; to
Chowdhury (l), the largest yield of good quality jute is obtained by
harvesting'when the fruits are fully ripe. However, as the avers e nee-
sent has not the means for cutting and retting all his jute at the same

time, he is obliged to begin earlier in order to p; ev- ent any portion of

the crop from'beconing too ripe for use. The 1L;nts sze on -t close to tm1

J-

“O

a. .. - " .._.. 1 4.1 . .0 JJ ‘. ' . A. ‘ . ‘ _ 1. . 1,,
Qround and tne stens are then ethered into bundles 1 or rettin;.

«.1 4-' - n 1, '1-‘1 1. -..1‘1_,,_
4. Prep ration o1 tne ricer for the “flrneu.

 

The rettin: of the jute is very importurt. he stems tied in-

H

to bundles are left in the Open air for e 12w days. The next o.eretion

(l) L. c. Chowdbury, "Jute in Bengal", 1: e.

1d 1

f1. 1

Ch

4..
Lu

W. ""“ Q l‘ -... .
b110~1e11ur3r c1:.11.1s 9;...

V 'I_“

a a , _"“
01 the 11:. er. ‘reinQ.

‘.
‘-

o
f

t.1e be st

(
'4

I ‘.\ ‘. ’ » ‘
‘I/‘LiC/fl ll‘r—ss nil-.uLJQ

Je1 1111115. ,

is nppar ant. Dew ah,
Ganges and is steeped
putra's, becomes may

Cn suomergin: jute bundles

bundles one upon another

the sun fr om s;1.;c.~11 1.,
or other hand; 1nter i5
1:1erQ‘e-d condi ti on, the
ens. It telzes 10 to 2
of the plant and the t
(thnt is, rot) durin“
th. ti:.su as and thuc c

in di v idu't l ‘1 es. sent mu s

bundles should remain

3:111 18 not disintte Et

the other 111-211;, if th:
4,-

100335 1 u

s luster.

1"}

do

7,.” 'r) 1 ‘ .
"an u- . J (331".

es to bee 1.11.11 I11 loser

ed

, {1.338 118

c ount 11:; ,

.L‘,
sail:

hi

.1..

. -: J-uv-
quév 14'. U“

sq.

@3118

-. ‘-V

ereQ1u1je jute also has good rep-utution for quality

"" 13.

Car 1; e. s Q "
Uh 8 re
re 31: lt

.Jhich is rett ed in the sections adjacent

sweater which is muddy in compariso on to ire: 11119.-

in color and harsh, although strox 5;.

in mete r, care is take 11 to 118.;" the
.1. These are then covers “171'. h tree to pr event

‘

the liber, and are weighted 011:1 ~.:ith sod, loQ‘s

ls so that all 11 " ‘e kept under meter. In the sub-
nmgr pec tose ..11ic'11 311 1:15 t113 fioers toQ'ether soi‘t-
5 "as (one :11ct du;:-.tion verie ".Lbh u--- naturitv
e131 erature of the “.5. ter) for the 're1n jute o ret
uhicx the fernmtetion take 1;-1;..ce Lhis deco 1:03 3
1.319 es the fibers no he [a 1‘ iull; ' liberated. "311

t use his 021:1 judgment in decid in; how long the jute

'2. 1 1“ '1‘ 11.1 _ _ ' 4., _. .4“
sum.xer_;:o.. 11 £1.18 111.1103 are r1101 e1 .00 soon, one
.‘11 11.11. -T- 1 ..- 1.. - 1 s -r\:~ 4.- ‘7_ -
11-11. e1 “rel, and hence the lioers 3.11111. to ether. L11

1-.- 14.1. J. \ '1 . . 42 4'." - 1 1 1 .' .1- . .— .
89 .1111, 31.. too ioz1_, the 1103: oecouss brittle .116.

-- 23-1 . .4- _. .- .1. 1 A- 4.1._ - .1- -1" . 1-,
111-3 11.3-31.1 1.11311 0011131 3.511;. 33.33.31 1.1o..1 1-3 3.--. 10121.13 0-1 ..
“ J.

3. 31:13.11 fraction 0:; 1e 0:1 111.111 e.:111t. (1). 12-3103, it 051.1 be 013112113

‘ . a c . .. ~ - ‘1. . I 7 '\ «o - -. '. f ‘ q.‘ r‘ J. A ‘
understood that 1111 e11o;..1s1s gum .1‘5.’ 01 .,_,re.-.1 Jute 11.3 to es .-.—.-t1.ed 11.11--

\L’

1113 the 3313011 5.1-1 so it is not 30331313 to 11:2: these far to find fresh
water elsex'rhe e. r311.13 0111315113 same 3001 to be used '2..;.:.‘1.‘. 8.11"- elk-.11.-
for the 1111131033 01" 1 3tti113, 15111011 1.111233 the color of t1'1e1.1.~.1ter (11‘1t;' 1.3

9‘

the re1use 01" the fore 11 rettim's ere 21001131111111; ed in it. .;;.t‘-.‘-.;1:.. 1‘,

1-~ I! ~ 1 .. - 3.." ~ 4- . «.0 1-. r1-'. ., 4.
there-ore, t.1.e 0010: 3.31 1.1.3.3. or 13.13 1133.13 re.

1:. quality to those 01‘ the earlier growth. This e;:‘_11:-'.i;‘.3‘.."11.; t1 3- first i
raft of the crop Which arrives 1.11. the :.1:-.;11:et 9311.31.11.11: 00;.2'.‘.zf.:.-:":-s 3 higher I
price than the later deliveries.

Aft3r the 113321 is consider-31 to be sufficiently retted, t1 3

peasant de30-311c13 into the meter to his waist. he then unties the bur-r1133
and holds as 1.31.11" of the stems £13 1’19 03.11 5;“1‘3) in his hc.11d.;.'e:;t he re-

moves 3. 31.11.11 portion of the ”earn: from the root 311:1 and the: 11113;.1113

them to‘J‘ether, sldllfullgf stri'

from one end to the other, tel-zing- 0z:.re at thes 111.13 time not to by1 0-1: the
stem or the fiber. In this 15:1; he obtains a. 03:1 sin 1111111 tity of fiber

which he 3110 033-13 to 1:51.311 off. This is done as 2.11. .‘1’oyles (2) 31:- 13.1113,

by taking; a Large handful, he 317111;,‘3 111111151 his 1133.6. 311d 6.12.311. 33 it reg-13‘5-
A

O

3-1];r against the surfs. 3 of the meter, (1:13.5111; it toward him, so a. 3 to

wash off the imgurities; then 11511-511 s. dextrous throw he fans it out on

(D
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cl-
Fl
H
(D
{I
d1
111‘
H
(I
y.-
,-
{1

M ..n.
the 311231120

1 oar-31.21131 1101-:3 off all rang-1111111; 1311.01: 3'_;~ot3.

“O. .
4.1.14.8 l

w
m
e
(L'-
' i

-;‘ m1;;1lee.33.11t tasz: as during the o;3e.1:~.ti 0.1 the 11.1..uz1t has
to etc-.1111 111 the 3.001,. 13:01.1 the rettinj; has been done before. 111 a. few

districts 0.11;, 1.5113113 female held is usei, the fiber is carried 11.15:.“ £11011

(1) Accordini: to Cl 10.111.111.113,r the wei‘:‘-1t is 4.5 per cent.
(2 2103133.,"1‘10100113 I-l:.-1ts of India".

yu— . ~n.o-—-.~——.-y

J.‘ \ ‘ ,0 , ”L °~~.--'. . ‘ .- .L '., '.. w 4-? {‘4‘ .. -' .. . J. 4,
me 9001 oesore sun‘s; 1:15. aft-'31" Sul‘l‘LClev, 0-13 Ase-r .LS -..:"mm; to revae

as much water as possible out of it 2.111 than hug; "

n."

up 0.1 1135.1'733' bani-300

frames for diving. ”Care must be tall-:91 at this goin’c not to allow exces-

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p.
P
"i
(D
O
r. I‘
'0

1
US

sive ezzgosuz‘e to th of the sun as 1:11.318 mill disco 10': the
fiber. Exposure to the sun for two or three is (111”111’.‘ the drin“
o;:e-.~ation will bleach the fiber.

71‘

.me separated fibers are then tied. into bung as ready to be

sent to the jute presses.

,
0;r 31.1

 

 

The world's suingl" of jute is 131-0 .111 i.1 a. r1.11..1.1" 31" 11- 11

9

3.11 fenders, the vast 11.jorit;' of whom are devoid of 001.1110rcie.

(I
Sallr

1

knowledge. Hence .., out 01 me ce sity 1111 elaborate..iddle:.11.n 51.211311 for
collecting,s 01tir111: ., Q1111111 and distribution of the fiber has grown up.
In order to study the marketing of jute, its various destine-
tio.1s snould ‘oe tr seed. It is estimted that about 500,000 bs-les (l)
are absorbed minus-11;,r in the up—cou1try. 1’1 var;r 31.11111 portion of the
:gorts leave India throu"; 1the 31.11111 port of 0‘1 1ti 1:.."011; situ1.ted on
the east ern coast of the 1311;: of Bengal. The re 1:1 rier finds its 1.1;, to

Calcutta. and its environs, which his enough mills to 00-15 21.1e more than

half

I‘ n
01 Co.

of the

01" the averrge crop and what is left over is e3~1310rted from the port

lcutte. to the various parts of the world.

1. ..id dle1 .1011

p.11

 

r1‘he coo-veret ive system of 1:.r11-u1113 is absent in the 111.1'120’61118

'1ez1ce 1.111111110111011 11123 a very 1111,0rte'11t part 111

L
:1
C o
(1)
O
I J
O
(j.
{1
L.
p
p.
F“

Jute trade of I11dia. rDhe series of 111111111121 1311 who form the 11.11: bet

is co

the peasant :::roducer 31113-- the Indian ,jute 1.0.113 or overse-s purclr-se

tlie

e an

I'S

1.1410001 of oeo; ri es, ferries, 111:.hajcns, uratd: rs, "brokers, buy-31's,

balers, shippers end others, althou gh it is not unusua. 1 to 111111 e. single

firm

‘ .0 — . >3. ’ . u 7 ‘ -,. .. .‘-.. - .L':' -- ~ - Q
oe1 ore IFS-.Chlllq the 00.11 13stic co.1sux.1.r 1.1 1111119. r start... , 0.1 5111 0-1-3.

(1)

m own-sat? m‘JW

which 'Jracuisos se' era]. of these fwwtien-s. 1-1s :3. 3011121111 rule

J_'|

Ludloc-J .011111s.ct11riz1; .'.seoci:-.tes, "Jute", p. 151-.

, h 017-

1.11rcu;;h the hands of 1.113 two or three 11111.11 emen

1‘"

a 135.3

Bepctzri 0r 1.": rigs: The 31319:.ris or 13:. ri -'.s (1) 11110 in _;e'11e 11.

 

11. , ..~ .13-..,..I:.-1,1- 1, .-:.~ 1
13:) 111311 111110 SaluU..L 11'1“); Mitre '00 Choc-4+1} eluder

‘ . w." ‘1 "t-‘\.'\ .r1- r" '- *. r 93 -“ "v I '
110-133-1103 or tne 9111.19.91 1.." the iti11'3;'.-11.t 1.111'-.11.lG1.11:1'l. 111s p e1..s-.11t

l

17.

l. ‘ . ' ’ 7‘ . """ " "“ ‘- '1' ' . '1 ‘ ’ ‘. 1v '. ‘ Alr‘.’
has no economic re sour: 30 01 his 0.1.1 .:-..-.11 113.1(38 his .~--'.'.1.111-.:" 1..~.«..s are
.1 d
w . . ~'* .4. $1.10— . ..J- . _1.~ ‘ ° ' 4.1 - - '_

119 lied o the ‘oe_1:'-.ri. ..o.. 1.111'-.-3--_u.3111.l,' 1.113 11.9- ri is 1.113 -1-...1101-r
, . -111 -..1 . '.. . .9. . .13 1'11. 1.-. ,‘11- , I..- , 1.x. . -1 1
.13 well a .1113 ‘01 3r 11:..v111, 01.11.310.31 .13 ;.!1:‘.'..S:..111.S.....'113 111-1'1'1 .93 1'02-

, — - o J

3 -

. '.'\_‘n 1’ ‘x Q -- ""J-r\~ ‘ I. ' ', N ‘0'. -.fi 1». 1 r\ ‘. ‘1 5 '~' ‘,~- .
111.9 8-1-1.011. 2.1118, $9.? 0. 1.2311, 1113 ..-.1.1s a Col-1'1G--1.J1—' 111.1111 0.1 .111

‘ -’.V

..~ ' - .. .1. . 1.-., '1 .n . . n 9 ' . '19, . J.
I.1‘1~118.JC..11 011 1.1113 0.3?11 11-'..1L‘1 11.-.'.V1.'.1C :38 1.11.1161. t0 lad-*3 03-1.1“). 11'). 011117021; 1110‘

J- J“- J.

011 001111 itior. that 118 192111;; to him all the Jute he collec

, .9. "at. . .. 1,. ' . -J. 4.
31.1.11»; 3. -119 §.10-1u~ S 1101: V911 00

1 1 -
03 11301.1 011':

+‘ I‘ - r~ . r~ :fl 1 A. N ‘1 ' . v‘ N' ""1
1.113 oe.,...r1 e-.c.1 s... 1 set 18 111101.130.

J- ‘V‘ . “\ ("' 1.: a r I! ¢~ J- . J.-. ‘ ‘v-.~V - q~ ./-\~ Jv 1.“ J“ "‘~‘:- 4’. .l"
o -1311 LLill WT.” 1 hi...) am 80 113 (“L11 uCu 5.3 1.119 011., Lid 5.95110 0.. 011° 1-11.411.J1..J11.

‘\ J- J-‘ ’ -. - - u 0‘ . -,-..-.w .-» ~ ~\’ ~ 1 r - - 1~ '~ ~ ‘ . . \ . 1'. 3 "‘ . ~
1.11.. 1.1113 09:93.1'13 .1110 11.v.--.r :oss-ess 011011113 (1): ..'-.1 311.115.05.) 1-11..v.—3 to ,

3.1111113 (‘2 01,1le J01" 1.1111111»). (.3) :3 11‘0111... 5.9151... .10: 1.1-13 L131? bf ”C1181? Id~11€LJé~n'S

:0-1‘101'1'118 , 1111-: re they can 01:13 0-1 C125r‘ous 1:1 .05.

. . - r J. 11. .,. .-..‘1 .1 . : 1'1...“— . :.-.:~,,~-
1‘11e 9e:.s.~.111.s eel-11.- 1.111031. 01.11.1113... .' 1111-. 1-1t. 1119's 111111-

5 a ~ -
1(1-‘6‘ nu." ~'\ ‘ -\-' _'.
.‘.... 4'. u 05~1LLK J—sld

o
:3
H
d-

C“

I
H-
:1

J- ‘I

‘0 ei1' 111et'111, as actual 1.10;:-.3;' the-1. 02-; 0e orotectei 5.4111101: fire,

‘

11te ants, etc. During the .1‘0r1d .1‘:..r, on account of the 3111.er

silver rune/.33, one rupee net-3's 1'13'1'1'3 print ed in 1'... r_;e 11111.10 ers. The

4.

“‘ - ', 1" ’ s ‘ ‘ 4‘ ".9 —-. 1‘ .1 0" J- , ~’1“‘. - J. - ' >, -0- ~ .-'- . . ‘
r131.1e..1) 3:3 t1" 1. .119. ;.e-..s_..-'1..s at 1231. v1; row-1.1,, arctes 1.13.1 -.__..-.1n.-.t s.

-. J... , a . ~‘ .-\1 \»-_-L . \ - ‘ .w— 1‘ ' '1. 1 -‘- ' - J- . A Ufia“. ‘ '- ~ ‘
013911113 thgse ru9---0 1.0-1.0 1.1 4.1., ...-—.11., 011.. 1.1 1.11.1e -....-311 the; fcund t1

1r ' In‘ ‘\ \ \ ‘ 5" .'. 1 4“ \ \ .‘~~_‘ ~,'. 3" 1" F‘ .v . < . - ~‘ .
1.131s 001.19elle d to 9-3;. 1.1..11111.11 one 111.1ee 1.1.t-3s 101' their goo-.3,

were obliged to "c egt it, or else they could not sell their :00;

‘wv‘ d '0 r) - . ~-. (‘ rj I 1‘ I L‘ '- q- -. a. -' (- . -L ‘ J.
1.111311ev- r Silver ru'9 e05 -..'e1e -.v..1l:.ol3, .110 ..'1:.11ed 1.0111ve 1. 1113'.

.
I"

36.39 1‘ 1.10118".

.‘Kr

I 4- - x .4- ' J "-" 1 1' J— , \" - . ‘N 0 1 s ,‘ ',
(1) ”211030 terms 51.31091; ' 0.991,, - .113 ' -1i1‘11‘113111h1 ..‘;'10 do 110,1.-11.

1 1 .1." .1‘ .1 'r 4. . 1 .- . .. 1 1. .m, _. .1-~‘.--_ _ , 1_ _ ,

(10.1113 01“ 1.1131r 01.11. 11‘ the: .1...v.3 po-do'...1s, 11.11 .13, .'.-1.1.1.1...

"‘.‘., .a " '1 . - ’ ‘ \ ‘ - V- '. - ‘ 1 1.1-. -_ ‘ ‘ J- ‘ .,' ‘ ,
1'.L.118.,J-.1.LS O.‘ E-I‘LLJU."..1‘S 13.11111. 0116’. 13-..," 1.1713 {1(11'1.11L-:3 1.0 0.2-1.3318 .‘.."

7‘ C‘ J"- "
U110 15.39 0111.

y.
.-
‘..) ’ "VT 1-‘r1 P; w ' a 1. . .- 5‘9) ‘)' - -. ,1, -, .n‘ - 1 ..‘.A -'
(>1) :1 1.1.1111- -11.;.l.-. 11) 2-3-.1‘... or .:.-.1-8 131111.11“. (v1.1 “117.91.151-

1
:1. -1. .. 1.1.1...- .
)1)? 00 O 11.1Vu. 11111. 11.11"]. U131 J:

'9 of

3‘
‘-

900918

1 J.1 . -... ° 1 3-. 1.1.- ..J.‘*' ’~---¢. J,—'-'-- ~-" -,
After 1111-3 11:31....1'1 11.1.3 ecu-3,111. 51 2111-1131311. r;U--..11.11..r o. .‘...1

D

jute, he loads it into bouts 05.1113 "bhur" 01" from SC- to 150 1.15.1111ds

q

“our e11 5-1151 t1511s worts it to the 1.551'12—‘3'ts celled "hat” ins 11 1 Lee s as

O
51.4

Sara-jg; unje 52.1111 .1..w;1.11je, there it is sold to the 1.1.-.21ej:.r1. I11 Sercjvunje,
the ”Dene-1'1 has to de:.l with the 1.12111:- 2-11 three ‘11 a. 01015:»31‘ celled 55.11511.
A. , V‘s.)

The followin; regort of the business transaction is “given 0v 1

IrShe 35-11511 tells the 1111.1.119.j€!.‘11 '1‘1’115-t is tl'.e nuan‘ er of 1.15.1111515

of jute in his Cliailt's bout .3111 there it 001.135 "firm-1. 119 131533 a

se1;:::=le end then the;" gut their lands to 3et‘11ei 1111115 r e clot1 1. offers
9.16. dez..1‘11:‘-s are indicated 1);" tree 01;. the 31311351 ee fi3ures ergreszuij;
tie rates 1) r 1.165111161 on the 351.1111 01 the "oer-3'11 concerned, no one else

V 0
085.113 sole to 1:110?! whet 511:1511L1t is to be «given or received. If
ties cone to t 12, 51 little jute fro-11 the 535111319 is '
of 5. sign 1.115th he 0:13.111 is cox-1;:lete".

In most surlcets tr-de signs "are used, but the 335135.131 Lads

in the boat is 33110511 observe-1. ..1'1311 the ‘oepuri's jute arrives 5.t tne

.1

1.5.1121j5111's gi;h.:.t (lending; Lee on the rive r 115.1122) usu 5111;; the price 213

reduced, if he is infornmd that the jute is not as good as the sea-1.1;.

Usually the price 115-3 to be paid on the twentieth (11;; 51ft er the pure: 11:.se.
In some places the jute does not pass tln'oujn the hands of

the b ;::..’r s to t‘1e 1.15.11eje11. In 1111'"1u_r',the pea-55.11t sells his jute

‘ O

dire ctl;r to the 115-151-3151. In Decca, if the peasant 0171 s a best, he takes
his produce directly to the 1:15.11ej511 uhich is usually the use in
........111 311nje as well. 11:5.in, 801.114'1111cs it is not unusual to S3e a few

peasants get to'et 1er and hire a boat to carry their produce to the

'e113.11,*~111ich is intersect 3o. with 115.4 3W . ys, boats
are used, 1:11.31“ 5'- in Z?orthern 351113511 55nd S12 tions around 1.5 lcutt5, where
s are scarce, bullock certs 5.1"; us ed, at 1525-: st for part 01‘ the
journey in trenS30rting jute.

This business of the iti: erent trsders 5.31" '33. O11".'o the oeozrris
is entirely controlled by the I1‘di5.ns 511t‘1-1cu3h in 1331‘ ".3533 4.1;.ro 105.115

9.5-8 foulid to be 94.131331 in it.

7", 7V ,1‘ W '. ‘ v. . _ ‘ . . - . V. .. o 4 p
(l) “arr, 313m 1331‘unngr, "ABROft on 113.1(1‘3 1-1 Jute 121 -'."Il~3f.'..l', l). ‘

t f_ __'\ . L
”1:.L1trs.c.e11 oL. 8L.).L..LLtLLLl 113;..ns.

Lids—1.3131: "L‘he Immjcn is an 11 1L1 -L
He poss sees Ll .1::o-do. :11 and advances money to the begLri to act 5:... .113

t directl;‘. Cost of

0
(1
x,»
p.)
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(J
r,
U)
(“1
L

buyer. Very often he LLLLVLLLces none: t

'1‘

the mehejnns who er3 LL. r “is have migrate}. to 131311ng from Llej._.=utu;1a. 5.le \

are not generally held in good respect by the natives. Lifter 1.. sufficient

szz1eunt of jute is accumulated, the muhaJen has the jute nude into drums

8810f).

v";

or "utcha. (1) be. les for shi ment in a. boat to the anutdar (com-xi

1&5
agent) in the Calcutta Larket. Lften the bales are sold to the local
agent of a. beler, shigp .211 or a. mill. ’L‘hese drums consist of 111111;.“11;r

assorted fibers 8.11:1 wei-h from 30 to £0 seers (GO to 80 pounds). The

111:3.th j' 11 c1113. 33-33 a. fee of :2. to ‘3'.- 8.1111118 (L‘- to 5 cents) per maund and al-

veys leaves a. margin between his g‘.-e;1r.1er1t to the b eperi end his receipt

from the buyers .

the fact that the price of jute fluctmites '

On account of
violently, the 1.111. ejsm keeps 1'1i1‘aself informed about prices from all ;
’1 jute er-.ri:ets by duily wires. In few cases the ;313:LsL‘L1'1ts sell

L-
their produce directly to the purchasing firms. There are jute gresses
again in many ;
firms withc ut 1111331113 through the 115111213 01"

,, .-.+,1.-. ' 12 - .14.- .- 1 , .- 4- ° .- -. .. -' I»
LLrLLu-iur: 'L‘ne 513......1-LLL11 or coLL1.1Liss1 LL edenu is eeroLleel- Lo

 

imgortmit functions Leric d on in the 161i“ Jute t::.de. EI-e Lies large

3o-dewns and often a considerable 1.1. 1e.111t of cs;_:itel. lie is the COLEJLiSSiOll

.' - _ A‘.
ie also reesiwes

agent for the mahejen and bepari in ordinary case 3.
price of the goods sold from the buyer and 0115.11.03 cou1issi111 and go-dorm

(1) "Loose", "incomple", or ”irdi fer nt" (gut e is not tight ; ;ackau
according to a definite wei ht.)

J—Q

rent. Very 0ft in he tellva money to one ‘o.;;r¢..ris on the unfierstunding;
tint they will bring; to him all the ,jute the; can collect. Consi;_;111'1ents
sent to the eretder in C:-..lcutt5; b3; rail are directed to his 50-down. If
the sellers fail to 913305.11 sp ecinl events in order to 1001: after the

sale, then the aratdar is at liberty to dispose of it at his own Judgment.
He charges {go-down rent for store and a. col .1nission of 1;. 511111513 (3 cents).
If the consimx 1:111, 119.; pens to come ‘03; hosts the; no go-down rent is clerg-

ed and a. connission of 1:3 annes is charged on each. 111aund sold from the

31‘01-281": There is :‘generelly a. regular broker who acts for s.

 

buyer who 11-13; be on Indian 1:1erchm1t, 311,332. gel in selling Jute holes or
an European firm, and tEn~ou;;‘.-1 him the goods are dis “‘08 ed of, althoth
the eraudar to 1.7110111 the consignment is 1.11 de acts as the s --'ll:;-r's broker.
The ‘9 rote-rs finds’ouyers for the sellers, and effectga co1'1trect between
them. lie is fmierclly a. person of good reputation and is thoroughly
acquainted with the market conditions and, therefore, not 31 the buyer
and seller rely on him. 211e orcher charges a. co....1°51o.. o: l per cent
of the value of goods ‘oromght. his principals are either the mills,
shippers, or us. lers. l’Fnen the co;..udssion a ent and the archer agree
0‘1 terms, a. Jacl'Lmidor (a petty contractor) ez-zeznnes the qt. elit3,r oi‘ the
fiber for the buyer. The sell-3r than has to peg: the broker's com-
111ission, coclies, tallymen and other clmrd‘es as well as 11,. yin; in kind

A.“

to the Jazchtmdar and. weijner. The time 8.1 lcmed for the Higgrment of the

purchase none;r is from 3 dents to 1 month in Calcutta. The local bro}:-
ers almost all of 1;.i1om are the 1.1e1‘.1‘oers of the telcutaa. jute ’ rolcers

ossociet ion, buy the hull: of the jute used 111 the gills

2.. 311Ji11‘jby the {.‘1‘11101‘1'tte. I'ills.

 

1‘13 more than half of the 5.ve:e;. e jute crop is c011s1112151i o; the
jute mills in 351135. , it is necesssr;r that each will receive its sugply

tress es . 1.;11111, 115.113

L

of jute either from Calcutta or the up-countr;r

of the mills eve their 01711 5;: encies dis tributed t 1111011; ‘115 11t the produc- 2‘
I

in; regions and these giurc15.se the jute fr 111 1.1 the locul 1.111r1;ets (11121133), I
l

accordi1‘1; to the instructions received frm their (3510111; 15. nous-es The Q

jute is brought to the mnrlzet in bundle s of van-in; size and wei;ht.

In purchasing, someti1z1es the whole consi;-:111.1e11t is weighed, but is not

unusual to 1:.reiggh a few selected bundles and accept the rest on the basis

of these few that are weighed. ”2115;:urclnssed jute is then sent to “he

agencies where it is sorted and pres..ed into hutche. bales. The jute

purchased has to be paid for on the s1-111e day and hence it is necesss y

to keep 5. large 511.11 rosdy in cash. (1). ri‘he bales are next sent to

the mills. If the agency happens to be that of 5.11 exiporting house,

then the jute is sent to the belin;> 1° houses for grading; and, aching; into

pucca. (2 ) 511155 for e}: portetion. In case the jute is not bought in the

local market, then usually it is either bought from the 1:15.115. mjen in the

J.

Large markets or fr0111 the amt are in Calcutta.

3. Shippers or 152-511orters

 

’111e ex::orter of raw jute to foreign lands is $510151 as a. ship-
per. He purchases the jute either beled or in the rev: condition. In
the latter case, the jute is oalei oei‘o re bein ,. exported. 15.11;; ship-

pers possess their own presses. Those who do not heve presses, have

their jute baled on the contiect system. 11.11;; of the lsr 3e s11i_>;1i11g

(l) Lehajen as a rule do not pay all in cash in.the seam d5? of
purchase but the mills do.

(2) 400 pounds in wei ht, (;.ucce teens "substantial”, ”secure" or
"correct".)

22.

houses have different degertments for performing the functions of dif-

ferent middlemen. very often a. shipping; concern bales and ships its

jute, bought by its own egmts in the countri'. Liver"

, u shipper has his
own registered trede marl-:5, for different s-‘redes from differe'xt sections,
and merchants and syinners from overseas bug; according; to the standard
.U‘aranteed by trade marks of different shiprers.

i)

4. Iiut che. 3-2.1 inf;

 

As mentionel before, there are two kinds of healing; in the
jute trade, one in the drum form, 121mm as the lmtchs. bele, and the
other the pucce. bale. Ordinarily, the xehajens are the middlemen who

make the raw jute 13011th from the beperis or the peasants into drums

or lzutche. bales, weigiing from 60 to 30 younls for selling; to aretdurs,
shippers, mills or to local egalts of the pucce. belers. The l-Zutcha
beler occupies 3. very important place in the entire jute tr-..de of India.
The Iiutchs belin; trade is well divided between the Indian and the
Juropeen, although the Indian kutche. ‘oele rs are more numerous. However,
the lcutcha battling plants owned by the Jurogieens are in genera-.1 lazr't'er
and more i1.1porte.nt. Lore capital is expended in the l—cutche. ‘uuling

plants owned ‘0: -‘.‘nrOpenns and hence the bui l-:lin;.s and 1.L.Chillel‘i€S are

superior to those owned by the Indisuls. as a verv intiz.z.te Emowlodge

O

3.:

is necessary of both fiber and sellers in the kutche bulin; tr; .e, the

{

Indians are pregonderent either as owners of hutche. Darling plants or in
the employ of the Jurapxne. It is eesi er for the Indian to estiz.‘.;--.te
the average quality of the jute, which comes in 31.22.11 garcels, while
buyi; 3, and also in conducting the 1221135123 bargaining process, as prices
are never fixed.

