POLICE LEADERSHIP: A DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY Thesis {on the Degree of M. S. HECHFGAN STATE UEEVERSETY John A. Ashby 1965 I 900 ---—._**".J"\ WWlllHflllllHlillfllfllllimWWII l/ 3 1293 010581407 L I B R A R Y Michigan State University POLICE LEADERSHIP: A DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY BY John A. Ashby AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Police Administration and Public Safety 1965 ,—/ 3 .1 APPROVED A %VW)~:/ \J LP‘I’PL/ (::ZO:§%Z?G Vin [(Chairman) (Member) (I) ABSTRACT POLICE LEADERSHIP: A DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY by John A. Ashby The problem dealt with in this thesis was that of police leadership. It was hypothesized that a situational leader, (one who is flexible in his manner of leading and who takes notice of the various needs which are present) would perform more effectively in the police service than a traditional leader, (one whose leadership is heavily de- pendent upon the use of authority). To test this hypothesis a model definition of a situational leader was develOped. The model was analyzed in two ways. First, there was a rev1ew of the literature deal- ing With leadership, and secondly several case studies were completed. The subjects of the case studies were police ' chiefs who had been rated by an independent agency as to effectiveness. The author merely classified them as situ- ational or traditional on the basis of certain questions de- veloped from the model. The review of the literature was somewhat incon- clusive. While certain sections of the model found strong John A. Ashby support. others were almost entirely neglected. There was very little direct criticism of the ideas examined, and that criticism which was found existed mostly in the police literature. The case studies, on the other hand, supported the model very strongly. There was a very high degree of corre— lation between the author's classification of the chiefs as situational or traditional and the independent evaluation as to effectiveness; those leaders who best fit the situational model were rated as performing most effectively in their leadership roles. Thus, the hypothesis was validated by the limited sample tested. and all indications are that the model may have definite usefulness in any further research which may be done in the area. POLICE LEADERSHIP: A DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY BY John A. Ashby A THESIS Submitted to the College of Social Science Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE 1965 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my most heartfelt thanks to Professor Raymond T. Galvin for his patience and assistance. Also to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Carl T. Ashby, who made the whole project possible, and to the police chiefs, who co- operated so fully with their time and confidence. ii CHAPTER Io II. III° TABLE OF CONTENTS THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS Introduction . . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem . . . . Importance of the Study . . . . Terms Used and Their Definitions Leadership . . . . . . . . . Traditional leader . . . . . Situational leader . . . . . Police leader . . . . . . . Leadership pattern and leadership style . . . . . . . . . . Organization of the Remainder of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF THE LITERATURE Introduction . . . . . . . . . . Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . Needs 0 O O 0 O 0 0 0 O O O O O The Provision of Leadership . . Right to Lead and Ability to Lead Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . iii 0 A MODEL DEFINITION OF A SITUATIONAL LEADER PAGE 10 11 ll 12 12 14 l9 19 24 38 48 51 53 CHAPTER PAGE IV. THE CASE STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Northshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Westside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Suburbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Industrial Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Riverside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Need for Further Research . . . . . . . . 81 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 iv LIST OF FIGURES PAGE 77 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED I. INTRODUCTION Essential to any organization is leadership. There must be a leader at the tOp to plan, direct, control, budget, etc., and there must be leadership at the operational level in order to actually accomplish organizational objectives. The police organization is no different in this respect than any other organization. It must have someone who will pro- vide leadership. It has long been recognized that there are many possible ways of providing the leadership necessary to the prOper functioning of an organization, although there have been bitter arguments as to the effectiveness of such leader- ship. These methods have run the entire gamut, from threaten- ing the life of the desired follower if he refuses to be led, to applying sanctions of varying strength to those who will not obey the leader, to taking a vote each time a decision affecting the entire group must be made. Until recently it was taken for granted in the United States that the firm, commanding type of leader was the most desirable. During the last several years, however, it has been recognized that this traditional leadership pattern may not be the most appropriate for all situations. Thus, Pfiffner and Sherwood state in their Administrative Organization: Today the group centered concepts of leadership and authority call for a type of leadership which will stimulate group as well as individual response. The result is that most supervisory training tries to con— dition supervisors to behave as though they were group leaders rather than to drive with the whip. The police, being a semi—military organization in matters such as rank, concepts of command, etc., have tra- ditionally considered the firm, military leadership pattern to be the one best suited to their needs. While this may or may not be true, the time has arrived when it must be de- termined which leadership pattern is more effective. The problems are too large and the resources too small for the police to suffer from the ineffeciency and complacency which result from poor leadership. The major problem facing the police is well illus- trated by O. W. Wilson, who says: Short of war, our society is faced with no more serious or important problem than crime, whether it be measured in economic, social, or moral terms. And next to war, criminality in our people offers a greater threat to lives, prOperty, peace of mind, comfort, and2 convenience than any other malady confronting mankind. 1John M. Pfiffner and Frank P. Sherwood, Administra- tive Organization (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc.), p. 103. 2Orlando W. Wilson, Police Administration (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc.), p. l. I. In order for the police to deal with this staggering problem of crime in our society, there are several conditions which must be met. First, the police must have public co- operation and understanding. The officer in the street is law enforcement to most Americans. If he is leppy, inef- ficient, or conducts himself in an imprOper manner, the citizen will probably view the whole department in this light, and there will be an understandable decrease in public cooperation and respect. The key to courteous, efficient, well-groomed police officers lies in good police leadership more than in any other area. As a governmental unit, the police must compete with other governmental units for the money which is necessary for the completion of their job. Also, they may very well find themselves lobbying as;a'vested interest group for or against a particular piece of legislation. The presentation of these budget requests and this legislation is the sole responsibility of the leader of the police organization. It requires that he have the ability to deal with non-police oriented individuals who are in a position to help or harm his department, and whose decision to do so may often hinge on the manner in which he presents his request. The abilities required of a leader in this legislative competition are of a different nature than those required to successfully command a police department. It is imperative that the police be provided with leaders who can perform both functions. In the technical aspects of law enforcement there must be a constant searching for, and implementation of, new and better techniques. Complementing this there must be a constant reevaluation of present policies and procedures. Without the stimulation of good leadership at the top of the organization, this search for new and better methods will not be continued. Thus, it can be seen that in obtaining the various subgoals which are necessary to the completion of the major task of the police in our society (combatting crime), there is a definite need for effective leadership at the top of the police organization. Again citing O. W. Wilson: Police departments which avail themselves of the best in equipment, buildings, automobiles, and other material symbols of progress must also have the best in administrative leadership in order to carry out their function. This thesis is an attempt to find which of the two above mentioned leadership patterns best fits the needs of the police. II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The problem examined in this thesis can be basically stated in five steps: (1) There is a need in all organi— zations for leadership. (2) There are in vogue today two leadership patterns; the traditional and the situational. (3) In business organizations the prevalent feeling is that 3Ibid., p. 8. the situational leadership pattern is the more effective. (4) The police organization, though differing in goals and services rendered, is in many respects similar to and even identical with the business organization. (5) Given this similarity in structure and certain needs, one of which is the need for leadership, it may very well be that what is proving to be the apprOpriate leadership pattern for business organizations will also be the proper leadership pattern for police organizations. Key hypothesis t9 be examined. The key hypothesis which this thesis attempts to validate can be stated as follows: A situational leadership model provides a more ef— fective leadership pattern for the police leader than does the traditional leadership pattern. Methodology. The methodology utilized in testing this hypothesis may be divided into three major steps. (1) An original model definition of situational leadership is constructed and presented. (2) A review and analysis of the literature on leadership in general, and police leader- ship in particular, is conducted to ascertain if the model and the literature are compatible. (3) Depth case studies of several police leaders, classified as being effective or noneffective in their leadership roles, are presented and analyzed to discover if there is any significant relationship between the situational leadership pattern and effectiveness or noneffectiveness as a leader. There are several things which should be noted about these steps before going further. First, the model develOped is original rather than one taken directly from the litera- ture. Further, it is not a composite of the many models to be found in the literature, which would by definition have to agree with certain portions of the literature. While the development of the model may have been influenced by the various readings the author has done in the area, the ideas have been molded and adapted to fit the purposes at hand. Secondly, although this thesis is concerned with police leadership, there is a relative paucity of literature in the area. Thus, although all available literature on police leadership is reviewed, it was deemed necessary to ex- amine a substantial portion of the literature pertaining to leadership in general and leadership in other specific fields. Finally, the police leaders selected for the case studies have been classified as effective or noneffective leaders. This is the real crux of the problem. There is no doubt that if all police leaders were examined there would be found some who might be classified as traditional and others who would perhaps be classified as situational. This would be expected from simple probability. The real question to be answered is, into which leadership pattern do the more effective leaders most frequently fall? The rationale for classifying the selected leaders as effective or noneffective is given in the methodology section of Chapter IV. Limitations. In attempting to analyze the hypothesis, the study is conCerned only with the three above mentioned steps, (the construction of a model, a review and analysis of the literature, and the development of case studies). While the author fully realizes that there is great value in knowing the process by which a police leader de- velOps into a situational or traditional leader, and in knowing what types of programs are most effective in de- veloping these types of leaders, for the present these questions will be left unanswered. Again due to limited time and resources, a choice had to be made in regard to the case studies. The possible alternatives were a few case studies done in depth, or many surface, critical—incident studies. Since this study repre- sents a first, tentative step in this particular aspect of police leadership, it was felt that several depth case studies, which are capable of taking many more factors into account, would be of greater value. Finally, although leadership is demanded and provided in some manner at all levels of the police organization, the leaders dealt with here will be only those at the top; chiefs, superintendents and commissioners. III. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY The police are entrusted with some of the most im- portant functions to be performed in our society: the preservation of the peace, the protection of life and prOperty, and the suppression of crime. It is thought by many in the field that there has never before been so much public attention focused on the police as there is today. This increasing public interest in police affairs can be seen in concern over areas such as racial demonstrations and riots, police scandals, traffic safety, organized crime and the law of arrest. search and seizure. While great strides have been made in the technical aspects of law enforcement, there has been relatively little work done in the human relations side. This necessity for work in the social sciences has been recognized in the business sphere for some time, as evidenced by the following:4 It has become trite to say that the most signifi- cant develOpments of the next quarter century will take place not in the physical but in the social sciences, that industry——the economic organ of society--has the fundamental know-how to utilize physical science and technology for the material benefit of mankind, and that we must know learn how to utilize the social sciences to make our human organizations truly effective. 