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EMPATHIC DRIVE AND I'IS INFLUENCE
ON ACCURACY IN iUDGING PEOPLE

Thesis for Ike Degree OI NI. A.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

James J. MuIIin

1962

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Michigan State
University _ .

 

 

 

ABSTRACT

EMPATHIC DRIVE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON ACCURACY
IN JUDGING PEOPLE

by James J. Mullin

The purpose of this study was to develop a measure of empathic
drive and to test two hypotheses with respect to this concept:

1. People vary consistently in the saliency of empathic
drive.

2. People with high empathic drive are more accurate in
their observations and inferences about others.

The tendency to make statements about another person's internal
psychological states (their thoughts, feelings, desires), rather than
their external appearance, actions or impact on others, is termed
empathic drive.

The study consisted of three phases: a pilot study, development
of the group form, and the testing of the Specific hypotheses. The pilot
study provided the items to be used in the experimental group form and
the statistical refinements of the experimental group form provided an
instrument suitable for testing the hypotheses. In the pilot study
empathic drive was measured by determining the percentage of psycho-
logical statements the judge made about the interviewees. In the group
test empathic drive was measured by the number of psychological
descriptions the judges chose in describing the interviewee.

The Cline color interviewing film was used to present the stimulus
persons (interviewees). This film consists of five minute interviews of
different persons. The subjects consisted of 162 Michigan State

University students tested during 1961.

James J. Mullin

The final form of the empathic drive scale contains thirty multiple
choice items for each of the three cases (interviewees). The alternatives
in these items are based on the four ways in which one may describe
another (Bronfenbrenner it 11.): the physical, the actional, the
characterological and the experiential. This last category was used to
measure empathic drive.

The reliability of the final form of the empathic drive scale was
. 82. The intercorrelations among the three cases are significant and
positive (. 38, . 39, . 59). The pilot study showed a reliability of . 79
(Spearman rho) in the use of the experiential category.

It was concluded that: the evidence supports hypothesis one.
People vary consistently in the saliency of empathic drive. Hypothesis
two is not supported. No positive relationship was found between
empathic drive and any measure of accuracy in judging another. The
evidence indicates that empathic drive is independent of accuracy,
either in observing the external characteristics of others or in making
inferences about others. The implications of these findings with respect

to previous research on empathy is discussed.

Approved WWI CQ’H SK m
Commibfi Chair§n -

Date HQ-MQ.‘ \E (QC 2-

 

EMPATHIC DRIVE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON
ACCURACY IN JUDGING PEOPLE

BY

James J. Mullin

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MAST ER OF ARTS

Department of Psychology

1962

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I sincerely thank my adviser, Dr. Henry Clay Smith,
for the guidance, patience and stimulating ideas whichhe
generously provided throughout the execution of this thesis.
I am grateful for the assistance and helpful suggestions
provided by the members of my committee, Dr. Eugene
Jacobson and Dr. Terrence Allen.

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TABLE OF CONT ENTS

INTRODUCTION . . ...... . . . . ............

HISTORY OF THE PROBLEM .

The Concept of Empathy . . ............ . .
The Measurement of Empathy ..............
Measures of Empathy and Their Correlates ......
METHOD.. ..... ........ .....
Subjects ......................
The Measurement of Empathic Drive. . ........
The Pilot Study .......... . . . ...... . .
The Experimental Group Study .............
Personality Measures ....... . . . . . . . .
Measures of Stereotype Accuracy. . . . . . . .’ .

Measures of Observational and Inferential Accuracy. . .
Other Measures .....................

Method of Analysis . .......

RESULTS. . ..... . . . ..... . . ...........

Hypothesisl.......... ......
HypothesisZ..... ..... ......

Correlation with Other Measures ............

Discussion of Results. ...... . .....
General Correlates of the Empathic Scale . . . .
Personality Traits and Empathy

Empathy and Accuracy .................
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .....
REFERENCES . . . ...... . . . .............