.’..

After the jute is purchnsed, it is taken

1x
!
f

floulo
w A _ ' ' .~ -- .,. . ,‘ ' . : 1-.- ' . l. . n , Q,~ ' 4.‘ .

YJ.‘13'.“3 1t 13 LuLJng. Q_‘;.\_;Jd’ 0.. 3-1.- i..-12‘; LL", lllu O U11;- vb (1119.11 '41 J8. V J; 8.1,;JU1L,

r ~ 1 «4.1 ‘ . 1 3 ‘ x- '. .Lj. , " 3 .: - ' , rfit — ‘- ~.1. 1 ‘ - 1
color -.-1d leth- e:3 considered 1.1 n13 cl-s .11- lCC’ tion. --1e intone. oele

--, - 4- ‘ ~ J-" ., -.-. p.14- 1., .- .2 ~ » ' 1 - «1' -‘ 1 ... 2

turned out o; 1.11s 3 -.l .31.-his .us an 3.» 3199,13 1113). nt or three 11.1-13. one

. . . r\'\ --,- . ,5 .'.,, ,,. . .-- .. 1 ,.- . 4.- .1 : -;‘ . '; Q .L
115411.: 1 fiv‘kdlx -S , 1‘ Ni) iJ'V‘MlKLS (4.1.1.21 Cut]. U- J’JL‘G_ . '3 Q" iSlU ‘r tallLK.’ ;1 (ix: $.LIIKJ..LL~ was

13 pounds per cubic foot.

Tln‘oughout .L. stern 3e11;;::;l, there are hutche. hulinQ' plants
with sheds but no belin; equipment. .‘hese $113.11 selecting; giants roll
the jute into drzms 1'.'ei_;hinQ: 8.337: ninet el; 82 2/3 pounds. :thlu‘fiiQ-Th the
outer jute in a drum 111:1;- be of fine queli v.7, frequent in lusion of lo"

31.

class fiber i11‘ is no 14

.3
. ‘4

t unco..1.10n.

‘

311t to the tr. r1:et celled 22;.t L110

lo mas
Lab .,-‘.~u

‘flf: (‘1 "‘I
‘ v.

v'u‘

cti cal 1;; a. 11 th c s e drums

8.3.3? in the city of Calcutta.

."xt this point it seems edvi sable to des ribe in some detail
the radii 11;; of lcutche jute, es it is i.. ._:ort::;1t from the stc.;1dpt‘~i11t of
th e on; er. ’Jhe first selection of jute for Irutc‘ne belinQ' divides it
int three or four min clesces. C11 account of fact that sorting

q«J-’

.‘

dependse ens _ el' 113011 individual judgment, a. considerable varietien in
grading results. ilut the selection of the regutaz‘ele heler can be
roughly coirfere" st "=11;- one time with that of nis convtitor 211-3 so-
lection at a. ‘_,'iv.t;2;1 ' riod is uniform, but the quelity ‘- ecu-1.133 poorer

as the 33:.3015C1’u11 es. This is 3301.115 e the jute hurvestcd lnt=r be-
00103 det rioruted by the r31 e:.;ted use of the 35.1.13 shoe-1.: in; 2:5.t3r.
Therefore, in order to hauls an absolute standard of q1-:.lit;' it is neces-

~13

sees"r to charge the Qrede of hutcha. jut

lien ce, grades 1103: only show seasonal vs.
a I};

0‘11er fromyeer to year. 311’s 11.11 11.

present difference i1 the degrees of e

ies in the 001.1;1:.riso.11 of mm f

S

01‘

‘
‘.\

m‘ .‘ J , .
e bouQnu one seison edvzu1ces.

1': S

x, "

U

riution but 9,. also lite—Sq," to

name in differs .zt mesons my ro-
xcellenc ,"Ihich cre;.tes diffi-

2%.

Under the given conditions of co:u.1erce, desires '.e projerties
in jute, such as color, luster and uniformity, cannot be measured ab-
solutequ. Person-:31 jU.d;f:‘:131‘lt, with its in‘ividusl variations, 1.111st,
aft er all deterrdne this in the end. .‘.ven men of long; ezqerience can
imrdly express an adequate stamdurd for u ;_;ivo11 qunlity.

The contract for the purcluzse of ' tchc... jute specifies that
the bales shall contain 2.. given pronorti on of "warp" and "weft" and
also that the £11.1ount of butt to be cut from the root end of the fiber
shall not be more than a defined 1ercenta;e of the weith. whose con-
diti 011s are to a great extent decective, as no accurate definition of
mrp or of weft is possible, nor is it one; to determine be'ore hand
what fraction of the jute will have to be discarded as butt. Hence,
the buyer of kut chu bales cannot rely much upon the terms of the writ-
ten contract, but must depend to a great ext ent 011 the reputation of
the upucountr;r kutche. jute bsl er, and 011 his own experi ence with the fiber.

The form of such {1. cont not is prescribed by the Indie. Jute
;-ills' Association. I11 the case of di sgute, the Iie11,_;e.l Chuzs‘o 3r of Com-
merce, which minteins a. tribunal, chooses arbiters from the 1.1erz1‘oers
of the jute trade, whose memes are kcgt secret to the parties in dis-
pute. Although it is difficult to d termine the absolute stu11d1ris of

quality, yet great care and everv :JOS sible effort are 8.7311185. to arrive

v
.L-

at a. just decision. This usually tel-es the form of e. cogroriise made
between th0 different shades of opinion on the question and the ugxurd

is nude accordingly.

5. Yucca 3clin3

 

Kore than forty per cent of the tot 23.1 jute crop is normally
exported each year to the various parts of the world, th:o1.z'_h the port

0f Calcutta. All the hutche. oeles pass tln'ouhgh a selectin" and ’33. in:

07‘
Lu).

W 1

plant called the " gres 81101 se", 1:119:6- these sales 9:13 c»;:ene.., stri;ped of
the butt end, regreded, and 39 1:53]. i 1 bales of hi Uh de1. sit ;' for com .311-
ie11ce and eco1101‘;z' in shipping. Such an ogzwereti .11 is celled yucca. baling.
The jute plants grown close to the river 1 3"el, 111119 a foot or
two at the lower end, subjected to alternate soaking and drying. In
order to resist this intermittent wetting, the plant produces a herd,

stiff be. 1: in the remicn of the fluctuating 17:-ter line. This course

layer of the 1.1-.-r‘1: cannot be retted as quickly as the stock. 'jhere'1o re,
stez‘ er the flb r is strijped, it possesses a. 1191;.1 and lee-the 0‘ black

area at the bottom. 731113 black area. which is ‘mo inches to two feet in

length, constitutes the butt 1d to be removed. The cost of cutting;

‘

jute in America. and Juro :e is 111,411 and hence it is iner1or111ec1 i.-1 111.19..
It is 0111; the 10 51 class jute .fnich is e::;o .ed uncut, as in the 17111-111-
fe.cture 01" course products for which it is used, the re111cvc11 of th

butt end is not eltog her necessary. But 93 9. rule, jute is exerted

.- I

L-lis by-grcduct of jute used in c. r-

q

after the re..1ova;l 01" .110 Jutt end.

q

,1

min very; coarse fabrics is 111101.121 in the t‘1-a' e as "C‘:.'..ttin__'s” or "but ts".

uccs. bul er bwu's the lmtche. bales with a: watchful eye,

._. I

so as not to be deceived about their yield in terms of cut jute 911"

p.‘
I

. - I Q . 1- ~ ‘ '~ I". - r1 r. - " 1‘, ‘v- ‘- . r o w -' r L: ya r‘
1n.s. ..11e-1 he re I‘u' es 9.11:1 r.-;>..c-.s his accuiulcmiohs for 3.11

—/

to

(D

ci‘

cu"
the world 1‘11a1rlcet.

'1‘11-3 calcutta 11911115 :JlL11l'ES 1'1'11'1011 heme an outgut of from 0118
to six 18.12113 {1) of holes in 9. 3.9.3011, V9.17 only in. size 9.16. quality

of construction. Lech 919111: consists of three units, viz., the 279re-

hoes as, th e 8 el

(D

.1..- . .. 1. ,1 ,7 1, 9., ~ . rv. ,. .1 .... ,1. _
0111119. 811 913, and t11e aressncuses. .113 po-uouhs are

: V n. I ’ " . I I'- ‘ ‘ .= _: ‘ . '_ .‘. ‘W .‘n'_ J- ‘ w ‘ i . a o- I ‘ _ ‘ “
Shula-storied 0:10... r1.11l-:1111_.,s, .-.r e 9: 2.1.9121 00 110111 a. .y’L'I'1-l;‘1_) 5114,11,. of

(l) 1 lal-chl ecuel to 100,000.

.A.

q 1

kntche jute use a relatively small quu11H1 ’ of comp etcd uucce bales.
Dhe selecting sleds ohich e;e e'ther one or tw stori 3d aze also brick
ouildihjs. In‘the sheds the hutche bales are opened, the butt ends
are cut off, the fiber is reselectel and W13u sent out to age press-
house. The jute is jsczed in the pres ouse in ouccu hules, which are
13 sured by the licensed mersurers sent frox1the Chamber of commerce

to per: mm this service for all jute which is to be ex; rted. rhea the

‘

holes are sent out, eit1'r directLr'tO'tle jettv for snigueut or to the
30-downs. only rzzrel; are the yucca sales held uhs old in ,rgeg13nti—
ties as shipment is redo usually as soon as the bales sre

She yucca balcr we; own the Dalia; giant he less, but v93:
cicen he 1;;ses it for the souson. It is not unusual also, for Lmre
t“.n one heler to use the same helix; night. In such cases, each baler
is allotted 3 particular sorting shed for use, but the 1rosshouse is
sh3red, so that severe l 011eretors may use it in turn.

Although provisions for these facilities are found in all

(.0
H.

plants, there is a considerable vez‘etion in er .u““n3u and
plants SELLER-".11: 11:31“r in s 1 rinkler syste .18 and other equipmaits for pro-
tection e ein t lire. Hence, ylants lacking in sprinkler systeus an
other provisi 01s s13inst fire, together with the varietich in their con-
struction, face hijher i33111e hoe rates, whicl iJ;OSGS an udiiti3nel
burden on the insustr".

flhe cutting 31‘ selectinfi, which cannot be done by 1Lchihe, is

.- 7 u;- -- 1-’ "A(‘.JI- Aug 6- . J.‘ , r~ 1--J.I~ -- | I . J.“ . .
735313031le 0'. ‘.1OI‘1~.'l‘S -_".c~L:flf3L‘ed 1301.1 0113 CULu or" 515.3 131 ll 11-13 EELSULI.

‘4
p‘ -. - ~- . u‘a. ‘v- .- ‘1 <. I -~ -c‘- “ . Q J— J— r J-J-.- - oar: . ~— ,
1119 14811 uUi‘l-C 1.;‘1 98.11 8 Of li‘CLl 91. Zlo 1.0 1.811 cutters ulcer 0-13 {.8 SC rter.

Dhe Letter, known as the jschshder (a tettr contractor) is Quid by the

A U

‘

tdece for the out ut und‘the “xe‘bers of th

A.

(D
53
D

pa
*1
t

O
(I;
P
4
(.2

1'_‘. . . 'p. . .
34'5er “’\b~J~J‘S .LrOol

(\

- . _ , ,1..'. ., 1,- “1,1- W71 J--._ -'- 4.. .. ,, :.,.l -. 1'.
him. The averse e....'--111_,s 5.0 .155. 5.1.5.1 53.1 50 ..:olve 1-15.5 (1);.1

(D
ii
(I)
O
(u
’3
l I
d
ks)
(’1
’ l
1.4
c.
57:
c
1..
(u
U)
(11
I
(U
0
Li
0
'5

515;: , ‘0 ut th

L‘rdi- ril;‘ one l1und.~-l c:-.tt 5- 55-155 assorters 51's able to cut enoLz;:‘.-1 ,jute
in e do: for 1.5115111; one hundred ;11'-.cc5. h5- es, equivalen to 40,000 ;;:5unds.
The cutters' xvorl: is not 0-11; laborious, but also very tJii-OllS.

‘Ie must cut off from encn strand Just cs much butt end as necessary and

no more. The fraction .111icl1 must he di- arded veri es from stmnd to

‘. a . + § 1“. ¢ .l‘ I‘- - ‘- - 4- ’ v
strand. 3113 cu5t3r, there. re, trouts 35501-1 SM“. .151 ce;:s.r:..31;, ‘0; telzinr'

seven or eight 130111113 of jute over one srm and then yullirg out the

st ends until t-1e poi .ts of division for e...ch ere all in line. Sher. he

takes the mess and, holding it firm; with one 1.... --1d, 0110;: 8 off t 1e cutt
ends with one stroke of an iron "1:.‘1-:—.t5—.ri", (very similar to 3. 9.15611: r's

cleaver.) He then loosens the free ‘05-'21", if 5.1;, is found entailed with

the fiber, and throws the heed of the cut jute into a. file tozurerds the

selector, .iho su‘501iv ides the jute into z';':.5‘5es este‘alishel by the onler.

The selector ce. lzeeg up with the 155.11) er of his 35511; as the lettsr have

to spenl some time in pulling off the strands, before cutting the butt

ends. After gi'edizg, the jute, in heads (orno r'5.hs) of aoout seven ;.ound

'.'Jei,.'j.-1t, is mde up into lar'er bundles 1'Jei3hing'; 130 to 14—0 2.:oun5s each,

1
C)

re5:.d:,r to be novel to the press house, eer ;' in the 1.xornihg; of the follow-

It is hardl;r 00831018 to ..c.1ove 8. hi h degre. ee of secure c; in
an ope .5. "eti on like this. In spite of great care, much .119 usefl l Jute
is left on the sever ed butt ends. Therefore, the butts ...-1ich v5.-~;-,r in
qualit'r are ye. cited in sever-.'.. graies. She selectors who are paid by the

Liece rate tr" their best to turn out as much product 513 the; can while

treating good jute, so no amount of supervision can prevent a certain

(I) 16 annes equal 1 rugse and that ecuzls 1:3.‘ (1. or 55 cents.

amount of "soft cutting". On the contra y, no effort is rude to cut
the low grade jute too closel" and hence a certiin amount of bark is
left on the jute itself, while the butts are hard and short.

Various types of hydraulic jute presses are used in the Cal-
cutta presshouses. Steam sower is generally employed for the working
of the puhps but a few are driven wit h electricity orougit from outside
sources. Three distinct operations, viz., the filling of the press box,
the compression of the jute, and the tving up of the co; :pressed vase of
the fiber with rOpes are necessary.

In the old t"pe presses, the jute he s to be tram piled dovn 0y
one of the attendants, next the doors of the oox are closed and the
compressing ram is allowed to travel to its extreme point. Then the
doors are Opened, rOpes are applied, and the ram is raised while the
bale is being removed from.the press. This type of pre 83 turns out
thirty bales per hour.

The most modern press is a revolving t;;:e, capaale of turn-
ing outs my to eight" bales per hour. Therefore, the output is at

‘

lea st one sale a minute, or 240,000 bales in a workin; any of ten

k

hours, which is considered quite an achievement for the unskilled
laoor of India In this kind of machine, the oper tiozls of filling,
semi-pressing and lacing, and final pressing are carried on at the
same time in.the three parts of the press. The press box is seventeen

1L

feet deep, and the enormous pressure applied, about two half tons to

6"

he square inch, congresses thexress of jute to approximately fourteen
inches. In the stage of final compression the size of the pucca bales
is 4 feet by 1 foot 6 inches by 1 foot 2 inches, but when the :re ssure
is removed, the bale expands, increasing these dixnnsions sli;htly. In

such a fonn jute is converted into a package of high density of uniform

and convenient size, share and wei ht. Therefore, the gucca sale which

The uniform size of this pucca ‘oale for e;q*ortation is indeed a

re: rlzable ach ‘ ev e1.1e11t in the midst of the general lac}: of standard-
ized forms from which the jute trad suffers.

1T1e (malit;r of the pucca bale is, however, less uniform than

its size and weight. For this reason, the 311113111211 be...ler has to 1.11111-
tain his own piiv a "e orunns, each with a distinctive mark and when the
,jute is sold under each mark it is supposei to be equivalent in qurlitv
to the average of that 1.1231: in the precesdin; sersons. .15 there is no
efinite 111312118, 1entione d oe1 ore, of 1.1ez..surin;; the quelities of his
various mirhs, his pride in his products causes him to sun1rvise the

.’.‘J.

selection 01 1ne Jute with

I. .‘., . Y? ‘J".',J. ~‘. "".~1— IIJ" fi!..
reut care. 1-.e 111:1: us 1113 1:0 1*.. 111 1111 a 1&11r-

lb

h? high basis with a picture in 1:11:10. of a ear ticu lur marl: of the pre-

- A. 7-. .' _ u a ‘ ‘ ‘ o “ a _ (.'- - c .- s' .. q . o ‘ --. 4... 3“ ’. ' ‘ 3
none 5'1:~.LI'. 111$ 11.211011111111333 111 t11e assort11._; s11eo.s 11151-15 the 8.1.1-111ru

as the snason pro._)resces, and thus results in a continuous rose 33 of

1'1‘1rovc11rnt. hence, within a few years, the nuropean balers' .;r;.;‘1es
=.v‘1'1ich may have started fairly low in ohe scale, final]; climb very high

and then disappear, as their quality each --s a he ght where it can no

long ;er oe sucked in quantity. This results, therefore, in the cent inual

introducti 11 of new Lurks.

b‘

The India :1 b: .lers sort 4" their jute into the so-called ";.'-uolic

standards", each of which bears a distinctive, but not isrticulurl; en—

‘

‘ 3 .1- £1... .-_. ‘ '1'. 1,..- ‘| 1, .1 .11.. '1- 1.9 .. 1 ‘1-
llxglbelllll‘; 11:18.19. .1119 Stulll-1413-118L 131110-110. QUUUUL}. 1-1 ulld 1.12.1311:

- ~ -,~‘

"11‘. .'.' 1-, ' .14., ‘.1 . 2'... ~_v.. ' 4n . “r 4... . r .7
e11os11tu11es, L1,.11...111_.s, 8.110. hearts. “ere 5.1.111, 1.-1 1111,11 e1-‘or11s are 1.1-..ue

by reputable ‘oalers to stick very closely to the gene-".‘. 11;; rescuinized

:J

.' I‘ ~ :‘(I- I’ '1‘ . "' " -—x q 1' -r‘ '1‘ . -: ’;~ i.. - . -. aa. *.~"',‘l Q-
btcdlkuafds 01 M11; , tile 13'. C1: 01 31‘0‘331' Q31ulltl~-l‘. bolus US ily..C\1L.1wCJ

0 ~‘ . 1 . ‘.- . r.-L -'-L ._ .a ‘b r‘_‘ . .1 V" . v. .\ .’. 4.1‘ . . ...‘ 4‘
and c011f1131o11, hence at t111 s 1. 1.1311111 ed 1111-11111” ”one e.., the “11101-

.1... ,. - -, ~-, .1 ~— .- *1- . 1, . 1.- ,1 .- . ,1, ,- 11-1, -.
11; report 183.1-->d 0,; 11-19 111d1¢11 central tannin, 11.121111? 'uL51.u.L].uu.J\J, 11111:.

he fall of 1931, contained yroposals for the estaslishment of a cor-
po;ation in India to 1111 a long felt need for standard grudes and also
to stabilize the jute prices. (1). The final step taken by t11e govern-
ment in this 1atter is not know: yet.

The pucca jute which is ergorted to different countries for
renufactu: e is sold on the contract of the London Jute “sscci;ticn. In
case of’dispute concern 1in3 Qielity, the latter ander taies to provide for
srbitr ratioa-i, which it scecifigs shall take place in London. The London
arbitretiens, like those on kutcha jute in Calcutta are general * con-
sidered to be free from part1ality and carefully conducted. This groce-
dure however, results in a consid3111b le loss 0': time, as the'buyer of the
jute, wherever he ma -y be located, has to send a sample of the jute of the

q.

aisiuted parcels to London to be er'mined o" aroit rs ep;m ted by the
buyers and sellers. Besides the loss of time, the London arbitration has
another disa dv31¢ -e which is common to Calcutta arbitratiohs also, the
apparent imgossibilit" of determining quality absolutely. It is also

true that the allowances nude to the buyer for the la ck of quality are not
general v sufficient to conjens ate for zanufact‘ri u13 and commercial losses
arising from inferior .aterial.

6. The C(LlCJttE-a 1.4 r1201“.

 

The great jute mirket of Iathhola is situated on M1e river 10031;
at the north end of the city of Calcutti. The jute presses are also built
near the river and the Port Trust 3111111733. 11"111‘oerless boats from. the up-
country laizd immense ouantities of jute drums every day in the 11thhola

market. The frei3ht heuts lying in docks take their vast jute cargoes

1rom the great sheds or else dirOCtly from fi1e‘trcins run alcn3side the

(l) U. S. Commerce he orts, Iov. 2, 1931.

El.

Io-rt ' ust -it‘uiluey. 717110 great bull: of jute is export 1d tlu'0'11J1 the tort

J.

of 3:".lcutta, but a. small a:.1ount is ezq‘orted thro 71 chi t5. ._o1‘1;_;, as it is
convenient to 116 o11li11_,. ~' p-res:_:es in 11st ern 37311311.

The Calcutta. jute Lurket is very highly organized. 90111-13 there
are six major associations um the 3 0115.11 Chamber of UOKIK.LOI‘C€: (l)
1. ri‘he Calcut ta Baled Jute -.ssociatic11: 11s the 111.1.1e indicates, its 111131.1-
bers consist of persons or fir as e11 as ed in the baled Jute tr- 1.1., andi

eludes shippers, be. are and brokers. All the 1'11e111bers are required to

.‘

register with the associatixm a. list 8.1171 description of 112113113 of b:.led

H

Jute, which are offered 73;; them for 3:. e in the Gel outta. turket. The

Associ ation puts out a. boo}: of about hrs-3111111511951 and fift="_ es en-

! N

11111-1111;-r cont 8.1111111; the s e 1.1; rice and e. s sor tm ent s . Ens 1:1e111‘oe rs o f thi s as 1- s o-

a.

ciat ion are forbidden to do b lsinc -ss with any 11m '3 p arson not a mem-

ber of this see ociation egzce t the Calcutta Jute 1.;ills.

1

2. The Baled Jute $11 in rs association; Its members consist of those
111exz'loers of the Calcutta Baled Jute association .1110 are ide11ti fied as ship-
pers in the e:;:ort of baled ,jute f1 :11 calcutte.

5. The Indian Jute Lille 11ssoci1';.tion: '"1‘1'1e owners and 1.11111- 341‘s of the
jute 2.1ills are t11e1.1e1.1bers 01“ this association.

t1 113 organ-

4. Dhe Juicutta Jute Dee. srs' Association: 21112 1.1e1:f11ers of
izc.tion, 17110 er eproposed and elected. by the Indian Jute ;.ills 11ssocia-

J- 9 -"‘v'\ ‘-. . -\ Q \1 I I- 1‘ -‘ ‘ ~v-“ .- J- I
tion, con. i311 01 11113111311113 e111. ed as Selleis or crow-rs 111 111.3 J1te

trade for local co:.su.:11'_1tion. The brokerage of this association is fix-

\J

ed at l oer 03 nt in direct contracts and 1 1/4 ler cent in principal '1-1nd/

or undersigned and/or 3111:11'antee-l contra cts.

F V J. '1 5' . V“. ‘v ‘. \r'1 .7 J' . ‘ '1 'V1‘. " ‘ ' “ "". : 0' 1* 'L': ‘. . ‘ ' "'"J‘ ‘ ‘ ’ ’
1). 11qu ZELerC 3:01.833. 4.5;OCL.UlU1-l: 11113 L’:J£1.111'..11c1.u.l.v-1 1E; CUliurUlag‘l

‘-v .'. ‘1‘.r ., fl " - '. ' l‘.1 "1". “1 1“: ' - .F- .‘ ‘ ‘ "-‘ ""' "'".' ' .
o”. the 1-1111111 Jite 1-1lls 113soc11-111c113 111-111 tunes 1.1 0101-11-23 1.1111111, 111

"~ ‘ ‘— J- h ‘ f V » - - ' 7" -I 'A ’ ’ ' - ":1 'L - } '1 'N' "| 1‘ .
(l) 1-3'11tt, 1111.1.r11s.t1u11zil 1:11.13 111 1.1.1.,11- 101-111.117.115, 1.1.1.1, 1.. 11111.

ca
u;

Jutei

f‘.‘

rice in oulcutta. Lhe Indian Jute Lills LssocistioL does not
deal with any jurog3eLh oroker for sLle of uth-'ct“red woods who is not
a meLber of this associetion.

rvuhizetion

H-
(LI
kt:
(O
-
.
.
(I)
L4
(L
O
H.
I“
d
F
C)
H
H
.
l’ L1
. .4
.J
H.
U)
0

6. The Cslcv.tts Jute stric 3h

--. :.-. -' J.
n eL50rt1h5 Jute

d.
F...)
(‘

9

rd
C ;
{2.1
k, .
k I
F“!
H.

is comgosed of all firms or persons direc
fabrics from Calcutta. It has stLLLLr/ized COLtract forms for Lustruliun
jute goods and United LiL;dozn or Continental Jute goods.

Besides these 0 351uiz etions megtioued above, there are two
: "11thicus of Indian dealers:
l. Loose.Jute nSSOCiStiOH: Its memoers c'nsist of tnose oersoxs in-

terested in the loose jute trude.

ion.is LL18 up of Indian

r;-
5?

2. Jute 3Llers 'Lssociation: flhis 013 an
firms car gin: on s baled jute trade in ‘Llc utte.
.l.

The L1.1ericuncoxmanies are not Lembe rs of an: of the above

7. fluxnflstion L1LWWe

 

(uj

33'fore concludin; this ch13te: a few words mLy'be said on
J.

'L‘ 1 . 1n 1 n1 .- ~-'—: ,A. . -\ . . - .'1‘1 (3‘ H. - . - w -‘. nrx o A'--.‘ -‘ ;
the squect 01 Sgecu «tion 1L Jute trLue. LLe rise 1L 9-1oes toLLid

J.

the eLd of 1335 was gsrtly due to the short crop and partly due b0 the
activities of the "Jhite lszuur" or ”inside" market. fhis ”Bhitu JLZLLr"
was blamed for the excessive increase in jute quotations. Lri 5 iuLll5

the "Shite Bazaar" was established as a future LLrLet but later it be-
came a ganblins place for all comers. The followin5 account appeLrs in

a publication of a reyort e '1i'en b" Ludlow LLLtLactt i1 Lssocistes.(l)

"fihls 1s s11 eccuiLt e desc 313tionrof an urrun_eL;Lt uLLer
" ' 3 -- ~3~s31 r--»3 .. -.L L...
much t he so-c lled "coy e133" 0.11.. 'sell;;1s"11-. LL, 3
c

.
-‘-‘_ T'. ; l.“ ‘1‘
ll 0:5. Jv.u-.u&‘ LL.-

. ‘_. .f. 3- .1 - L. , .4. ,3 , _, . _ 4_ ,1 _- ‘ _._- , - .'.

ye ueu neiuLe to receive Lor to qulVJ: tLe dHo

4- ' .1. :3 an _ .8 5 .1. 1., 1 ‘J. .-.'_.:. ..‘ .:.~ _' - _. _ .
“91131)18 0133 J 'U Oi b.11:-l‘ ol‘;.-.L-;.Ot1u-18, Old; SJUUlC‘Ju. 11119 .I.‘ c-ul‘d-g...~.:.- S
. I ‘

l‘idra . p

.- -- , .. - ,..- ,. .t. L 3 -L 4.3‘ -.~., --...
l1 0‘" d: 11101130 COL 051 U... 0.1 51-1.1 v.1 COV’u “‘1‘ vi bile E‘_!l‘u-'.»1 ' Junk/431 111113
I'

A‘. ‘. ‘l’ " 4 4""{3 -\- . l "- .‘ "‘ ""\ ' 1"". " .“ '.‘ .’ I. .. ‘I- '3- -
9141 u 1;: {Annual A. "162.8 U1 ulLti‘ 110;.“ 0.1 131113 01.19 owns-J. L0

.
‘

cont

'4
ci’
L

-

w n'.’.\ ~4‘v3 'l‘1;~ I ~v - 3..-. -.'- r. "‘ 7 ‘ '-
(1)15.le10‘51' L.1-..‘111..L<..CU'1L.‘11.__ -'.L’CJOC L’t'JS, lJrlJ. ”-J—l ’ I). (3.}.