4Douglas M. McGregor, "The Human Side of Enterprise," Some Theories_gf_Organization, edited by Albert H. Rubenstein and Chadwick J. Haberstroh (Homewood, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, Inc., and Richard D. Irwin, Inc.), p. 177. Entrusted with these duties, under these conditions, and in light of these developments, it becomes not only imperative, but possible for the police to develOp truly effective leadership. This thesis, while by no means a final answer, is an attempt to discover a more effective leadership pattern than the one presently employed. IV. TERMS USED AND THEIR DEFINITIONS In examining the various definitions which have been given of the following terms, it became evident that there are almost as many definitions as definers. Several of the following were developed by the author due to a lack of existing definitions which covered the specific points desired. Leadership. Leadership is "Interpersonal influence, exercised in situation and directed, through the communi- cation process, toward the attainment of a specified goal or goals."5 This definition is considered by the author to be the best available. It sets up certain conditions which must be satisfied before an act of leadership may be said to 5Robert Tannenbaum, Irving R. Weschler and Fred Massarik, Leadership and Organization: _A Behavorial Science Approach (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc., 1961), p. 24. 10 have occurred. First, there must be the influence of one person over another. This influence must be mental and social in nature; in other words, giving a man choice be- tween obeying and dying cannot be considered as leading him. Secondly, leadership must occur in an environment—-that is, it must occur in a social and physical situation, and it can- not occur in a vacuum. Thirdly, there must be communication (meaning symbolic communication), between the leader and the follower, or there can be no leadership act. Finally, a leadership act must be an attempt, although not necessarily successful, to obtain a goal of some sort in which the leader at least, and hopefully the follower, has an interest. It should also be noted that this definition is amoral in the sense that it says nothing, good or bad, about the means to be used in influencing the follower to ac- complish the goal. Traditional leader. The traditional leader, for the purposes of this study, is defined as the leader who is well groomed, enthusiastic, honest, decisive when a decision must be made, possessing a commanding voice and appearance, and being fair at all times. He is a highly principled man and will defend his convictions and integrity against any who may attack them. He is essentially an authoritarian who re- gards himself as deriving his right to lead from his legal position, and his ability to lead from a single set of traits and characteristics which he possesses. He also ll visualizes a single ideal leader type who possesses the de- sired leader—traits to the highest degree. The traditional leader is the type who will take command in any situation which may arise, and who will use much the same techniques in all situations. He is more concerned with the technical, mechanical aspects of leadership than he is with the be- havorial aspects. This definition follows fairly closely the notion of a good military leader and such a person probably functions at his best in a military or similar situation. Situational leader. A comprehensive definition of a situational leader is given in the next chapter, which pre— sents a model definition of a situational leader. Briefly, he is a more flexible leader than the traditional leader, and will use one of several leadership patterns, depending on which one he judges to be the most appropriate for the immediate situation. He is also the type of leader who is concerned with the needs of the group members as people, as well as being concerned with the needs of the group. Police leader. For the purpose of this study, a police leader is defined as the ranking officer or civilian of the particular police organization being studied. This includes chiefs, commissioners and superintendents, or any other man who directly commands the department. As mentioned previously, it is well recognized that there is need for leadership at all levels of the police 12 organization. However, it is at the top management level of the organization that leadership, good or bad, will have the furthest reaching and most influential effects. Leadership pattern and leadership style. These terms, which are considered synonomous for the purposes of this study, refer to an identifiable, recurring method of leading people which remains fairly constant with the passage of time. V. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE THESIS The remainder of the thesis consists of four chapters. Chapter II presents the model definition of a situational leader which is to be tested and hOpefully vali- dated as being the apprOpriate leadership model for the law enforcement executive to follow. Chapter III consists of a review and analysis of the literature on leadership in general and police leadership in particular. The literature reviewed includes unpublished as well as published materials. Chapter IV presents and analyzes the case studies which were prepared, giving background information on the communities, the police organizations, the governmental systems within which they operated, and the police leaders themselves. The case studies are also used to test the model. Chapter V presents the logical conclusions and a summary of the study, and suggests areas which require further, more extensive research. 13 CHAPTER II A MODEL DEFINITION OF A SITUATIONAL LEADER The concept of situational leadership is one which sprang up during and after World War II. It is more a child of the human relations school of psychology and sociology than of any other group. Although there has been a good deal of thought and writing about the subject, there are few if any inclusive model definitions of what a situational leader is or should be. The following is considered by the author to be such a definition. It should be kept in mind that the definition is a model, and that there may be very few situational leaders who will embody all of the points which are listed. These are the qualities which a model situational leader will possess. l. The situational leader must first qualify as being a leader. 2. The situational leader is flexible: He will use one of several leadership patterns, depending on which one seems most appropriate to the situation at hand. 3. The situational leader is aware of three types of needs which are present no matter what the situation confronting him. These are: a. His personal needs both as an individual and as a leader. b. His followers' needs both as group members and as individuals. c. The needs of the group as a unity. 15 4. The situational leader is less concerned with the mere appearance of being a leader than he is with the actual provision of leadership to the group. 5. The situational leader, while realizing that he de- rives his right to lead from his legal position, al- so recognizes that his ability to lead depends on how well he can interpret the situation he is con- fronted with. There are, of course, several things which should be noted and explained about these points. First, a situational leader must fulfill all the re- quirements of being a leader, irrespective of type, before he may be classified as a situational leader. The situational leader is flexible. Whereas the tra- ditional leader is likely to view one leadership pattern as being the most effective one for any situation, the situation- al leader is more likely to use any one of several patterns. These may basically be broken down into three categories. The first general category is the authoritarian. Here the leader gives orders and expects to receive immediate and un- questioning compliance. This is the pattern most likely to be used in an emergency situation or when time is at a premium. The authoritarian pattern is the one which the situational leader will use as little as possible, and which the traditional leader is likely to View as being the best possible, if not the only, leadership pattern. The second general category is the laissez—faire. Using a laissez- faire pattern, the leader will allow the group to proceed along its own course, periodically ascertaining that it is 16 moving in the desired direction. This pattern is probably best illustrated in the performance of day-to—day activities where there is no great need for constant and careful super- vision. This might be characterized in a police setting by a deputy chief of patrol who allows his division watch commanders to distribute their personnel among the various beats as they judge best. Naturally, the use of this pattern always presupposes a trust in the ability of the followers. The concept is in many ways almost the same as that of dele- gation of authority. The third general leadership style which the situational leader utilizes is the democratic. Using a democratic pattern, the leader will encourage and stimulate suggestions from his subordiantes rather than simply giving orders and expecting unquestioning compliance. This pattern is most successful when ideas are needed in relation to a particular problem, or when a subordinate honestly questions the advisability of a directive from above. One of the best examples of democratic leadership is the give and take which occurs in a free wheeling staff meeting. As stated above, these are general categories and there may be any number of variations on them. There is one other respect in which the situational leader is flexible. He has the type of flexibility which allows him to switch his role from that of leader of his 17 organizational component to that of follower of the leader of the total organization (mayor, city manager, etc.). The situational leader is aware of three types of needs in any situation. He is first of all aware of his own needs as an individual and as a group leader. He is aware that he may need a sense of status, security, or power, and he makes adjustments for these needs. Secondly, he is aware of his group members' needs, both as group members and as individuals, and also makes adjustments for these. Finally, he is aware that his group has certain goals or objectives which it finds desirable, and that certain things are needed if these goals are to be obtained (the continued existence of the group, a certain amount of harmony among the members of the group, etc.). The consideration of the first two needs will always fall within this frame of reference of the groups' needs. While the situational leader will always maintain an appearance commensurate with his position, he is less interested in fulfilling the requirements of appearing commanding, having a firm voice, etc., than he is in making certain that the group is at all times receiving the proper attention and guidance necessary to the obtaining of its goals. The situational leader realizes that his ability to lead comes from the accuracy of his appraisal of the situ- ation. The traditional leader, it will be remembered, l8 realizes that he gets his authority to lead from his formal, legalized position, but feels that his ability to lead de- rives from a single set of traits which he possesses. To him, this explains why he was given the authority in the first place. The situational leader, on the other hand, while recognizing that his formal position gives him a legitimate right to lead, also recognizes that he may very well fail as a leader if he does not appraise the situation correctly and apply the appropriate leadership pattern of those listed above. Thus, while the traditional leader is more concerned with maintaining his authority and control at all times, the situational leader is more concerned with keeping the organi— zation moving toward the fulfillment of its primary goals. He feels this way even if it means that he must from time to time give up some of his authority. CHAPTER III REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF THE LITERATURE I . INTRODUCTION In this chapter pertinent literature will be re- viewed, analyzed, and compared with the model presented in the previous chapter. In reviewing the literature dealing with leadership it becomes readily evident that there is an extreme scarcity of materials dealing with police leadership pg; pg. Therefore, while all available writings on police leadership have been reviewed, there is also included literature dealing with leadership in other areas, mainly business and industry. It is felt that this is feasible since leadership is a function which is universal to all organizations, and that there is, within limitations, very little difference between an effective leadership act in one organization, and such an act in another. Also, all of the literature reviewed does not focus directly on the subject of leadership. Some of it deals with the problems of power, authority, and role-playing, all subjects which shed light on leadership. Before presenting the analysis, there are some re- marks which should be made in regard to leadership theory in general. 20 The early approaches to leadership, although not thought of as such in their time, were pretty much authori- tarian in nature. They were "production centered," and based on a theory of economic rationality: if workers were given the right incentives they would produce; therefore, the function of the leader was to provide these correct in- centives. Being of such a nature, there was only one "right" way to lead, and the questions raised by the situational model were never considered. There grew out of this a desire to discover the traits which good leaders possessed. One of the first pro- ponents of the trait approach was Ordway Tead, who presented ten traits which he considered essential to good leadership. They were:1 1. Physical and nervous energy. 2. A sense of purpose and direction. 