APPENDICES

iii

UTer

10
ll
12
14
14
15
15

17

18
18
20
21
21
22
22

24

26

29

LIST OF TA BLES

TABLE Page

1. Subjects . . . . ..................... 9

2. Percentage of Experiential Responses to Total
Responses for All Four Descriptive Categories for
the Seventeen Subjects in the Pilot Study . . . . . . . . ll

3. Correlations Between Personality Traits and
Empathic Drive ....... . . . . .......... 17

4. Correlation Between Empathic Drive and Five
Measures of Stereotype Accuracy ........... 18

5. Correlation Between Empathic Drive and Accuracy of
Observation and Inference for Each. of the Three Cases 19

6. Factor Loadings for the Twenty-One Variables Used

with the Winter Industrial Psychology Subjects on the
Factor Defined by the Empathy Scale .......... 20

iv

INT RODU CT ION

In perceiving a person, Bronfenbrenner e__t 11. (1958) suggest,

we may reSpond to four different aspects of the person: his physical

 

appearance: dress, complexion, facial features, body proportions, a

 

etc.; his actions: his posture, his movements, what he does, what he

 

says, etc.; his social stimulus value: his impact upon others, whether

 

he is amusing, overbearing, irritating, awe-inspiring, etc.; his internal

 

psychological states: his thoughts, feelings, desires, etc. They termed

 

these four categories of description the physical, the actional, the
characterological, and the experiential, respectively.

The purpose of the present study was to test two hypotheses
concerned with these aSpects:

1. People vary consistently in the saliency of the experiential

 

category. Some people tend to see others primarily in terms
of physical characteristics; for others, overt behavior pre-
dominates; for others, still, the most salient feature about
another person is his internal psychological states. The
saliency of the last is referred to in the present study as

"empathic drive, " and is the concern of the present study.

2. People with high empathic drive are more accurate in their

 

observations and inferences about others. That is,. there is

 

a significant positive relationship between a person's measured
empathic ability and his measured accuracy in making

observations, and inferences about others.

HISTORY OF THE PROBLEM

The hypotheses of the present study were derived from the
study of Wolin (1954), who conducted an exploratory investigation of
the different ways in which individuals perceive others in a social
situation. He used spontaneous descriptions and a checklist of
adjectives. The subjects were instructed to describe each of the other
participants in the experiment (ostensibly one in visual perception)
first, in as "life-like and accurate" a way as possible, and second, by
using a list of adjectives and checking those applicable to the other.
Both of these descriptions were analyzed into the following content
categories: clothing, physical appearance, activity, experiential
(feelings and emotions) and characterological (personality and
temperament).

Using a sample of fifty subjects, Wolin found consistent individual
differences in the person's tendency to focus on a particular area of
content in his free descriptions of six fellow group members. The
subjects also differed in ability to describe others correctly. Persons
who described others primarily in terms of psychological character-
istics (experiential and characterological) were more sensitive to all
categories than were persons who described others primarily in terms
of physical characteristics.

Wolin concluded that persons who are set to perceive physical
characteristics of others are sensitive only to those characteristics,
while persons who are set to perceive the psychological characteristics
of others tend to be sensitive to all aspects of other people, including

their physical characteristic 5 .

While Wolin's study suggested the hypotheses of the present
study, his evidence in support of them is inconclusive. He offers
mainly subjective evidence for the relationship between sensitivity to
psychological characteristics and accuracy in observing the other
aspects of the person. He did not cross—validate his findings on another
group of subjects. Consequently, the present investigation aimed to
develop a better standardized and more useful instrument to measure
empathic drive, to make a more exact test of the hypotheses, and to

determine some of the correlates of this tendency.

The Concept of Empathy

 

The sensitivity of internal psychological states described by
Wolin corre5ponds to the general concept of empathy. The term
empathy has been used to denote one's understanding of another's
thoughts and feelings. It has been applied to awareness of emotional
qualities of objects and events. In addition, it has been used as the
name of the theory of how this understanding or awareness comes about.
It has been claimed that empathy is the essence of personality theory
(36), and that it is the "basic process" in all social interaction (36).
Cottrell, in pointing up some neglected areas in social psychology,
has referred to the empathic response as one of the most critical
processes in the entire range of phenomena handled by social psychology
(10). . Empathy's crucial role in industry has been pointed out by 4
many (3, 30, 34).

The first definition of empathy is that of Lipps (22), the observer
tends to "feel himself into the object which he is contemplating. " The
notion of putting oneself in the other person's position has characterized

definitions of empathy. The equivalent term, Einfuhlung, used by

 

several German writers is best defined as the process of becoming

aware of (perceiving) the thoughts, feelings, and motives of another

person (1). McClelland (29) relates role-playing and empathy. His
term "role-taking ability" refers to "the facility with which a person
can perceive and act out organized behavior or roles (i. e. , putting
himself in someone else's position). " Dymond (13) defines empathy
as the ability to imaginatively transpose oneself into the thinking,
feeling, and acting of another. . Murphy called it, the "direct appre-
hension of the state of mind of another person without, as in sympathy,
feeling as he does" (36).