I" (7'

UI).
mtegsive were these 033 etions it w;s avgrsel the a HOPLLl 0303
would be tuined over in the juzeer s‘ue teg ti1gs il tie cor rse
of a seeson, that the prices whic: results” from them had a con-
trolling influence on the prices in the BJLtiLitB trgie; aud
thus the reel . Llers a, ;ucoe be :rs an” msnifs'tursrs, were 9rave-

4- -1

1.7 I.“-.e;1€:.ced in their ef._‘o:-ts to seem “ 3 rm: [to J.
cost."

- .4. v.~ ‘ (o‘
131 Lb a rsLbOflleC

_.

all the re sjonsiule trade oodles of Calcutta uni LOgdon

... “a- ‘ -~~‘.°.'-,—, ..._,,,. ‘ , 3 . 4.' 1 ,. .‘. .r., -L- .L '.‘ , '
as-3ed Lfl;t tee "Jdiuw awshir" sneulu not 33 ullUUUd so Contiute in

its greetices. But they remainefi divided as to the necessity of a
future market, also as to the necessity of :etitionin; tO'u;e gov-eru-

I
J

ment to aseist in its ibuu'atiou. Jhile this 1iscussitn was ugder

,- - ' r- A - .1-.. '., -. -,, .L J.‘ g 7‘. '4. w,‘ , 1 ..,, ,-‘., : 4. 4,
mg; in lGio, ce: e13 Oga-&uOPS of ufie ’Jdlufl sesaar' were oosvicu3d
.’., J— D J-‘w' r. .‘ 'rf-L' ”A. . ,--’ J-' - . . .‘--- x ‘ . 47..
add as a result 0 ails, affilulvuul leulSlaulUJ for so;:33531su MLLS

:‘ ~n -° .' ‘7‘." . I so ' . ' v1 4‘ 7 ‘, .-'. u " ‘ 'V' -. J "“ ‘ ~ ""1 ' - +13
l0r& ol ‘LM;11A: JLS tnai nu to 38 uggecessary. alSULSSie3 of uue

v v v

'5 -. ‘1‘ . - “v" '- 4‘ ~\ ' 1‘- 4- 0'- ':~“- ~.—' I : “ . '. r.‘ ‘ " '4“ ‘
r oi e le lulhute fuouse nurneo “Quit arcs , and in 1:20 ale

(2)

{

fontstion of the ALBt India Jute LSSOCi$ ion was announced by a

‘h 0' ‘ 1. W) .
g,.‘:,av fit-:9”: L0 r1 {-‘ro

U‘ro

PT33 IV

 

Jute Iu1uf;3t1riu5

 

l. Surly History: Rise of Dundee.

-—.-.—. --

 

 

The jute fiber be5e1 to receive utter1tion i'1 ureut Britain durin5
the latter {:1 rt of the eio1tee1t h centu y. The first exteriueutel spinni15
and weavin5 of Jute .Jus utt e11ted i1 nb1115do1, Ox fordshire betJeea land and
1834. About the same time Jute Jes also introdueed iuto Scotluad, some of
the fiber reechiu5 Dundee in lBté. The flux industry Jus elreudy extensive-
13 deve101ed in D11dee (hen jute be5a1 to receive attentioa in Great Britain.
Since the essentials for Joruis5 a best fiber Jere elreuuy in existe1ce in
Du1dee, it Jus not 31 grisi15 that the iurbe scale mu1ufucture of tke neg
fiber should arise in thut city. Pr05ress was slog at first, is the 01f-
fereLt menufuctur ere tried to Joru up Jute xith f 11 maChiletj Jithout uoei-
fyiu5 it. The first reel eigeritents too; gluce in the Jhegsdule Jorge,
Du1dee, and these exgeriueats lulu the Coundetion of ins 101 Vest i1dustrg.

It Jus not u1til 1855 thut gure Qute yer1s Jere soid 11 the flu1iee MurietS.

’1

Durii5 the eerlv days of Jute munufucture, tuere Jus much reJiuice e5elast
this 1ezl" introduced :iber u1u Hence the uxu1£;cturers Jere ouli5ed to i1-
ciide in mun; co1tructs for ilu: uad other Virus, the cleise "Juriulted
free fron I1ii an jut e".

Retirelly in the be5iu1i15, it Jus cif.icult to see a Ure-ut futire
for this fiber, but by 1855, txe1ty re re after the first germs Jere sold,
jute hud achieved suc31a Success in the couuer Miel field of m Jufuctire t-;t
the mugority of tie Dundee Sgilflers and MELVLrS were e15e5ed defi1itely 11
the manufacture of Jute, leuvi15 flex u1d flux tOJ aside. 3i1ce tte Sou1di15
of t.1e Jute industry in Europe, it has streed regiil; to tFe ca1ti1e1t of
EurOQe, to forth u1d South America and Inuiu, the list uuuei 0ei15 toe

leud135 mw1ufecturer of jute at prese1t.

2. Sgecielizution in the Jute Teitile Lechiuery.

 

Iith the increasin5 importance of jute, the demand for jute me-
chinery developed e1d hence several companies fOund it profitable to e15e5e
in the manufacture of jute textile machinery in dreut Britain. TLe follov-
ing British congenies are fumed us jute machinery nukers.

o
1. James F. Lou and Co. (Ltd.), Qunifeith, Scotland, which started in 1811,
was converted into a limited company in 1902. This firm ma1ufectures pre-
pari15 and shippin5 machinery.
2. Urquhart, Lindsey, and Co. (Ltd.), Dundee, Scotland, vhich stnrted buSi“
ness in 1862 and became a limited liability Comteny in 1897, makes a spe-
cialty of jute finishin5 muchinery.
5. Robertson and Greher, (Ltd.), Dundee, makes looms, softeners, si1ders,
u1d finishin5 mucninery. This comgnny makes a syeciulty of seJin5 machines
for the jute trade and also manufacturing machinery reuuired in the lino-
leum trade.
4. Charles Burner, Sons, end 00., Dundee, nukes gregeriu5, veuvin5 end
finishin5 machinery. Tle victorie loom made by tneu for the veeviu5 of
heavy navy eunvus is cluiued to be the only icon 01 the market 0&y&bl€ of
makin5 muthematicelly correct jute cloth.
5. D. J. fiacDoneld, Dundee, manufactures bu5 makin5 machines, yarn testers,
waterproofin5, aid other mechinery for the treutme1t of cloth.
6. Feirbairn, Me Pherson end 00., and Losso1 and 00., both of vhich are

L‘

located at Leeds, England, and nor form branches oi the one firn of

u)

uir-
bairn, Lawson, Combs, Barbour (Ltd.), ‘re tne lurbest concerns meri15 jute
preguring, rovin5, and sginnin5 mnchinery. fhe Combe-Berbour bruicn of
this firm is located at Belfast, end manufuctires necninery for jute as

1‘

well as for :lex m1d Herd fibers.

7. Shettleston Iron Jorhs at Glss5ov muses treuuri15 cn1 Syi1n115 nuchin-

ery for jute mills.

1911 had a full Siinq and Jus reflecte” in e corresgondiig boom in Jute

q

machinery. Mechiae makers of Greet Jritein, yho are refuted as the best

‘

sex rs of Jute munufectrriig eguisuent, had a busy time as orders for all

kinds of nechinery Jere “leitiful. Orders from tie Coutiieut, Mfiic? was

 

extending its jute industry, and India were high. fiej Iidisn mills could E
not get mechiiery deliveries gusresteed before 1914.
3. Jute Tusu‘ectirij; Processe_;
The processes emgloyed for Leiufucturiud Jute are in beierel
similar to those used for cotton aid yool. Jhe nature of the nor; is the
Same, thoudh not so refined. A brief descsigtion of the maiufucturiig pro-

cesses isvolved in gute is oives belox.

Batching: The first process in the msnufsctire of Jute is tersed

—-—

 

.'I

batching. Different kiids or glelities tor any predetermined kind of yarn
are selected. This is Called batch settino. The number of beles for a
batch is usually six, aid of these there may be three or five Varieties or
marks. The stricks,(l) (or needs of Jute) which are in a hard coisition on
account of being baled under high hydraulic preSSire, are first softesed
before subJectind them to any other process. Ike stricxs ere souetimes
Qertly softeied or CFLShEd by uexns of stems heauers i1 toe Jrocess of 0 en-

5415; the bills-3 3.35. {31151 are CO"1‘J€,~§€:'J ti) the 53".:
rent varieties ere hung on pins 30? the purgose if Leif.U tigei to the so?t-

eniag machine. In general, the i,ructice is to use a "bele ogeier” or "gute

crusher". The merts of e bale ogeier cois'st of three 3 ecielly skated

-

"

rollers, the peripheries o: Jhich contain a nuuber cf Small kiobs. Lf tflese

the two rollers are supgorted 01 the ShAt :orisoltal El; e of tbe frucelorg,

(1) Also ii forms "streek", stric; , or "striue", i1 Sheicer's Center-

w ".1 ‘1 ‘fi 1 c 1‘ - 1 £4 : '1 , I >" ‘. " IN - f , 93‘ v "
biry isles, J ere Rsrdoler's is r is CDJwaLd J-:; sari e o- flux.

03
\1
I

while the third or the top roller is kept in close contuct by means of
weights and springs actind on each end f the arbor. The layers from dif-
ferent bales are laid ugon the different feeu slots on the left which cer-
rigs them up to the rollers, betveei Ihicb the layers are crushed and pertly
separated. The proxinity of the Jeionted roller or rollers to the fired

\

ones depends ugon the thickness of material pessinp tnrough the nachine.

Softening: The fiber is delivered by whet is called the delivery
cloth and the betcher selects smell stricks of about 1; to 2 pound weidht,
and passes tnose on to the attendant or feeder of the SOftEfliHé mechine.

The fiber then passes bet een a series of flutes rollers, each guir of Hhicn
is kept in contact by mesns of spiral sprinas. The standard number of pairs
is sixty-three, but different numbers can be used. Some flutes are strciéht,
others are spiral end eecn pair may or may not contain the ssme number of
flutes. The sprinds ullov the top rollers of each pair to rise as the ma-
terial passes through the machine. Tue slibbt upsurd und dovnrurd movement
of the tOp rollers regulates automatically the £103 of veter and oil upon
the material, the apparatus for shich is oftei pluced over the 11th eid lath
rollers of the softening machine. Care is tsrei to see ttut the liguids

are distributed evenly, shile the fiber is pessino t rou 1 and to stop the
supply Jbel the machine stops. fine relative giuntities of oil and Juter de-
pend ugon the duality of the batch. Jbule aid mineral oil are used, the
latter being preferred. About 1 to 1 1/4 gullons of oil is the usual enorit
given per bule of e00 pounds of Jute, Jnile the Quentity or yeter Varies
from 3 to 7 alllons.

The delivery attendants remove tne stricfs, ¢ive the“ a t/ist to
facilitate future nnidliag, sis gluce them on Jkat are terned rur Jute b r-
rovs. The stricks ure ties delivered to the sitters Jbo cut off tbe roots,
mid finully the datefiul is ulloveu to ren.in for tJelVe to tleity-four

hours to 31101 the mixture of oil niu'vuter to egreuu evelly aid thorslwhly

over the fiber.

Cr?
(.'-.
I

1 O

Cerdiig: After the moisture hes sgreud suffiziently, the material
is taken to the "breaker Curd", the iirst machine in the yFEQUDimQ deour -

on the

H-
p.

ment. A certain JEipht of Jute vhich is ter ed a "Dolop" is la
feed cloth Mid passes betveen the feed roller hid the cell to the lurpe

cylinder. This cylinder has a hibh surjuce speed, end it Curries o;rt of

. .4. a A ,n 1. . . v-
urfuce o-EEu or the Jory-

‘

U.‘

the fiber toverd the Jorkers en; strigyers, the
ers beind much leJer than thet of the cylinder. Due pins in the tJo rol—

lers Jork in opoosite directions, those of the workers being "bechset", end
this srrsndehent, combined Jith the relutive $1016 of the tins, and the
difference in the surface soeeds of tJO rollers, results in the fiuer being
broxen and split, aid hurt of it curried around by the vorger toverd the
strioper. lie striuher strias tne ioer off the Jorker, aid carries it s-
rouud to the cylinder. The pins of the stripger and cylinder eoiut in the
same direction but as the surface sgeed of the cylinder is much Cgreater

then that of tie strigger, th result is tiut tie fiber is coated betJeen

U)

the tJO.
After pessiib through the lust pair of sorkers end strihpers, the

sins of Jhich ere

&

fiber is carried forverd tOJanS the dofi’iib roller, the

_e CJliider b? the dof

U

.1
..

c+

break-set. On beinO remoVed iron er, the fiber
passes betveen the drevin; and uressing rollers into the conducter, sud

finelly betveen the deliverv end yressinu rollers into the sliver cei. Tye

ratio of the dreuinc roller end feed roller is terued the druft:

(N

surface sneed of drevi Q roller

 

_ Draft
Suriuce egeed of feed roller

In this machine the draft is usunlly about thirteen.
The sliver fr m the can of the breeder card as; be sound in bulls
or may be taK61 directly to the fiiisher curd. j-

91a ed behiid the feed rollers in the letter metLOd, le ell the slivers

f».
g:
H

fr0m the Guns are wiited before the; ener_+ fro; the huchiue. :He ,riic',

difference oetveei a fiiisfier mi“ ore xer Cur; is fi,et fiie first age is

itted Jitl finer gins, that it colteils tio Coffer rollers sis tktt it
u3isl y gossesses ; Dreet saucer of ,sirs of Jorxers in; sari/lers, e fill
ilar iiJiiuilQ cera deviio fair sets.

Drsvindz After a tWoroubh cerdiuU o: the fiber a; the above ma-

 

\

chines, the eels costuinica the slivers from the fizisier cur; ere tunes to
the first srsviaé frene. A ver; 004301 ¢€E"Od is to let four slivers ran
iato one sliver st tie iirst Creviga, then tvo slivers from the first Crev-
iJ5 are run into one sliver st the second ereriud fruue.

.‘

There ere differelt “JpES of dreviab :ruces, viz., 913; bsr or
slide, roterg, spirel, rino, ores link or 35-11, tHe stir.l teiqc aenerelly
used for the second dravinb. All of these can do the same vork, viz., colo-
1J5 cit of the fibers ulQ tfei lsyiao then ;;rellel, and i4 eduitiOL d2;J‘
ind out the sliver. The deiplLtiOfl of‘be.uuchile illicetes the BertiCl-
lsr method ii JiiCW tle Gill 3113 “re novel. Elese i.itls are each filer
thsi those 0? the breaker all finisher cgrds; co¢s= ueltlf, the fivers are
more thoroughly segerited. rue arafit ii the first drurilo viries frog

three t) five, smile in the secOlc drevilg it is uSlelly from five to sevei.

A certein anouit of drejt 01 drivizg oit of the sliver is iecessurg, else

('0'
H o
C)
7‘.
CI
'1
fr.
L4
£1
(1‘
H.
(H
'3

the veriOis dQJblilQS scil; cease the sliver to Eitr.t
fron each machine.

EJEEELQ: Roving is the fix 1 ere» Iii; .rosess ,14 is caliicte;
in the meshiies Just mentiOiel. Shere is no deolilp a: tit sliVers ii the
ope: tioa, bit eech s iver gesses segur-tel; t ro.,h :Qe aecdiies, fires the
can to the Syyndle, is er 11 oat to scout eight tiles its oriQilll lelbth,
t to strel_tlei it, ii orier tE't it M;;

re
0 k

9-

31d receives a Si ll gtoait of t
be successfully veiud ugon the rovisg toutia of tte flyer. JUe c:ief ;iece

of mechanism ii the roving :rpme is t‘fie peering 5-1011 es "sifi‘ereitiil mo-

tioa". Its ogeratioa, i1 couguictiOi Jitl tie iisc tic ssqoll, the scales

40.

or the ergxudilo pulley, serves to injurt us iutesmitteutl; veriuble steed
to the bobbin. In the jute roving fr;ue the bobbin is mined the "folloser",
because its revolutions per miuute are feJer thel those of the flyer. Such
layer of rove increuses the diameter of the material on tLe bobbin sunux;
beuce at the beoinding of each layer, the speeu of the bobbin must be in-
creased and kept at this iucreused soeed tor the vbole traverse frou to_ to
bottom or vice versu.

giiuuiug: After all these ogerctions, the rove yarn is reedy for
the sgiuniug fruue, shere u further draft of about eiobt is given. Die me-
thods for spinning jute and dry sgismixiD of the flex fiber are the same.
The spinning freue is not used for very heavy Jute gurus, and the desired
amount of tvist is 5ive1 ii the roviu.o frame.

The count in jute yarn is based upou the veioht in pounds of
H

14 400 "urds such a lenoth receiviu: the line of sovndle". The vei ht
’ J O u 1"" v

of the finest yarn is from 23 to 5 pounds per spyudle. The sizes rise in
pounds up to about 20 pounds, than by 2 pounds ug to about so pouids per

Spyndle, Jith much larger jumps above this Jeioht. $10 hundred to three
hundred pound rove yarn ere not uncoumon, vhile the Jei¢ht occusiouully
reaches 450 pounds per SpyidIE. The differeut sizes of yarn are extensively
used in a large variety of fabrics, sometimes eloue, semetiues together

vitb other fibers, viz., Jitu Jorsted is tFe vurious uiuds of ccrgets, Jits
cotton in tngestries, mid household cloth, Jit: liueu and toy yards for tie
same fabrics did for gaddilo, etc., aid Jitl JOOl for horse clotkiuo. The
yarns are cugable of being dyed i1 brillimit colors, but tbe colors ere not
very fest to light. Tue fiber is also used 11 Jig m hild us it receubles

V ‘ v1. ‘ . ' P ' '4 -‘ ~
tue humui flair remerhuolj.

‘s

eeviug: Host jute cloths are Joveu ei her plsil or Jitb siucle

 

tJills. Usually the Jeevers oterute tjo locus oulg, e fej rufllilg tiree,

41.

while on'side goods there is u veever to each 100;. Usu ll? the cone over-
pick is most videly enployed for Jute, althOth e fev under-sic: looms are

f the Jute

O

seen. Automatic looms ere not found bec use the inelasticity
fiber does not give the ”urn thread the sane tendency to shrink, Jhen re-
lieved from the distendiid pover of the reed, as do more elastic fibers
like cotton end sool. As the fabrics generally voven ere coco rutively
course, temples are unnecessary, and their use is ,ructicslly unknovn in
Jute weaving.‘ Because of the relutively low steeds ut Jhich ’ute looms are
driven, shuttle guards are also usuully considered unnecessary. for or-
dinury hessiun cloth, Jute shuttles are usually uoOut twenty inches long by
tvo inches sguure. The shuttles used in the cotton trude oossess a cone-
tipped end which fits into a degression rude in the leether picker, but
jute shuttles are usually nude Jith a flat or side tip. Ike pointed tiy
occupyin¢ ubout e third of the Jidth at the end is only for puidunce,

shile most of the end is flut aid this sort is struck by the picker. ile
adventuaes claimed for this system are thut it makes for less rugid veer on
the bicker emyloyed. Jute cloths such as those for yeddinbs, bags, end
other goods to be cut up for Sgecial purposes are made in nxron Jidths and
are voven tuvo or more at s time in the some looms by using, sue form of
center-selvsge uttuchment. The widest loos used in the Jute trude is eipht
yards side. Very fev are as Jide as this, though tfiere are sever 1 that
weave goods fou yurds side to be used as tie foundation of side linoleums.
The stundsrd loon for veuviid 40-incn hess'uns is nude :ith a eds-inch reed
Space.

Finishing: After the veuvind ogerution, the cloth pusses throubh

 

the crOppi15 mscnine for the )ur use of cliygi1o off the threud eids, and
then throubh a dungening nechine to moisten it slightly for the Sisse ielt
process. It is nov run through the heuvv rollers of the culenderinU mu-

t

chine. Kent in order to fill ug the clotb uiu c,ive it u stootl aggbgfllce,

‘3.
.J
H.
C)
H.
U)

so heavy shit was; have a

H.

it is run tfirough the meddlido mach 4e,
segarste et5iie or motor for driviso. The next 09erstion is to Jin as the
cloth on a steel roller, which is svdng in betveen tvo leroe rollers that
are revolved slt-rnately backyard and forward. Ede heavy gressnre causes
friction, heats up the cloth and flitteas the thread, so that a blazed finish
is given to both sides of the cloth from the cater to tfie innermost layer.
Three sviising rollers are thei used to geEp the meciiie in continuous one-
ration, one roll bei1¢ Joand on aid uiother off, fiiile the tEird is being
ooerated on. These machines sr made side ensigfi to tnxe oae, tjo, or more
pieces side b; side, and uSielly ten minutes is sllOJed for fiiishilg a
roll 100 to 112 yards long. Cloth so finished is called Lbdoled hessian..
After calenderimd or munpliio the finished cloth is measured,

folded, and baled for shipment.

43.

CWAPTZR V

The Jute Mills of India

 

 

1. Beginning of Jute Manufacturing in India.

The success of the mechanical method of spinning and weaving jute
in Dundee was responsible for the introduction of jute textile machinery in
Calcutta and its suburbs. The fact that Bengal is the largest producer of-
jute and that it also has a large supply of very cheap labor were suffi-
cient reasons for this venture. The concentration of these mills about Cal-
cutta was natural in view of the established movement of jute through this
port.

In 1854 an Englishman named George Ackland, residing in Bengal,
became interested in the gossibilities of rhea (China grass) as a substitute
for flax and hemp.° He brought back to England some of this fiber in order
to see if it could be manufactured with the help of machinery. His propo-
sals did not meet with any encouragement among the Dundee machinery makers.
One of these nwiufacturers told him that rhea ”as too tough and gummy to
compete, but that there was a possibility of obtaining more practical re-
sults by mmiufaoturing jute in Bengal, where it was produced. He was shown
how successfully jute was manufactured in the Dundee mills. Accordingly,
he ordered a few sets of jute pregaring and Spinning machinery which were
shipped to Calcutta. In 1855, he built the Rishara mill, near Serampore,
the first jute mill in India. At the outset only spinning Operations were
conducted, but two years later some hand looms were added. The mill had a
capacity for turning out eight tons of jute a day. This comysny, however,
did not meet with much success and after 1868 it remained partly closed for
a few years, being finally absorbed by another comgany.

The second mill to be started in India was that of the Borneo

Jute Company which commenced operations in 1859 and was the first to use

power looms. This concern was afterward changed to a limited liability
company under the name of Baranagore Jute Manufacturing Company and today
its plant ranks among the largest of the Indian mills. In 1862 the present
Gourepore mill was started at Naihati, and four years later, in 1866, the
India mill was opened at Serampore.
2. Growth of the Indian Jute Industry_sinoe 1870

Up to 1873 there were only four jute mills in Bengal. These
proved so successful, however, that in 1873, 1874, and 1875 more than a
dozen new mills were built and put into operation. By 1877 the increase in
capacity proved to be greater than demand and there was a lull until 1882.
After this four new mills were started within the next tso years. This ad-
dition became responsible for another period of over-production and out of
this situation the Indian Jute.Mill.Association was created, Which, since
1884, has attempted to regulate output in conformity with the demand. The
next period of activity followed after 1895, and a subsequent one occurred
during the early years of this centuny. During the war the demand for sand
bags and brattice cloth (1) in the European battle fields served as an im- (
petus for the building of six more mills. The continuation of the demand
for jute products in the post~war period became responsible for the build-
ing of eight more mills up to 1928, two of which are American owned. As a
result of increasing numbers of mills, the productive capacity was again in
excess of the world's demand during 1928. Therefore, an agreement limiting
work to four days per week on the double shift system came into force among
the members of the Association. Experience has shomn that although at cer-
tain periods the productive capacity has gotten ahead of world's demand,

yet with the steady increase of the world's population and industrial

(1) U. 3. Tariff Information Survey, "Bags of Jute and Cotton" (1923) p.121.

consumption, the demand for raw jute has continued to empand.

45.

his doubt-

less accounts for the fact that during the summer of 1931, a well-planned,

up-to-date jute mill, with 400 looms, was opened near Calcutta (1); although

that year was one of the most unsatisfactory the Indian jute industry had

ever experienced.

outta mills from 1859 to 1930.

(1)

The following table shows the-steady increase of looms in the Cal-

 

Table 3. Showing Number of Looms in Calcutta Jute Mills. (a)

Sacking. Hessians Total.

June, 1859 ~-- ---- 192
June, 1869 -- --- 950
April, 1877 2,948 910 3,858
December, 1885 4,900 1,800 6,700
January, 1890 5,359 2,300 7,659
December, 1895 6,584 3,117 9,701
'January, 1901 8,613 6,600 ’ 15,213
January, 1905 9,786 11,409 21,195
January, 1910 13,421 18,334 31,775
January, 1915 15,751 22,603 38,354
January, 1920 16,124 24,353 40,367
January, 1921 16,445 24,453 40,898
January, 1922 16,354 24,985 41,339
January, 1923 17,452 28,111 45,563
January, 1924 18,286“ 29,732 48,018
January, 1925 18,344 31,055 49,399
January, 1926 18,541 31,307 49,848
January, 1927 19,353 31,001(b) 50,354
January, 1928 19,337 31,184 50,521
December, 1929 -~ -- 52,906
December, 1930 -- -- 58,639

(a)

(1:)

W

Ludlow Manufacturing Associates "Jute" (1928). P.37;
U. S. Commerce Report, December 8, 1930.

The total number of looms shows a steady increase, but

during 1926 there was apparently a transfer of a number

of hessian looms to sacking.

U. S. Jeekly Commerce Reports, June 8, 1931.

46.

The jute mills of Bengal as early as 1917 had elevated the jute
industry to the second place among India's manufacturing industries. Before
the war the mills consumed roughly half of the jute and the remainder was
exported. The war conditions encouraged the Calcutta spinning and weaving
industry, which in 1926 consumed nearly two-thirds of the available crop.
The consumption was on the increase, however, until it was checked by the
depression of 1931.

It is, however, difficult to say how long the number of jute
mills in Bengal will continue to increase. The Indian mills today have
achieved the important position of supplying the world with the major por-
tion of its requirement of standard size Hessians and sackings, and these
products constitute the principal shipping material of the world's indus-
trial crops. It is reasonable to anticipate an expansion of the jute
bagging industry in other countries, but such attempts so far appear to
have only further stimulated the Indian manufacture of jute cloth which is
imported for making jute bags.

3. Ownership and Earning§_of Indian Jute mills

In 1927 31d 1928 there was a total of.ninety-three jute mills in
India (1), the majority of“which.are owned by the Scotch and English con-
cerns. The industry is well organized and is practically controlled by the
Indian Jute Mills Association, whose membership, on Hay 31, 1931, included
fifty-nine of the total of sixty important mills in Bengal (2). Of these
fifty-nine mills, only six are owned by Indian, one by a French, and the
rest by British concerns. The American mills do not seem to hold member-

ship in the Indian Jute Mills Association. The reason for this appears to

(1) U. S. Commerce Year Book, Vol. II. (1930) p. 299.

(2) U. S. Jeekly Commerce Reports, Eebruary l, 1932.

’
_”—‘

~—

47.

be that the American owned mills are built in Bengal primarily for the sup-
ply of American needs and their omners choose to act independently.

Each mill in Bengal has a Managing Agenqy, which may be a sub-
sidiary of the company owning the particular jute mill, or an independent
export house in Calcutta. In the latter case it is not unusual for an en-
port house to act as the Hmiaging Agents for seVeral mills. The mills, as
a rule, do not market their products directly, but sell through these
Managing Agents. A firm of managing Agents usually has a buying and selling
department operating independently.

The following is a list of the Indian jute mills with their
Managing Agents and dividends for the years from 1912 to 1921. These years
cover the war period when there was a large demand for sand bags in the

battle field, resulting in high profits for most companies.

. 3mm macaw-.. $0?an -hmmh. thE. .m
4..de .HD \uhgwafi fimfifim .Hdmsm. .N

.Hmma .m 33 . . . .on Heads. whose sums. n, .
b 8.325 dupSOHdo :HmpHPdU: dead mohmfifiou ho pdmsuhdmmq .m. .b «mohmnwwm «new.

 

 

 

 

I“. .
A,“ '

 

‘‘‘‘‘‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.

-Half year ended April 30.

Year ended January 31,  1921.

IRupsss 1, 200, 000 bonus distributed in fully paid ordinary Shares in the Century.Mills Co., Ld.
IBonus of 200 per cent distributed in fully paid ordinary shares in the Nuddea
rupees 875, 000 bonus distriouted in fully paid ordinary Shares.
.Mills had Howeson Brothers, Ld. from 1912 to 1921 as managing agents.

Companies old but names did not appear in 1931 list as the m

jICompanies whose names did not appear in "Calcutta" in June,

1p_I3;IrHalf year ended March 21.
I. 4. 1Year endedTMarch 31, 1921.
5.“ Year ended March.31.
6.‘ Year'eaded August 31.
7.. Accounts published yearly.
w} 8. .Half year .ended September 30.
pHI-9.,IWas new company'in 1921.

A 10.: Year ended November 30.
11. Fourteen months ended March 31, 1921
12.