3. Enthusiasm. 4. Friendliness and affection. 5. Integrity. 6. Technical mastery. 7. Decisiveness. 8. Intelligence. 9. Teaching skill. 10. Faith. lOrdway Tead, The Art of Leadership (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc., 1935), p. 83. 21 An excellent example of this school of thought in the police field is found in a publication of the Traffic Insti- tute of Northwestern University. This piece lists leadership traits as the following:2 1. Integrity. 2. Knowledge. 3. Courage. 4. Decisiveness. 5. Dependability. 6. Initiative. 7. Tact. 8. Justice. 9. Enthusiasm. lO. Bearing ll. Endurance. 12. Unselfishness. 13. Loyalty. l4. Judgement. This approach soon fell through when it was dis— covered by various researchers that there could be found no one set or group of traits which was common to all leaders.3 2 . . . . "Management: Leadership for SuperViSion," published by the Traffic Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. 3H. Koontz and C. O'Donnell, Principles pj_Manaqement (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc., 1959), p. 341. 22 These are undoubtedly desirable qualities for a leader to possess, but they are rather difficult to measure, and even harder to develop. The next approach which differed in any significant respect from the traitists was the human relations school. This theory emphasized that a leader should be democratic and should use the participative process almost exclusively. The basis underlying this theory is the notion that people will do their best when they have had some say in setting standards and goals.4 This rationale was developed as a result of studies performed at the University of Iowa in the late 1930's. These studies, which utilized the three leadership styles described earlier, attempted to determine the results of the use of each style in a laboratory setting. Among other things it was found that the use of autocracy, or authori- tarianism, fostered hostility, aggression and discontent to a significantly higher degree than the democratic and laissez- faire patterns. Conversely, it was found that the democratic pattern produced a significantly higher incidence of co- operation, individuality and friendliness, and finally, that a democratic pattern can be as efficient or more efficient than an authoritarian pattern.5 4Pfiffner and Sherwood, Op. cit., p. 362. 5Ralph White and Ronald Lippitt, "Leader Behavior and Member Reaction in Three 'Social Climates'," in Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander, Group Dynamics Research and Theory (Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson and Company, 1953), pp.585—611. 23 This school of thought is still very much alive to- day. David A. Emery, writing in 1959, states that ". . . most people in our culture are more ready to accept and follow their own decisions than the recommendations of others."6 A year later, Louis Cassels, writing in a national business magazine, stated that ”a sincere belief in the group approach to problem solving" was a prerequisite for ef— fective leadership.7 In recent years there has been a growing feeling that some variation of the model presented in the previous chapter will provide the most effective leadership pattern.8 This is what the author chooses to call situational leadership, although some, notably Argyris, have chosen to call it "reality-centered leadership."9 However, it should be kept in mind, as Argyris points out, that this is far from being totally accepted in the business sphere: participatory leadership is anathema to those who are grounded in the tra- ditional concepts of heirarchy with their emphasis on 6David A. Emery, "Managerial Leadership through Motivation by Objectives," Personnel Psyphology, 12:67, Spring, 1959. 7Louis Cassels, "You Can be a More Effective Leader," Nation's Business, 48:80-85, June, 1960. 8Auren Uris, "How Good A Leader Are You?" in Robert A. Sutermeister, People and Productivity (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963), pp. 386-387. 9Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957), p. 207. 24 formal authority and the flow of orders down the chain of command.10 II. FLEXIBILITY "The situational leader is flexible . . .“ This simply means, it will be remembered, that the situational leader will adOpt one of several leadership styles, depending on which one he judges to be most appropriate to the im— mediate situation. These styles are classified by the author as being democratic, authoritarian or laissez-faire. Examining Tead on the matter of flexibility, it is illuminating to note that in his chapter entitled "Methods and Manners of Leading" he devotes seventeen pages to the techniques of giving orders and reproofs, and only thirteen pages to such techniques as giving commendations, getting suggestions, strengthening a sense of group identity, exercising care in introduction to the group, creating self— discipline, etc.ll Tead seems to be more concerned with the leader's performance as a commander or a "boss" than any- thing else. A few pages further he states that:12 There is a balance to be struck between firmness and kindliness. People expect the former of their leaders, and they appreciate the latter. Firmness implies definiteness, clear-cut decisions, resolute holding to standards. lOIbid., pp. 205-207. llTead, 0p. cit., Chapter 19. lzIbid., p. 173. 25 This View, which seems to have been fairly prevalent in early writings on leadership, saw people as really wanting to be told what to do. Howard Baumgartel has conducted a study which seems to support this writer's View (that the more effective leader is the one who uses the democratic and laissez—faire styles as much as possible). The study attempted to ascertain the results of the use of the various leadership styles in the administration of medical research laboratories. Baumgartel studied twenty such laboratories, finding that of the twenty, six were classifiable as laissez-faire, seven as participatory (democratic), five as directive (authoritarian), and two were unclassifiable by this system.13 It was hypothesized that under a participatory leadership style there would be a higher motivation toward organization goals, a higher sense of progress toward those goals, a more favorable attitude toward the leader, and more overall satisfaction with the quality of leadership in the organization. The hypothesis 14 If these results can was validated in all cases but one. be generalized from a medical research laboratory to a police setting, which this author believes they can, then this study tends to support the author's hypothesis. At the l3Howard Baumgartel, "Leadership Style as a Variable in Research Administration," Administrative Science Quarterly, 2:349—352. l4Ibid., pp. 352—359. 26 very least, it shows that the leadership styles being examined are in use, and that in this case at least, the leaders using the democratic style are being more effective in performing their function. Koontz and O'Donnell agree by implication that flexibility in the leader is desirable. While they do not really face the question as such, they do list as character— istics of good leaders several points which would fall into this author's scheme.15 A somewhat different position has been taken by Robert McMurray. He takes the position that a "benevolent autocracy" is what is needed. He reaches this conclusion for several reasons. First, he states that most managers are by nature rather hard-driving, aggressive individuals, and that only about ten per cent of them really believe in the human relations approach.l6 Secondly, he states that "in practice every position below the one or two at the top must be almost totally structured--must be devoid of real 17 Thirdly, he believes decision-making responsibility." that most large organizations attract to their middle manage— ment ranks people who have strong needs for security. These peOple, he believes, do not want to accept any responsibilities 15Koontz and O'Donnell, op. cit., pp. 437-441. 16Robert McMurray, "The Case for Benevolent Autocracy," Harvard Business Review, 36:83, Jan.-Feb., 1957. l71bid. 27 above the minimum required for their jobs.18 In addition, McMurray lists several attributes of group decisions them- selves which make them unfeasible. These are:19 (1) Group decisions stimulate individual dependence on the group . . . (2) Some members always fear to oppose the group . . . (3) When the group's members vary in status and power, subordinates are reluctant to disagree with their superiors. (4) Some members, occasionally the more brilliant and nonconformist, are so unacceptable to others in the group that their contributions are not even seriously considered. McMurray further states that:20 Benevolent autocracy is also based upon the premise that the autocrat is not necessarily an ineffective leader or serious source of employee ill will. This is because two types of autocrats may be distinguished, the strong autocrat and the weak one. The strong autocrat is:21 . . . the type who is so preoccupied with his other interests and problems that he forgets to give much thought to his employees. He is not a tyrant or a martinet. He simple forgets at times that they are human beings with their own needs and problems. The weak autocrat, on the other hand, is:22 . . . (the one whose) major weakness is his over— whelming need for security. He is basically a very 18M. l?;p;g., pp. 84-85. 203351., p. 86. 21211.8. 22 Ibid. 28 dependent, fearful, and anxious person who is compen- sating for his insecurities by assuming an arbitrary, authoritarian exterior. . . . He needs power . . . McMurray does offer one very strong supporting argument for his theory of benevolent autocracy: "Where i; has been tried, i3 works!"23 Warren G. Bennis has made some criticisms of McMurray's approach which seem to this author to be valid. First, says Bennis, McMurray's autocrat is a rather nostalgic figure whose usefulness is based on the theory "that that is the way peOple are."24 Secondly, McMurray has assumed that because peOple are this way, they cannot be changed——human nature is immutable.25 In contrast to McMurray, Roger Bellows is such a believer in flexibility in a leader that he has developed a check list of conditions favoring the use of the authori- tarian and cooperative (democratic), modes. Under situ- ational factors favoring the use of the authoritarian style, he considers such things as:26 23Ibid., p. 90. 24Warren G. Bennis, "Leadership Theory and Adminis- trative Behavior: The Problem of Authority," Administrative Science Quarterly, 4:275, Dec., 1959. 251bid. 26Roger Bellows, "Situational Earmarks Favoring Use of the Authoritarian and Cooperative Modes," in Robert A. Sutermeister, op. cit., pp. 470—471. 29 The organization Is its history mostly authoritarian? . . . Does it allow no freedom of choice? . . . Is the social climate 'cold'? . . . The top manager Is he, by habit authoritarian? . . . Does he lack skill in c00perative ways? . . . Does he make little use of conferences? . . . The task Is it highly competitive? . . . Is it an emergency task? . . . The employees Are they insecure? . . Do they lack knowledge of the problems? . . . Are they willing to carry out orders? . . . In his listing of factors which would indicate the use of the cooperative style, are questions such as:27 The organization Does it allow freedom of choice? . . . Does it fail to pass power downward? . . . Is the social climate 'warm'?. . . The top manager Is he, by habit c00perative? . . . Does he have skill in c00perative methods? . . . Does he make much use of conferences? . . . The employees Do they feel secure? . . . Are their goals the same as managements? . . . Do they prefer cooperation to authority? . . . The task Is it non-competitive? . . . Is problem solving important? . . . Is it difficult to achieve? . . . While this author does not consider Bellows' check list to be a one hundred per cent foolproof instrument for determining which leadership pattern will be more advanta— geous, it may provide a rough guideline, and deserves some consideration. 27Ibid., pp. 471—472. 30 Some writers have expressed the need for flexibility in terms of role playing. This means that the leader must be able to play, as the occasion demands, the role of "boss," "counselor,‘ etc., and that he must be able to switch his role from that of leader to group member, for instance in a conference which is seeking new solutions to a problem.28 As stated earlier in the model, there is the necessity, particularly in the field of the public service, for the leader to be capable of switching his role from that of leader of his organization, to the role of follower of a heirarchically higher leader, such as a city manager or a mayor. There have been several case studies done which point out this aspect of leadership very well. One such study is‘A City Manager Tries pg El£§.fll§ Police Chief,29 by Frank Sherwood. In this case, which occurred in a Southern California Community, the city manager tried to fire his police chief after a dispute centering around a conflict between the chief's "professional" standards and the desires of the city council, the city manager, and the citizens of the community. The chief had set up his standards and he refused to make any move which in his View would have sacrificed them. He felt that his 28Cassels, 0p. cit., p. 185. 29Frank P. Sherwood, A City Manager Tries 59 Fire His Police Chief (University, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1963). 31 basiffiresponsibility was to the profession of law enforce- , .ment,vnot to the citizens which his organization served. This is well evidenced by statements such as the following: "We in police worry so much about how people are going to feel about what we do that we lose sight of our basic re- sponsibility."30 The real trouble began after the chief had been fired. Instead of accepting a legal separation from his job he began a public fight to retain it; a fight which lasted for several months and ended with his losing in a court battle. This chief, who was so inflexible that he was unable to obey orders, brought dissension and strife to his community and at one point very nearly dissolved the com- munity government.31 Another excellent case study is that of Stephen P. Kennedy, Police Commissioner of New York City from 1955 to 1960. Kennedy was a puzzling man in many respects, but here it is particularly interesting to examine his relationship with his superior, the Mayor of New York City. There are two incidents in Kennedy's career which especially show his rigidity as a leader. The first occurred during Nikita Khrushchev's now rather infamous visit to New York City in 1960. Due to the presence of some ethnic groups who were rather hostile to several of the visiting dignitaries, all 3OIbid., p. 9. 