Empathy is considered a neutral process. It may lead to positive
feelings and closer interpersonal relationships, but this is not
necessarily so. It is not necessary that one would, consciously or
unconsciously, like to be the other person in order to empathize with
him, nor does empathy necessarily imply any emotional tie with the

other .

The Measurement of Empathy

 

There has been a trend toward operationism in the definition of
empathy. Typically this procedure has involved asking a "judge" to
predict the response of another on a questionnaire and then comparing
the prediction with the actual response. The discrepancy between
actual and predicted response provides the basis for the computation
of an accuracy score, which then constitutes the measure of empathy.

A term which was frequently used in the past is social intelligence.
The tests of social intelligence which had been developed were measures
of social knowledge and did not correlate with anything except tests of

abstract intelligence (37). The Kerr-Speroff Empathy Test (25) is no

 

more than a modern version of the old tests of social intelligence.
On this test the subject is asked to do such things as rank a number of

magazines as to circulation, and to rank several types of music as to

popularity. This ranking is then compared with the actual ranking
and this is the measure of empathy. Kerr's more recent Primary

Empathic Abilities Test (26) is of the same type as his Empathy Test.

 

 

It asks such questions as, what is the typical reaction to canned orange
juice? And which flavor of jello is bought the most? Each question has
several alternatives, the subjects choices are compared with the
correct ones and this gives his empathy score.

Knowledge of what people read or buy undoubtedly plays some
part in social behavior, but the relation of this knowledge to the aware-
ness of the feelings, thought, or motives of another person is both
theoretically and empirically unclear.

Studies on the skills involved in social perception (5) have, for
the most part, been concerned with the veridicality of interpersonal
perception. They have not dealt directly with the process of inter-
personal perception or with the tendencies which underlie and determine

the perceptions thems elves .

Measures of Empathy and Their Correlates

 

In the measure of empathy developed by Dymond (13) the measure
of A's empathic ability is determined by calculating how closely A's
predictions of B's ratings correspond with B's actual ratings on some
scale. Dymond's procedure has been used extensively. Other similar
self-other ratings have been used by Newbigging (32), Remmers (33),
and Spilke and Lewis (35).

Dymond (14) has reported that the difference in intelligence
(Wechsler full scale IQ) between "good empathizers" and "poor
empathizers" was not significant. Lindgren and Robinson (27) found

>:<
that the correlation between "empathy" and ACE (total score) to be

 

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American Council on Education Psychological Test for College

Freshmen.

only .14. This independence is also reported by Chambers (6) in a
study of the verbal scores on the ACE Psychological Examination and
a measure of empathy. He concluded that empathy and scholastic
aptitude are different abilities.

Some research has indicated personality differences between high
and low empathizers. Low empathizers have been found to be intro-
verted, emotionally immature, self-centered, and to have had unsatisfy-
ing early family relationships (14, 21). . High empathizers possess self-
insight and tend to value those areas of life where social interaction
predominates (10, 12, 21). There is also some evidence that good
empathizers have, for the most part, secure feelings about the self (18).
Lindgren and Robinson confirmed Dymond's findings (27) that persons
of high empathy have "better" scores on personality tests than do persons
of low empathy. These investigators suggest, however, that Dymond's
method may measure the tendency of individuals to respond to an inter-
personal situation in terms of cultural norms rather than empathic
promptings. They were referring to the caution of Hastorf and Bender
(20), later developed by Cronbach and Gage (8, 17), that a person with
knowledge of the norms of a particular group may get a spuriously
high "empathy" score.

Using Kerr's Empathy Test Mahoney and Auston (28) challenged

 

Dymond's findings on the relation of empathy and self-insight. They
found no relationship between self-insight and empathy. This finding is
not surprising since attempts at discovering a positive relationship

between the Empathy Test and Dymond's rating scale have been dis-

 

appointing. Hall and Bell (36) found a correlation of . 02 and Gilbert
(36) -. O6.