13.
,. I’14.
' 16. _Company resonstructed.
17.
18.
[#3 »“Association in 1931.
'zag; ‘ '
.'LSC'ZIJI 3" "1‘. 3. ;
“73%“
WW'
757;
7776=76
2&3? 7

Mills 00., Ld.

embers of'the Indian Jute Mills' Association.
1921, but were menbers of the Indian Jute Mills

Table 17. Indian Jute ‘1 is and ‘lcir 3:. ends, 1913—11; . (a)
Mame of Hills. Companies t .
marked with "15‘” ‘I’JI‘efEl‘l‘Gfi 6.11.514; .. 311 S, .. 135.313“; . _ , .4. .91. III”
shares. Comyanies marked driectsrs, u? 590? 7 Tics D1‘*Qe’ds 1r 67*” *“‘ 8“
with 31M. were non-meMbsrs
X:s:::ai§:: Zn fi:: lel:931. 191“ 3131914 1915 1511317 1919 1719 1:20 19:1
1. Albion Jute Mills Co.Ld.p. Andrew Yule a Cu. Ld. 8 20 lCI 58 70 79 1:3 EC 3:9 (1)0b
2. Belvedre Jute " " " 9. Andrew Yule a Co. Ld. 4 8 6; 26 50 80 £16 ug :28 '7x22
3. Budge Budge " " " " p. I drew Yule a Co. at. 18 30 21 38 70 6 :I: lib nxffiw' \-;o
4. Caledonian " " " " p. nndrew Yule a Ce. L:. - - ~~ ~~ 6 16 let 6 Eieéé’ ~—
' " " " " p. “ndrev ‘ule 9 00. Lo. 1- —~ - - m- -- r~ -“ .ww *-
2: ggfzzlt " ” " " M. :’u°”‘ :119 a Co. Ld. 4 12 ll 40 7O 65 205 70 Cngo --
7. Lothian n n n n p. manna, 313 Q CO. Ld. ““1 m- 2— ~— 5— 1175f “3% :9 JJ::S I (Ln
8. National " " " " p. nn’rel I’ule & CO. Ld. 10; 24 18 110 271 10105 135 uv loo (l;cO
9. Jew Central” " " " 9. Andrew fule a Co. Ld. 19$ 75 57 {1537C 7“ BC 579 135 -1}?O "”
10. Orient " " " " 9. Andrew Yule a C0. Ld. ~~ -— -— ~~ ~~ nil nil nil d5 u} --
11. Alexandra " " " " p. Jegg Dunlop & Co. Ld. nil nil nil 111 nil nil 7C 159 IIIJE ~-
12. Alliance " ” " 7 p. Beg; Hunlo; 8 Co. Ld. 12 16 8 4 160 65 in? 175 (9150 ~-
13. Craig " " " " p. Begg Junlcp M Co. Ld. -~ -~ -— ~- -~ -- >11 nIl @jHJl ~-
14. waverly u H H " p. 3935 Dunlop & CO. Ld. ‘” "’ "' _. ~_ “.4 -“ 3%?”3jnl} n _~
15. AnglO~India" " " " p Duncan 3ros. a Co. 1d. ~~ -- -- -- -~ 132' 35 33h 79 (7)20
6. .Angus Jute works The Ar.'gus Co. Ld. -- -~ ~~ -~I -~ ”- "“ ‘” .. “ “”
l7. Auckland Jute Mi ls CO.Ld.p. Bird a;' In Company nil lC nil 73'30 45 140 150 (4)60 --
18. Olive Jute Mills 00. Ld.p. Birc and Conyany 12 12 nil 25, 45 50 145 160 (4)90 ~—
19. Dalhousie Jute " " " p. 3115.: n Congany 15 l7§nil 22j-55 75 140 120 é)150 --
20. Lansdowne " " " " p. Bird and Germany nil nil nil nil nil 15 80 120 (1)95 --
21. Lawrence " " " " p. Bird and Co ,n1 15 175 5 22; 55 75 200 200 02185 ~-
22. Morthbrook " " " 7 p. -Bird and Con on 12§-17§nil l7g-45 70 200 200 @5200 ~-
23. Standard " " ” " p. 31rd and Company 22% 25 5 30I 65 85 200 200 €n150 ~-
24. Union " " "7 " p. Bird and Company 22% 25 5 37; 80 110 275 25“ ($190 ~-
25. Balliaé hata Jute 1.11115 James Luke and Sons —- - -- =- r- r- ~~ “- -- "-
26. Baranagore Jute Fact. Co.Ld.p.Geo. fiends1son & Co. Ld. 10 15 nil 10 25 15 25 30 (6)35 (7)
27. Bally Jute Mills 00. Ld. p. Geo. let‘srso a Co. 1d. -- -~ -- -— -- -- 10 20 20 (5)10
28. Champdany Jute Co. Ld. James filfllc ; Co. Ld. 4 10 6 6 20 45 45 70 (5)80 (7)—-
29. Wellington Jute Mills James Finlaj :Co. Ld. ~~ -- -— -- -— —— _. _- __ __
30. Fort Gloster ". Mfg.Co.Ld.p. Kettlewell ,jullen a Co. 11.13 15 10 55 9O 62%- 180 140 225 (3)50
31. Fort William Jute Co. Ld. p. Kettlewell, fiullen.& Co. hdxnl nil nil nil 10 32% 7O 75(11)90 --
32. Ganges Manufacturing Co. Ld.p4Macneill and Company -- -- - —- 20 75 300 160 180 -
33. Gourepore Compan;, Ld. p. Barry and Company 20 30 5 5O 90 40 300 110 GBESO (3)200
n,I 34. Muddea Mills Co. Ld. Barry and Company -- -- - --- —- -— -- -- -- (9) --
' ' 35. Hastings M111 Barkmyre Brothers -- -~ -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ~-
36. Hoogly Mills Company, Ld.p. Gillanders, Arbuthnot & Co. —- -- 5 20 50 37% 125 (l2)4OO 200 (4,7)75
37. Century Mills Co. N.M. (l7) Gillanders, Arbuthnot d Co. —- -- -- - -- - - nil(4)nil ~-
38. Condolpara.Company, M.M.(l7) Gillanders, Arbuthnot a Co.nil 5 5 10 20 36% (12)216§ 100 75 (7)--
39.. Societe Generale Industrielle _
- de Chandernagore .Gillanders, Arbuthnot a Co. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- —- _- -—
.- '40. Howrah.Mills Co. Ld. p. (16) Jardine Skinner & Co. 5 6 nil 17¢~55 60 (l4)140 100 130 (3) 5O
'. 41. Kamarhatty Co. Ld. p. Jardine Skinner a Go. 10 17% s so so 55 150 225 150 --
42. Kanknarrah Co. Ld. p. (13; Jardigv19 Skinner a 00. 20 50 20 60 120 85 200 200 175 --
II'43. Reliance Jute Mills, Ld. p.(18Jard his Skinner & Co. nil 12 4 10 35 95 105 100 130 (3) 50
I; g44. India Jute Company Ld., MacKinnon, Mackenzie a Co. 8 7 110 30 10 100 120 (l3)220 (8)10 (7)
i25I45. .Megna Mill Company, Ld. MacKinnon, Mackenzie & Co. .—- -- e~ -- -- .—— -- -— __ __
' 46.. EMpire Jute Company, Ld. p. McLeod and Company 1 'r-- -- l— :20 55 85 125 150 200 --
47. "Kelvin Jute Company, Ld. p. IMcLeod and Company’ 10’ 10 15 40 80 100 150 225 300 -
48. PreSidency Jute Lills Co. Ld. iMcLeod and Company -- -- —- - —- -- _- -- -- _-
'49. . Socrah JuteTMills Co. Ld. p. McLeod and Comiany s 4 5 10 15 15 372- 40 40 a.
{“750" Khardah Co. Ld. p. 1dreson.WrightIand Co.. 15 20 16 :50 60, 145 »- 135 120 175 (3) 55
3,-y51e} __Kinnison Jute Mills Co. Ld. p. F. M. Heilgers :15 25 20'~ 50 100- 125 ' 275 I ,200 375 (5)175
. 52.} Maihati Jute Mills 00. Ld. p. F. W. Heilgers I I5' 10 10 10 30 '50 200 150 100 --
53.. sumnuggar Jute Factory 00. p. Thomas Duff and CoMpany, Ld.15 15 10 30 4O 35 ' ‘50 50 45 (7) ~-
54. Titaghur Jute Factory Ld. p. Thomas Duff and Com any, Ld.15 20' 10 3O 40 40 70 50 45 (7) ~-
3-55' Victoria Jute Co. Ld. p. Thomas Duff and Comiany, Ld.l5 2O 10 30 4O 35 60 50 .45 (7) --
~~ >56.. Behar Company, M.IM. (17) H. V. Low and Company -- - - - -- -- -- -- (8)nil --
;,I57;»,Benjamin Company, N. M.(17) B. J. Elias -- -- ~- -- -- -— -- -- nil ~—
C-58. "Ludlow Company, N.'Ms (17) Ludlow Jute Company, Ld. -- -- -- -- -- -- -_ -- (9)n11 L-
' 59. HukuMchand Jute Mills 00. Ld. pSir Sarupchand Hakumchand.&60- - -- -- ~4 - -- nil nil --
60. Birla Jute Manufacturing Co. Ld. p. Birla Brothers, Ld. -- -- - - -- -- -- -- (9)nil --
£3-61. Shree Hanuman Jute Mills 00. Ld. Sonrajmull Nagarmull (l8)-- -- -- -~ -- -- -- ~~ -- --
“j 62. .Adamjee Jute Mills 00. Ld. adamjee DawoOd & Co. Ld. (18)-— a- -- -— —- -- -- -- -- __
*IIA63. Gagalbhai " 7 ‘ 7 Ld. ' Mafatlal_Gaga1bhai & sonstB)-- -- -— -- -- -- _— -- -- -_
-‘64J 2Premchand " 7 " .' " " (18)Raja Janaki Hath Roy & Bros.-- --- -- -- -_ __ __ __ __ __
EI. 13) ‘Sour cs: U. S. Department of Commerce and "Capital" Calcutta, India, June 9,1921.

 

 

ll}:

1:... i- .1- 1301.01. 0 I O.

.1.

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49.

4. Location of Industry and Eguipment.

 

'Thirty-six of the jute mills are located on the north side of the
Calcutta docks and on both banks of the river Hoogly. This facilitates the
movement of the raw materials and finished products. Today there are ex-
cellent manufacturi 3 sites to be found further down the Hoogly and the
future develoPment undoubtedly lies in that direction. Less than fifty
miles separate the most northerly from the most southerly located mill.
The mills have large compounds built on the shed princigle, with large
doors and windows. The machinery used by these mills are, in most cases,
very up-to-date. Standardized machinery is used for weaving and finishing
jute cloths. Before the war India obtained her machinery from Dundee which
is the world's greatest manufacturing center for such eQuipment. After the
war, however, the Calcutta industry has begun to manufacture its own ma-
chinery on a small scale (1). Host of the mills are oyerated by steam
power, fuel being readily obtained from the nearby coalfield. But some of
the newer estaolishments are operated by electricity generated in their own
plants.

5. Mill Emplqyees.

 

The mill owners usually have in their employ European assistants
who have general oversight of the work and of the machinery. _But active
management of the help, such as arranging diifts, assigning workers to the
machine, etc., are carried on by "Sirdars". (2) Strictly clerical works,
such as checking up of the work done and paying off of the hands, etc.,

are performed by educated Indians called "babus". ,The rest of the yorkers

(l) U. 8. Tariff Information Survey, "Jute Cloth" (1922) p.37.)

(2) Closely identified with forenen in the Occident.

50.

in the mills consist of the illiterate coolie laborers (both men and women,
men predominating). More than 300,000 peOple were employed by seVenty mills!
centered around Calcutta in 1951 (l). i

The coolie laborer in the jute mills comes from the distant dis-
tricts of Bengal, Orissa, hadras Presidency, United provinces and even in
some cases, from the northwestern provinces. Some of the male laborers
bring their families with them in hope that suitable work may be secured
for their wives and children, but the majority of the men come alone. The
latter remit a portion of their wages to their wives and family at home and
return periodically to look after their affairs and obtain a chwiae. The
laborers from the agricultural sections in the interior freuuently are ir-
regular in attendance at the mills. A weaver, for instance, may work for
several months, return home and then appear again in two months. The num-
ber of laborers Quitting at any one time is usually balanced by those re-
turning for employment. and it is only at the time of the year when crOps
are planted that the mills are concerned greatly with the supply of labor.
Even then it is unusual for maiufacturers to emperience any great diffi-
culty in securing an adequate supply.

The spirit of independence of the Indian coolie laborer, there-
fore, leads him to act in the way he pleases. Eor this reason, the Indian
worker, as a rule, does not become a skilled laborer. The employer is at a i
disadvantage in this case and hence it is his task to make him factory min- a
dad by various kinds of attractions.

6. Hours of Labor in the Indian Jute hills

The shift system of the Indian jute mills is very complicated. 0n

(1) U. S. Commerce Reports,_Febnuary l, 1932.

a full tin-3 Jusis , the Llamas an O;1-3;;.‘J(;ii for thirteen and o

1 J.‘

51.

.. --‘.°..+ -'.- v-‘N- '0" ~. -»x~‘~~'~~~--'.--
o (1). ALCO"L. .... 00 tJJ 8.1 J. 8; 90.214, .ELU‘JJL’ I‘, 0“} ‘.J’u.“.-l-l u.L..'.'

- x - ' .. . ‘ . -3. -..- J- , 4— ‘-.-.., . ., —.._ '1.
on indivriuzd is reduced to L.OGUU nan hours a. ..v . i.-:

is 31.5.3 in sue ch 5‘. ”me; that t;:r.-.e C'_.»;_~:-.

. +’3r) V“‘r\p ‘1’" n ‘ .-.- u 1‘ '3‘ w\ (aj‘l—<m :, (‘ 1.4": 3“ ', J‘ “v (1
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ill V’co'J b‘L'a {~CJI-1Jd -LVL‘L;‘S ‘30 ;‘--‘~ ~13. ‘/ 1‘ .’. in"; v.55 ‘I':J .‘.—J 1".4LLViU

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~i."‘l'.f 1;]. 4-1-3 VauLUht c3. l.l.L LL30 (.‘.). “0.4;: .-_,lc.-lbb UJJL; v.04.

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('1"‘ -r-..-- . 'r/ . s P‘- -.d:‘ v- - . 1 . 4-
o‘nKJ'Joult'J, t acti‘L-L. 11; the 'zro_*1.:rs' hours dill red lit;

r‘ .‘ V’V‘ '. Ft" t‘]fi -' Idj‘if " """ )‘t f"? a“ .I "-~- “ ~'r~'9.‘. '- * "1'2'P . h C‘"~l.
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.‘U a --a

“- “A \qu-.~§ ‘u . ‘ - . o- . . - -‘ v- -.~' '5 .-\ L‘..
.318 Iullbullr, 18 {:i. ml-.__,i’\..:.l 01 8. 8.1.Li $380.31.; 11. 01:3

" he 1.--;3. 017 Jute L20..;‘.,5~;;-, Ltd” 0

. -“Q I I . y r ~’ - L x 1' I J' ‘ ’ \ ,' )1 ‘ y~ (n
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fl ' i ‘ 'r‘ rv r " a ' .~ ~ 1 " ' . ‘ “V ‘ V .. - ‘ .‘ I ' :y ' ‘ “
ine hOL. :3 Cl and: are refinictau in Inna, as ch-LJMLUL‘U,
~ ;‘. a. - ‘ «2 4.~ .7 4.. : --" ~ .~ " ' .1- »'. . - -
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‘

o
- ..-...- "~ .. '. . - ., ' .. 4-, . : .... ,._‘
sc:..;x.r..:s.t iron province to ~,rtvince UO Lint special nee-us

L) ' .'

\o

52.

Chart 1.

_.HOH .a .mmma .zoaeee .mmpufioomma meaaspomuuqaz goaedg AH.

.nflmppopnw mufiumon.oamswoun_

ope: mopflpmnoqo.amduwafioefi can mafins coho>oo named» a“ n0#p
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Haas appsofleo on» an amamam pagem we» no eeumman

 

 

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Do.

since 1938, thgre has been a JTJQt a ion asout the
‘king hours in the Indian jute mills. fine resumption of sixty hours
working week in order to augment production and Stop the encm~ LCuhbiu
of the juropean mills culninated in the strike of au-nst, 239, affect-
40 mills and 200, 000 worlco -s. Bhe strike was renewed a sin in hat
of the following year and the Sengal Jute Jorkers' Union, which is not
recognized ov 'he Indian Jute hills' ASSOCiutiUn, called out $0,00o

1

iute mills. But th uemand of the Union for a nine

L

(D

inum pay of Rs 80 (“11.00) was regarded impossible. JoueVer, in August,
1930, the Jute “ills' Association decided upon further curtailnent in
working hours, and this was done in early Le'euber of the same your by

' 93..-- 7' .. ' ‘-

l .p-iour avain. it would

i’fi
F‘

reducing the sixty working hour week to
se=m, however, thu this measure was taken oy the nesociatio; at that

‘tine as a result of the i;it liat_o-al 1n.u;t-i l desm~e sion ratho- r than

bee mu e of tie I; eouent strikes.

FJ

F4

(3
c.

on Larch l, 1931, the new agreement of the indian Jute .i

(l

H I

ssociation provided for a iortg hour week and a four week month. The

neic‘nuo e of the tot al looms to be sealed fron.Larch l to oept nber

(i)

30, li‘o’l was :izteo on gar cent, ‘out since the curtailment 27;..3 not to
apply to the sucking loonm, about 25.6 per cent-of the hessian looms
did stop operation. On July 24 of the same year the Indic n Jute Lills'
Association decided that the existing agreaient limiting hJurs of
Operation to fifty-four per week would 0e extended in -iiniUol" from
becerber 31, 1831, and this regulation lihdtin; the hturs of Operation
to fiit"-fOW1r*.Ls still in effect in January, 1523. rho mew agreenent
provided for three month's notice 01 any change in the workin; uric; e-

ments and also m;de provisions for puttii;: sucli Laotian lo;.s as were

then sealed to work on sacking w: eie desirable.

5". .

7. Livinf‘ No.16 itions of Jute -.ill '1"; 33th ives

 

fine coolie laborers of the Indian jute mills cone fro;;1 the
poorest clu~ ss of India, hence, on Lac-comm of their L:;tre:.1e :ovurt",
they are illiterate and ignorant of "he 3ri11ci'23les of ssnit oti n.
In ‘Jest 3131199.. where the mills are siturte', the es: stence of a. V317;
inti:.1;.te rel:.;tio:1sh> oetween the ‘turevulence ofx.elL=.1‘ie end the in-

nation of the rice and jute area-.3 is well 12101111. In ..‘est -5'311_“‘¢‘.l

.L.’ I ‘ . i _' __'. . ‘ f\ ‘__’_ ' .‘ t 4“ . ‘ I“ . r ‘- . r‘ . a l .- . ~— ‘
une rice and June crops use e-.-.celle-..t, unere ere gructicsii' no

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of the natu bl inundt ion to ‘-.'.r1‘ich tl1e.':.e-e once su‘oJ-ect ‘ “r the
artific’L-l deflection of the renewal 1112.13.21Jethrougxh the construction
of roads and r; ilv'g'..z_ 811L3611L23‘31Lt8 without groviding for outlets at
a4131ro1riute 112.033 This has led to the re' id sili‘in‘; up of the

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:PUVLWJQ ULUH 34631144

56.
CHAPTER VI.
'HIE JU'I'E EXPORT TRADE OF INDIA
1.fi Place 0{ Jutefiinv India's Export Trade

Jute and Jute manufactures have come to constitute India's
most important group of exports, with cotton in second place, and
that followed by rice and tea.

The following table shows the relative values of India's
principal exports and the ratio of jute exports to total experts
for selected years. ‘

Table 5 - Principal Exports of India (1)
(thousands of dollars)

 

Experts 1 1913-14 : 1921-22 : 1925 :1 1929

Bay Jute 102,755 95,831 102,085 107,285
Manufactured Jute 93,740 99,490 202,355 193,752
Tbtal jute 195,503 185,321 304,441 301,030
as: Cotton 135,810 179,551 240,533 240,353
Wactured cotton 39,897 50,317 37,251 28,893
Total cotton 175,707 229,078 285,084 259,255
Rice 87,998 01,074 134,427 102,988
as. 49,917 50,734 105,057 95,055
Total Exports 510,035 800,143 1,155,517 1,153,992
Ratio of jute to

total exports 32.2 16.4 26.1 24.1

 

vfifi

(1} Source:

U. S. Commerce Yearbook 1922. P. 566, and 1930,

It appears from this table that the ratio of jute to the
total exports from India was high in 1913-14, but went down consider-

ably after the cessation of the World War.

The total crop outturn for 1920; 1921, and 198 ,(which WQ‘ 3 lower than the
preceding fifte een years) to ’mh rwith the lessened dcxz and of raw jute from
Central Europe and of the manufactured jute products during the sane period,
HM (ROWIQP to at
because of the cessation of the war the ratio of total exports of 'ute was
’ A
as low as 16.4 per cent in 1921-22. However, the years following witnessed
incree sed consumption of jute by the Wes tern n5t10.1a, Jupin, Brazil, and
Argentina and conselieuolv tlie ratio h5d inele 5sed to 25.1 per cent in
1926, althou ;h the physical volume of total jite exvoit tr: is from India
was slightly less than 1925. In 1939, which proved to be one of the niost

prosperous year for the lnuian jute inuuo,rr si 1ce the annisoico the

ratio had slightly decreased since 1926.

1
%4
P
’Y‘
(D

2. Cinnfes in form of 3x30rts.

 

 

The World Eur éyuve an empctus to the Indian jute industry, and
hence pr0portionately more and meie rtw jute be gun to be consuzned by th
Indian mills, resulting in the exportation oi‘an increasing amount of

‘

manufacture u jute products
The following table of the physio a1 volume of jute exports by
classes from India for 1913 and for the last ten years shows t11e volume

of manufactured jute exports has increased in greater prOportion than the

volume of exports in the raw form.

L".
C.)

 

 

 

then Cotton(l925) pa

1930, p5;
Bulletin

.’.)

..1 . '17
?J V, D ' L_'ol\l ‘4 . t) . u.

87; T... C).

’3‘ .

V 4‘. l.“
f. l ‘ -- - P]- ' v
022, 1e1u11e Divisio

' ‘ _ p a
u 021191301:

'Jr'v a VIII.»

“-
'16

.0. .“ \ .’.
__ 3L2; OUOL.’

HUN.

v!
”“1
iv 0

II

.1. .~,...e,_.,1_ .1 ~..._- '_
1.0435113 O.L uO..l..J.'.‘CU, U‘JUCl'v-‘vl

0. r“ o

-.ble 6 - Indies 21 orts 0‘ cuue und its “unu1-6tu-:s (l)

; [ti/~17 : £.-.1L1;' r‘LLLLJ- . - ”fil— u s»..d'. .‘LQ‘,e ;

: Jute in : Sloth Lccks in : 2:.rn in - and : Lther
Year : 1511,; t one: thousands: thousands: tluus; -11 s. ".113. ; products

: of yurfis of 3:023 : of 152. : in Drt. : (112 lbs.)

1913 64,396(a) 1,001,012 360,386 318 03,659 907
1922 467,635 1,120,763 306,710 1,876 49,360 l,é08
1923 577 974 1,254,327 321,506 3,507 6é,é75 1,705
1924 659,9?3 1,348,7é2 113,715 5,325 71,006 2,93e
1925 3,739 1,656,228 435,161 1,261 78,793 3,628
1926 613,227 1,461,380 4‘5,074 1,723 8e,139 4,765
1927 908, ..US 1,503,127 L:<l‘9,089 078 101, -7 1,165
1928 886,829 1,552,761 463,139 6,138 94,561 1,555
1929 897,863 1,560,293 97, e,801 107,-ue i,966
1930 606,864 1,650,52 5 522,2J0 6,009 J7,608 7,156
1931 619,705 1,270,999 434,045 7,340 89,326 98,334
(a) avera 1e 1210-1914.
(1) J. J. Iratt, Internutiona 23'"-e in ethnle Lom1odities (1:28)

1:28 156; 1‘111ff In.ornut1on -u- ve", Voweteble Fiber other

.0

As the above table indicates, 11018' S chie1 nunufuctured
Jute consis ts of Jute cloth and bags, the production of Jute roge
and twineo 9nd Jute canvas being relutivel‘r small. In the semi-
nanufactured class, 5 er" small amount of Jute yarn is exoor ted
every year.

The followin' ta ole shows the changing prOportion of value
of the exports of Jute 05 s and cloths and tlie ratio of raw Jute to
the total e1: orts of theVe products from 1925 to 1951.

Table 7 - Value of the prorts of Total Raw Jute and Irincipul Jute

Lanufuctures f1 om India (1)
(Thousands of Dollurs)

 

. I r G O O O
C O O O O O O
Exports : 1925 : 192G : 92 : 92. : 1929 : 1930 : 1951

 

Ul

Jute, new 154,464 102,085 114,004 115,05 118,07é 99,184 47,029

Jute, bugs 97,007 92,8é8 82,510 91,901 90,055 79,908 55,555
Jute, clothllé,2é5 108,271 108,137 117,040 115,475 108,595 61,412

Tote Jute
cloth and 211,252 201,119 188,467 208,941 205,760 108,301 114,797
bugs

iatio of

raw Jute

to total 65.6 50.7 60.4 55.2 57.4
exports of

Jute cloth

and bags

40.9

Cl
I O
o

O}

 

(l) U. 5. Commerce 1'eerbook, Vol. II, 1929, p, 553; U. 5. JOJQQPCQ
118;J01“u8, 19913. 1’ 190229

Since the 'Jorld .;;1, 1111101 1 or V; tVl 5.; e:.1;-r‘_;enc;-' 6111111115 101‘

hows a distinct

1
C1
Ha
F.
p
p;
H
E
c:

Jute cloth and sand ba;s, the Jute industr
tendeilcy tencn‘d the manufacture of Jute into Cloth and 59;s for engorts, 1
rather than extort of the TJJ’ILuV-l l. ths is, however, a lOJicel

developme;1t, because the production coV us in Indian mills axe low on

50.

account of the followiné re sons.

. I

l. The advantage of briigin; raw Jute to mills by water trens;ortution

‘

1e same cost as it can 0e brou'fi t to the shivs

H,

or ort.
‘ 8.1.2..

2. an abundance of chest lubor. a weaver in #1 Indian Jute nill re-

J. .J- .4.

' rr— ‘ t... . 4.1, .. , , 1 ,. .1 .1 1.. .1. - 1 ‘ .9 (r'
ce1ved 1.05 e ou at the urreht rnoe of CaQALJwQ at tne enn 01 1101.

'V V

r0 .a . 4.~ , ., .‘.-,J- 1 '4..- 1 , , '1,‘- 1 1. -- 1- 1
o. Tne use of the most uJ-to-uite 3r1t1sn.nuue KLLdluJF‘ 0' the 1111s

h1.nuLCedLforei;11<xsnitcl.

a

H' «’3 .u c - T. r‘. -- - . -" v -‘ .1 - ~ ‘ ‘, 1 -- - 1 - ,v
roou the 1nu1en Juoe M1118 are cu 5013 01 consuming

5,000,000 beles, whe21 run; n' solemn“a necr cupucity. Qhe question will

"-J
. .' w --.1 1 ”.'. ‘ '11V- - ‘ ‘ 'fi‘..-‘, -: R 0",“ ‘ "-0 4“.
arise 1n one's minu, n21 3911,, as to uh; the Indiun n1l1s, unic; use the

larfast n1nu1uc".r=“° of Jute cloths and bugs in the world, are not able

to produce J1 Wt yarns for e;3\rt to other cou;t;ie81n r;

ind amoun year by year. The ex;lunut10n for bIliS 533( r sto 0e 11 the

4.,

1hct that the sgecielized ,ute syinnin; mills are not found in India,

x...“

while th for'eign countries having Jute textile inhzstrr urefer to blend
and Spin their own yu1ns. hence, the erio 11102‘rn countries nuve
turned their attention to the ;r ‘u tio;1 of Jute ;urn, w_xich fo1m the

' I n ‘, , 1 I, _ . . (1 - Vl“. _ ‘9' I“ ..fi ‘ ' r1 ‘- 1'” “
cn1e1 engorts o1 sc_ch countr es as ner1unv 940 Cocono Vlo rahiu. Jn11e—

fore, India's export of Jute yarn is Very inited uni is ex: rted to

countrie swith slightly deV3105ed Jute industry and little or no [Loi-
lities for the blending and SJinnin; of yhrns. surplus ygrns being left
over in the years of degression caused the e: ort of twist and Jern to
rise in 1”21 550 1‘5 , but in 192 the e13.01t0f twist and yarn nus

higher by 5,03 3 075 pounds 0'er :31 exports. The bulk of the Jute
yarn 6:: ort of India. is sent to Ar;entin.5.
The la 1 Hs‘ shipments of r03 9 and twine ere urde to the

:treits iettlements, followed by Java, :01 tong, and Lurrtrh. Yuzy

infrequently a small amount is exported to the Uni

1

L fi 0L L
bed uu&u3

other Lila of Jute yroducts, hes inles these mentioned, more

half is usually xporte to the United Zingdom.

a. 11o Distribution of India's J1t

0
v

' X

1100 orts

61.