3lIbid., pp. 23-24. 32 leaves within the Police Department were cancelled. Un- fortunately, this period coincided with the Jewish High Holy Days. The Jewish policemens' spiritual union, the Shomrin Society, protested that this would prevent their observance of the Holy Days. Commissioner Kennedy then made some rather ill-advised remarks about the sincerity of the mens' religious beliefs, for which the Mayor demanded he immediately apologize. Kennedy kept the Mayor waiting for two hours, and then stated flatly that he would not apologize. The battle over the apology continued and the Commissioner unwisely placed the Mayor in the position of being unable to back up with action what he had publicly stated due to fear of public opinion.32 While the morality of Kennedy's position is a matter open to debate, there can be no doubt that he exercised very poor judgment: first, by the mere making of the remarks, and second by his refusal to obey an order of his superior which had been made public. One hardly main- tains a good working relationship with his superiors or his subordinates in this fashion. The second incident occurred in 1961 when Kennedy's statutory term as Commissioner ex- pired. When offered a reappointment, he stated that he would accept it only if the mayor would grant an annual salary increase of six hundred dollars for patrolmen, a move 32Murray Kempton, "The COp as an Idealist," Harperg Magazine, 224:70-71, March, 1962. 33 which would have cost the city of New York several million dollars yearly.33 The Mayor refused, having finally found a legitimate excuse to rid himself of the rather vexing Com— missioner. It is unknown why Kennedy made such a demand: Did he merely desire an excuse to quit, or did he really be- lieve that he could dictate terms to the Mayor?34 Regardless of his motives, he could hardly have made a less politic move. There has been very little written about police leadership pgg pg. Most of what has been written is rather traditionally oriented and seems to have been accepted on faith rather than based on research. While this is not a desirable situation, it is understandable. There are very few people in the police service who are well enough trained or have the necessary time to do the research, while those not in the police service have for too long ignored the whole area. 0. W. Wilson, while not falling clearly into one camp or the other, seems to have tendencies toward the tra- ditional approach. While he states in one place that due to personality variances one should not try to c0py another's leadership style, but should devise his own,35 he also 33Ibid., p. 71. 34Ibid. 35Wilson, op. cit., p. 10. 34 states that superior leaders are nearly always intelligent, emotionally stable, physically strong, and have "contagious enthusiasm and forceful personalities that seem to reach out and grip people who come under their influence."36 Nelson A. Watson, writing in the Police Chief, dis- cuses the various styles of leadership and their advantages and disadvantages at some length. He then goes on to state that some type of benevolent authoritarianism, similar to that mentioned in connection with McMurray, is probably the best pattern for the police leader.37 He does admit, how— ever, that there are occasions, such as top level conferences, or leadership situations outside of the department, where a democratic or laissez-faire style will have a much greater chance of success.38 Watson seems to be discussing the same type of leadership as this author, but with a slightly different emphasis. The main difference lies in the fact that Watson places more emphasis on the authoritarian aspects, while this author places the heavier emphasis on the demo— cratic aspects. The entire matter of leadership, much less the need for flexibility in a leader is almost completely ignored by 36Ibid. 37Nelson A. Watson, "Police and Group Leadership, Part I," The Police Chief, 31:27, November, 1964. 381bid. 35 Raymond E. Clift. The one paragraph which he does devote to the subject is nothing more than a statement of the traits which were considered earlier.39 Scott and Garrett take a rather dim view of demo- cratic leadership in a police setting. They say that there should be some flexibility, but they place a much heavier emphasis on authoritarianism. They say:40 In the police business, however, there is little time for such devices (formation of sub-groups, round— table discussions and role—playing). The police officer works in a quasi—military organization which exists to meet problems and emergencys of many kinds and in different areas of interest. The police supervisor should of course be democratic to the point of maximum efficiency but beyond that he must act in the capacity of a director or, more realisti- cally a commander. This author agrees fully that in emergency situations authoritarianism probably provides the most effective pattern. However, since so little police time is expended in actual emergency situations this argument does not appear to pre— clude the using of the other leadership patterns the majority of the time. Another police writer who must be classified as a traditionalist is V. A. Leonard. He lists the following as 39Raymond E. Clift, A Guide pg Modern Police Thinking (Cincinnati, Ohio: The W. H. Anderson Company, 1956). 4OClifford L. Scott and Bill Garrett, Leadership for the Police Supervisor (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1960), p. 47. 36 being traits which are required for executive success:41 1. Intelligence 2. Experience 3. Originality 4. Receptiveness 5. Teaching ability 6. Personality 7. Knowledge of human behavior 8. Courage 9. Tenacity 10. A sense of justice and fair play C. E. Talbert does not fall definitely to one side or the other. He is speaking of supervisory leadership, and distinguishes between authoritarian and persuasive leader- ship. He says:42 The police supervisor is normally persuasive, but may be authoritative, depending on the situation and the personality of the person being supervised. Correct application of the principles of leadership will place the greatest percentage of your super- vision in the persuasive category. It is this author's feeling that were Talbert to dis- cuss top level leadership, he would advocate much the same position as is advocated here. 41V. A. Leonard, Police Organization and Management (Second edition; Brooklyn: The Foundation Press, Incorpor- ated, 1964), p. 51. 42Glen D. King (ed.), First—Line Supervisor's Manual (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1961), p. 94. 37 Another writer who discusses leadership in terms of the traditional approach is Juby E. Towler. He presents an extended discussion of authority and discipline, and while he makes certain recommendations as to how these should be used most effectively, he does not consider a democratic leadership style.43 A police author who recognizes a need for some flexi- bility is Jack E. Rytten. However, like Watson, he places the heavier emphasis on authority.44 The International City Managers' Association's Municipal Police Administration,45 surprisingly enough, does not deal at all with the subject of police leadership. In summary of this section, then, it may be said that there is definite feeling in some areas that flexibility is a desirable trait in a leader. Although this feeling does exist in the police field, it is not nearly as prevalent, and where it does exist the heavier emphasis is placed on the authoritarian aspects. 43Juby E. Towler, "Introduction to the Art of Leader- ship," Police, 7:75—77, July-August, 1962. 44Jack E. Rytten, "Principles of Effective Leadership," Police, 5:72, May-June, 1960. 45The Institute for Taining in Municipal Administration, Municipal Police Administration (Fifth edition; Chicago: The International City Managers' Association, 1961), 545 pp. 38 III. NEEDS The situational leader recognizes that there are three types of needs in any situation confronting him which may have an impact on his decision when choosing a leader— ship pattern. These three types of needs are classified as follower needs, leader needs and group needs. From a review of the literature it becomes fairly evident that this aspect of leadership has been almost totally neglected except by those working in human relations, and the needs conceptualized by this group differ in some cases from those considered by this author. Although every individual has certain physiological needs, such as food, drink and sex,46 the needs discussed here are psychological, not physical in nature. Every group Hemmer is an individual human being, andas such is psycho— logically variant from his fellow group members in some re— spects. For instance, some persons have very high structural needs, while others have just as strong a need for inde- pendence and some ambiguity. The implications of a variance such as this are obvious. If giving an assignment to the first individual, it would be wisest to give a detailed out- line of what is desired, while the second individual would 46Laurence F. Shaffer and Edward J. Shoben, Jr., The Psychology 9f Adjustment (Second edition; Boston: Houghton- Mifflin Company, 1956), pp. 30-35. 39 probably function best if given general instructions and told to get the job done. Bellows lists several social needs which he says must be understood if sound leadership is to be provided. They are:47 I. Activity and variety II. Basic achievement needs: Security of status Sense of personal worth Sense of participation Group membership III. Secondary achievement needs: Personal deve10pment Release from emotional achievement This list could easily be expanded, and these should be taken only as illustrative examples. Also needed, according to Bellows, is empathy, which he defines as the "special ability or skill of seeing into another's mind or behavior. This special social feeling for others is an important component of over-all skill in deal— ing with peOple."48 He further states that empathy is a characteristic more needed in a democratic than an authori— tarian or laissez—faire atmosphere. Georgopoulos and Mann state that human relations skills involve consideration and support for others and 47Roger Bellows, Creative Leadership (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice—Hall, Incorporated, 1959), p. 54. 481bid., p. 39. 491bid. 40 problems which they may have, the ability to motivate sub- ordinates to a point which allows them to perform their tasks effectively, and the ability to integrate individual goals with organizational goals.50 More specifically:51 The supervisor must be able to identify the needs of others which are central to their self-concept, and to relate these to organizational objectives in a manner that is psychologically meaningful to them. At times, this will mean coordinating the goals of one's subordinates with those of people in higher levels; at other times it will mean creating, modifying or shifting either organizational or individual goals so that a balance or integration between the two may be obtained. Basically, the present class of skills in- volves managing the emotional and motivational dimensions of interpersonal relations in an organization. Although these authors are speaking of supervisory leadership, there does not appear to be any significant reason why the principles cannot be applied to a higher level of leadership. It should be emphasized at this point that the under- standing of a follower's needs is not to be accomplished for the sole purpose of making him a well adjusted individual; it is to help him perform his job more efficiently. Prentice points out that an individual may be frustrated by the failure of his leader to recognize and take 50Basil S. Georgopoulos and Floyd C. Mann, "Super- visory and Administrative Behavior," in Sutermeister, pp, cit., p. 382. 51 Ibid. 41 advantage of a need.52 He hypothesizes that:53 To the extent that the leader's circumstances and skill permit him to respond to such individual patterns, he will be able to create genuinely in- trinsic interest in the work that he is charged with getting done. A similar thought is voiced by O. A. Ohman when he says that: "The individual is motivated by certain deep seated needs or wants. These needs must be satisfied if he is to be a happy and efficient worker."54 Another excellent point which Prentice makes is that it is hard for the average individual to be a subordinate, and that there must be found a balance between dependence and independence, according to the individual employee's needs.55 Tannenbaum lists three types of "forces" which are present in any situation, and need to be considered when choosing a leadership pattern. Tannenbaum, however, is speaking more in terms of "expected behavior"-—what does the follower expect to receive from the leader? He believes that greater freedom can be allowed if the following con- ditions exist:56 52W. C. H. Prentice, "Understanding Leadership," Harvard Business Review, 39:144, September-October, 1961. 53Ibid. 540. A. Ohman, "The Leader and the Led," Personnel, 35:11, November-December, 1958. 55 ('1‘ "O [—1 4:. H Prentice, op. ci 56Tannenbaum, pp, cit., p. 75. 42 If the subordinates have relatively high needs for independence. If the subordinates have a readiness to assume responsibility for decision making. If they have a relatively high tolerance for ambiguity. If they are interested in the problem and feel that it is important. If they understand and identify with the goals of the organization. If they have the necessary knowledge and ex- perience to deal with the problem. If they have learned to expect to share in decision making. As might be expected from his earlier position, McMurray considers employee's needs and then discards the whole idea. He examines the idea that most persons will try to improve themselves if their limitations are pointed out to them. He states that even many psychiatrists have found that it is often difficult to get a patient to translate his insights into actions. Also, his own experiences over the last 25 years have led him to believe that at least three quarters of those in business have neither a desire nor a capacity for self—improvement.57 In replying to these arguments, it again seems pertinent to cite Bennis. He says:58 But most of all, McMurray extirpates the basic and radical explosiveness of Freudian theory when he ignores mans' need to understand, to deal symboli- cally with the world around him, to derive some satis— faction, even in restricted settings, through know- ledge. The explosive quality in Freudianism is 57McMurray,.pp. cit., p. 87. 