Foa (16) is in disagreement with theories that empathy depends
on the personality of the guesser or the personality of the guessee and

states that empathy is related to transparency of behavior. Johnson (24)

found that projective tendency and empathic ability are not related.
In his study, accuracy in predicting the others response was used as
the measure of empathic ability and similarity of predictions to one's
own responses was used as the measure of projective tendency.
A similar study by Mills (31) failed to find any significant effect of
"real similarity" upon predictive accuracy. Degree of "real similarity"
was measured by the degree of concordance of judge and subject self-
descriptions. Predictive accuracy was measured by the accuracy with
which the judges predicted the actual self-responses of the subjects.
The findings, thus far, are not altogether consistent, nor oft-
times comparable. Allport's critical comment appears still an appro-
priate one: "The theory of empathy is a peculiar blend, and must be
regarded both as a theory of inference and a theory of intuition depend-
ing upon the coloring given it by different authors" (2).
There is an apparent need for a standardized and objective
measure of the empathic tendency, one suited to research on large
groups. Empathic drive is measurable and does not, necessarily,

imply the notion of accuracy of perception.

METHOD

The study consisted of three phases: a pilot study, development
of the group test, and the testing of the specific hypotheses. The
pilot study repeated parts of Wolin's research but used interviewees
in the Cline color film as the objects of observation instead of face-
to-face contact. The pilot study also provided the items to be used in
the experimental group form. The statistical refinements of the experi-
mental group form provided an instrument suitable for testing the
specific hypotheses.

The Cline interviewing film is a color film consisting of six
cases: those of Mrs. P.,, Mr. W. , Mrs. N., Mr- 2., Mr. G., and
Mrs. D. Each of the cases consists of an individual, unrehearsed
interview. They are asked questions about themselves, their beliefs,
and what they would do in certain situations. . Each interview takes
approximately five minutes, and only they are seen, not the interviewer.
The use of this film permits the presentation of real, standardized
cases. In all phases of the study the film was run silent since there is
evidence that the less information a person has about an individual or a
group the more his judgments are determined by his judging habits (15).
All six cases were used in the pilot study but only the first three cases
of the film were used in the development of the group test and the

testing of the hypotheses.

Subjects

All subjects were Michigan State University students tested during
1961. Testing was done during regular class periods. The table of

subjects is given below.

Table 1. Subjects

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-—— _

Class Term N Phase of Study

 

Personnel Interviewing Winter 17 Pilot Study

1961

Industrial Psychology Winter 75 Experimental Group Form
1961

Industrial Psychology Spring 70 Final Group Form, and
1961 Hypotheses Testing

 

The Measurement of Empathic Drive

 

In Wolin's study four content categories of description were
utilized. A subject may describe another in any of four ways:
(1) The physical--overt physical characteristics of the other person,
his dress, complexion, etc. (2) The actional-—overt behavior of the
other person, his movements, what he says or does, etc. (3) The

characterological--properties of the other person which, while they

 

may be rooted in physical characteristics or behavior, in addition
reflect the person's impact as a social stimulus; he is seen as amus-

ing, irritating, etc. The experiential--properties that represent

 

internal psychological states of the other person, his thoughts, feelings,
desires, etc.

The saliency of this last feature in perceiving another--the
tendency to make statements about other people's internal psycho-
logical states (their thoughts, feelings, desires) rather than their
external appearance, actions, and impact upon others--is termed
empathic drive. In the pilot study empathic drive was measured by

determining the percentage of experiential statements the judges made

10

about the interviewees. In the group test empathic drive was measured
by the number of experiential descriptions the judges chose in describ-

ing the interviewees .

The Pilot Study

 

Seventeen subjects, students in the winter 1961 class in personnel
interviewing, were shown the six cases of the Cline interviewing film.
The task was introduced as part of the course. The subjects were
instructed that they would be shown a film of an individual being inter-
viewed and that they were then to "write as life-like a picture of the
person as you can. " The subjects were thus allowed to write a spon-
taneous description for each of the six interviewees. No time limit was
set on these spontaneous descriptions. When all subjects said that they
were finished with a case the next case was shown.

The subjects typically used one side of a piece of standard yellow
pad paper (8%- x 11 in.) in recording their description of each case.

The descriptions of each case were content analyzed by the present
experimenter and coded on the basis of the four categories of description
previously mentioned: physical, actional, characterological and
experiential. . Every descriptive word or phrase used by a subject in
describing a case was accordingly placed in one of these four categories.