'0 gm

than one--

 

"‘\ _ " W ,J _
-nw Jute: fine ruu

£4 .
H
.‘.—I
cf
(I)
H o
07
F4)
( L
(1
G
P
r
H

')
N
5

 

"-i11l;r

countries t'th hi hly levelo ed Jute iz1dustry, a1oh

-. *‘ ’. ‘ J. I“- - J- r- - . . < a ‘t'\ . .'. I'
jur00e, uAe Ln1ted stuJes IS the la: est iuyoruer

\J

.L I .'.\,\~‘r-1 .- r~ 'Y‘ ~‘, - n 4 . 7:1 .. i=1“. -1'/‘ 7“~
1n10e1 nlnouOh, rrunce, italg, 033010-010J211e ani 1:1

for'the Juropeen

es :01'1‘1291~ , the

“ium.

U

.’7‘ .n.,- "! :~1 .
O; .'.Lku d s

.1 - p , w , -\ ' --\ rm-.- . ..... ‘ . . . 1.“. r n -.
and 18 1ollowei oJ 1ra31l, 4;;,t, ou;aa ddQ Argentina. Jnu

of raw Jute imyorued by different countries varies with the

their in 11st rieli zsti on. The fo ll Orrin; shows the

India to different 06 untiies 01 tl1e world for o1e-'

1s

‘9'

sf"
“w

“0 Jute

s
m («r n
L “A“ .

2uble 8 - Anyort of jaw Jute f“om Indie (1)

(in lonr tons)
...)

Cutside of

s the quantity
extent of
engort of

ecent Jeers.

 

untrv of

stination :1910-14

(0 G
n n

'2
no I.

H
"C?
(‘0
H
n

C
D 1924 1928

1929

.1
O

: 1930

H

T
Li
H

 

United Tihwdon 301,835 90,855 156,635 187,678
United State 195,621 63,422 87,185 86,198
Germany 164,3”3 144,013 162,2 297 150,506
France 75,536 57,837 74,L57 110,616
Belgium - - - -
nustria Hunusry 14,620 - - -
Italy 37,967 25,325 48,777 56,8e5
Spain 21,764 23, 2 32,184 -
3rezil 2,004 13,é39 18,24i 12,937
Jejen 5,60 ’ 12,002 12,323 -
Russia 8,015 - - -
1.; eth er 1: nos - - .- ..
.szt — - - -
Cther countries 8,024 88,028 74,556 21,653

100,250
05,215
132,202
93, 300
17,225
51,512
37,840
10,759
15,217
11,307

rvn

23,066

147,090 96,547
70,880 47,5'5
193,274 151,L17
95,109 79,705

el,$8 €2,711

- -
4<,019 27,590
39,055 29,602
15,305 15,100

- -

- -
19,512 1'7,8 /1
14,055 13,27d
84,108 2d,??0

 

(l) E. 5. Pratt, International Druie in st; lo 00;

U
U. S. COJAflFGG ":es 1300:, Vol II (1‘2 3) o 355;

1
L
o

O
Consuls in Berlin, Jone and niode 531er io 1n
Re;orts, J;o. l, 1932.

T-rin3 1915 and 1514, the preportion of

s .1. .1, a . -- .,: .-.-1 .1-~ '1 ' 1 1 ,L
,1114'3 8.1;-01‘1302'. £30111 1110.18 .Jv-S 119 ill. 11'JL0 2211103

13"

.1.~
0-1

-hr10rts
cl; U.

. .1. ‘12, l
'3 'JUUv’O

110iities(l;23) p. 155;

of “neriou1

-' .14.:1 .1-
3r01u6010J 01

C1)
i 1
o

of 1909 and 1310. lhe Jeers followinfi sew the rerid iecrshse in the
raw jute suaort 0: Indie, reaching its lowest point in 1:18, on account of
the Wor‘ 1d ..er, as the allies dehanded an increasing eneunt o1 unr" bijs

’\

the totul ex;orts o: raw

C:
F-
C.

for uses in the trvsnches. niter'the trniSJ
jute fell iron a pro—.xar uv;:a;e of 764,388 long tons in 1310—14 to.
398,146 in 1918- 9; 591,314 in 1319-20 and 472,-14 1chj tons in less—11 (1).
T19 yGLrs 10110111,, ho:le1er, aitnes sad the steady incri se in the raw

the pre-z.~ r avers e in 1935-27. In

11)
p.

jute e1jiort, until it hso sur pa 81

(C

the year 1950-51 the xport fi mu e e ein declined on account of the
world depression.

Be fore the Jorli Jar, the United Kingdom wes the largest im-
porter of raw jute, taking 14 per cent (mainly for Dundee); the United
States im3orted 7 per cent, and the Continental COU1tr ies of Jurope
as a group took 25 per cent of the total exjort from India. The Con-
tinental countries in3ortin3 raw jute in the pre-wer days, in the orde

their importance, were ee rneny, lzuznce, “usuriu-nuhjrry, Italy,

Russia, Belgium, again, bC'1M1via and the Jetherlends. The other

"f,

countries importing raw jute for w"1u1“cturing purposes were ue we and

L’)
<:
s:
w
H.
(U
9.

Brazil. The imp rt of raw jute by these dilferert couhtrie
more or less in accordance wit} the ex tent of tha r textile inlustries.
The situation, however, changed after the war. The hustle-“Lu"vliun
fiupire was dis emoe red i11to four sheller countries, the most ingortunt
one oeing the present republic of Czecho-slovskia, ahich, eftsr its

se3eration, oe came the owner of the most industrialized part of the old

3

u331e, 11th the sezsr~

r‘V

empire, which had a considerable jute industry, ;

F4)

ance of Le tvia, and her portion of lolo1d, lost a few 0 the jute LillS,

(1) L. A. Jheeler, Int2m1tionsl Dress in 1iner fibers, (1934) p. 2.

«.'-

UV.

~ ~ .‘ .

while the i11t3-.1el cl.isloc;1tic-1 01‘ her 1:13:13131'3 31::- uihicul 1311: s of

ci'
H.
O

fim‘mciq; i 1110rts ef.’ ‘-c.3 cted the 001131111: 11 of ,jute in the 11111111113,

which she did rat-.111. .1 similar fate also ‘0 efell the 1121‘ r.3,-ublics

remhts of

...).

of Austria. and ‘1~:‘11_‘;.1"-'. hence, owing to the lessened rem

these countries, it 1111.3 possible to meet the world from
the low r0113 of 1320, 921 and 1332. During the mm, the 1:11:81
1:11" dom's re I jute i..:gort also suffered a. se ere decline from 1"‘11ich 2118
does not yet seem to ‘1;ve full-3' recovered.

In the post-1:31 pe riod " 31111113, 3. country which has ;.1ocler;1ized

1

her inch ustri “ies £3161 1'J1i011 i 5203rt rig: Jute for re-ezzvort to 113i hour-111'“

O-v‘

- .. 1.. ,1.-
1.:I‘ UJL. 3011.31.10

coxmtri es of northern 2.111 central Jurope as well 5.3 for

J.-

(20113111145103 has toyed 0118 list 01“ the rag: Jute 111301113143 countries

0
*3

es

(- :~

the world, 01:11 followed 11;; the 1111th 1111131011, the {hit ed 1‘“:

\J

U

France, Ita.l;, Lzec l1c—310V:-.I:ia. (1), Belgium, 33.21111, the 1.‘et11erl:.;1cls,

fi- 1 . -' vwr‘ ~ " l ", “, T r~."‘ D O‘ I“ 1” "‘ ' ‘ J. - ’. ~ 0 1 f. J'~ 4“.\ " " ’ J‘ ' ‘ ,
3:32.11, .14, pt c.1111 Jerald. 1-0.... 01 the“: 00.1.1ur1e3, -..1 ...1 .113 cue-... ..1 0.1
a 3. ‘ .-. ‘,.,...J-. .-J. 1.1. ‘ . 4..-: ‘ 1.. .'..L —',.‘.',.-‘, - ..
0.1 .1133.le 13.1.3. 41...: 3b, COAVJL‘L: 1:118 l....-.,'OI'U.:'.; JUu‘J 13.00 5;".‘Cl51lia311 t3..-

tile fabrics 10r li.1olem.1, upholst 311;; ‘o.-c‘.:i11._;, tailors' 1111112111; 31.0. for

4.. u 0 (’4‘. J- - \-- ou‘ - UN “L w --. [,4- ‘ w—- J— ‘ .vs —. J- ,“ r~\ q . ,-'v . ‘
0-13 I...-.11.11..C..u1‘e 01. («c.LfJJUE, rugs, '5 C. .1. . -)u'b lukl‘orUb bi Jute VO cel-

P
y.
..—
f.
O
"a
O
C
c .
cf-
C:
i 4
f"
S“

» r." ~ '. ' V— .-".'L - ~1'.\-; “.‘~ .-. ".n u .‘ J- - . '1‘.“ ‘. r
..10..1. sawireld: 1.1.0 13.13 1..-..- 11.1 -.1....il':-. 1.1.0 c1111-;e 31,5.

0v 3211 I a11ufactures

rfl‘ ' _!_ _‘_‘.,‘ . ‘ ' J. , t | . - - 1...“.
rue Jute 0101.11 51.1-3- Ju.e 03,3 we ...-13

 

4-..; .10 13.13-, .l.‘ n .J ‘ _:.. . “.‘- J-‘ . .-.,1. ' .
UL.."JS UL $-1LLLuLav, U113 1.0.:ulul‘ OJLAL‘J -Ear U-id AAUMU 11.5-

chief jute vm 11'...-1.-;':‘.c

. 1~r J— ' .:I‘ f‘ n:-~« "y‘ . 1‘ —-. ~ J- r .. ~ \r\ ' w—'-- ‘t ‘\ u w r-. . .‘. 'v
‘fOI‘ocfluu 1;[..1.ll-..UUL.L1‘U~.L JLIU; ' 131-110‘ U..L 1.1 (1.1 I 15115.. 1.117.: CV .4103; US “.‘.-LL“ 11.]-

- ,. ...-.1. '1.- -. - 9 ' 1.. .J.'- -'u' .. v.1. ,. ,tJ-- .-.'. - ..., ...1.'
ROI b LII :- . 3 qw‘lU l 01 :48 01 =} l 03 01L] U51 L.“\J1:1 .LALMLL 5-‘- —‘e, \".LU"1 U1; 3 e“- 1) U1 OI

of the 7.115.331 11:15:31.1, the chief 31.17 2'.£L.J13r;3fil‘.l ezgortin; co..-.t;i.3 of tie
world. ‘1‘113 countries rtihu' jut; cloth, 1:1 03.3.33 of i..;oz'tuhce, are
the ”L'nitel .3551; es, .1‘.‘_j.>;‘.ti'11;-., -Le-.:1£;;1;:., the 1.1173113. -.i:1_j-3_c..1, .-~.‘.;:-‘.'-‘..l 13., 3.11:}.
the ‘111ili*:;pi;1e 1311211513. The 1311015111} t:.‘.1le 31-13 the (gut-“131‘s; 33 i..;-

ed ‘0': these cou11tries 11011 1.3 to 11351.

s-'.a

"" ~- \- . ,. ' J. .. J.‘ _ ..‘, " . “ ‘ .- ":1 ..
(l) LI-L 'Ul‘ts .13.] Juu‘i’ U. 13911 .1 . 12.10111", . .'.-CF"

' I
r"1"‘."1‘t‘"1 .’l."\ \..n ‘I \ ‘1‘“J'n .~--...- AA. A---'_

, f" . ' ' a
_. \ V I- ' ". ' -"
--uuu kl- -..--.A--aU¢.\.'-L U0

'J
(U

 

 

 

Gig.
Table 9 - 3:.orto of Gunny sloth from India.
(in thousands of ;er s) (1)
Country of z z z : z : 1
Eastination : 1315 : 1931 1 1934 : 1310 : 030 : 1:30 : C11
United :in dom 40,905 53,311 63,110 5.,8J3 2J,176 53,”." £0,197
31111 ée,99é €6,713 03,25“ 5n,95é 75,708 e1,533 73,005
aust_‘e1ia 35,654 17,701 3Q,729 31,77; £3,178 3:, 25 15,330
United States 723,755 816,783 CQG,328 905,u05 1,012,316 1,071,9C8 050,723
Ar aqtina 105,393 113,303 92,1“3 333 3‘é ‘10,276 3,: 3 300,$;5
rhili pine Is.
941’}. JLILZZI - -’ - - lC,:>‘3 1‘23, 530 13,11,320
ctnsr Countries ZG,é34 00,750 1? 111 03,634 68,015 60,558 61,105
(1) J. J. I“att, Inte:;1*iou11 Jr- e in Cthle com.cdities{1$2P) p. 155;
L. b. ooamerce gerortr, is). l, 110..

l
o

1 of t' countri "'

41 iieu; es Lwntionet abev~, with the exception of'M1
Unit d Lingdom, use the jute cloth for uregping cotton 1nd making 1 0 for
shipment of various :re'ns, wool, and chemicals. (1). Jute being the obe1w-
est fibe o the world serves the pu11;wo e of fro» ectinq these raw LLt3PiLlS
in transit an” a orwge, Jithout 1uisi n5 their price The Lnited gin,dom

p-n n I-\"(‘:
11.01.; “Cllw

I " 1 ..' . ‘ , .
1mp orts jut e 010 for r-:-e190rt as Jell us Ior meLinv 01,3
..2- .-.__ - 1.... M .. ,_ s. ,, - 4.“,-, .‘. ,1 -'. ' ;_-1. .L. , ,,~_ ,. V n .. :
1or e1gort1ng ma1n1, to AFUUJUlflm an“ une Umii ed oumuss, JLUIG sne is
3, 1 , ‘ -.. .r-y, .' .: .1. .14. -. , .1. «1.1, w, _‘ _. _ ~_ . 3.. . . ‘ w ,
1evored o, 11e1unu ruuqs, ani to buumuu, ”ne‘e one 18 luvore' o, 338‘
'5 ‘1 4": J.r 0 - :- "_ 4p. ‘-
Ierenulel ourl1i ab hell as 1re1.1t rates.
”Fun 1 1'0"'J‘ :1"- 014-“ ”now Tsar" -~ Tr -(\ ~‘-‘ .1 ' 1 — —'-. ...‘4- Mt. 4c. ‘ .\
.LJ...’ 1 ‘1 UL, UUIL ..L..'. 1.1 .LALQlLJ 11L.S 11) (Jul). 41‘ l..'._ or ULuLU qu'vu, O":-

J.‘

,',1 4.1 -. ‘ J.‘ .1. , .21 ,- , .‘ ' ,‘ .-- ~ . ‘._ _‘ 1- ., ..z" .J-‘-..‘.~ "
SLuGS unese hfiflulbnefl moov mnereus tnose union uJG dno11, Lennuetuu1eu
.. "P\ [W I‘ q ‘ ‘ ..4— . -‘ J— . ...-L- . — . . rn," .5 "V - .. . .
1n eun1=e enl Sune convintLtul cou1tr1es 1n MIFOJG, “n1 -39112e ;eciel
‘. ' .. . ~ ‘1 .3. .1 3 " ...1- '- .. . 1 '., . ., ,, ‘ . 1'- : , . .‘,~°._ ., .
”acniner or u n1.n vrsue 01 u r11nn3113, aie useu as 111lors' #11111-s,
-. ‘w. "V *fl - .1 -: \ ‘ - 1 ~\ 3 . 1 ‘\ ~ ‘J- an a ~- ""1 \ 1- ’ w . x 4‘ V - . n : .
31.61.1119 1U? .L—LLL‘JlJ‘L-J.1 Eh‘u 111 11511015109-.. l-KvAL».-L~‘-Ct L11. 0. MULLAV U0 u..‘3 2"JV1...
(1) Jregping 13 use in une U11Ted 1“ see ior sh1;,1n; coston, mu1le

3 , , -'., . , . ‘1. ., -., _ V...-_ . . ~ . , m“ .. r~ . '-~ 1

ehgs e13 usel LDSulJ in nr.enu1nu anu auitrullu .nu u 11w OuAJr
. .-‘J. .' n x . 1 ‘1‘” ' _. V. , , , .1. -

countries 1tr S“13_ld) J-,1u, line oi, wool, etc.

I3.

0}

,3 :---- .,-‘...,- ‘1: ‘1.:, ‘- ‘ ‘..‘ :. ,. 1". -. ._ .9
Bed ecwtl--’I.1311 {ans-Li ‘01)."3 Sou-L11 Oil ‘9‘! :3“; I. ‘NLéua‘L'.~AL-"3<\- all t}. ‘ c b-Lv-ILNA ‘vvc ~1ch"3 U‘.

H-

such fine Jute cloth, and to the limited size of such orders, the

 

Calcu tte mills have foam-Cl it advantageous to consent rate in the pro-

duction of “111-1'; cloth.

 

Jute ‘oe;_,‘s are e:;_;:wortec1 from India to conn tri es with a vss
amount of raw Luteriels, both 2. :ri culture and diners-l, for shi;:1.1ent.
These countries can be divided into three grounds: the first with the

deve 1V) =d textile i-1'11striss, but with insuiiicient home yroductio-i

to su olg' all the needs of domestic consm.1;:tion; the second- with only

’3';
(I)

slightly ,

velo‘oeri textile industries, ‘out with heavy consul) ion of

cage; said the set with a. highly develoged :;£~.nuf:--cturin.'_; inc-.ustr',

U

which import bags from India. mainly for the purpose of l‘e-Slliliil.l’>llt,

though retaining; sons for home consumption. Uned the first group CO-IICS

‘I N

T3118 United States; unr er the second, such countri es as “us relie, Chile,

rm ‘ -... + '7 .' . '-" n: ' .~ . ‘ ."‘--2 ~ I ' . .‘.

cues. .1 Jo Lnion 01 south 111-ice, --c.u'<...Ll' Jive, Lino-chin;- 01-111.,
’ do, A. ’ ,

’-.L. '1. ,u J.J_ , . ‘3 .L -. fl 3“ .. J. . - - 3 ‘ .1 . _ .'-‘, La, 4 -3 1

curs-lus' Q'ebulal nus an.- e. low! ouher covntries; ant- mic: the uni-o-

come the United hingdon and Jepen.

6

no " J..- ‘ ',.‘.'..\. .L, . .- . “- , .H
01 tne tom-1 8:11,“;1‘1-1‘1‘58 of Jug e og._s lo: the r8031.-

'e:.-.rs of

I.
192 1350 9.11:1 1951, nustrolie 11.1, rted cit/uhle of v-1: the Knit ed

\.D _ .‘. ‘ -, “ ,~ .' ‘ ~ '1 1‘ _‘ J. {V 4 a " ‘1 .. "VF. .~‘. —‘ u ~- . -r. '2‘:: 1. "~ ._
Minds-01.1 12-1,.Jortusd. fine ---l.Lu’3-J. hind-1013.415 follows-v- o,» Jet-1, chile, Luca,

China, the Union of South J-i‘rice, the Unit ed states, 433pt, and ;-:.'.::'-ii.

:1118

India to differ

following

cf

(M;

w

J-.- '1 1
[JV-«D .Le 3-1OUS

from 19

4“

one

f.’_’

‘4

total engort cf

6

6.

jute sacks 1‘1 01

 

 

Tesla 10 - '"port of Gunny sacks from India
(In thousands of SLUkS) (l)

Countr" of ; : : z : z :
Destination : 1915 g 193; : 19:34 : 1926 : l9~9 : 1950 : 125
Australia Ua,l76 56,148 79,15u 85,569 91,506 75,301 oo,pt.
United ‘ates 49,855 53,392 35,157 SO,“Sé 19 "07 15,9" 10,555
Chile 56,829 é,é7l 93,919 56,382 U7,oao $5,520 13,709
chine lé,426 23,155 15,399 2 ,-38 24,935 13,995 19,333
In Ho- ns 14,534 25,771 3,115 9,558 - — -
zxzpt 1 ,003 5,585 11,000 13,53 15,695 19,028 l7,L /
United Lingdom 23,000 50,773 40,732 59,s95 44,303 55,096 40,571
straits'
settlenent 11,539 9,35; 10,6¢4 l 119 11,736 - -
Jupa 3,806 55,705 11,276 “5,113 - - -
Lni c n outh
31-1108. - - - - :30, .30.; 0;,711' 3C,Ll7
Cu‘ba- - - - 2:,‘_55 Uu‘,‘ ‘-/" 0 Z , 9'th 12-, 2..)
Hawaii - - - - 16,559 17,973 16,553

Lth

or countries

125,899

l‘;r;,() 1:3 1

57,335

1 O, 958

130,254

175,055

ll-IQ I--:-
Do, kJs’\)

 

'1 II

 

 

(l) n. n. Lrett, Int,-n.tio.:l Drzle in pt-;ls connoiities{'223) p. 153;
7. s. Comw=rce Le ort, Bob. 1, 19:3; “. s. tonnerc; .e3ort June 15, 1950.
é. Earls 0; 31‘s -ni Ji- nci1 of Sate n; arts
after a brief desc:i3tion has been :ivsn about the ,l;ce of Uute
in India's ex ort trs sn‘ its st Anticn to different Cantr;33, it is
necesser" to P scuss next the terns of sale “-1 ne jut; trnge of indin.

fl

15

1“

In the 6:59 of loose Jutc, cash is alxs”s said b” the bugsr

, 9 _ _ T‘ #15:." _ _- ‘. J... _4 ._ .‘_ ‘J..‘. ‘ 7,..1... ”3’3‘ .‘- _'I I'; ’.‘ -_‘_—'. . ‘
to tne seller. file iiAsACisi Ufuusth_Jd JQUapLJ bus 03 3:, Assess or

~‘

‘- , ~~. ‘ . '1 -9" “ w\ 'r :. ~.'-- ' ‘ I ‘. " " ' .‘ 4" 3 t ‘. , 'I'v¥ 1‘ \r‘
JuC' «J, ”all 1:18 Diu‘fif, t1. .3017. -1 id't d;‘1.l°.‘;'-..._.i:o Ol L‘. JLLUV Jiuglgl‘ (..-..J.

(I
9'
(U

I" J

usually also, of an luler brok3r, are orQiasrily i auras Linis. (l).

-'.~n \* -. ‘ 1 ‘JO-o«\ ~
1. sirect CwAbfmCU Oousss

 

~ . s‘ : ‘ ur- . '1" -'. -- F'.- —-"'r* " "".-.' :1 ’1'4-.- 5 ‘ r ."'v
3‘31“, 11 ‘\fi1.LCll (xi—~33 bile L)1'O...u.'.‘ ‘Lb-gg‘JS 1U.) 1‘er U~LSLQLL1 IO}: ELL--‘..lluj‘r

. ,. '3“ w J. ..,3 ..f ' ~ ' ‘ -‘4... .. .'. ‘. - ... .1 .‘.
2. Lad rjristai COH31¢Ct xdlCfl ls oqusss A9 2311:: “Al use

 

'uysr, out in UnlCh the archer guarantees the quality ans selivcrf 01 the

n 1 ~ ‘ J ‘

"‘

a. rrincijul contract in which the broxsr sells or bugs isr

 

q

a princigal, «110 is un43mss in the contrsct but whose iflsnu

J I

I Q
l' r mus-u 0&3
. .‘ _ ‘q . ‘ l‘ ‘ s“- ‘ ..-.._ .L- . -.' ..' . '. .3 , .
SClOSt-JCL NASA 32:4. VJ-“ l.lSIJ..“LlCu.LU;.S 6:..‘6 QlVJd; Ouliul‘JlSd

bilit* for the centrist lies with the 010:3;.

or files at mill ghst, ahi13‘ buying for a mill. In the case of sxgorts-

Cssn s; wollvsqy Oi ClL r rsC-1Ju. lie 02133'9 .210 for fu53 f : é”-
,crt is quoted 3.0.3., and i; order to arrivs st snip:3r's C.i.f. ;:ice
the following chsr as have to be aiiar; ;‘V3-nm3:1t sxgort flutg, ;ov;:nmc;t
3;;‘rt toll a.i surtax, cogsulzr fscs, Larisa iss runes or -reiJLt chgrqss
for y3riods betuipA umdh.du to bal3r ml; s-*3 “f Uu-LuL.J 3-3-t, tJle-

" U 0 I ' c q g o g -‘
"’"w‘f‘ "‘1 C‘"‘ " "-"’\ "‘ "'“ "‘ A :3" '2 ’T."‘t'¢,‘\ ‘ ~ -. 0" ' “'f‘ "'a r. ' '31 ‘. .‘. 'V *
(.4‘ habit.) , $.09 UVdde €-&l£-L ‘u‘ vi] 9 e..\_2'3AL ‘ JS , LU ; 4AA L) (I 'V.-‘.A.-lLJ 91 011 ‘J—J— v. 'Avr l S A «C a—L J ...-L

.0
C1
J-
{4
f—o
H
'J
('7
C}-
(I;
w
F—J
if'
:4.
I
*3
d-
C
5-
H

O
N

O

(l 73.‘~n 4.4- ‘_|_ '.‘ . .7 , .'.“ l ':‘n~-\r 'Q 0 O _ .j -.. ._' ,3 f‘ ,1 .. ‘O, .7 _E._- .’.} ‘ 1“ l" ,1
A. w U U , 11. v 4 -lL. u .'. Oil" .. .. c.“ 11.1 p a“; a u 0..».1 - .L 4.1. -5 , w . \)‘£o
U

2) Pratt, Illt3~1u ticuul Er is in Uta 18 U

fl " .1 ‘ I ‘. " ‘~ “ -I1 ' 1’ “ ~ l“ '1‘ ' 4‘“ L. I :‘ J‘ .
She forei h Burch33er3 oi ruJ jute or hahuilcsurei duJe “ro-

J .‘. a. Q 1 ~ I: '. '~r\J- “ r~ -.. ‘ ‘l‘\‘ ”A " “
ducts pluce uhe1r cruei eithe; u r3ot on e J.lctJ.u sn15J3r or 0; the

M;
C"
I

U)
(.1
H
r—J
(-

H
{H
r:-«
;~

home ofiice of e Jelcuttu shin 3r. In the lat t»r
extra cuxnission is involved. Soue of the i wortin5 firie have their
purchasing u53hts in oulcuuu uni the; generally work 01 o>en order s.
Dhe usuul m3thod of J“OL"“ e practiced by th hritish Jurc 53ers is

as follows: Quotations are given and then bills are c1r;wn in sterlin5,
usually on a home firm or bank sgecified by the purchaser. rhese ster-

lls ure then sold 0" the ex3oz ter to a oelcutte bank at the rul-

’JI

ling b
in; rote of exchange. In the case of gurchssers outsiie the United
Kin5dom it is usus.l to require e letter 01 credit ogehed throu5h a bank
in the purche sin5 count;z, with one of the exchange Dunks in calcutte,

5overn-

'fiiere the bills are sold. Again there are cases when forei5n
ments or firms exgort ac tuzl oullion to an Indian bunk to meet srch

bills. Very often 33 jute and jute bugs and cloth are x; rteo oy lccel
firms OHICOlh si;nr1ent for cozxiis siun sale on the other en . The oill lS
mhde out c.i.f. port of destination, out the Dunks 5e1ertlly allow only

about 75 to 90 per cent to oe rAM1ed IMM‘QlLUVLJ on such a bill. Phe
bill or drsf as a rule is eccoxmeniei by the L Nice, bill of lcfiin5
uni insurance policies. (1).

Raw jute is im50rted into Dundee dir rectl; by the spinners and

'h

P-

by the m3TChLRtS for sole to the sginners or or their own account. As
21 rule, the oills \ith shi;;3 i -13 documents are are r111 at three ;.1.:'..th's

sL ht u on the London office of the scottish bank with 1.hich the 35in-

23

or and merchant ke cps his local account. The LOnion oiiices ere jeny
orally instructed to eccegt the bulk of the drafts, i.e., to ye; them

at :eturity. flxe c-3ft holiers, after obtuinin5 benks' hcc,_thhce or

do.

(1) Brett, International Erode in “to la oo11.1oiities, p. loo.

payment after rebate, 13.111 over the shiggih; 3.0151. :13 11ts, whicn are then

~

sent to Dundee banks 1111 ere they are held pendin5 the 11.:‘rivnl of the

st ‘1.”1ers. If '3: 11311;;'e1.1e11t be 1253-216 with his bank, a custmier 1:15;; :;et

(:\

documents in order to obtain deliv 3:1; and store ,jut 0. Very oft e.1 the

.1“

product is found storei L1 we rel cues in the 1184.18 of {JAG 3.131.111: as a.

v 4‘ 1‘! 1 -\~
1101' 53511131113.

J.