58Bennis, pp. cit., p. 286. 43 understanding, but McMurray seems to rationalize the status quo on the basis of a diluted form of psychoanalytic theory. Irving Knickerbocker, writing in the Journal pf Social Issues, lends further support when he says that:59 Existence for each individual may be seen as a continual struggle to satisfy needs, relieve tensions, maintain an equilibrium. Most needs in our culture are satisfied through relationships with other individuals or groups of individuals. Again citing Ohman, he states:60 The employee-centered supervisor who creates a supportive relationship with his workers, a re- lationship built on mutual confidence and reSpect, consistently gets better results than the manager who supervises closely and continually pushes for production. There has been some, but not a great deal, written about group needs which the leader must consider. This author is considering group needs as they affect the leader's choice of a leadership pattern. Group needs are of two basic types: first, there are needs which are present in the group in general and in no specific individuals, such as a need for guidance due to lack of knowledge, and secondly there are needs which are present in some members but not in others. The case of Stephen Kennedy again becomes pertinent. Kennedy was a man who seemed at times to have no concept of anyone's needs. He continually antagonized his subordinates 9Irving Knickerbocker, "Leadership: A Conception and Some Implications," Journal p; Social Issues, 4:21-40, Summer, 1948. 6OOhman,_o_p. cit., p. 12. 44 both as a group and as individuals. His crusade against moonlighting provides an excellent example of this. While the practice of holding two jobs is considered by most authorities to be bad practice, the cold fact of the matter was that a senior patrolman in New York City earned only $118.00 per week. If a man wanted any of the luxuries of life, he hpg to earn more money than this. However, Kennedy and the Patrolmens' Benevolent Association went to court, and the Commissioner won.6l As Kempton says, "By then he commanded an army in mutiny."62 Kennedy's antagonistic handling of matters such as this one, and his failure to even attempt to understand the needs of his subordinates were un- doubtedly causative factors in his downfall. The author who comes closest to the meaning of group needs as needs of the group as an entity is William C. Schutz., He gives the following listing: First, the group needs its goals and values established and clarified; second, the various styles of approaching problem solving which are existent within the group need recognition and integration; finally, the group needs to have maximum utilization made of the abilities capacities of its members.63 Schutz further 61Kempton,.pp. cit., p. 69. 621bid. 63William C. Schutz, "The Ego FIRO Theory and the Leader as Completer," in Luigi Petrullo and Bernard M. Bass, Leadership and Interpersonal Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1961), p. 60. 45 64 states that: With instinctual urges or interpersonal needs, the problem for the group leader is to gratify those that exist within the group. These include group needs (existing commonly for several group members) and individual needs. In addition, the group leader must deal effectively with the inter- action among these various needs. Darrel T. Piersol states that "Success will depend on your ability to analyze the desires of your particular group and to lead them toward the objectives that you col- lectively feel are important. "65 The following questions would be put forth by this author as a rough guideline to determining group needs: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Is the group composed of mature, stable individuals? How long and how often have these individuals worked together, and what have been the results? Is the group, as a whole, technically competent to deal with the problem at hand? Is the group accustomed to making and accepting responsibility for decisions? How much of a vested interest do the group members have in the outcome of the problem? Does the group have imagination and creative ability enough to work in relative freedom? Is there consensus among the group in relation to ultimate goals? It is felt that these questions will provide a gauge of a groups ability to work under democratic conditions. 65 64 Ibid., p. 55. Darrel T. Piersol, "So You've Been Elected Presidentl," Advanced Management, 26:13, May, 1961. 46 There has apparently been very little thinking in relation to the necessity of the leader identifying and analyzing his own needs. Knickerbocker is one of the few authors who has given any thought to the matter. He says:66 Through leading, the leader obtains means of satisfying his needs. Perhaps he finds satisfaction in the operation of leading, in manipulating people or helping them. Perhaps the prestige and recognition accorded the leader are important sources of satis- faction. Or, to take the most obvious aspect, perhaps the result of the activities he directs is itself the means he seeks. Tannenbaum also mentions several forces in the I manager which need to be taken into consideration. These are: His value system . . . His confidence ip his subordinates . . . His own leadership inclinations . . . His feelings pf security ip pp uncertain situation . Actually, this author is thinking more in terms of Knickerbocker's listing; what are the leader's motives in wanting to lead? How strong are his needs for security, power, status, etc.? There is apparently a need for more research in this area. Again, when examining the literature on police leadership, there is a lack of thinking which relates to this point of the author's model. Among those who say nothing of the various needs confronting the leader are 66Knickerbocker,p_p. cit., p. 31. 67Tannenbaum,-pp. cit., pp. 73-74. 47 Wilson, Leonard, Clift, and the International City Managers' Association. There are a few authors, however, who have given some thought to this matter. King, for example, states in his First Line Supervisor's Manual:68 You will attain a better understanding of how your subordinates think and act if you make a conscientous effort to observe them. Become personally acquainted with them and try to recognize their individual differences. You should anticipate and make pro- visions for the needs of your men . . . Be friendly and approachable . . . Discuss the problems of the job with them . . . Develop an intimate knowledge and understanding of each of your subordinates. In small groups it is essential that you know each man's full name, regard- less of his length of service. You should be able to greet a new officer by his first name. ’Get to know his home and family background, and familiarize your- self with his personal characteristics. Give personal and noticeable attention to the problems of each indi- vidual when the problems come to your attention. This view seems to capture the spirit of this author's meaning, although the phraseology is a little bit different. Writing in Police, Juby Towler seems to feel that there are some needs in the individual which may cause problems and therefore be of concern to the leader. His sug~ gestions are rather specific in nature. They include such things as problems at home, personal finances, an inferiority complex, hero worship, personal dislike for the supervisor, etc.69 68King,_gp..pip., p. 95. 69Towler,pp. cit., p. 74. 48 Rytten also recognizes that there is a growing concern for the needs of the individual, but he doesn't find too much that is desirable in this trend. He seems to View it mainly as leading to laxness and causing disciplinary problems.7O Watson lists as characteristics of the considerate leader, who he sees as being the more desirable type, a sensitivity to the needs of his subordinates, an interest in helping employees achieve satisfaction, and the strengthening of employees self-esteem.71 It appears, then, that there is some support in the literature for this point of the model. However, there is less consensus in regard to what types of needs are existent which may cause problems for the leader. IV. THE PROVISION OF LEADERSHIP Most authors apparently consider this point to be a self—evident truth. They almost all proceed from the point of how to lead, assuming that all leaders are interested in providing real leadership. For those who define leadership in such terms (making real attempts to influence others to- wards a goal), this is logical. However, it is this author's contention that not all persons who occupy positions from which leadership should 7ORytten,.pp. cit., p. 72. 71Watson, pp, 333., p. 20. 49 emanate, do provide a meaningful type of leadership. Witness, for example, the man who seeks to occupy a higher organi- zational slot merely for the prestige and added benefits which may accrue to him. The author submits that this type is all too common in the military, the police and other strictly heirarchical areas of public service where work out— put is the hard thing to measure. There is also the type of man who is too tied up in other interests to have a real desire to provide the leader— ship he is charged with providing. There comes to mind a chief of police, with whom the author is personally ac— quainted, who is so involved in other activities that the leadership vacuum created has been filled by other command personnel. Watson is the only author who considers this matter in any great detail. He lists as a type of leader the hollow 72 headman, "a leader in name only." He gives as an example of this type:73 . . . the son of the founder of a company who has suc— ceeded to the office of president by inheritance al- though he has no interest in the business and no talent for running it. In a police setting this may be a man who gains the chief's office by mere seniority or through pure political 72Nelson A. Watson, "Police and Group, Leadership, Part II," The Police Chief, 31:13, November, 1964. 731bid. 50 appointment. This is not to say that all such men who be- come chiefs are this way, only that they are likely to be- come this way. Watson lists six types of bad effects which are likely to flourish under this type of leader. They are:74 1. Ineffective Communications 2. Breakdown in Chain of Command 3. Inept Supervision 4. Listless Status Quo 5. Low Morale 6. Visible Weaknesses Ineffective communications will result since command personnel will start deciding things for themselves, and there will be no central point at the top through which information can flow. The chain of command is likely to break down since there will be usurpation of authority, and if the leader is below the highest level of the organization he will probably be by—passed entirely. Inept supervision may result simply from a lack of interest. A listless status quo may develop since there will probably be no planning done at a level which will affect the entire organization. Low morale will develOp since there is no progressive think- ing being done at the top, and respect for the leader dies. Visible weaknesses will be seen in physical and procedural aspects of the department, such as general physical sloppi- ness, dirty facilities, careless operations, etc. 74Ibid., pp. 13-15. 51 Another type of leader described by Watson is the "muscle-bound bureaucrat," who may exhibit the following . . 75 characteristics: . . . the bureaucrat is almost always just an occupant of an office. His main job seems to be seeing to it that everyone complies with the rules, commonly referred to as red tape. Such a leader is usually very rigid, highly adherant to rules, and extremely status conscious: in other words, he is more concerned with maintaining the appearance of a 7 leader than he is in providing leadership.’6 V. RIGHT TO LEAD AND ABILITY TO LEAD As stated previously, the traditional leader realizes that his right to lead is based on his formal position, and feels that his ability to lead derives from a set of traits which he possesses. The situational leader, on the other hand, realizes that his right to lead stems from his formal pos1tion, and that in addition there must be acceptance of his leadership by the group. Stated another way, if no one W111 follow there can be no leadership, The situational leader views his ability as deriving from his facility for correctly analyzing the situation and applying the appropriate leadership pattern. It should again be emphasized that merely because one possesses the right to lead does not 52 necessarily guarantee that he will provide leadership. If he cannot, or will not, leadership will be provided from some other source. While there has been a considerable amount of work done in relation to the nature of authority and its distri- bution within groups, apparently no one has conceptualized the problem of right as contrasted with ability in the same terms as this author. For instance, Bellows states in rela- tion to authority that: "Authority, then, implies and in- cludes compliance. Authority flows in two directions: the command goes down to the receiver; acceptance or compliance goes up to the commander (if authority is 'working')."77 This author's position is most nearly implied by Argyris, who states that: "The choice of leadership pattern should be based upon an accurate diagnosis of the situation in which the leader is imbedded."78 Since this position seems to find less support in the literature than any of the previous positions taken, it seems in order to present the reasoning behind it. Any defi- nition of leader effectiveness must have as one of its principle bases the fact that a leader is able to induce others to follow him. Given that there are various leader- ship patterns which vary in their appropriateness for 77Bellows, Creative Leadership, pp. cit., p. 7. 78Argyris, pp. cit., p. 207. 