The results of the pilot study disclosed a relatively wide range in
the tendency to describe others in terms of internal psychological states.
The range in the use of the experiential category of description varied
from 6% to 72%, i. e. , for one subject 6% of his descriptive responses
were in the experiential category, while for another subject 72% of his
descriptive responses were in the experiential category. These per-

centages are based on total descriptive responses for all six cases.

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Table 2 shows the distribution of the percentage of experiential
responses for the seventeen subjects in the pilot study. These are

based on their descriptions of all six cases.

Table 2. Percentage of Experiential Responses to Total Responses
for All Four Descriptive Categories for the Seventeen
Subjects in the Pilot Study

 

 

Percent
Experiential 6-15 16-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 66-75
Responses

Frequency 2 5 2 5 1 O 2

 

The reliability of the use of the experiential category by the sub-
jects in the pilot study was determined by correlating the experiential
responses of each subject to the first three cases, with those to the
last three cases. The Spearman rank order correlation (rho) was . 79,
and is significant at the . 01 level.

This preliminary study indicated that the subjects differed widely
in their preference for the experiential mode in describing the inter-
viewees in the Cline film, and that there was a relatively high consist-

ency among the judges from one group of interviewees to another.

The Experimental Group Study

 

The items for the objectively scored group test were derived
from the Spontaneous descriptions of the subjects in the pilot study with
some modifications made by the experimenter. In order to control
for response set an attempt was made to have an equal number of
experiential responses in each of the three alternative positions (choices)

within an item. A table of random numbers was then used to determine

12

for each item its serial position in the test. Thus, the position of
each experiential alternative in an item is randomly distributed through-
out the scale.

The preliminary form of the scale consisted of 150 items, 50
items for each of the three cases to be used for the group test (see
Appendix B).

I This 150 item form was administered to 75 subjects who were in
the winter 1961 class in Industrial Psychology. These responses were
item analyzed, the 90 most discriminating items being retained in the
final form of the scale, 30 items for each of the three cases (see
Appendix C). A new scoring key was developed for these 90 most
discriminating items and the answer sheets of the 75 subjects were
rescored for these 90 items.

The final (90 item) form of the scale was administered to 70 in the
spring 1961 class in Industrial Psychology. The scores of this group
permitted item analysis of the final form, and the most discriminating
items were determined. These items are circled in ink (see Appendix C).

The reliability of the final (90 item) form of the empathy scale
based on the 70 spring subjects' scores (odd-even correlations, cor-
rected by the Spearman-Brown formula) was . 82. The mean for the
75 winter term Industrial Psychology students was 26. 85, S.D. was
10. 12.

Personality Measures

 

Since the preliminary results indicated that the empathy scale
would be internally consistent, exploration of possible personality
correlates was considered. The personality measures consisted of
eleven scales developed by H. C. Smith. . Each of these scales consists
of 30 true-false items, except the Breadth of Interest scale which has
60 items. A brief description of these measures, described in detail

by Hershey (23), is given below.

10.

11.

. Extroversion-Introversion

. Breadth of Interest

. Self— Confidenc e

. Self-Insight

. Ambition

. Orderlines s

. Emotional Control

Gregariousnes s

Warmth

Dominance

Conformity

13

The degree to which an individual
is inward or outward oriented in
his perception of the environment.

Ameasure of an individual's self
extension by determining the number
of likes in such areas as occupation,
school subjects, amusements, and
types of people.

How the individual evaluates his own
worth, adequacy, and competence.

A measure scored on the basis of
total number of unpleasant traits
which a person says describe him,
plus total number of pleasant traits
which he says do not describe him.

Whether the individual desires to do
things as rapidly and as well as
possible; whether he makes intense,
prolonged, and repeated efforts to
accomplish difficult things; whether
he enjoys competition.

Attempts to measure some aspects
of Cattell's "Positive vs. Immature
Dependent Character, " e. g. Con-
sistently Ordered vs. Relaxed;
Conscientious vs. Undependable, etc.

The individual's reactions to emotional
emergencies and to frustrating
situations.

A measure of need for affiliation.

The degree to which an individual
likes, accepts, approves, feels close
to, and wants to help others.

Measures degree of dominance through
items related to dominance feelings,
behavior and leadership.

Attempts to differentiate conformists
from nonconformists.

14

Measures of Stereotype Accuracy

 

Stereotype Accuracy--These scales were developed by Zavala

 

(1960). The subject chooses the responses to the items which he thinks
were made by a specified population of people. The scoring is based

on the actual responses of these groups. The total score is the sum of

the scores of the following four subtests. Each scale contains 30 items.