,1, ‘4-.- ° 3 . r w— —~ - .. "31:1." 1'

‘I

new jute for 1.15.111"- 1’1cturi113 131‘; 103 es and hence a eu 3.1.1.31‘icc .1 i.;:.orters

-r. J ~ .. . .,...-.,,.- .1.-. .. .'.- ... ., r.‘ 1 m. , “.‘-—...
h..v~3 their 011.1 0353.31331J1ohs 111 331(311-333. ..Ost 01 t-1e 11.150- 33-13,

S ' v!“ n “ ‘- 1’ _'V J-‘ -;-_ _ wf “w '_ I '1’- ~ 71‘ '. . i.. ‘ ‘ ‘1 o . rs ’_
hosevJH, 3115 throi ,11 he ...3-1-1 1 -1. 3110111315. 113513 bro-331's r3031ve ire-

cuent, 3111.13 i-111s s deily , cub ies £11013 Gelcuttc. st1-.ti;1.;; the quantities,

1. ' ' ..~ 4.1,. . .: ...- ' 4-- 4.1. .1 . *1. ,- ..-. ‘ an.
qua-311451 es ...1Jc1 the L111.c-3-s of .1133 t113.t 3J1e s111,J-J1.3-rs 13.12:"; c311 o113r.
1-: 4.1,. Jr“ , w- . ",_ ‘9 _ 1,“ .-. _ L ' ."DP .1. L‘. . . 3 '1,
“ft-3 r this the -.e-I lorh 0:03.31' 113133 5 his 0113r 1J0 311e 13,113.-..(31J11r3- or

-‘ -.- i ‘ V v'.- 'I -\q .- - -~"-< ‘ <—. ,-_ -. ¢ .’v- a. 4—.— ‘ V a . (- ,.-
VAC“ 118 18 bl';'.l.ik), 8.110. 11' 37311131141 l“-3CulV'JS (J11; ‘5 us.) Duv'. 3113311 3.11 1.438-

. n a‘

shunt is reached r3511rdi1‘1’r' tries, the srolzer r303 ives as. coJiiis :11 on o;

‘3‘
4
L)

F:

O

(I

p

...!

c}-

Q

C

{—9,

L

,

P

C"

:33

p—

...)

(U

y-.‘

n

(u

f.

1

U1

.0

_ 1 r _r' 4.1.. JJ r. ~_ ,.‘ .0 . '.’. . .1. - .1-‘
'1e-1-3-. .3, 11118 03111.1? -11‘. 1 “011.9 110 3118

H.
r},
t. P
Q.
5:1.
F4
._.]
P"
. ,.
'33
H
'

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D

|>

1 1
‘1”

sue-11‘5ents 3, if there 111151.211 to be any, who have ass

tictinf; the business.

".‘he Calcutta. 8311‘)"; ..r ships the jute c.1111 drums '3 b’ll of e:-;--
c11e1153 on the broker in 17:31:; “.T ‘31:. 31113 is sold by the :-:::orter to 3.

~. ,~_ .- -- . . .' - , l.‘1 ._.. fq‘ ,- . ,_ 13.13,- 1 ...-1 ~ .._1_ -
31.11-. 11.511311” Lt 111.331,; was. 1.11.: 31311111333. 11....: 1 r..-_r..s this

.- -. 1 ., . - ,. . '1 ._ __,3:. J.» '2 .. "..,. V' .,1.. ‘-,., ‘ .' .° _.- .. ,. . ...1.
11111 11.11... Gov 11311,, LLOClLJ'JilJS L10 13L. 3.. -13-. 1431-011, 513.13.15.31 or ..5 3.13,

I. 1.1 ._. ...-. . .5..- ._~_. - .. _._ _.. . ,- .2, .19.: .5 . . 4.1.. - . .. .. .. 1- ~. -
1:3 U110 Chi-1'3 1J2.” b3, 1.11le 111 U‘LL_‘-1 ;-'_‘J1'_:J'-‘. 3.:1 oi. 3133 I140 b-1'3 -.13‘.J _U_‘;; ZJ'_"g/__jr
~ ’ \J
1Lr €¢CQ34 J~J‘.C:.
“T“ ..1, p 1. l .. ..~ 1-1 .. . 1 . ‘ -7 _ - ,-,1_-, 1.. . ...1 .'.
-'.13 311.43 0‘. DH." ('31:) LLlLLL Ou-L 3r 11L-.'113s.1‘.'C1 153;-‘3‘31. ,J 11L. UL: «211:-.- . LI. 1;

w . ._. ,. _ . q . 1‘ I u -. -
-.- 3-1- . . -r-. . 1-. - -—. J - “W. ._ 4-9. Jn 1; - ~— -
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Y;r; its: the buyers 1;:3 Oren letters of :zlit in lecutta, and

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war recohrgen;ed 13 141 :
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"Buflt the attenultn 01 the Inulflfl rov,ru4e¢ De c;11a-
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cc» n1>3te with jute. Their .ex.:ori:.l recomiazdeu tin-t

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1.711;; the jute i-1uu at my 5110‘ uld 1‘0 :0 _0 this airy-1'33

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for 3111-0533 0; retaliating L'-;;'..i11st the i;.._ositi3-. f foseign im-
Uort anti-as 113311 _jut e Luz-11,132. t‘u‘3s, "l:3e"_vi--;: i-- 1113:! “ts-3 iiLLL-J--
bili": oi reclucixi; to the lowest gussible li'...'t thO'e (iv. 31' c

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funds for research and i:10ustri..l purwos es. T313 :01‘1131‘ w-gc stead that

1“ .

1/4- cents ‘03 0011301335. 0:1 ovary ”03.13 0; rm: Jute ergorted from. 1.1-5.

l - A ‘r Y. ‘ ‘1. . '. “ I! . r~ "‘ .: 't‘fl "',' ‘ '1 "I ' “ - 'I‘ “ '. '
0r consumcd a; 11.13 1.11113 1.1 111.33,, 13.11011 3.1110. 1.: H.113 a rsvemle of

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~ 1,316,000 g'.1111..¢.ll~ , ~./111.LG 0.18 (301.111.851.011 81.] ”‘th 1:11 0-....0 c.-S

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tne 02.1.2031: 13...». 0-1 30.13 3.1... ‘11.» .1230.-- c.11res 0.1-1_s a. hr 3 :3 :1. 11 00

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l 338 \Jalkl :91 -! SALE). ‘ ~011‘\-‘p L_L vi OJ. J I u&‘ 35L =J v1 U G
4-‘ ‘74- -~- J- 0 -‘ :'~ 4- T“ A -' * fl — « a .n ‘\ - L. ~- ~-: . . "r- \ 1‘ 7-
’50 .113 e... 311. 01 5.0011. $13,000 311.11.12.11, 2.113113% to ..10 15311., 01 13.13
F - .... .J.‘ 'J. -"-‘- ' . '3.
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M' . 3 Inn 1" c; c~~"3' ‘L f ‘3 l /L' n“ ‘ U 1'1 ‘ -‘ la '3 1"?
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1.21113 313111139 51.0.3.1

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01 110. 0 1.1033 .1111.1 3.0 ~. ..1‘; .. .. 113.. 0 u-::-J..~..s 1) 3r 30112.33 1-11.4 2 .‘ .-

{l} U. S. 30:131.:21103 i;;_;0;‘ts, ..‘11113 16, 1330.

inc; d .113 1 -123 20 “to -15 5 1/2 13.“: 11-1; to 1. (1). But 1:113 9.; 01'1“.

duty for sacking; (11:13? weiglt) Cloth, b:._‘;s, this", $5.21, 230113 1.1111
twine still $31,116.13 sf; I." rug-13-13 pg: 171111 (3,;30 130111155); and '32 1‘11-
pees p3r ton for lessian (liwnfi uciwht) goods uni all othcr Ces-

crigtion of J1t3 nunufw tur;3 not otgurwise 5,11013131. £3400, al-
though it is true that tun:a is an 3:;0rt inc” of 4 rugces 8 LQALS

1331' 400 13.1111 ‘0: 113 0.1 12.3.7 jute, this swiv;.;.t:zu‘a of the 1116.12.11 1.11113

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gloyed for x317)14 2. fluillsi sucking, with about cightcOA thrs;ds to

“ r .‘. ., ' w 4. _ 4..“ ' KM . "i ' “.9 -, U U ' . a ’t,

End sgug_e lucg egue:s une Lul . ‘ ”4-5 UJ1“L1¢ as coataldurs lbr

5“ a . r0 1‘ 1. 73-,“ ,‘l v ‘L ‘7 0:: (a 1'21'1 .' '3 11 ‘-' '4 I - 1““ ';:‘..". '_".J‘ C C? TL ' '—
Lbrblg,n lbw ‘v’fio‘-LhLUS’ SL104 w.) b Likeb Su'.\4-.L, GOA-va, b000, u. ‘Lvrlk leill’

04-7 ‘ I' ‘1 .L.‘ _.. .’...- ~ r _ .‘ ‘ J.’ 4“ ‘ 2' _s ‘
Wlun augut um Sud tnrcng‘ no one sguura luau

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the foundation of the wat:r)-oof;d and‘b3at Cletus; gnd é. Jurlu)

or hessian Clotn (l) mith about twen.;-four thr;;is to tTge square inch,
engloyed most extensively as Dad mate“ial for balin; gurgoses and LS
backing Sor linoleum.

Ehcse cloths are “gain dill$“egtihucu by w;;vs, vci;ht agd ram

' ': I“ S “1‘ . ‘ ‘ " . ‘. ’1‘ ‘. ~' flr‘ i ' ‘s 1‘ -. “ ~-.-‘ , ‘3' ‘ (2. ""‘ “ " l .x “ v’ ‘
IIUtJFLal h8"¢ 1A finglr maJuLgCtufoo Vauglwv 33‘ cotuan uvulud H-u «oven

5‘
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“.‘.: . ,3 ‘ ',.°., ‘— x- -4 .-. -,-,_ - fl... - 4.1 .. ,5 ~.-:. .‘ .... n ‘
(l) LALJ-S [kalde 0.4.. ‘mJl-LL-d U 4&3. i— l '.h.‘.,_'~‘ :‘ g L- C)‘l51 £1-13 Old -..L;i _ LKU‘OL 0‘ ¢-'

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75.

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with one threud ovsr and one nut; er in both war: ans weft. Eur aulin

‘

I

end double warp bugging can be dis tin :1 s:ed 7; their war; co.sui1cuion°
two wary flrCLdS are wove: side by siie as one. Crdiuurily SZCIlA; is
woven with a )luiu twill, mode by pc.ssiu; up 3 thre d over CJO an: under
one weft thread so as to acOuLcs u disgcual

'3 ~ 7 u I" c ‘ -' _... . .-- ‘ J.‘ ~ J ‘,_. ... 1.1 v‘ .
Jute teas: sunny (1) DLQS are urge iron scours“. sunny,
...-.-

 

however, in its broader and poyular sense has come to be sg,lied to all
cloths and bags rude from jute. The tuuistics of the Indian government
now divide exports of Jute clo t11.and bags into "sacking gunrv cloth",
"fessian runny cloth", "suckiu; _uuuy bags", and ”Lessiuu gunny b: “Rs"

\J

Jute Canvas: Que mst3 mitl which is Lsed by the tailoring

 

and tholst ring trades is cormouly Laue from 11 mt weight b‘rlap of

close w save and is distinguished frou.the general run of burlap by the

teu1jut3 canvss. rue best gruu3s 01 Jute canvas are uses us lntgr-
‘ ‘.‘\- .'i . " 0' ‘ 1‘. 7r”, I '- 4"; 'f} . ‘ 3" 1 ‘1‘ . ‘1 . VI --_ ‘ '7 r ’2 ‘-: ’a t
llfllAgS in COatS gnu are “311: es tullUrS' 3&Qulnq or CmuVWS :uuoiud.

1 .

' ° - ‘ 1 ..'-1 0-, . r *u A ' j. ‘ , ... ,3 ' ... ' uJ. .:\.,. t . _~
g; JcLin,s v;'~:y‘in leuguu iiOu go to 2: 1 03,8, uui 1n Jelqub ilom 45

,5

to 63 ounces to the linear yard.

Etcgram: "arse woven fabric of cotton r jute

p
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--n Q .J‘ N ”.'.L " L-.,
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.1.- _ .. ,. ,. . _, ,t -. =11, - “._.1-.- 4, _1‘:.. ~ -.- ,- ..
SulliUllt-jL Violl glue or “'1 v-1 SJUw l‘Cl' 1. 1.11.8 ...;sosfiotl llLL-...S loS 4323...

use as a cod; lor huts or bonnets.

J-r- ~‘ .- -. ~ :- *9 ' ' -'.( ‘ --'. 3 J‘ ' 4c . -. '-‘- "‘ -. ~". ‘
Jute JQJDld;: a-.wo‘ qusn in-lCS o- JUUB nOb exc; 33iuJ

 

n V. - V o 4. ‘

twelve lACJJS i1 wiith s 3 com only LAOUA LS Housings as; are useu for

xxdzhlg basis, belts, etc.

 

 

can -_ - -L- m J..1 .'4.‘ -..' ,. 1 »' {NJ-J-- J. . .nx- . 1‘ 4.: .o- .
izo31c ossuteo Ulufl oils as; miseral neuter to jr3ser'e tus clown iron
‘ A — x r - —. J-t . x A ~' n .-. n -. 1 o ‘ x - . fl r n "‘ - : . r
coca; enl to render LU flbJ-lnlluML&Ole and is ussu Lo: v-n tLlutlon ind

' _. ,. , A 4.‘ - _... _'_._A‘ "‘,"v‘ ~. 1' ~ . '.‘:_fi "I, ' _ '
for fire “rot; otio; our,08es 13 uA3 cosl Fines. _“e l3iuii“ Jug; i33:ics

"“ - ,3 .- ...- u‘,‘ H.’ ..V_ ‘. 4 \_ '
(l) -'lld "£10.. " ' :., Lila used. 0:. bliz‘. 'Al‘l

- v . .1 ~. ., i-

Jo:u surlag.

. - v. , .'-, J-“
1.3.1 .LS 3,...1L'l1111.1‘3118 vs.) bile ...Aig‘.“.LL~.~;.1

76.

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in malinu DTMUulCd 0103A u.e:

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$911313 “all" Doll ,.L-l ...U LKQLL’J‘J o0 3.1.: Liv- -- .3 ._...1.

"1H a 11094- c ' n" ..r' 1 - -,v.-‘-4-»‘ - ‘3 cl ~ 'T\ in ... ° ’0
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MJ- ive use clean a i_;vaz3i, viuzsd_cuz,3.:unce.

 

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no. $59.4). 9 OJ; U‘LJ 2.1‘J J .L-.. '.-. ,v-. i..; ‘1 -/L-—A-J- a - y’ .; .-‘v \. - i.-; ..Lv’v
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1-1 ulLLO .lx.‘4U‘-5- Cull :..u 3L”.,b lo (Awnb U0 4.1...(JLUQ .lJ Ulla: ‘41-

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v. qu‘g UL U--V'\.'3 C‘J-u..u...L JU '.L .-.:LLL O‘JJ $4...“ U-4‘.'.J ..~Ju ”‘J- Li. \J.L.L'vl£ .._ ‘3 v-- .v- I,“

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4.-..a JLLUD .LAL-.-§JU.-v .. 1-.-.U J-J—U‘rv.LA1 l-J LU;1VZ-.U-L.3;:L .L-‘ -.1'55-..'_Lav,

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.6 4.~ ,. 4,...4. '1 1‘ ,. ls. . _J. '. v-‘ ., ."w‘v ' *_ :. .. : * ..‘J.’ .1." ._ .1.

CI; uil'.’ U Uurnu... _llv) b4U’g‘LJ (jliu J ...—LL- ‘.4-l.LCi 4.3 g-‘--.L_ - 3‘. '...LU.‘. 21.53 “.‘./L U 1.1 :-

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fio~,i.e “youln-: -Hs Lis;ru‘.3u La i-Jsrgool 13 l.ul (l . -“3 :.ut

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) v'. U. \JOA to.v-K/‘.; -sx; O~ U1), . L‘} JA.A)‘J; IJL ’ .‘Q. .

77.

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Li... 01‘). L1; 0.1. 441.0 J11»; 3 .Ll Lam." .. u -JL..1»-U .: a}. 3:3 ‘2.” 1V... u.) U;AL’ :-;.'.'i..S , biLin. '2 ll; 1 JUL
r ..." 5'3‘0‘ . ‘3 .1 (3 "" 1.}‘r‘ U: r _J . .‘I- 3 -r 11 *-~ 3
“AS J..~. nl UL 94-0 C-—- LLJLIU VoLUl_!v.- l‘ 4U a -lo 1U Ikk, ‘1‘) J.»— “I U 18
' ‘ -..’ ..: -..1. ,- -.‘. -, .- .‘.“ 1.. . ’ ‘ . .:- - . J. .,'_ -1‘ ' ‘ ,--
Lt. l SLIUL‘. L-S t U C». 0;.1 LU Jbi. OJ: ..5L‘OLluE). j 1:: _1;~L5..e..l.‘vk~ E: LI(-)LJ~ 0A . lLL.OU
. _ 4-3 , , ~ -‘ ,. ,. .‘-_- . ,. ...'- ‘ 21. J. -,‘_ .. -
0:13 Lila; Co LN. ~:..<.-, tn: 0-; one 1‘ 1 l“; mu ., :(l 0-; me 2 DUL-- us.-
0 g -
-a a. ...- ° - 1 _ ..- ... .' ,g.-- - . j r' .'.t- -. .. _-.-4.i ..._ . ‘_, '.
(3-34.1le3 l-L tile 323-.1: s: Hg... 8. .[Al 1221:.) u-.‘- 131") ‘u J3: hl..u Qty“. Cadufiulll l--.Vl.ld
over a 0L0 locus, 01 350 s :iuul-;s. (1).
-.~.. ‘. _, - -- ' ,1 '. .’.-j. J- ',“ w ..4. .- .54.. '..
surilb t113 ten-"ugr gurio‘ Since l.~l U0 ldul, qruwu deJmlu'S
‘ ‘ ‘ a - vv . ‘1" ~ ‘ ‘ 1’ ‘l “ f n ‘ ‘ ‘11‘, " V" "O " ' '4“ I' - ‘ a, I“ I) (”3")
iM303t oi :Ld Jute 041' sur:wsssu xsslild's lop use gsurs l.~ , J~

\‘. " 1..\.. . r- . p.‘r..u~.A 4-‘ . ~ .‘.‘ ,-‘— ..., - ‘--~ .4.-- ‘- —‘— ».—'
and 1530; uUJGVJr, she fdmwluud tne SJCOAd lusuu c 1g,o:uur lJ ot-;:

1‘. .r ‘ ‘A '. -‘ . '1“ ' ‘ '. .'.} . L - : ‘\ ‘j "1' -‘~- -" ~-.' NJ- ~ -.L‘ ‘. '1 -~- {at - ‘-~--, , A"

yzsirs. 3.1-3 ..unues Jute 1.141.: or; .L'o «-..v 0U ed. .40 Lu 1; to me u"; \.L...;.CU ”to DJ.
-n- , -‘ . *- - ..4- r-~\r‘ 7‘ I - '1‘ ‘- ’ . . . r, -- - t -.I 1

hi h .rwue ute 13:0(hlcss uuu sl~ciululcs luCluul. * r18 our lo) utuols
x.) .4. —- 9 , ,

...“ - ‘ m' . ,--1w, P . 1.. ‘- .2. .. ., J.;.'. _. ..1 . .‘.. -- :,.

Mu?) 03.nld twilled <3 “in LJQ uu3taulius .u-u.iu auu L.o. uas um

i u” u, q - 9 g V

(burlap) is the MuSfi Widely nunujuctursd of jute iaorics. :his :ru;uct
is u:.u e of s’xgle yu"u and plain "CV 31, and is used both in file V1368
and for’nagix;;7axs. grain bahs for nrfif‘gull'll an; the Lnited abutss and
bags for onions, orun uni fertilizers ure usvullt mzie of tuls cl Eh.
girls Dundee ‘our 3.; is well nude and us a rule ‘0 rings high-3r :ZFI'iCIJS than
the Calcutta; n‘odu cts of the sums CltSS. Bhu tne indium burlap i" LLQG
of susg-rgriO'~ fissr sud hence is oitsn preferrsc :or oh'S ransom.

Dhe Tundee gills use coustantl; turnin,'thoir Lttcuciog to
the uevelo u nt of mule s ecializsd uses of the Jite fiber. “ltguugh the
jute fiber nus con31der3t to be Lual;;cnabls at first, fat matxois have

‘ . .0. .. , , . “i . ‘ .MI 1". _. ~ ' .01.) .'.. ."-,.. ‘.‘ s. - ,. . 0 .
0391 lounl flUJ 10: Olin nlJ_ tnis l 0-: LA o.usr tu _1Ju 1“ ¢ cous1u2r-

l 1 t \ 'fl "' . "X‘ I" \ r "\ I, J. ‘. "I .“ . ’1 . 4" p 3 ~. . J- ‘u ,
(3.013 (4.5 1‘30 Ul ”.Jiiltui GLS a.“ also .LUI‘ L»; {3ng l 1.1 ‘u “ “Blindiuj L. ._-38.
V r. v ‘a J. -:—‘ 4.7. 'i‘- ' j.“ ‘ ‘ : ~ 3‘ "I“ g ‘ '4" I "“v' A ‘ ‘ \,~. "3 4‘0 w-v.l

n 19rd: amount 0. UJG s “ml“:u mluun cloun is u,uu suu uSsu l ”“11

. a. ‘ ....

(l) CL..I'1:) J. H. Jrallilrfl, ”Jute {1.4141 34511.: I-L-‘l ”J I in the 1‘44: 3"- “1412.-
don (lulS), p. 105.

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a

. a . ....n. 4.,. .«1 --.; ,1 .‘ f1, .. f .3 .1...
ccv3l‘lflj. (3‘18 I,1£,‘,Ll1.;-C;CU‘C£ ‘3 UL 8-1113121. \flLLL‘: (alOt113 .LOI‘ 1113C: LaS 4.1L:
'5' “VI 1 ' 1 1 :1 l l w 0" ' “'1 '0 ‘f ' C‘ 0"“ 13.2» 717W: “:4 ' i1 u ‘71" ”'1 ' ' 4“,“) ‘J'f‘ ('1
J. 0.1. 1.1.10 ©1111 Quill .1. CO. C i713 _.Q .lL-..) v- .L‘IBB‘LLvaL JCVA‘ \.. ‘ “CC—Lall , V..-~.J J. Mud

J. . .‘. . ,1 -1
u‘JO kLeCE‘HJCUS.

51‘ ,‘. ~ _ ..L. . 1 '. .' . .- .11'1 1 ‘ . ‘- - .7 _ ,. " x ,. l 2 .‘
4|: OiyLE‘d‘: :10 U Olilur 8 'Ja 1‘ CC" :1) pt 8 L9- Lia's logy-1U *A-‘- s , I) Lit .J IVE-S S .2 S aim

II

A ' J

other carpets 13:3 1.1.713 wholly 01 111; a. 'Co 2.11.1011 imp; mm: 3111; has 033; male

r.-)
p.

in ‘ute caroet :zanufucturin‘ tint 130C112" a. well 1.15.1113 51:16. Cal
A ‘J

rug, when nsw, graces-*5 to as 3;:n1ilc1r to some 311.1633 c: wool CLI‘QC‘GS. 3e-

sides the Liaimfuc‘cw‘e ofizolem1 0.2.0-111 :s, 2;";3‘15'. e 11;.3 also devalued

~ .-+‘ — . . ..3 1;..1 , -
1.1..1u--‘.cta e of 1:11; 331110133 1.30118 3,13 13.1 1.1.2.0 1111-31‘ mm 8. 111,11 _1‘-.le
- ‘- —- ,1 ' 1 -' 1.».~-1 :' ‘, 4— 1 14.. 4. 10.1.1.» 1.
'..'Cr111.1311511113 ‘111‘11c11 _Lt ‘.IOS--CE;‘1;(;S. 3M: 11 1.11 ”1111,1111 01 11119 1.1.111‘111L.c1,u;.;d
'- ‘ -. J-‘- '-. 'J- ' ‘-. - - .5 1j;) ...,” .jr 11 .
Jute .1101‘1‘0‘5 s 11‘ 11-113 331.1131 1111133111 1113 £11111 1‘ 113:9 1121,0LC Cons

aid 18 9, CCO tons valued at 3'3,28é,840 and 151,859,280 r33»3ctivoly.

' 1, ‘ _ . ._ ... -- J. ..‘ " H- - . “..-...' :' .1. - --,
'1119 114-031: 811-111. e_~._>o:'u tr....e 01 ...-3th 22133.11 : nth 11:13 331--

 

if'i?;l-3 51.101111: 5.1.1035 all the r1911 Jute products $.39 im-

fi ‘ A —- vp 9 § ‘ ‘ . ,. a 1: ‘ r‘ 4.1. - '4‘. -. — 1’" 4r J- ‘ ' J.r- . 5"! .
1101 C C r11 * 3011 1r ..1 111C113. 335111133 «1119 21.1; Jut e, or 31.11. 331 31.111 1131-
". - . . J. .3 _- '. 4. 1 . -. _.‘ 1 , .0 ,~- .' 1" .1. r ~ ‘_
,Jorts 8. 645,3 a111ounu Ol 1111;11:110C11; 3d. Jdoe 1: ‘CC-L1Cts 01 11.211111 b 110 0111....
" f'“ '1 4“. '. '1' fl. '\ IJ't “‘ 1' _f! .'. 1‘ '«-' r ~ . "“.‘ . (‘. '7‘ -gt- .
C0133 S Ld.. {01 b.13 CO$lU-L$L;I allogl CvLLllJJ.13 O.L .J‘Vsi‘tl‘;re Cd-L\J. .LiLuLJ-Qfl. .L.;l.3 héLuuln

"" ”'1'” I: .' ' J‘“'1 _' "' "I‘, ',i 'L -.‘ . ’ f" ‘- . J‘.:‘ Wu. - “ N+
r111»11m11-:.cthre a; tic 13:3 1...,1‘ 113C. .- 11:11.; La ._Jri 5:311 axe JuUC u. .433, J‘C 3e

1' .. “ 4. -—- .1‘ «.1 -.:.. .- - .0 ‘--.
21900 00C: JUCB CCuL‘j'J JS €11-11). I'LLHS £41ng JUC'J S' 0123 CHM]. 0C1 IS. kl. 13.1589

u, a! ‘ ._A w = _1. H I. ’ “ ‘ . ‘ .'.! u . . Q . ‘ _. n ._. A?" ‘ ‘ ' -'. ... ‘. o _.- . I 3 u ‘- I .‘
tie 01111: 0; 311-1, 011 u; wah- S C111“ 2 -1 _JS 1111‘. 0:13 0; -rfziv. L: _;.'.‘l malfl 13 subpll :11
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the Vechelde Tow spinning mill was adapted to the spinning of jute,
the necessary machinery being purchased from Dundee. This was the
beginning of the German jute industry. In 1869 another German mill
was put into operation in Bevel, and by 1874 several more plants
appeared. Thus the German jute industry began to propser, and before
the World.War,India and the United Kingdom alone surpassed Germany in
the manufacture of jute products. During the World‘war, however, Ul-
portation of raw jute from India to Germany ceased and the exportation
of manufactured jute products by German factories was being brought to
a standstill. But the fact that Germany's importation of raw jute from
India has increased remarkably since 1919-20 and now practically equals
the average pro-war imports, proves that she has regained her former
position in the jute manufacturing industry. In 1928 Germany had forty-
eight mills with 199,000 spindles and 12,000 tvist spindles, employing
16 ,102 works rs.

Today Hamburg is by far the largest jute center in continental
Europe, receiving more jute from Calcutta than any other port importing
jute in the world. (1). The raw fiber enters this port not only for
consumption.in Germany, but also for shipment to Czecho-Slovakia, Poland,
Austria, Scandinavia, the Baltic States, Hungary, Belgium, and even to
Russia. 52). This arises from.the greater economy in transportation.
Shipping companies bring raw jute from India and find it more economical
to discharge their cargo at Hamburg for reshipment to Baltic and Central
European countries than to carry jute directly to the ports of such con-
suming countries. Unloading the raw jute cargo at ports in sourthern and
(1) U. S. Commerce Reports, April 8, 1928.

(2) U. S. Commerce Reports, April 1928, and Report by G. S. messersmith,
American Consul General, Berlin, October 30, 1931.

~.-. .-..

\h_‘

Jesters quroge as" he as‘antageods to ceisimii regio-s StrVeC L; than,

'1 5..
but in general the shipping companies look for a place frog JWiCW that
can reasonably satisfy all importer“ of this raterial Jitfl ultimufl
COHJCtitiOQ and Hfilfilil; costs.

1“ e - ...; . '. -:-‘ .. ‘ .~ .,. 4— '. +1, . V . ’ f rv'~, .
11; re! jute imports oi laropeai stuntiiss 9.:on.h Ls.aurg

‘1‘

do not ajgesr as :e-exjorts of the gurlul finish (1). as no cut; i;
-2 v. x .q,,- ,_. .0 ,,.j ,. ,. .. -.., - “ _

collected in t,e free 2016 Or fausurg, t1; raj jute is leldei t :SE

for re-shipnent to various countries. “3 u matte“ of fact JZpChO-

N U

V ‘ . __ O ' ‘_ 0 ‘ O J . _ f I. ,V‘ “:1 ... ' + . - V y:- J_ 1' ‘.’ '
sloxania, #1133 is tie largest l” o-ter or ii} jute aid ouler raJ

‘I
.-

1.

anterials as Jell as manufacture” products tideUh Qanburg, nus an
rgslization set up in that port by a treaty right Jith mermaiv, ex-
1e per ose of Haflulidg t

clusively for t

aid exports.