53 different types of situations, a leader who consistently makes wrong appraisals and consequently applys an inappropri- ate leadership pattern will soon lose the support of his followers, if not their physical presence. One of the major factors contributing to the lack of support for this position is the fact that it is derived from the previous positions, which have been supported to varying degrees. VI . SUMMARY Before going on to an examination of the case studies, it seems advisable to summarize the findings of the review of the literature. It is difficult to make a definite state— ment that the findings of the review clearly validate or in- validate the model. It can be stated that, generally speak- ing, the model found much more support in the non—police than in the police literature. Most of the police writings on leadership were rather brief, and those which did go into de- tail were somewhat negative from the viewpoint of the model. As stated previously, this is an unfortunate but understand- able situation. First, the quantity of police literature is rather small. This is probably due to the fact that most of the works which focus on leadership are authored by persons engaged in some form of academic endeavor. Academicians, as a general rule, have not taken an interest in the police or their problems. 54 Secondly, the quality of that literature which does deal with police leadership is regrettably low in some re- spects. This is due not to incompetency on the part of the authors, but to their general lack of theoretical knowledge, and knowledge of research methodology. It is to be hoped that as more well-trained scholars take an interest in the police, and as more police personnel attain more education, that this situation will be remedied. The most complete validation was found in regard to the matter of flexibility. Among the non-police writers there was much support for the idea, and very little direct criticism. The police writers, however, neglected the matter almost entirely, and when they did consider it it was almost universally rejected. The feeling seemed to be that the democratic and laissez-faire patterns were not well suited to the needs of the police leader. The strongest favorable argument to be found in this area is the fact that all of the case studies and all of the emperical studies which were examined indicated that the more effective leaders were more flexible in that they did make use of different leadership styles. There are mixed feelings about the necessity for a leader to consider needs when choosing a leadership pattern. There is fairly general agreement among non—police writers that needs should be considered in evaluating a situation. 55 This feeling is strongest in relation to the follower's needs and the group's needs. It is particularly emphasized by the human relations writers, as many of their theories are based upon similar ideas. There is less consideration given to the idea that a leader needs to be self-analytic. Police writers, for the most part, choose to ignore the whole subject. By the fact of omission everyone seems to agree that a leader, by definition, is more concerned with the pro- vision of actual leadership to his group than he is with merely maintaining the appearance of a leader. Watson is the only author who even mentions the matter. In spite of the lack of thinking in this area, this author is still of the conviction that there are many leaders who are more con- cerned about maintaining appearances than they are with pro- viding leadership. A leader's right to lead, as contrasted with his ability to lead, is another which receives perfunctory treat- ment in the literature. While most traditionalists agree that a leader is able to lead because of his personal characteristics, there is no such widespread agreement among prOponents of the other theories, perhaps because they are not so unified in their approach. Thus, it can be stated that the literature gives enough support to warrant further investigation, although it by no means proves anything conclusively. CHAPTER IV THE CASE STUDIES I. METHODOLOGY When preparing the case studies, several possible methods of selection were considered and rejected for various reasons. The problem called for the selection of several police leaders who could be classified as effective or non— effective, and as traditional or situational in their manner of leadership. It was decided that the leaders should be chosen and rated as effective or noneffective by members of the staff of the School of Police Administration and Public Safety, Michigan State University. The leaders chosen are well known to the various members of the staff who partici- pated in the selection process. They were rated on the basis of several criteria: (1) Their reputation among their colleagues. (2) The degree of success they have had in maintaining good relationships with their respective govern- ments. In other words, had they been engaged in spirited controversies with their superiors? (3) Their relations with their various publics. (4) The degree of harmony they enjoy with their subordinates. 57 (5) The personal opinion of the staff members, who must all qualify as experts in their field. There were five case studies completed, with all of those interviewed having certain common characteristics. They were all seasoned men (forty-five years and older), who have had long experience in the field. Three of the five were called to their positions following some type of scandal in the department. For obvious reasons, the cities and the chiefs in- volved in the studies must remain anonymous. It was felt that only with a promise of anonymity could realistic infor- mation be obtained. The interviews were all conducted during regular working hours and in the chiefs' offices, in order to make the interview situation as normal as possible. Certain questions were asked of all who participated, and certain other questions were asked when possible. The interviews were conducted as closely to a normal conversation as possible. Thus, the questions were not always put in the same order, but asked as the Opportunity presented itself. A sample interview guide is included in Appendix I. There are several limitations to the use of such a technique which should be noted. There is always a problem of semantics involved when interviews are utilized. This is particularly so in circumstances such as these, which call for a considerable amount of self-analysis on the part of the 58 interviewee. As much as possible, the questions were phrased in layman's vocabulary. This was done to insure first that the respondent would understand the question, and second so that he would not become frightened at the use of un- familiar terminology. The five case studies are presented below and followed by a brief analysis. II. NORTHSHORE Northshore is a stable, relatively conservative com- munity of approximately 80,000 persons. It lies at the northern edge of one of the largest metrOpolitan areas in the Nation, hereafter referred to as MetrOpolis. Its govern- ment is of the council-manager type, and is well regarded by other municipal administrators. The city is primarily a residential and university community and has the distinction of being one of the few "dry" communities in the area. In recent years the Negro population has grown considerably, necessitating a readjustment in the thinking of some citizens. Chief Green is in his third year as commander of the Northshore department, having been actively engaged in police work for twenty-two years. He came to his present position from a job as deputy-chief of a somewhat larger department in the Southwestern United States. He was selected from a field of approximately sixty applicants following the retire— ment of the former chief due to a scandal in the department. 59 Chief Green presents, as much as any of the men interviewed, an example of the situational leader described earlier. When asked for a definition of leadership, he stated that it is the motivating of men to accomplish depart— mental objectives. He feels that he can lead most ef— fectively by having a clear understanding of the peOple and the environment with which he must work. However, he did list several characteristics which he feels are more or less essential to good leadership. These include competency in one's field, integrity, good judgement, and a respect for subordinates as persons. It is his opinion that these are characteristics possessed by effective leaders in any field of endeavor. In relation to motivation, he stated that he uses various means to motivate his subordinates. Whenever possible he motivates them by trying to make them think inde— pendently and forcing them to accept some responsibility. For example, the chairmanship of the weekly staff meetings is rotated among all of those attending, with no preference being given to rank. When necessary, he has no qualms about using direct command as a means of motivation. Due to the circumstances under which he entered the department, Chief Green felt it wise to first feel out the situation. For the first two months he assumed a passive role in order to obtain a clearer picture of the department and its personnel. He then assumed command in a manner 60 which gently but firmly established his authority. He thus played somewhat of an authoritarian role at first. However, he now utilizes what have been called here the democratic and laissez-faire roles as much as possible. He has a great deal of confidence in the majority of his command personnel, and interferes as little as possible in the actual running of their operations. Chief Green regards himself as being at least an aspiring professional public administrator, and feels that his first duty is to the citizens of his community. In following through on this idea he has prepared for general community release two progress reports which detail the changes made in the department and the reasons for them. Policy decisions for the department are made in the above mentioned staff meetings. Each meeting follows an agenda to which any command officer may contribute. There is of course a period of general discussion to handle any items which may not have been placed on the agenda. This is also the device which he uses to gather information on a particularly hard decision which he may have to make. The meetings are completely spontaneous within the limits of the agenda, and anyone may contribute any ideas he may have on a particular subject. The chief stated quite bluntly that he considers his city manager as his boss, although this does not prevent them from enjoying a good personal relationship. Since he 61 views the relationship in this manner, he will follow orders from the manager even though they may be personally dis— tasteful to him. For instance, as stated earlier, the com— munity is "dry." When ordered to raid the local grocery stores for cooking wine, a move which he personally found to be rather foolish, he did so. Chief Green seems to have a very great awareness of differing personalities and needs among his employees. He realizes, for instance, that some of his command personnel will perform better work if given an assignment and left alone. There are others who require a fairly detailed out- line of what is expected of them and an Opportunity to make frequent progress reports. In relation to the personal needs or problems of his subordinates, he has helped with such problems in the past and tries to make himself available for "counseling" whenever necessary. As for his own needs, Chief Green feels that he has certain problems in dealing with people. The major one is a great deal of impatience-- he tends to lose his temper if things are not accomplished smoothly and quickly. An excellent example of his ability to exercise restraint when dealing with subordinates is pro- vided by the case of a Negro detective who is also the presi- dent Of the local chapter Of the N.A.A.C.P. Although he might be able to force the man to give up one post or the other, he has instead chosen to let the man continue and take his normal retirement, which is within the next year. 62 This is the type of situation in which the traditional leader would quite probably force a decision with a result- ing public battle. A very clear distinction between ability to lead and right to lead is visualized by Chief Green. He stated that his right to lead was granted by the city government and could be revoked at their pleasure. His ability to lead, he feels, derives from his facility for handling his men as individuals. Chief Green, then, provides an excellent example Of a situational leader in a police setting. III. WESTSIDE The village of Westside is a community of approxi— mately 75,000 persons lying at the Northwest edge of MetrOpolis. It is a much younger community than Northshore, being of a light industrial-bedroom nature. Its government is also of the council-manager type. Chief Brown, who has been actively engaged in police work for twenty years, has been chief of the Westside de— partment for three years. He was retained for the position after a scandal in the department which resulted in criminal charges being pressed against the former chief. Brown has spent several years in the military and seems to have been heavily influenced by it. 63 He accepts unequivocally the military definition of leadership, which is, generally speaking, traitist in ap- proach. As might be expected, he views his job as being identical with that of a military commander. He stated that the most important qualities a leader must possess are job competency, honesty, and a knowledge of human relations. He seemed to consider a large part of job competency for a police chief to be a thorough knowledge of the law. When questioned in more detail, he did not exhibit too clear an understanding of what is meant by human relations other than that it in- volves getting along with other people. In his Opinion these characteristics are possessed by effective leaders universally. Asked how he attempts to motivate his men, he at first appeared very uncertain as to what was meant by moti- vation. He first stated that he attempts to motivate them through training. Grantedly, this may be a form of moti- vation, but not in the sense meant here. When the question was explained in more detail, he said that he tries to set an example for them to follow. This answer is one that would be expected of a traditional leader, particularly one with military experience. Brown did express a great deal of confidence in the competency of his command officers, and said that he tries to follow the chain-of-command principle. To him this means 64 interfering in the running Of their Operations only when requested to do so, other than for normal inspectional purposes. Policy decisions for the department are made, rather surprisingly, by Brown and the city manager, with implemen- tation being worked out by Brown and his command officers in their weekly staff meetings. Like Green, it is here that he seeks advice on other problems which may be affecting the department. When asked what course of action he follows in supporting or attempting to defeat a particular piece of legislation, he indicated that he merely talks to the indi- viduals concerned. He evidenced a rather strong distrust of politicians and indicated that he does not like to become in- volved with them. In a similar vein, when questioned as to what he would do if directed to follow a policy with which he disagreed, he said that he would follow it as long as it were legal. He said that this has occurred in the past and that he has so far not been directed to do anything which he considers illegal. If he were, he would resign. He characterized his relationship with his city manager as one of trust, and seemed to consider him a shield against politi- cal pressure. Even though he professes a belief in human relations, it is in his relations with his subordinates that Brown shows his greatest inclination to traditionalism. He stated 65 that for any rank below that of captain (a rank which re- ports directly to him), a personal problem which interferes with a man's work must be brought up through the chain-of- command. If and when such a problem reaches him he attempts to help the man work it out. If this is unsuccessful, and the man's work is still below par, he will bring charges against him to have him dismissed. He gave the distinct im- pression, without stating it specifically, that his idea of helping a man straighten out a problem is to warn him of the possible consequences. In relation to groups, he does realize that different types of groups require different types of leadership, de- pending upon their competency and maturity. There is also a self—awareness of certain personal difficulties in dealing with people. He feels, for instance, that he is too short tempered, although he doesn't hold a grudge. His subordi- nates have managed to convey the feeling that he is too much of a perfectionist, an idea which he doesn't really seem to accept. Again, as in the case of Green, he visualizes a sharp difference in his ability to lead and his right to lead, and couched it in very similar terms. One final point, which can only be understood by talking to the man, is his coldness. He seemed to be rather ill at ease throughout the whole interview, and he was one of the more formal men of those who participated. 