Man Stereotype--The subject chooses the response he thinks was

 

chosen by most men.

Woman Stereotype--The subject chooses the response he thinks

 

most women would choose.

Sex Difference Stereotype--The subject chooses the response

 

he thinks was made by the most women and the fewest men.

Age Stereotype--The subject must decide if the response was made

 

by 15 year olds, 25 year olds, or 55 year olds.

Measures of Observational and Inferential Accuracy

 

The measures of observational and inferential accuracy were

developed by Harris (1962). The Observation Accuracy variable is a

 

measure of the judge's accuracy in observing the interviewee (Cline
filIn). The observation instrument consists of 30 true-false items con-
cerning the interviewee's physical characteristics, actions, and state-
ments. The judge answers these 30 items immediately after viewing
the filmed interview. The score he obtains in his accuracy score.

The Inference Accuracy variable is a measure of the judge's

 

accuracy in making inferences about the interviewee. The inference
instrument consists of 30 true-false items concerning inferences about
the interviewee that might be made from observing him. These are
then compared with what the interviewee actually said of himself.

The items are a modification of six predictive instruments used by

15

Cline (7) in connection with the same filmed interviews. The items
pertain to the interviewee's personality characteristics, beliefs,
family relations, and future actions. The judge's score on this instru-

ment is the measure of his accuracy in making inferences.

Other Measures

 

The four other measures which were available for the 75 winter
term Industrial Psychology students are described below.

American Council on Education Psychological Examination for

 

College Freshmen (ACE)--This is a measure of scholastic aptitude.
Grade in the course.

Employee-Orientation--A subscale of the Dore Leadership

 

Questionnaire (Dore, 1960). . It is a 30 item scale which measures the
degree to which the subject thinks that a leader should take a personal
interest in the worker.

Differential Role--A subscale of the Dore Leadership Question-

 

naire which measures the degree to which the subject thinks that a

leader should perform functions different from the workers.

Method of Analysis

 

A table of intercorrelations of the 21 variables utilized with the
winter 1961 Industrial Psychology class can be found in Appendix A.

An item method of analysis was also carried out on the personal-
ity scales used. This method (Hershey, 1958) is based on the premise
that, even though a test may have a low correlation with a criterion,
there may be some particular items of the test which differentiate on
the basis of the criterion. Thus, some of the items may be better
than others in discriminating between those who score high on the

empathy scale and those who score low.

16

Accordingly, the 11 personality Scales used with the winter 1961
class were item analyzed and the 60 items, out of the total of 360 items,
which best discriminated between high and low on the empathy scale
were determined. This item scale of empathy (see Appendix D), was
administered to the Spring 1961 class of Industrial Psychology.

In an effort to determine the structure underlying the 21 measures
available for the 75 winter term Industrial Psychology students a
principle axis factor analysis with a quartimax orthogonal rotation was
performed on these variables. This was done on the Michigan State

Integ r'al Compute r .

RESULTS

' Table 3 reports the correlations between the personality traits
investigated and empathic drive. No significant relationship was found

between the measure of empathy and the personality scales used.

Table 3. . Correlations Between Personality Traits and Empathic
Drive (N = 75)

 

 

Trait r

Dominance . 19
Ambition . 16
Breadth of Interest -. l3
Emotional Control . 11
Gregariousness -. ll
Orderliness . 11
Warmth - . 11
Conformity - . O9
Self-Confidence - . 07
Self-Insight . 04
Extroversion . O3

 

Inspection of the items from the personality scales that differ—
entiated the high and the low empathizers (see Appendix D), disclosed
that those persons who score high on the empathic measure indicate
that they like occupations that placed them in responsible positions in
dealing with people. There is also an indication that those who score
high on the empathic drive measure like activities which place them
in social Situations with other people, and do not like activities associ-
ated with animals. An attempt was made to cross-validate the item

scale of empathy on the Spring 1961 Industrial Psychology group of

17

18
subjects. A positive relationship, though short of significance, between
the empathic drive instrument and the item Scale was found with this

group (r = .26, N = 48).