(.1
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'5
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R

Li 1933 the German jute mills consumed 194,333 ton~

jute, 3,379 tons of jute scrip, and £98 tons of otner jute nroiucts,

against 139,107 tons of re} jute, 3,501 tons of Jlt: scrap sic 2&3
toss of other jute products in 1957. fhe coasamgtion of re: jute Ali

jute scrap by the aesgan mills yes on the increase u: to 1329, before

the depression of 1950 and lvsl, as the deansd for tartan made jute
products 733 iicreasing.
Although densuny is engaged i1 Various t; as of jute unlu-

o“ 4. - t 1 ‘ e. 1.- I‘ 1 ¢-« :. . .w .- ,‘ .. a...
LKLCUkLPES SL101 5.3.3 t 16 lildildlthhL£U 04. duUC U"‘L_}~” 1'11. 0 c.2110. C-;-.l‘_‘:'b3,

. ~ . ~ '7 ‘ ‘A y! t r ..‘I n 'r 4‘- ~ ~
piece goods, yarn, tjine, etc., jet tie digest _a-t or Me: out it

v ‘ ' ' ‘-I' 0‘ - *‘r 3‘ r1 - .j . [V . o" ' - r ,‘ -r L .1 . g - ,7'

(l) Erom tie imgo-t aid eapo-t statistics or dentin, revfilibd
-. ,1 u " -‘ ,- 1'" ‘ I 1’ '__ _" ‘r‘ ." _. ‘ - O ( 1. I i 0

front]. I. r. U. I). ‘__E;L)OULO!...lt1, ..‘a lab L’vhkl VOL‘bfi/Ll la]. -,'E.r.|.l.1, l:

1930 Olly 1.13; .45; .ge; .91; a;u n.19 per cent 0: the
total imports of raj jute respec ivelr jece re-e ported.

It

i
113 found that during the y::rs lflho, lun7, lugs, lsLJ all
1 "\
J—
U

84.

(T'

is composed of jute Janis. In last, 14%,ses toms of jut yarns Jere
producei as against 3,040 toss of otlei hist yar1s, and 8,011 tons
of jute trine a iist a}; tons of other tJine. (l). eeniaiy im-
Jorts a considerable wxoxit of jute y'r: fron crest Britain,
and Belgium. Host of the ex; rteu jute yarn L,oes Iron cerms1y to the
Jetherlanus, Again, fsu'ce, Tuauary, Denmark, Siecdo-JlOVexia aid
Srezil. Phe value of the exported jute yarn from land to 1300 jas
much hi :1er the ‘ the imported jute yarn during tie same years except-
ing 19z7 and 19:3. Dhis Jas so, “erruv', cecause is lbs? practically
all of the jute mills in cecaany Jere Jerking at hundred per cent
capacity and the situation in industry was better that 11 as; year
since the mar. Ihe large orders had kept the mills active for a long
time. (3).

Erglcet In the year 1937 the Freuch jute indus ry had a
total of 170,000 spindles and 7,000 looms. The jute Spinning 31d
Jeaviag industries of Jr-lce a; e celce trates chiefly 11 the north
and east, the three priicipal districts being (a) Juuhirk and the
surrausdisg region, (b) The Jonme walla-y fr01 Flixecourt to asbe-
ville to hilly-Jur-chie; aid (0) Alsace 310 LischJiller and Jolmer.

V

These factories are situated in the

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gards mineral, agricul tural and iiuustriul u; oiuction.

118 greater part of t1e french ruJ jute reguirement comes

‘

through the port of Juziki rk Jhile seme is importeu t?rough nutjerp.

1

A small Quantity of the imported raj jute is re-enported, the ship-

ments hMV11- anounted to 17.5 per cent aid 17.0 per cent of the total

a

(l) Converted into tors from kilo 3343 from tie
‘ , a.erican 3013u1 sen_ra1, t
rce Le orts, April 9, 13:8 aid .e ort 07 s.

'1,.J36£ ca« 001341, jaiouru.

amount imported throa h Eel LN 11 lJZd aid 1539 respectively (1).

U

The bulk of the ray jute for Bruice comes iron ILdic, but oriig to

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the success of t}1.e Jut e ind‘rt qr in Praise, 30me utteuptx
made to cult iva te jute 11 Indo-China, in order to be more 111e~e1de11t
the importatiOI of this fiber from India.

There Jer e five jute .:ills 1:1 the 0+.-3001r' area in alsace
1:1 193 '0. 'f those,t10 Jere of minor importance and the other three
Jere under the sane manageuent or had almost identica boards of
directors. In the sane year, the largest mill in that area had as
carding machiies, 7,300 spiqdlcs, and 500 looms, aid

.1 . - -‘. - ~ 1‘ . v Q - \
or turning ts.s {nick 461' pur-

stulled some spindles and machines
chased in the United states. It has in its employment 1,500 fork ers,
of Jhom a large preportioi Jere Jones, aid had a daily output of

"' I

30 metric tels of ourlai1b 1L3, winding aid other tJises and carpet
runners. a small quantity of coco-fiber ma tiag gas produced in
this Jill also. iractically nose of the production of this will
:as exworted. I1 additioa to producixg pecking cloths an' at s,
the jute Jeaving mills of Praice manufactuse carpets, velvets,
overalls, che “p mats, matting, floor 011 cloth, cloth for mat-
tresses, dusters a1d gumied cloths for oatfi ting and footJear.
The sole of plaited jute thread for shoes is a s,ecia1tr of a firm

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in the pyrennes distric .

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Ael 0.1.13 ch:.1 L, 1e -1U1re 0.1.1.1151 1; t ,1, L, J,

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ri‘ ‘. 1 .‘.1 4. ' - n .. 1 ' 1 . .1». a
116 -1e 0 JrollctioL o1 ute clot1 e‘w 1 la t-e reHLs 01
c. 1,
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Jeivd CDJSJMgthJ 13 su11131e1t to Cufiglj tde Cudltrj's lbLL116461tS
.. v >‘/ J.‘ vr , «4— J- ' . .- l ’1 J 1‘» , . (1 W ‘ 1“. . - 1 . n ‘ | O
us Jell as 1or e1¢01t to ulLeris u1u 1u11s. J1e J‘llClgul elWVses 01

J... ...1 v, L , VD. .- , .. , '. '_w‘:{“. ‘ _' ,j ' .. 1
{AC owl-'6 54.}... L. J ”4 LL‘O .111 .. :u_kl\;b 1.1 l JNU \Jul'eL l J... J, , 1.1 0;“, Cr 0 I

Jute menu
». ..- .D ., 11 ,1, 24. .r.‘ . .-..-‘. -. J . -.. :.1
id_ortu1ce 1ron tue stsiuto11t o1 toai1Le “1Q wulie 1e1e neJ 1uve
”arms, odors or T; :7 Jute

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‘1. . '~\‘l~ o ' r . “P I" -' ‘L
aor1cs, L11e or QlAEJ Luce

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surgets WJJ Jute c -ius. (w).
f1‘ I.‘ fix ‘I .1 J— . -. .7‘1r-‘J- ~_ -' f‘ r‘ v {I - L ‘ . .q < 4- _~ 1 ' . '\ "
11e :re1c1 Jute iidustrg tOdd; ”its its u;-to-dute mat ou

.n .‘ -‘-".. ‘K -. _ . .‘ ,‘u-w .s,
r 11s -eir grOSgthS o- -ecelogde1t.

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v ' \ ‘ ‘ u . " ~ '. l ‘WL V . L .i ’ r ~’ I ‘ x . . ~. ,- :1 “~,‘ T - ' .... .
111nL,111d .n11v1'k, 11e11str'r 11 1d d' has . ro.n1 u, :311c~; 11wjd, oeirr,

r 1s r 1 vv ,1 . I 1 - 1 I. . . ‘ r , ', - t v p ‘

e11 e1 . s e 1.1 1 u _ rds L3 full .3 p mud 1 tie a. e cou-
c ‘i 01 JL "Leci 1se 1‘ .

I‘ : - . H“ ' ‘ " O ' 1 .~ $- ‘. . '1‘ ~ u“ ~-' ‘ .n I: ' A. l—. ‘ A.” .~ .I .7
gudies e1Lsped 11 t1e a: 11u1:.c 1m we of 1e15 51r1s e u clot.. 11t131u1

I - -.‘-. or 4'\ -, . . - O L‘\ - -r - ’j 4.". ‘ t-n\fi ..~ . v f: ‘, ' 1 -1 .
Jute mwd1_dct.:e is Ode 01 .1e 1e er 0: t'e Itulidi llguutflzo, 1t

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durii the lust four r five years. In l'J'l It 1511 fiftr-tio

jrte mills Jith 73,333 Sgiudles and é,7;3 lOOLU, eJL1ogi19 lo,JuO

Pied101t aid tomarrc", although the largest single mill is located
in Liguria. The latter is eguiRLed Jith 13,000 Sgindles and 773

looms and e12;105rs 2,?00 Jorce rs. Other ingor alt ceaters of t
jute industry are found in the Yeieto, Uuscuny, Ju'lia, emoris

aid the district around Tuples. Lost of tie Italiui mills us

(1) InforzutiOdo lied free A. hrium 1;0Ve13e, actil

uerciil attache for frgice i1 XeJ York, Jget. Q, luel.
(3) Con iled frOm t e re ort ii the I. s. Jo»;erce ;e_orts for
. L9, 1930 a1d 4. QIiQJ 1r‘ve1ce, .Xm,uf1 301aerciu

C
11313610718 i.l .T‘J'! :OL.‘:.

87.

electric power. The average consumption of power by this industry is
12,000 11.13. in 24 hours.

The raw material for the Italian jute industry is imported from
India, and is handled largely through the S. A. Italiana Docks Jute, which
was formed in 1927 for the warehousing of jute in the free zone of Genoa.
For the purpose of reducing the supplies of jute fiber held in stock to
the minimum a? "Deposito" or bondedwarehouse was founded in the same year
in the same city, following the example of Dundee, Hamburg, and Antwerp,
which proved quite successful and about 10,000 bales were received in that
year. The Italian jute factories usually hold supplies of raw material
for only three months' consumption, which is held to entail a certain
financial risk, whereas in India and the United Kingdom, the jute in-
dustry is covered for at least six months of the year. It is estimated
that the Italian industry consumes 500,000 to 600,000 quintals of raw
jute annually. (1).

The Italian production of finished jute goods is estimated at
approximately half a million quintals annually, of which from 500,000 to
520,000 quintals are consumed by the domestic market. The chief products
turned out by the Italian jute industry consist of burlap and hessian
cloth weighing from 150 to 500 grams per square meter, tarpaulin weighing
from 425 to 750 grams, cris—cross sacking weighing from 500 to 850 grams,
and single warp and double warp bagging, weighing from 350 to 1,400 grams
per square meter. Some 20,000 metric tons of sacks and bags are usually
made annually from this material, and the trade has given rise to motories
of which the most important are at Genoa, Milan and Naples, which special-

ize in the making and repairing of sacks and bags. The jute bags mann-

(l) U. S. Commerce Reports, march 10, 1950.

88.

factured in Italy are used as containers for feed and chemical products,
canent, lime, chalk and charcoal. The jute sackings turned out are also
used for bales of cotton, wool, silk, hemp and flax. The jute mills have
a potential output of some 50,000 metric tons of burlap as compared to a
home demand of 50,000 or 52,000 tons, thus leaving a considerable amount
of export. The Italian mills as a rule spin their own yarn for making
burlap and hessian.

Besides these products, some factories have plants for manu-
facturing linoleums and produce about 400,000 kilograms (441 tons) of this
product each.year. A few factories manufacture jute mats and rugs and
others manufacture jute belting or twine. The secondary uses of jute in-
clude the making of electric cables and it is further utilized by com-
bining it with hemp for the manufactures of rOpes, which have an annual
national demand of 1,000,000 kilograms (1,102 tons). Two of the factories
produce a very fine jute cloth known as "tela scorzia" (Scotch Linen) a
kind of’artistic canvas used for curtains and wall coverings. A firm
in'Milan has created a national specialty stamping jute canvas with de-
signs in colors, which has a certain artistic value and is used to certain
extent as a substitute for wall paper.

The United States is the principal market for Italian made jute
piece goods, burlaps and jute fabrics. In 1928, of the total raw jute
cloth of 104,365 quintals (11,500 tons) exported from Italy with a value of
54,160,000 lire, the United States alone took 77,108 quintals, valued at
38,075,273 lire. The other countries following United States in order of
importance were Argentina, Jugoslavia, France, Greece, Roumania, India

and Ceylon, Turkey and Bulgaria.

89.

Czecho—Slovakia: Complete detailed information concerning the

 

jute industry in Czecho-Slovakia is not obtainable, as the manufacturers
and dealers in Czecho—Slovakia are members of the International Jute
Cartel and are averse to releasing information of this kind. The Czecho-
Clovak Republic which came into existence with the revolution of October
28, 1918 has inherited over four—fifthaof the manufacturing equipment of
the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. Hence the high industrialization of
this country served as an impetus for the growth of the jute industry.

In 1927 the Czecho-Slovakian jute industry had a total of
35,780 spindles and 3,580 100mm. No statistics are available as to the
number of jute mills or of’thedr employees. The wages paid in jute mills
to mill employees range from 120 to 140 crowns ($3.52 to $4.10) per week.
Female employees receive from 90 to 120 crowns ($2.64 to $3.42) per week. (r

Czecho-Slovakia, being an inland country situated in central
Europe, finds it more profitable to import the bulk of her raw jute through
the port of Hameurg. According to the American consulate at Prague
goods received through Bremen or Hamburg are sent by rail or albe-fialdan
water route to Prague.

Of a total of 359,741 quintals (34,643 tons) imported to Czecho-
Slovakia in 1930, 260,292 quintals (28,701 tons) came through Hamburg and
99,241 quintals (10,446 tons) came from India on direct consignment. Czecho-
Clovakia's import of raw jute fromtthe standpoint of’value was highest in
1926, and the year following saw the greatest activity in the Czecho-
Slocak jute industry since the war. The consumption in 1927 totaled 37,000
tons compared with 31,000 tons in 1913 in the corresponding region of old

Austro-Hungarian Empire. .Annual exports of’jute to the other succession

(1) Report of F. C. Lee, American Consul General, Prague, Dec. 31, 1931.

90.

states were still only about one-third of the pre-war figures but shipment
to other countries in 1927 were nearly twice as great as in 1919. (1).

During 1930 Czecho-Slovakia imported 1,206,000 crowns ($35,470)
worth of jute yarn from Germany and exported 1,776,000 crowns ($52,252)
worth to her out of a total export of 4,324,000 crowns ($127,176) of yarn.
The other countries exporting jute yarn to Czecho-Slovakia in the same
year, in order of value were Belgium, Great Britain, and France. Coun-
tries which followed Germarnr as importers of Czecho-Slovakian yarn were
Yugoslavia, Roumania, Denmark, Netherlands, Austria, Palestine, Norway,
mingazy, Greece, Turkey and the United Stat es. The Czecho-Slovakian
cartel estimated that 30,000 metric tons of jute yarn were produced in
1930, and of this amount two-thirds were used in the domestic manufacture
of textile.

Czecho-Slovakia exported jute sacks to value of $2,003,029 in
1930. The Ketherlands was the chief buyer, followed by Gemany and the
Balkan countries. In 1930, Czecho-Slovakia exported jute fabrics to the
value of $1,484,000, the chief buyers being the United States followed by
Argentina, Switerzerland, Germarw, Great Britain, Uruguay, Denmark and
the Balkan States.

In 1931, however, the jute mills of Czecho-Slovakia faced the
depression and Operated only about 50 per cent capacity during the latter
part of that year, as the domestic dales dropped off considerably and ex-
port trade was made difficult by the foreign exchange regulations.

Belgium: While Belgium's importation of raw jute from India
was slightly less than that of Italy in 1929 and 1930, it exceeded that of
the latter country in 1931 (2). As previously noted, however, a substantial

(1) U. S. Commerce Reports, April 18, 1928.
(2) U. S. Commerce Report, February 1, 1932.

91.

portion of the jute entering the port of Antwerp is re—exported to France
and other countries. Belgium manufactures a considerable amount of jute
yarn, and this product has been exported during the last few years chief-
ly to Great Britain.and Germany. Belgium is also engaged in the manup
facture of such products as linoleum, burlap and paddings. As early as
1920-21, Belgium's competition with Great Britain in the latter product
was of fermidable character. Long before the World War, Belgium, along
with other European countries, had become independent of Dundee regard-
ing certain jute products. (1).

Spain} Although Spain's import of raw jute in 1930 was only
2,578 long tons less than that of.Belgium, the extent of its jute menus
facturing industry cannot be definitely ascertained since the official
statistics lump together the manufactures of jute, hemp, and other best
fibers.

Russia: (2) The first Russian.jute factory was built about
1880. There were 11 jute factories with 55,000 spindles and 5,800
looms in 1912-13 with an.aggregate production of 44,800 tons. Several
of these factories were located in Poland, Latvia, and Esthonia. Post-
revolutionary Russia found herself with only 5 of these factories in
Kharkov, Odessa, Leningrad, Pushkino (near hoscow) and Kulotin (near
Nizni Novgorod) with 24,500 spindles and 1,600 looms.

Under the Soviet adnnnistration these plants have been grouped
with hemp mills under the Hemp Jute Trust. These factories used flax-
jute fiber until 1926-27, after which.only jute fiber was used. This
is reflected in the increase of jute imports of from 9,726 metric tons
in 1925-26 to 37,585 tons in 1929-50.

(1) U. S. Tariff Information Survey "Jute Cloth" 1922, pp. 52-56.

(2) Information received from.R. Rogosin, Anitorg Trading Corporation,
261 Fifth Ave., New York, August 26, 1951.

92.

The plan for the next few years in U. S. S. R. is to discontinue
the production of linen sacks and canvas and to increase the use of jute.
Hence the jute industry is growing steadily. In 1927-28 the production
of sacks was 45 millions. Production plans of the State trust called
for a doubling of this output during 1929—30. In 1928 there were about
14,000 workers occupied in the jute industry. most of the machinery used
in.the Russian Jute mills is imported from Great Britain.

Poland: (1) The polish jute mills supply the domestic demand
partly and also exports to a certain extent, chiefly to Italy and Soviet
Russia. The jute bags are supplied to the Polish flour mills and sugar
factories. Since the establishment of more stable economic conditions
in 1926, there has been considerable expansion in the Polish jute inp
dustry. There was an increase in raw jute imports from 13,902 metric
tons in 1924 to 22,237 metric tons in 1927. Exports of jute products ins
creased from 826 tons in 1924 to 1,873 tons in 1927, in spite of keen
competition from Czecho-Slovakia and other central European countries.

It was claimed that the impartation from Czecho-Slovakia was seriously
disturbing the domestic market during the latter part of 1928 and begins
ning of 1929, on account of the commercial agreement concluded with that
country, which provided for a smaller duty on jute products imported from
countries having most favored nation treaties with Poland. The jute manup
facturers, therefore, protested against this treaty.

Minor countries: (2) Besides the above countries, jute manu-
facture in EurOpe is also carried on in a small scale in Austria, Sweden (3)
and the Hetherlands, the latter two receiving most of their supply of raw
(1) U. S. Commerce Report, October 1, 1928, January 7, 1929.

(2) U. S. Commerce Report, September 15, 1930.
(3) Ludlow Manufacturing Associates "Jute", (1928), p. 36.

93.

jute through Hamburg. Kachinery for jute manufacturing in the flax and
hemp mills of such countries as Latvia and Bulgaria is fbund also. The
jute mill in Riga, Latvia, inherited from Czarist Russia, is out of
operation at present.

Competitive Position of the EurOpean Jute Industgy

The practice of the Indian jute industry, which has so far
confined its production to staple goods and shown little interest in
specialties, has inclined the continental manufacturers to follow the
Dundee practice and produce goods according to buyer specifications.
This situation.has developed from the fact that India has designed large
mills for mass production and is not in a position to compete with the
continental mills or Dundee mills, where smaller textile units make it
possible to handle orders for special goods more economically. Hence
the continental jute industry receives its major competition from Dundee.
However, at the same time, the continental mills like the Dundee plants,
produce many fabrics in direct competition with the Indian industry. It
has been found that in order to compete with Calcutta, the continental
jute mills frequently increase activity, when the Calcutta mills reduce g
the working hours or otherwise restrict output. This potential capacity '
of the continental mills as well as Dundee, has made it impossible for
the Calcutta mills to dominate the world market for manufactured goods
to the same extent as Calcutta controls the supply of raw fiber.

The continental mills with their up-to-date machinery,1ower
wages, longer working hours and tariff protection are offering strenuous 5.
competition to the Dundee establishments by trying to adopt the Dundee 3;
line of manufacture. With all these advantages they are likely to prove .

even more formidable competitors in the future, unless the Dundee mills

Table 11.
Jute Import and Export of Principal Consuming Countries (1).

95 a

 

 

Country Year Import Re-Export Re-Export Import Export
Raw Jute Raw Jute Kid. Jute Efd.Jute Efd.Jute
United 1927 $35,575,350 $2,321,242 $2,405,047 $15,757,000 $25,355,000
Kingdom 1928 30,583,980 1,500,052 2,807,388 15,415,920 23,101,540 (a)
Germany 1928 19,944,009 93,850 732,225(b) 520,749 (b)
1929 20,291,781 215,523 391,500(b) 899,581 (5)
France 1928 (5)121,455 (d)1,445 4,743,200
~ 1929; (5)120,159 (5)1,917 3,410,400 (c)
Italy 1928 9,043,412 38,187 55,282 2,991,099
,1929 9,357,014 8,579 54,335 2,782,055
Czecho- 1928 4,889,470
Slovakia 1929 5,532,794
1930 37,879 3,523,128
Brazil 1928 2,459,928 2,449,815
1929 3,557,820 2,452,257
Canada 1928 24,110 13,116,043
1929 50,079 12,780,105
United 1928 11,557,000 89,620,000 3,745,000
States 1929 11,272,000 84,717,000 5,135,000

 

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(1)

Jute yarn 0

Metric tons

nly

Ten months only

Jute yarn and piece goods only.

Table computed from data obtained in 1931, from the American Consuls in

Dundee, Berlin, Prague, Home, Rio De Janeiro, French Commercial Attache
in New York, Chief of External Trade Branch of the Dominion Bureau of
Statistics and the U. S. Commerce Year Book. Vol. I. (1930) p. 500.
Yalues for the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy and Brazil are

converted into dollars on the basis of the par of Exchange.

94.

succeed in specializing in the production of individual lines of manu-
facture in which they possess c0mparative advanta;e, just as Italy and
France are doing in the manufacture of artistic goods.

(0) Latin America

 

The only countries of Latin.America which are engaged in jute
manufacturing to any considerable extent are Brazil and Argentina. Be-
sides these two countries, Cuba, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, and the West

Indies can be mentioned as important importers of jute products. From

the standpoint of competition abroad in the jute trade, the manufactures

of Brazil and Argentina are unimportant. But it is becoming increasing

difficult to eXport jute bags to these countries as they are manufactured
in a few domestic factories protected with high tariff. The labor supply
is not abundant but it is comparatively cheap, thus rendering an advantage
to the Latin manufacturers which the.American manufacturers do not possess.
Brazil: There are no statistics of jute manufactures published
by the Brazilian government. Statistics issued by the State of Sao Paulo,
however, show that in 1929 there were seven factories in that state with

a combined capitalisation of $72,200,000 (1). Six of these were in opera-

tion in 1931 with a total of 57,062 spindles and 2,818 looms, employing

6,268 workers. Compared with Sao Paulo jute manufacture in other Brazilian

states is insignificant.

Brazil imports more raw jute than.any other Latin American
country and has made such progress in the manufacture of jute bags that
she has become independent of the foreign sources for the great number
of such sacks necessary to move her coffee crops for export. It is es-
timated that about 85 per cent of the raw jute imported is manufactured

(l) U. 5. Weekly "Commerce Reports", May 5, 1930.

K-H-‘h

95.

into bags. The raw jute for Sao Paulo is received through the port of
Santos. Small quantities of raw jute are entered at Rio de Janero,
Recife, Bahia, being used chiefly in the manufacture of cordage and twins.

The import of raw jute by Brazil during the five year period
from 1926 to 1930, was the highest in 1927 and lowest in 1930. The bulk
of the raw jute comes to Brazil fronllndia on direct consignment. How-
ever, a small amount reaches Brazil via Great Britain, Germany, Belgium,
and other countries. Brazil also imports a. large amount of jute yarn
together with such products as Hessians, jute waste, rugs, twine,
cordage, piece goods, etc.

There were no exports of manufactured jute products during
the last four years, from.Brazil.

Argentina: (1) Argentina manufactures a.large number of jute
bags, in order to transport that portion of the grain not shipped in
bulk. It is estimated that about 15,000,000 dollars worth of bags are
used annually for this purpose. Argentina imports a. large amount of
jute twist and yarn to manufacture jute cloths for bag making. Host of
the jute yarn manufactured in India since 1928 to 1931 was exported to
Argentina for use in its weaving mills. In 1929 Argentina used 118,121,474
new'burbap bags and 36,866,607 old bags to transport wheat, corn linseed
and other cereals. In addition, 28,358,037 new and 17,338,098 old bags
were used for other purposes. Of these only 360,000 bags were imported.
The bulk of this supply came from the united Kingdom and India. Burlap
bagging amounting to 130,510 bales was imported during the same year,
from which 195,765,000 finished bags were made.

92312} (2) Chile uses a Large quantity of jute bags for
exporting nitrate to different countries. For this purpose she imports
(1) Compiled from data obtained from U. 5. Weekly "Commerce Reports",

Feb. 9 and Sept. 22, 1930.

(2) Information obtained from Guillermo Gazitua, Chilean Consul at
New York, Aug. 29, 1931.

96.

jute and jute bags to an.average extent of 35,000,000 kilograms, valued
at some 55,000,000 pesos annually. During the years 1929-31 Chile
ranked fourth as an importer of gunny bags from.India.

2222} Cuba imports about 52,000,000 new jute bags annually
in order to move the sugar crap. (1). Second hand jute bags are pur-
chased by merchants for use as containers of coffee, cacao beans, char-
coal, etc. cuba also uses a large amount of jute waste for the manu-
facture of mattresses, pillows, saddle and collar pads. American jute
waste is preferred over the EurOpean as it is claimed that by purchas-
ing from the United States, the requirements can be obtained as needed. (2)
The price for jute waste ranges from $2.00 to $5.00 per hundred pounds,
depending on quality.

The bulk of the jute products inmorted by Cuba is supplied
by India, followed by the United States and the United Kingdom. During
the year 1930, Guba imported 23,985,566 kilograms of jute products
valued at $6,941,641. (3).

(D) North America

 

In North.America, Canada and the United States import a Large
amount of jute and jute products from.India. The latter especially im-
ports a large quantity of raw as well as manufactured jute products.
Being situated far away from the source of raw material and handicapped
by high wages and consequent high costs of production, the jute industries
of these two countries is restricted almost entirely to domestic markets.
The tariff protection on woven jute fabrics does not seem to foster domes-
tic industry in that line. The jute industry in the United States has
Largely centered, in high grade yarns, for carpet manufacturing and twines
(1) II. S. Commerce Report; November 10, 1950.
(2) U. S. Commerce Report, January'Q, 1931.

(3) Statistics obtained from Seretaria De Agriculture, Commercia y
'rabajo, Republics De Cuba, Habana, October 28, 1951.

97.

Canada
There are no separate statistics available as to the production
in the jute industry in Canada. But from such reports issed by the
Census of Industry Branch, Dominion Bureau of Statistics on the "Cotton
and Jute Bag Industry in Canada" and the "Cordage and Twine Industry in
Canada", considerable information can be derived. (1).

Jute Manufacturing: According to the report published by the

 

Canadian government for 1929 on the Canadian jute bag,, cordage and twine
industry, the factories engaged in the manufacture of cordage, rope and
twine are 13 in number. Six of these factories are situated in Ontario,
four in Quebec, one in Nova Scotia, one in manitoba and one in British
Columbia. The total capital of these 13 factories in 1929 was $13,966,423,
which showed an increase of $892,874 over 1929 when there were 14 factories.
It is not Apparent whether all these factories are Canadain owned, but the
name of the International Harvester Company of Hamilton, Ontario, indicates
that this company is American owned. These factories use different fibers
besides jute, viz., Manila, sisal, flax, hemp, and cotton especially. The
use of jute is vary small in comparison to other fibers, of which sisal is
used in overwhelming quantity. The chief use of’jute seems to be for rcpe
making, while other fibers especially sisal, are used for binder twine mainly.

There were, in Canada, 20 factories manufacturing cotton and jute
bags in 1929; of these, 4 were situated in Quebec, 9 in Ontario. 6 in Rani-
toba, and l in British Columbia. The total capital of these factories in
1929 was $2,925,922.

The amount of Hessian produced in Canada decreased in value from
$182,083 in 1927 to $112,525 in 1928. However, the quantity of jute bags
produced during the year 1928 showed an increase in value and quantity
(1) Ascording to the information received from W. A. flaren; Chief, sue

ternal Trade Branch, Dominion Bureau of S atistics, Ottawa, Canada,
September 7, 1931.