66 On the basis Of the information gleaned from the interview, this author would classify Brown as a traditional- ist. He is primarily an authoritarian, although he may be of the "benevolent" type. IV. SUBURBIA Suburbia is a relatively young community Of 30,000 persons lying several miles north of Metropolis. It is al- most entirely a bedroom community, the majority of the resi— dents holding jobs in Metropolis and commuting. The village has only experienced real growth since the end of the Second World War. Chief Black, who has been with the Suburbia department for nine years, has been actively engaged in police work for twenty-nine years. The city has a council—manager form of government, and Black was brought in by the present manager upon the retirement of the previous chief. His prior ex— perience was with a state police agency and the armed forces. Chief Black, like Chief Brown, seemed to be quite proud of his military experience and made frequent reference to it. Asked what he thought were the primary functions of a leader, Black volunteered two. The first is the setting of an example for subordinates, thus motivating them to emu— late the leader. Asked more specifically how he attempts to motivate them, he, like Brown, mentioned training. When the question was narrowed even more, he replied in terms of 67 commanding and setting limits of action within which subordi- nates must operate. The second function given was the deve10pment and maintenance of good morale within the organization. However, he consistently remained vague in relation to what was meant by morale and how, specifically, he would develop it. Black had some rather definite ideas as to what characteristics are possessed by effective leaders. He stated that an effective leader must be honorable, have a be- lief in the worthwhileness of his job, have respect for his men and be able to command their respect, and have initiative and fairness. This is quite definitely a traitist approach. As in the previous cases, Black felt that these traits are possessed by effective leaders universally. Questioned as to what course of action he would follow if given an undesirable policy, Black said that he would go to the council and/or manager and tell them of his Opposition and the reasons for it. He implied that if he disagreed strongly enough he would quit. He implied this when he said that both he and the city manager have in their possession signed copies of a formal resignation. He views his role as a legislative advocate as being very slight. If a piece of legislation directly affects the department, he will lobby either for or against it, but otherWise he does not like to become involved. Here again was found a strong distrust Of elected political officials. 68 However, in relation to any questions the public may have in relation to the Operations of the department, he seemed most anxious to cooperate. This is carried to the extent of main- taining office hours on Saturday so that those residents who work in MetrOpolis and are unable to see him during the week may do so then. As with Chief Brown, it is in his relations with his employees that Black's traditionalism shows most clearly. Policy decisions are made by the chief and command personnel at the weekly staff meetings. While any command officer is entirely free to question any policy under discussion at such a meeting, Black stated quite clearly that once the policy has been put into effect that is the end of the discussion. Black indicated that if one of his employees had a personal problem which was interfering with his work he would warn the man of the consequences should his work not return to normal. If this was ineffective, he would attempt to have the man released from the department. When Black was asked if he had any personal characteristics which he felt might interfere in his relations with others, he said that he is probably too much of a perfectionist, and must constantly re- mind himself not to expect too much from his subordinates. The manner in which he related this gave the interviewer the impression that he was being condescending to a certain de- gree, as if he were dealing with children who had not yet learned all the rules of the game. Perhaps most revealing 69 of all, Black stated that he has difficulty in seeing shades of grey when handling people. He tends to see things in terms of black and white and must constantly remember that some others do not. When asked if he visualized a distinction between right to lead and ability to lead, Black at first stated that he did not feel that any leader has a right to lead. After a moment of thought, however, he said that a distinction could be drawn and he made it in much the same terms as the previous chiefs. It was Black's feeling that the best indicators of a leaders effectiveness are the morale existent in the organi- zation and the public relations which the department enjoys. This reflected what seemed to be one of the most constant concerns--what does the public think Of me? This attitude was almost defensive at times. On the basis of the information gleaned in the inter— view, it is the author's Opinion that Black was the most traditionaly oriented Of all the chiefs who participated. V. INDUSTRIAL PARK Industrial Park is a community of approximately 200,000 persons lying in mid-central Michigan. The city is heavily industrialized, its economy depending almost en— tirely on the automobile industry. The city has certain problems due to the presence of large Negro and southern 70 Appalachian minorities. The government is of the council- manager form and has had three managers in the past eleven years. Chief White has been active in police work for twenty—two years, all with the Industrial Park Department. He started as a patrolman and worked his way up through the ranks to the position of Administrative Inspector. He was promoted from this position to the rank of chief eleven years ago. The department consists Of 513 employees: 323 sworn personnel, 106 school crossing guards, and 84 civilians. Chief White was quite honest in admitting that he was not at all certain what leadership consists of. He expressed the feeling that it is not mere commanding nor is it popu— larity, though these may be components of it. After some thought he expressed the feeling that leadership is "the ability to direct a group of men to achieve a given end in the most efficient manner." The following were given as characteristics of effective leaders: conviction, persistence, and a thick skin. He was quite emphatic in stating that honesty, integrity, etc., are pp; prerequisites Of effective leadership. When asked what similarities and dissimilarities he observed between his job and that of a military commander, White stated that he believed the jobs are very dissimilar. He looks upOn a military commander as being primarily a line commander who is in constant preparation for an emergency 71 situation. He views himself, on the other hand, primarily as a professional administrator who functions in a much more relaxed atmosphere. He feels that the necessary formality and discipline are still available in an.emergency situation, and he assumes the role of a commander in such a situation. When asked what role he plays in community affairs, he was very careful in answering. He serves in a very few organizations as John White, Chief of Police. These include such activities as the Board of Directors of the County Traffic Safety Council, the Municipal Employees Welfare Fund, The United Fund Drive, etc. He serves in certain other organizations as a private citizen. These include the Boy Scouts and certain religious groups. He said that he has been very careful in avoiding membership in such groups as the Elks, the Moose, the Rotarians, etc., although he en- courages his command Officers to become involved in such organizations, particularly those which have a public service connotation. He says that he avoids personal involvement in such groups because he does not wish to become identified with any particular segment of the population. White was very frank in discussing his relations with the city manager. He enjoyed a very good relationship with the manager who was in office when he became chief. He did not get along too well with his successor, and he does get along very well with the present manager. When asked what he would do with a policy mandate which he found to be 72 personally distasteful, he related the following incident. When the second manager took Office it became immediately apparent that he was going to interfere rather extensively in departmental affairs. As this was a rather unsettling thought to White, he sought legal advice. After being ad- vised by three separate attorneys that he was obligated to follow any order as long as it was neither illegal nor im— moral, he came to the realization that he is a subordinate of the city manager. Since then he has had no problems--as long as the order isn't illegal or immoral he will abide by it. White has complete confidence in his command personnel from the rank Of captain up. Thus, he does not interfere at all in the running of their Operations, but trusts his in- spectors to oversee them. He seems to consider the two inspectors almost as alter—egos, and seeks advice from them on topics ranging all the way from personnel problems to policy decisions. In addition, when trying to establish a policy in an area which he knows little about, he consults with other departments of similar size to learn what methods they utilize. There are two staff meetings held each week, one for staff Officers and one for Operational commanders. The meetings are conducted by the inspectors, with the chief at— tending each on alternate weeks. When it seems advantageous, the meetings are held jointly. 73 Chief White made some very revealing comments when asked if he visualized a difference in his right to lead and his ability to lead. He made such a distinction and stated that his right to lead is derived from two sources. The first was the granting of his position by the municipal government. Secondly, he stated that the right to lead is functionally but informally granted by the group one is at- tempting to lead. He said that his ability to lead is de- rived from the fact that he is able to convince his followers to accept his right to lead. As in the case Of Black, there is one other factor present which deserves mention. White very definitely may be classed as a situational leader. However, he may be too situational; that is, he seems to be lacking in force, to the point that he might have difficulty in controlling subordinates. VI. RIVERSIDE Riverside is a city Of 203,000 persons situated in Western Michigan. It is a relatively Old community, having a large Dutch population. While it has a stable, diversified industrial base, the city is still basically an agricultural center for the surrounding farm area. It is not part of any large industrial complex as is Industrial Park. The city has a council-manager form of government, and has had what 74 seems to be an excessive number of managers in the past few years. Superintendent Grey has been engaged in police work for twenty-five years, all of them with the Riverside de- partment. He was promoted from the rank of Deputy- Superintendent eight years ago, following the sudden death of his predecessor. The department employs 225 sworn personnel and has had a relatively quiet history. Grey offered as a definition Of leadership the one presented in Scott and Garret. He also expressed the feeling that luck has much to do with being an effective leader. When questioned further about this statement, he explained that he was referring to the ability to play the right hunches. Knowledge of one's job, honesty, and wisdom were given as being characteristics Of effective leaders. He described the first function of a police leader as being the interpretation Of the police-public relationship. Through— out the interview he seemed very concerned about police— public relations and how they might be improved. Asked how he attempts to motivate his subordinates, he stated that he tries to set an example for them to follow, and trys to be honest with them. As far as motivating spe- cific individuals, he feels that the form Of motivation must depend upon the person being dealt with. He indicated that depending upon this factor, he may use any one of several types of motivation, from discussion to command. 