Hypothesis 1

 

The intercorrelations among the three cases used in the 90 item
group form of the empathic drive scale for the seventy Spring Industrial
Psychology subjects were as follows: Mrs. N with Mr. W. r = . 38;
Mrs. P. with Mrs. N. r = .39; Mr. W. with Mrs. P. r = .59. The
reliability of the use of the experiential category by the seventeen
subjects in the pilot study has been referred to (Spearman rho = . 79).
The intercorrelations among the three cases and the high reliability of
the empathic drive scale (r = .82) all lend considerable support to con-
firmation of the first hypothesis: That people vary consistently in the
saliency of the experiential category. This is consistent with the results

Wolin found.

Hypothesis 2

 

In Table 4 the correlation between empathic drive and stereotype
accuracy is presented. None of these is significant, and no relation-
ship between the accuracy of one's stereotype and empathic drive is

indicated.

Table 4. Correlation Between Empathic Drive and Five Measures of
Stereotype Accuracy (N = 75)

 

 

 

Stereotype r

Sex Difference . 19
Men -. 14
Women 9 -. 13
Total Score -. 12

Age -.03

 

19

The relationship between observation accuracy and inference
accuracy and the empathic drive scale is reported in Table 5. There is
no demonstrable positive relationship between the measure of the
empathic tendency and the measures of observational and inferential

accuracy. The correlations are low and negative.

Table 5. Correlation Between Empathic Drive and Accuracy of
Observation and Inference for Each of the Three Cases

 

 

 

 

 

 

(N = 70)
* -——=————-————_—t_ a
Case Obs. (r) Inf. (r) Total (r)
MrS. P. -.05 -.23 -.21
Mr. W. -.02 -.25* -.17
Mrs. N. -.01 -.04 -.03

 

>kSignificant at . 05 level.

Hypothesis 2, therefore, is not supported. . People in whom the
psychological aspects of the other are dominant, as expressed bya
high score in empathic drive, were not particularly apt to be accurate
in making inferences or observations. The data suggest a possible
trend in the other direction.

Seven factors were identified through the principle axis factor
analysis and quartimax rotation. Table 6 presents the factor, loadings

of the 21 variables on the factor defined by the empathy variable.

20

Table 6. Factor Loadings for the Twenty-One Variables Used with
the Winter Industrial Psychology Subjects on the Factor
Defined by the Empathy Scale (N = 75)

 

 

 

Variable Factor E (Empathy)
Extroversion . ll
Breadth of Interest . 04
Self-Confidence . 07
Self— Insight . 36
Ambition . 10
Orderliness - . 05
Emotional Control . O3
Gregariousness .14
Warmth - . 22
Dominance . 12
Conformity . 09
ACE - . 28
Course Grade .15
Stereotype Accuracy Men . 33
Stereotype Accuracy Women - . O6
Stereotype Accuracy Sex Difference ' -. 34
Stereotype Accuracy Age - . 05
Stereotype Accuracy Total . 02
Empathic Drive - . 52
Employee-Oriented - . 83
Differential Role . 51

 

Correlation with Other Measures

 

Of the other measures available for the winter Industrial Psy-
chology subjects the only significant correlation is that between the
empathy variable and employee orientation. This correlation is . 35,
and is significant at the . 01 level. . No significant relationship was
found between the empathic measure and playing a differential role

ACE, or grade in the course.

21

Discussion of Results

 

The empathic drive scale has a satisfactory internal consistency
reliability of . 82 (odd-even correlation, corrected by Spearman-Brown
formula) for the 90 item final form of the scale. This indicates that
it is a relatively stable measure of the empathic tendency (empathic
drive). The intercorrelations of the individual cases are significant
and positive. In addition, the rank order correlation from the pilot
study displays reliability in the use of the experiential category that is
also relatively good (. 79). These present results provide evidence
that people vary consistently in the saliency of empathic drive, and
thus support hypothesis one. Consequently, this finding points to a real,
measurable difference in the response of people to others.

The zero to negative relationships between empathic drive and
various measures of accuracy suggest an analysis of the processes
involved in empathic drive. Those who score high in empathic drive
may do so because the first thing they do when in a social Situation is
to immediately attend to the internal psychological aspects of the person
and tend not to notice other aspects, especially in the initial situation.
Thus, empathic drive may be more closely related to accuracy inlong

and enduring interactions.

General Correlates of the Empathic Scale

 

The empathic person is employee-oriented. The correlation
between the empathy scale and the employee-orientation subscale of
the Dore Leadership Questionnaire is . 35, and is significant at the
. 01 level. The empathy scale does not Show any relationship to

s cholastic apptitude (ACE).