98.

over 1927, but decreased a little in 1929. The quantity of burlap

and other jute cloths used in the manufacture of bags in 1929 was

valued at $10,200 and $6,188,011 respectively. The total output of jute
bags of all sorts turned out by the Canadain factories slightly exceed-
ed the total output of cotton bags during the years 1928 and 1929, the
fermer amounting to 45.5 per cent of’all bags produced in Canada in 1929.

Jute imports: Canada imports her raw jute mainly through the

 

United States. ”-4 examination of the Canadian import statistics of
raw jute shows that of the total imports from 1926 to 1930, the United
States supplied all the requirements for the years 1927, 1930 and 1931,
and 99.44, 99.36 and 69.8 per cent of the total imports for the years
1926, 1928 and 1929 respectively. (1). The remaining requirements
for 1929 were supplied by India.
Canada also imports a considerable amount of manufactured

jute products. For the periods 1910-14 and 1915-18 imports of jute
canvas (which was stated as uncolored, not further finished than crOp-
ped bleached, mangled or calendered) averaged 17,630,000 and 63,539,000
yards respectively. Of this amount, India alone supplied 78 per cent
in the first period and 75 per cent in the second; and the United States
supplied 2.98 per cent.reepectivelya For the year ended march 31, 1921,
Canada's import of the same product amounted to 63,242,000 yards, of
this India furnished 75 per cent, the United Kingdom 15 per cent and the
United States 6 per cent (2). During the years 1923 and 1929, however,
of the total imports of woven fabrics of all kinds by Canada (dutiable
and non-dutiable) India furnished the most, being followed in order of
(l) Percentages worked out from the statistics Obtained in "Trade of

Canada". P. 280, no. 33.. P. 118, no. 20, statistics being given

in the latter were for 12 months ending Harch 1930 and 1931.
(2) U. S. Tariff Information Survey, "Jute Cloth", (1922), p. 73.

99.

importance by the United Kingdom, the United States, Italy, the Esther-
lands, Germany, Belgium.and France. The significant thing noticed about
the German export was that it was highest of all the continental nuropean
countries in 1926 and practically came down to nothing in 1927 and ceased
altogether in the years following.

Besides these, the Canadian imports of jute articles (mentioned
as finished or unfinished n.o.p. dutiable) during the same year from. 1926
to 1929 was supplied mostly by the United Kingdom, which took the lead
and was followed by the United States, Germany, India, Belgium and Czecho-
Slovakia. In 1930, Belgium took the lead in exporting jute woven or
braided fabrics (not exceeding 12 inches in width) to Canada and was
followed by the United Kingdom.and the United States.

The Canadian exports of manufactured jute products are negligible.

Jute Industry of the United States.

 

The jute industry of the United States produces primarily for
domestic consumption. The total number of plants engaged primarily in
the manufacture of jute goods in the United States is 20. (1). Two of
the largest companies have their plants under Operation in such cities as
St. Louis, Hissouri; Charleston, 3. Carolina; Brooklyn, New York;
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Jast St. Louis, Illinois; and Ludlow,
KassachusettS. In the last named place, the Ludlow Manufacturing Associates
has eleven mills. (2). The Ludlow Associates also owns the Ludlow
Georgia Bagging Company of Savannah, and has an organization called the
Ludlow Sales Corporation for the purpose of selling the jute products mand—
factured by its American mills as well as Indian mill. The remainder of
these 20 plants are engaged in the manufacture of individual products such
(1) U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of Census, June 15, 1931. (dstablishp

ments selling to more than one customer are not included in.this).
(2) U. 8. Tariff Information Survey "Jute Clbth", (1922), p. 17.

100.

as burlap bags only or a variety of jute products. The value of the
produce of the jute manufacturing concerns engaged in the manufacture
of jute goods other than cordage and twine amounted to $23,200,000 in
1927, which showed a decrease of 16 per cent as compared with 1925;
and $22,399,000 in 1929, showing a decrease of 7.7 per cent from the
1927 figure. (1).

In 1929 sales to manufacturers' Own wholesale branches and
wholesale dealers made up two-thirds of the sales by manufacturing
plants of the 20 companies engaged primarily in making jute goods.
Separate figures for each of these two sales were not shown in order
to prevent the disclosure of individual Operation. The remaining
sa1es were made to different groups, such as cotton ginners, up-
holsterers, farmers, nurseries, etc. Sales made this way amounted to
33.6 per cent, and was valued at $7,446,000. Sales to the extent of
$2,168,000 were made by five manufacturing plants through manufacturers
agents, selling agents, brokers or commission.houses.

Bagging: Most of the raw jute imported into the United States
is manufactured into heavy, coarse jute cloth known as cotton bagging
for the purpose of covering raw cotton for shipment. The annual consump-
tion of about 90,000,000 yards of this fabric is necessary on the average
for the cotton crops of America. Of this amount two American concerns
manufactured all but 2 or 3 per cent at the close Of the war. Later,
in 1921, the output had decreased as two mills were Opened in India by
these two concerns in the same‘year. One Of the mills is run sole? for
bagging, whereas the second produces both bagging and.burlap. The bagb

gdng from these mills shipped directly to Galveston and Houston, Texas.

(1) U. S. Commerce Yearbook, Vol. I, 1930, p. 499; 1931, p. 510.

101.

During the years 1914-1920 the average annual production of
bagging was below the predwar output. The largest commany produced
during these years between 52,052,455 and 28,258,728 running yards. the
second between 22,000,000 and 16,000,000 running yards, and a third
company, which began manufacturing new patches in 1916 produced between
4,368,000 pounds and 3,183,000 pounds. The larger pre-war output of
bagging responded to the record crOp of 14,795,367 bales in 1913 and
16,991,830 bales in 1914. The smaller output in.the years 1916-18 was
due to the following reasons:

1. Falling of the cotton crop from the high levels reached in 1911-14;
2. The difficulty during the war in securing raw materials; 3. he
increased consumption during 1917-1920 of second hand bagging and re-
woven bagging.

At the close of'the war production of bagging began to become
hormal in relation to the cotton crop. The amount of new bagging, in-
cluding new patches, woven in 1919 was estimated at 56,510,000 linear
yards of 45 inches, or about 4.7 yards Of new material for each of'the
12,020,000 bales grown, the same ratio as 1910, when the cotton crOp was
12,005,000 bales and 57,584,000 bagging were produced. The value of
manufactures of cotton'bagging in 1927 was $5,199,836 and in 1929,
$3,588,515. (1).

There are also two companies, one in the north and another in
the south, which control the sugar bag cloth.trade of the United States
and both have been in Operation since 1875. The soucthern company has
specialized in the manufacture of lOO-pound granulated sugar bags and
also conceitnates its efforts in the bagging trade to making patches or

(1) U. S. Department of Commerce, Special Bulletin 622,‘knummy, 1932.
P0 110

102.

compress labels from jute butts, from sugar cloth, and other materials.
The northern company is engaged in the sale of second hand raw sugar
bags. In 1922 the trade in re-woven bagging was divided among the four
firms. There are few domestic companies in the United States which
specialize in the manufacturing of either burlap or cotton bags. The
jute bags made in America are used for shipment of grains, fertilizers,
sugar, flour, feed produce, vegetables, binder twine and nursery stocks.

Burlaps: The United States is also the largest consumer of
burlap, yet the Anerican production of burlap is insignificant, Al-
though under the acts of 1897 and 1909 burlap was subject to a duty,
averaging 1.65 cents per pound (about 1 cent per linear yard), or
26.75 per cent ad volorem,.American manufacturers considered it un-
profitable to attempt manufacture in cempetition with India. Sven dur-
ing the war when the American burlap industry was stimulated by emergency
prices, only 7,292,000 yards, less than 1 per cent of the domestic con-
sumption, were produced by Anerican mills. At the close of the war, the
American manufacturers again met difficulty as in the pre-war days, com-
peting against the low wage levels of the Calcutta mills in spite of the
duty of 3/10 to 6/10 cents per square yard, imposed by the tariff of 1922.

As previously mentioned‘the'two American owned mills in India
started Operation in 1921, hence since that time, burlap began to be
shipped in increasing quantity to the United States and Canada.

It was the war which gave a decided impetus to the production of
burlap principally for paddings for coats and as a base for linoleum.
Following the curtailment of imports of paddings in 1915, one co many be-

gan weaving canvas of flax, jute, and cotton, made in widths ranging from

103.

20 to 27 inches to the linear yard, and in weight from 5 to 12 ounces

to the square yard. The production of this mill steadily increased
from 1,000,000 yards in 1915 to- 3,500,000 yards in 1920. In 1918, this
mill also turned out about 3,000,000 yards of 22 inch 6.7 ounce material
to serve as interlinings of army clothing. During 1919, 100,000 yards
of jute and cotton tapestry and upholstery, ranging from 36 to 54 inches
in width, averaging about 15 ounces to the square yard was woven by this
compamr. The jute yarn which this company used ranged from 3?; to 14
pounds and was bought of domestic manufacturers. An American concern
had designed the looms for this company. At the close of the war, how-
ever, the mills of this company temporarily ceased its manufacture of
paddings from all-jute yarn and continued weaving padding-s of jute and cotton.

Two other companies began weaving tailor's paddings of jute
and cotton in 1918. The total yardage woven by the first was 3,300,000
linear yards, and by the second was about 590,000 linear yards in 1918-20.
The first comparw, however, ceased Operation in July, 1920 as it could not
compete with foreign prices. The following year, the second company
closed also. The leading yarns used by the companies were 323;, 4 and 5
pound jute, and 20/2, 14/1, and 30/2 cotton, all of which were of domestic
manufactu re .

One company, which during the pre—war days had woven small
quantities of burlap for baling its shipment of yarns and twine, turned
during the war, to the mamfacture of paddings for int erlining in arm
clothing. Its maximum production reached 1,000,000 yards of 6 ounce
padding. Arrangements also had been made by this company with four car-
pet mills for weaving burlap, for which the former was to mrni sh yarn
to the latter. However, the greatest quantity for any single year, dur-

ing the war, woven by the carpet mills, amounted to 2,000,000 yards. con-

104.

sisting of 8, 10, and 16 ounce burlap. At the end of the war this mill
was compelled to cease weaving burlap as it found it cheaper to buy than
to manufacture its wrapping materials.

In 1917 and 1918 another company which then specialized in the
manufacture of jute yarns, twines and bagging took to weaving burlap.
The following is a statement fromwa member of the company.

”The demand for burlap during the earlier years of the war
not only created such an acute shortage of the same in this country
during the latter part of 1916 and 1917, but created an artificial
price level that enabled a manufacturer here to compete with the Cal-
cutta labor market.

"At the request of the United States government, which
during 1917 and 1918 was badly in need of bale covering for overseas
goods, we installed a small unit of looms to help the situation out,
and these we ran about a year and a half, until the signing of the
armistice, together with the marking of a fixed price on burlaps at a
level with which it was impossible for us to compete, made it no
longer either necessary or possible for us to run our looms."

Following the war time embargo placed in 1918 upon exports of
jute products from Dundee, the leading'source of burlap used as backing
for linoleum, two American companies, which specialized in the manufacture
of linoleum began weaving burlap on a small scale for consumption in
their factories. The first company started producing in October, 191 8
and discontinued at the end of May, 1921; The second began in June, 1919,
and ended in December, 1920. Their combined output from October, 1918
to may, 1921, amounted to about one-tenth of the burlap used annually

in the United States as a foundation for linoleum.

Other jute manufactures: There are a few.American factories

 

which manufacture jute yarns, webbing, coarse and finettwine of jute (l),
cordage and certain amounts of carpets and rugs. The webbing is used ex-
tensively for upholstery, both for house furniture and automobiles. The

(1) A certain.amount of hemp is used in the manufacture of the fine
twine with jute.

I.

,1

105.

large users of twine for bundling, include newspaper publishers, depart-
ment stores, paper manufacturers and the Unit ed States Post Office. There
is an important sub-d1 vision at Ludlow for manufacturing large quantities
of twines for the Unit ed States postal service and the contract for this
is obtained as a result of keen competitive bidding. The tobacco men in
the southern states use twine to tie up the leaves for curing, nursery

men use it to support the plant and packers use it for hanging hams. It
is also used in the sewing of sacks and of mattresses, and in the up-
holstery trade. The latter business also employs it for sewing cord,

as does the automobile industry.

The jute yarn is designed by the most important mills for the
carpet trade and the finer yarn is selected for a variety of other uses.
For 1mnufacturing this product the Ludlow associates selects jute from
"pucca bales" in India. The crochet yarn which is a Ludlow specialty
has proven popular among the neddle workers of the United Stat es, Crochet
yarns made from high grade of jute are available in undyed as well as
a dozen standard colors. Hand bags and satchels are made from it, and
it is also used in hand loom weaving, in making hooked rugs. This product
is also shipped to the Labrador fishermen and the tropical South Americal.

The domestic production of jute brattice cloth matting made
marked advances during the years 1914-1920. The output in 1920 showed an
increase of 70 per cent over that of 1918. There were 5 plants in 1920
converting jute and cotton cloths for use in min". . Three of these were
located in Chicago, and one each in Brooklyn and Pittsburgh. Three of

these were specializing in jute brattice and two in cotton. Cnly one

of these was not making both types.

106.

Jute Imports and Exports of the United States; The bulk of

 

the raw jute supply of the United States is imported by a few large
concerns through their agents in Calcutta. A few manufacturers im-

port through New York brokers. Some of the raw jute destined for the
United States comes by way of the United Kingdom. During the years
1923-26 jute and jute butts were imported into the United States at the
rate of 71,300 long tons annually. Of this amount, 37.6 per cent on the
average entered at the port of Boston for the account of the Ludlow
manufacturing Associates.

Besides raw jute, the United States is the largest importer of
burlap and other manufactured products such as bagging for cotton, woven
fabrics and'bags and sacks. Of these products, India furnished the bulk
and is followed by the United Kingdom, with scattering quantities from
Czecho-Slovakia, Italy and Belgium. The total amount of manufactured
jute products imported by the United States were valued at $67,854,427
and $37,658,456 in 1950 and 1951 respectively. (1).

The export of manufactured jute products fromtthe United
States is not very important, as most of'the products turned out by the
American mills are used for domestic consumption. The type of cotton
bagging in the United States for baling cotton is peculiarly American,
hence its use is limited to the domestic crOp, which is shipped to the
American cotton mills and abroad. The exports of the United States for
1950-31 consisted of jute yarn, cordage, twine, bags of jute and other
manufactures not specified and were valued at $4,054,410 and $3,194,822
respectively.

The official statistics of the United States divide exports
into two classes: 1. Domestic products or manufactures, and 2. com-

(1) U. S. Department of Commerce, Special Bulletin 622, January 1932.
P0 100

107.

modities of foreign origin, Changed from the form in which they were im-
ported or enhanced in value by further manufacture in the United States.
Articles of the second class are known as "articles exported with the
benefit of draWback", because upon exportation the importer of the
foreign materials used in their manufacture is entitled to a refund of
99 per cent of the duties originally paid.

Statistics relating to the exports of processed jute cloths
are limited to the second class. Such statistics, which are available under
a different classification, do not Show the countries to which the goods
are exported. However, an examination of the U. S. Commerce Report fer
the four year period of 1928 to 1931 revealed that the exports of American
manufactured jute products are confined to Canada and.the Latin-American
countries. The amount of burlap consumed in the manufacture of articles
so exported during the decade before 1913, when burlap was placed in the
free list, was about 6 per cent of the total import into the United States.

New York Jute Exchange: In connection with jute manufacturing

 

industry of the United States, it is interesting to note that a Sew York
Jute Exchange was opened for business in October 16, 1929 in New York
City. In its membership list were included 200 carefully selected re-
presentatives of burlap interests in Great Britain, France, Germany,
Spain, Czecho-Slovakia, Russia, India and China.

The desires of its founders were to_establish in New York a
strictly future market to be used for hedging purposes and for specup
lative investments. All requirements for a fully functioning exchange
were provided for - a definite contract and a clearing house, there all
trades were to be kept margined to the market every day. But this or-
ganization, however, did not last more than six months, on account of the

Opposition of the industry and the crash of the bull market, as the open-

108.

ing of this mohange was coincidental-with the financial catyclysm
and the beginning of the market depression in October, 1929.

The supporters of this organization declared that the deal-
ers and importers were afraid, as they thought the successful Operatinn
of the Exdhange would jeopardize their control of the demestic industry.
Whereas the large dealers of the burlap and jute industry protested to
the Textile Bag Association and to the Jute and Gunny Importers Associa-
tion, both of'which are of New York, and—they—éeeéareé that this gmhhange
was the work of the professional Exchange organizers and1$asrgecessary
for the indust y, and that the desire of the Exchange was to encourage
outside speculation. The spokesman of this group said, "It is not a
commodity which lends itself at all to the public speculation, and the
sentiment in the industry is very much Opposed to any attempt to in-
troduce this sort of Speculation". Nearly every concern in this in-
dustry signed a letter of protest which was published following the

meeting of the dealers held on June 25, 1928.

109.

CHAPTER VIII.
ghe Outlook of the Jute Industry.
1. Substitute Fibers

While jute is the cheapest of all the principal textile materials
now in use, it is very perishable in its nature, and attempts have been made
to find substitutes that will either be cheaper or more durable and costlier.
Although jute fiber is weak and decays easily, especially if exposed to
moisture, yet it holds its position as the wrapping material of the world
because of its cheap production and the ease with which it can be worked
with machinery. It may not be the highest representative of its class, and
attempts have been made from time to time to get grawers and manufacturers
to try other fibers of India that can, it is claimed, be grown just as
cheaply and over a wider sree. Possibly something may come of such experi-
ments, but unless on a large scale, such fibers cannot compete with jute in
price, and besides, the peasants who now cultivate jute are not looking for
substitutes.

The only Indian fiber now competing with jute at all is the Madras
Presidency's Hibiscus Cannabims, commonly called Bimilipatam jute or Bombay
hemp (1). It is quite similar to jute, and though the bulk of it is used in
a mill at Madras, occasional shipments are made to Dundee, where it is used
for mixing with jute proper. l‘he price charged for it is somewhat below
the low grade jute. It is improbable that madras can compete With Bengal
to any large extent, though in the future there may be e fair development
of this fiber.

Periodically one sees reports as to the new competitors of jute
which are exploited to a certain extent and then drop out of View. for

(1) Tariff Information Survey, 1925, p. 52. of Vegetable Fibers Other
Than COt tons

110.

instance, in 1910 the finglish textile and trade papers took quite an inte-
rest in the rumored exploitation of a seaweed called "Poseidonia Australia (1).
This fiber is the accumulation of a marine plant, and it is claimed there

is a 9-foot depth of it located under the sea in Spencer.Gulf, South Aus-
tralia. A company prospectus was issued to raise capital for its working,

with claims that it could be put on the market much more cheaply than jute

and would be formidable competition, but the Dundee manufacturers stated

that the sample showed a short fiber and hence they saw little possibility

of its use.

In Madagascar grows a fiber called Urena (2) which is also native
to India and various parts of Africa. This fiber is white and when properly
prepared, is somewhat stronger than the ordinary grade of jute. Some au-
thorities believe that by seed selection, this fiber can be improved in both
strength and texture and will be of commercial use. This fiber is claimed
to be capable of close weaving and is not so susceptible to shrinkage and
decomposition from.moisture as is jute.

In New Zealand it is reported that grabs sacks of unusual strength
have been made frmm locally grown hemp, phorium lenax (3). 1'hese sacks were
produced by patented methods and as the result of'extensive research con-
dusted with the object of substituting speciahly treated phorium fiber fer
jute, thus establishing hemp as the base material for such products as sacks,
wool packs, and hessians.

The henequen of.Mexico has been tried out in an experimental way
and the Tobata or Halve blanca plant of Cuba is also regarded as possible
substitutes. In Cuba there are areas suitable for the cultivation of both
(1) Clark, 3. A. Graham, Linen, Jute and Hemp Industries in the United

Kingdom, 1913, p. 143.
(2) U. 3. Tariff Commission Survey, Vegetable Fibers Other than Cotton,

1925, p0 1450
(3) U. 3. Weekly Commerce departs, November 28, 1928.

111.

malva and henequen, but the scarcity and high cost of labor prevent success-
ful employment of hand processes used in India for the separation of the
soft fiber.

Then there are many fibers in the interior of Brazil where all
the rope and twine needed are made locally. The state of Espirinto Santo
in 1908 exhibited 18 varieties of fibers used for cordage purposes and 12
used for making sacking cloth and other textiles. The ”Gravata" and
"Perhni" fibers of Brazil and Argentina have been long considered capable
of commercial develOpment. The local experimenters in brazil also attri-
bute excellent Qualities to the fibers "pace-paco" and "cocoa". Although
several fibers suitable for making bags in Brazil have been grown, a satis-
factory substitute has not yet been found. 1‘he heavier weight of bags made
from Brazilian fibers, due to the fact that thicker thread must be used
to equal the strength of jute, has prevented their successful introduction (1)

An article that appeared on October 25, 1931 in '0 Journal" of
Rio de Janeiro, mentioned the fact that a wonderful discovery has been made
of’a fiber called ”uacima”, a native of the Amazon valley, which is said to
rival the jute in properties. It belongs to the 'malvacea” fanily and is
found wild in the arenaceous soil of the Amazon, growing in any season of
the year. the plant matures in fbur months and is said to be more easily
decorticated than jute.

It may be mentioned in this connection that the Private enter-
prises as well as the Brazilian government are interested in finding a na-
tive substitute for jute in order to increase the favorable balance of trade.
For this purpose the customs duties on raw jute were increased in January,
1951, to the figures mentioned later. The former rates were OBOZO
(1) Information on Brazilian fibers is taken from p. 32 of Vegetable Fi-

bers Other Than Cotton, Tariff Information Survey and from report of
American Consul at “10 de Janerio, December, 1931.

112.

per kilogram on raw jute; 0$100 and 05050 per kilogram on jute rags and
waste. The government, this way, hopes to stimulate the use of cotton,
simple or mixture with jute, in the manufacture of bags for packing coffee
and other produce and to stimulate the deve10pment of a native fiber manu-
facturing industry.

Although cotton cloth simple or in mixture has been used in the
manufacture of bags for coffee packing, yet the use of jute bags remained
predominant. Hence, in spite of all these measures, one is inclined to be-
lieve that no fibers now in use, in pure or mixed form, will be able to
displace jute for making bags for coffee and if, perchance, a native Bra-
zilian fiber may be found which would answer the purpose of jute, years
would elapse before plantations could be developed.

In 1924 Soviet Russia began the cultivation of a fiber called
“keenaf” which the Soviet authorities on agriculture think can be substi-
tuted for jute in the maiufaoture of sacks. the cultivation of keenaf
is being developed at a rapid rate and the plan is to increase the pro-
duction in 1952 and following years with a view to making the U. S. 3. B.
less dependent upon imports of jute (I).

2. Artificial Substitutes.

Paper yarns had been experimented in Germany for some time before
the war, for the purpose of making them an effective substitute for jute.
Partial success at least seemed to have been achieved by the invention of
texfiflose which is a paper yarn coated with textile material and it seemed
that it time it may occupy somewhat the same relation to the jute trade
that artificial silk does to the silk trade. ‘he first paper yarns, such as
”xylodina", "sylvaline", and ”licella” were manufactured of paper strips,
which were then twisted into yarns by flyers (31. Although useful for some
(1) Infbrmation on keenaf was received from the Amtorg Corporation in

New York Uity, October, 1931.

(2) Clark, 3. A. Graham, Linen, Jute and Hemp Industries in the United
Kingdom, 1913, p. 144.

1133

purposes, they were a failure for bags, even with the use of jute warps, as
they could not stand moisture.

Later, a few years before the war, however, M. E. Clavies in Ger-
many claimed to have solved the problem with the invention of a moisture re-
sistant textilose (1), Which is a paper yarn thread reinforced by a cone of
textile fibers, thus forming what is really a cone yarn. Usually this tex-
tilose yarn contains about 10 per cent cotton waste, which gives it strength
and makes it more resistant to moisture. The paper used for making this
textilose was very uniform and strong; its composition, however, was kept
a secret. It was claimed for this yarn that it was cheaper, stronger, and
was more durable than jute and that textilose fiber can be washed, bleached,
and colored. It is smoother than jute and less easily effected by acids,
and fabrics made out of it would be very suitable for wool packs and for
sacks for cement, flour, nitrates, etc. Textilose yarns were also being
used for upholstery, curtains, carpets, backing, etc. The manufacture
seemed to be a success and was expanding rapidly as there were textilose
mills in Germany, Austria, Belgium, France, Italy, and the United D‘tates.

A mill each was planned for England, Spain, and Brazil. But that these at-

tempts to use artificial substitutes did not survive is proven by the in-

crease of the jute industry in Germany itself and other countries.
Conclusion

Since up-to-date, no fibers or artificial products have been able
to become a true competitor with jute, and since the export trade of India
is increasing both in the fields of raw and manufactured products, it seems
at least for years to come the jute industry will be in a strong position
without any fear of serious competition.

.Although jute has been adapted for manufacturing such articles as

carpets and rugs, etc., yet its main use is for carrying the world's raw

(1) Clark, J. A. Graham, Linen, Jute and Hemp Industries in the United
Kingdom. 1913. p. 144

_ -_,__.._._. --‘

114..

material in the form of bags and covers, cut from the jute cloth of various
sizes and weights. It renders protection to the valuable materials of com-
merce in transit and storage at a cost so low that it does not bar their
free movement. There is no other fiber‘which can be produced in a large
Quantity and brought to the market so cheaply to fulfill these conditions.
It is not only the natural characteristics of this fiber that have enabled
it to hold this position 9 - much credit should be given to the manufac-
turers whose continued efforts have helped it to a considerable degree.

The secret of a manufacturer's success is to supply the needs of the world
as economically as possible. Judging from this standpoint, the jute indus-
try has proven a success, as thezmanufacturers can procure raw jute cheaper
than any other fiber.

It may be possible to find another fiber to compete with it, but
not one likely to overshadow the jute industry, because manufacturers will
not take to another fiber until they are assured of its cheapness and a
steady, abundant supply to meet the needs of industry and commerce. So far,
little or no serious attention has been paid to the scientific breeding of
- the jute plant. If ever the fiber actually finds a serious competitor, the
government of bengal and the interested manufacturers will likely concen-
trate attention upon improving the fiber to meet such competition. The
jute fiber has gained the position of the second most important commercial
fiber of the world in less than a hundred years and the prospects of a

displacement do not appear imminent.

Bibliograpgy

Books

Chowdhury, H. C. "Jute in Bengal", Calcutta, 1908.

Howard, A. "Crop Production in India", Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1924.
0
Kerr Hem Chunder "Cultivation of and Trade in Jute in Bengal,
and on Indian Fibres Available for Manufac-
tures of Paper", Calcutta, 1874.

Ludlow .Kanufacturing "Jute", An account of its growth and manur
Associates facture. ‘Xalton Advertising and Printing
Company, 1928.

Pratt, H. B. "International Trade in Staple Commodities",
New York, 1928.

Putnam's Economic Atlas, New York, 1925.

Encyclopedia Britannica, Fourteenth Jdition, Article on Jute, Vol. 13.

Government Publications

 

United States Department of Commerce:
Commerce Year Book: 1922; Vol. I and II, 1929; 1950.
Weekly Commerce Reports: passim 1928-1951.

W ekly Commerce Reports: Flake, W. C. "The Jute Industry",
February 1, 1932.

Graham-Clark, W. A., "Linen, Jute, and Hemp Industries in the
United Kingdom", with notes on the growing and manufacturing
of Jute in India. Special Agents Series, Ho. 74, 1915,

Butler, Hugh, "The United Kingdom", An Industrial, Commercial,
Financial Handbook. Trade Promotion Series, No. 94, 1930.

Wheeler, L. A., "International Trade in the Kinor Fibres",
Trade Information Bulletin No. 289, 1924.

Irannow, F. K. and Wakefield, R. P. "Export Duties of the
World", 1927.

"The Indian Jute industry and its Eelation to the United
States iarket", Special Dulletin 622, 1931.

"Distribution of Sales, 1129, of the manufacturing Plants in
the Jute Goods Industry", 1931.

116.

United States Tariff Commission:
Colonial Tariff Policies, 1922.
Tariff Information Surveys:
"Jute Cloth", 1922.
"Bags of Jute and Cotton", 1925.
"Vegetable Fibres Other than Cotton", 1925.

House of Representatives: Hays and Keane:
Comparison of Tariff Acts of 1909, 1913, and 1922. (1922)

Letters and Memorandum from Consular and Foreign Offidals.
United States Consuls and Commercial Attaches.

Watson, J. C., Dundee, Scotland.

Messersmith, G. 3., Berlin, Germany.

Lee, F. 0., Prague, Czechoslovakia.

Richards, R. 0., Hadrid, Spain.

Pinkerton, J. L., Rio do Janeiro.

fiitchell, H. M., Rome, Italy {Commercial Attache.)
Foreign Consuls and Officials.

Canani, Berni, Italian Vice-Consul, New York.

Gazitua, Guillermo, Chilian Consul, New York.

Rogosiu, R., Amtorg Trading Corporation, New York.

Grimm, Provence 3., Acting Commercial Attache for France, New York.

Tarne, W. A., Chief External Trade Branch, Dominion Bureau of
Statistics, Ottawa, Canada.

Subsecretario de Agricultura, Commercia y Tralajo, Bepublica de
Cuba, Habana.

   
     
  
   
   
 

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