75 Policy decisions for the department are made by the chief after consultation with his command officers. Staff meetings are held for this purpose (among others), but not necessarily every week. The meetings are for the most part unstructured and anyone may contribute his thoughts and ideas. Grey described his relations with the city manager as being good, although he has served under several managers and their relationships have varied from good to bad. He does assume the role of a legislative advocate, and has no qualms about making his position known. He did not seem near as distrustful of politicians as did chiefs Brown and Black, and he gave the distinct impression that he may have been on better terms with the local policitians than were some of the previous managers. Unlike Chief White, Grey assumes a rather strong community leadership role. He is active in many civic and fraternal organizations, a practice which he feels to be good for the public relations of the department. Grey was more expressive than any of the others interviewed when needs were mentioned. He expressed the view that any leader must know his employees well; he must know what their personal problems are and how they may affect their work. He said that he has attempted to help employees with problems ranging all the way from delinquent children to impending divorces. He also gave the appearance of being 76 very perceptive in relation to the abilities of his subordi— nates. He felt that he had a complete enough knowledge of each Of them to assign them tasks within their capabilities. From the information at hand, this author feels it reasonable to classify Grey as a situational leader, but with strong overtones Of traditionalism. His main advantage over most of the other participants was his good verbal ability. VII. SUMMARY On the basis of the information gained in the inter- views, the following ranking is Obtained, running from the leader who is most situational, first, to the leader who is most traditional, last: Green, White, Grey, Brown, and Black. On the basis of the interviews, which occupied any- where from an hour to an hour and a half each, it was not possible to make a fine enough distinction between White and Grey. White better suited the conditions prescribed by the model, but gave an impression of being less confident than Grey. A comparison of this ranking with that of the staff members of the School of Police Administration and Public Safety is presented in Figure I. The only point of disagreement is between the ranking of White and Grey. While the author did not feel capable of placing one ahead of the other, in the effectiveness ranking White came out ahead. 77 Hmcoflumspflm umqu Hmcoflumspflm umoz MUMHm CBOHm sang a «bass cmwuw xumam C30Hm memo muaaz cmwuo Hmcoflumspflm pwmma Op HMCOHumsuHm O>Hpommmm ummwa on O>Hpowmmm meE Eoum mcflxcmm umOE Eoum mcflxcmm H MMDOHE O>Hpommmm pmmmq O>Huommmm #moz 78 Thus, keeping in mind that this is an extremely limited sample, and that it might best be called a pretest, it can be stated that the case studies validate the model; in other words, a leaders effectiveness may be determined by measuring him against the criterion set forth in the model. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS I. SUMMARY It can be stated that the review of the literature and the case studies give a high degree of support to the original hypothesis. More specifically, it can be stated that: (l) The literature, while not always Offering direct support, does at least indicate that the leadership styles described are being utilized. (2) This support is found to a much greater degree in the business than in the police literature. (3) When the police literature does discuss leadership in the terms Of the model, there is heavy criti- cism. (4) There is general agreement in the business literature, though not in the police, that an effective leader is cognizant Of and takes into consideration the various needs present in the situation. This is especially so with respect to the follower's needs, and less so in relation to the group's needs and the leader's own needs. (5) It is generally accepted by both police and other writers that all leaders are more concerned with the provision of functional leadership than they are with simply maintaining the appearance of a leader. (6) That portion of the 80 literature which is in agreement with the model makes very little mention of the leader's right to lead as contrasted with his ability to lead, while the more traditionally oriented writers are in agreement that the ability to lead is derived from the traits which the leader possesses. In relation to the case studies, it may be stated that: (1) The case studies indicate that there are police leaders in office who do utilize the styles described in the model. (2) That there are police leaders who give varying amounts of consideration to the needs present in the situ- ation. (3) That there are police leaders in office who feel that their ability to lead is dependent upon their ability to analyze the situation confronting them and apply the correct leadership pattern. (4) There is a high degree of correlation among these factors. That is, the leaders who utilize the various leadership styles are the same ones who give the greatest attention to situational needs, and the same ones who see their ability to lead as being dependent upon their perception of the situation. (5) That there is a high degree of correlation between the ranking of the leaders in terms of the model and a ranking of their effectiveness by an independent agency; those who best fit the model were the most effective. There is a final conclusion which may be drawn in relation to the model itself. It is recommended that the model be shortened to include only the second, third, and 81 fifth positions. These are the ones which deal, respectively, with flexibility, needs, and the right—ability dichotomy. The first position, dealing with general qualification as a leader, and the fourth, which deals with the provision Of real leadership as contrasted with the maintenance of ape pearances, are so widely accepted that there is little value in examining them further. II. NEED FOR FURTHER RESEARCH There are also several recommendations which can be made in relation to further research in this area. First, there should be further refinement of the positions which are retained in the model. They should be refined both in terms of exactitude of meaning, and in terms of making them more amenable to validation. Secondly, there should be greater quantification of the case studies. It would be desirable for there to be many more studies completed, and it might be wise to have both studies of a shorter, critical incident nature done, and studies which go into more depth. Thirdly, the ranking of leaders as effective or non- effective might be done by several independent agencies to insure that there is no bias injected by the raters. 82 III. CONCLUSION In conclusion, then, it can be said that the hypothe- sis was validated, and that the model's validity was demon- strated in the cases which were completed. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. APPENDIX I INTERVIEW GUIDE What form of municipal government does your city utilize? How long have you been actively engaged in police work? How long did you serve with this department before at- taining your present position? Under what circumstances did the former chief leave the department--did he retire, get fired, die, etc.? What, do you feel, is leadership? What do you visualize as being the most important function of a leader? What do you feel are the most important qualities of a good police leader? Do you feel that these qualities are important to leaders in all fields? How much similarity do you see between your job and that of a military commander? DO you consider yourself to be a professional? If yes to number 10, as a professional law enforcement officer, police chief, public administrator, etc.? How do you attempt to motivate your men? (If only one method given, ask if there might be others.) Are there groups or persons in your department who will produce better work if they are loosely supervised? Do you feel that the subordinates who handle the routine activities of your department are men whom you can trust? 15. 16. 17. l8. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 84 If the answer to fourteen is yes, how much do you concern yourself with the running of these activities? How are policy decisions made in your department? Is there any consultation with common Officers? With Operational personnel? DO you seek advice when you have a difficult problem to be solved? If the answer to seventeen is yes, from where do you seek such advice? What course Of action would you follow if a subordinate questioned one of your policys? Have you ever supported or fought some piece of legis- lation which you felt very strongly about? If the answer to twenty is yes, how did you go about it? If the answer is no, how would you go about it if it were to arise? If your local legislative body or manager directed you to follow a policy which you felt violated your pro- fessional standards, what would you do? What would you do if it were a policy which you found to be personally distasteful, but not unprofessional? If you were aware that one of your subordiantes had a personal problem which was interfering with his work, what course of action would you follow? Do you have any "quirks" or personal problems which you feel you have to watch when dealing with people? How would you characterize your relationship with your city manager or mayor? What role as a community leader do you play? Do you see any difference in your right to lead and your ability to lead? If the answer to twenty-nine is yes, what is the difference and from where does each derive? BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Argyris, Chris. Personality and Organization. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957. Bellows, Roger. Creative Leadership. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Incorporated, 1963. Cartwright, Dorwin and Alvin Zander (eds.). Group Dynamics, Research and Theory. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson and Company, 1956. Clift, Raymond E. .A Guide pp Modern Police Thinking. Cincinnati, Ohio: The W. H. Anderson Company, 1956. Gocke, B. Police Sergeant's Manual. Los Angeles, California: 0. W. Smith, Law Book Seller and Publisher, 1944. Koontz, Harold and Cyril O'Donnell. Principles pf Management. New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, Incorporated, 1959. King, Glen D. (ed.). First—Line Supervisor's Manual. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1961. Leonard, V. A. Police Organization and Management. ‘Second Edition. Brooklyn: The Foundation Press, Incorpor- ated, 1964. Maier, NOrman R. F. Principles p; Human Relations. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated, 1952. Petrullo, Luigi and Bernard M. Bass. (eds.). Leadership and Interpersonal Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Incorporated, 1961. Pfiffner, John M. and Frank P. Sherwood. Administrative Organization. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Incorporated, 1960. 86 Rubenstein, Albert H. and Chadwick J. Haberstroh. (eds.). Some Theories p; Organization. Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press, Incorporated, 1960. Scott, Clifford L. and Bill Garrett. Leadership for the Police Supervisor. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1960. Shaffer, Laurence E. and Edward J. Shoben, Jr. The Psy- chology_pf Adjustment. Second Edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1956. Sutermeister, Rober A. (ed.). People and Productivity. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Incorporated, 1963. Tannenbaum, Robert pp pi. Leadership and Organization: _A Behavioral Science Approach. New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, Incorporated, 1961. Tead, Ordway. The Art pg Leadership. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, Incorporated, 1935. \ Wilson, Orlando W. Police Administration. Second Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Incorporated, 1963. B. PUBLICATIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT, LEARNED SOCIETIES, AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS The Institute for Training in Municipal Administration, Municipal Police Administration. Fifth Edition. Chicago: The International City Manager's Associ— ation, 1961. Sherwood, Frank P. ‘A City Manager Tries pp Fire His Police Chief. University, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1963. The Traffic Institute. "Management: Leadership for Super- vision." Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University. C. PERIODICALS Baumgartel, Howard. "Leadership Style as A Variable in Re- search Administration," Administrative Science Quarterly, 2:344—360. 87 Bennis, Warren G. "Leadership Theory and Administrative Be— havior: The Problem of Authority," Administrative Science Quarterly, 4:259-300, December, 1959. Cassels, Louis. "You Can be A Better Leader," Nation's Business, 48:180—185, June, 1960. Emery, David A. "Managerial Leadership through Motivation by Objectives," Personnel Psychology, 12:65-79, Spring, 1959. Gross, Edward. ”Dimensions of Leadership," Personnel Journal, 40:213-218, Oct., 1961. Kempton, Murray. "The COp as an Idealist," Harpers Magazine, 224:66-71, March, 1962. Knickerbocker, Irving. "Leadership: A Conception and Some Implications," Journal p; Social Issues, 4:21-40, Summer, 1948. McMurray, Robert. "The Case for Benevolent Autocracy," Harvard Business Review, 36:82—90, January-February, 1957. Ohman, O. A. "The Leader and the Led," Personnel, 35:8—15, November-December, 1958. Piersol, Darrel T. "So You've Been Elected President," Advanced Management, 26:13-15, May, 1961. Prentice, W. C. H. "Understanding Leadership," Harvard Business Review, 39:143—151. September—October, 1961. Rytten, Jack E. "Principles of Effective Leadership," Police, 5:70-73, May-June, 1960. Towler, Juby E. "Introduction to the Art of Leadership," Police, 7:70—78, July-August, 1962. Wall, RObert G. and Hugh Hawkins. "Requisites of Effective Leadership," Personnel, 39:21—28, May-June, 1960. Watson, Nelson A. "Police and Group, Leadership, Part I," The Police Chief, 31:12-24, August, 1964. . "Police and Group, Leadership, Part II," The Police Chief, 31:12—29, November, 1964. “.0822”: USE ONLY 4 .4 A 201955»; e ' 1 {v / MICHIGAN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES 31293010581407