22

Personality Traits and Empathy

 

Some research has indicated personality differences between
high and low empathizers. The empathy scale was not found to be
related to any of the eleven specific personality traits investigated.
Personality difference of some sort, between high and low empathizers,
was suggested, however, by the item method of analysis of the
personality scales. Thus, those scoring high on the empathy scale
differed from those scoring low, in certain preferences indicated by
the items of the personality scales. The empathic tendency (empathic
drive) appears to be Specifically related to one's feelings about people.
This is indicated by the Significant positive relationship between the
empathy measure and the employee-orientation scale. This scale
denotes the degree to which the subject thinks that a leader should
take a personal interest in his workers. This "people orientation" is
also shown in the preference given to items having to do with people

disclosed in the item method of analysis done on the personality scales.

Empathy and Accuracy

 

The (evidence indicates that empathic drive is independent of
accuracy, either in observing the external characteristics of others,
or making inferences about others. And no Significant relationship
was found between the empathy measure and any of the stereotype
accuracy scales.

This present study indicates that the empathic tendency is
independent of accuracy and raise some very critical questions for
the whole area of empathy research. In previous research the
measurement of empathy was dependent upon an accuracy score of some
sort, this accuracy score would determine the empathy score. Can the

response to another in terms of empathic promptings necessarily be

23

equated with an accuracy score? Have not previous measures con-
founded it with accuracy? The conflicting results researchers on
empathy have encountered may be due to the dual role it was forced to
play. One may "see" another in terms of feelings-~empathic drive--
yet not regard other factors about him. This measure of "seeing" the
feelings of another--empathic drive--imparts, however, a most
fascinating and valuable bit of information about the person doing the
"seeing. " This empathic reSponse appears to differ among people.
This difference needs further investigation.

The notion of empathic drive, i. e. , responding to anotherin
terms of internal psychological states (feelings, etc.), is of no little
interest for both a theoretical and practical appreciation of the factors
that are involved in interpersonal perception and the way in which an
individual engages in his transactions with the world. The implications
of empathy as not necessarily contingent upon accuracy are far reach-
ing. It raises a host of questions: Is empathic drive inversely related
to accuracy in social interactions of brief duration, and positively
related to accuracy in relationships of longer duration? Might it be
related to accuracy in certain persons ? What factors might result in
empathic drive being the modal response of a group in describing
another? How do those who are high in empathic drive differ from
others in their day to day relationships? 'In the job Situation, do their
superiors consider them better or less than average workers? Is
empathic drive related to supervisory ability? How is empathic drive
related to the effectiveness of an interviewer in conducting an inter-
view? Is empathic drive related to clinical insight? The applications

of empathic drive await further investigation.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this study was to develop a measure of empathic
drive and to test two hypotheses with respect to this concept:

1. People vary consistently in the saliency of empathic
drive.

2. People with high empathic drive are more accurate in
their observations and inferences about others.

The tendency to make statements about another person's internal
psychological states (their thoughts, feelings, desires), rather than
their external appearance, actions or impact on others, is termed
empathic drive.

The study consisted of three phases: a pilot study, development
of the group form, and the testing of the Specific hypotheses. The pilot
study provided the items to be used in the experimental group form and
the statistical refinements of the experimental group form provided an
instrument suitable for testing the hypotheses. In the pilot study
empathic drive was measured by determining the percentage of psycho-
logical statements the judge made about the interviewees. In the group
test empathic drive was measured by the number of psychological
descriptions the judges chose in describing the interviewee.

The Cline color interviewing film was used to present the stimulus
persons (interviewees). This film consists of five minute interviews of
different persons. The subjects consisted of 162 Michigan State
University students tested during 1961.

The final form of the empathic drive scale contains thirty multiple
choice items for each of the three cases (interviewees). The alternatives

in these items are based on the four ways in which one may describe

24

25

another (Bronfenbrenner e_t 11.): the physical, the actional, the
characterological and the experiential. This last category was used
to measure empathic drive.

The reliability of the final form of the empathic drive scale was
. 82. The intercorrelations among the three cases are significant and
positive (. 38, . 39, . 59). The pilot study showed a reliability of . 79
(Spearman rho) in the use of the experiential category.

It was concluded that: The evidence supports hypothesis one.
People vary consistently in the saliency of empathic drive. Hypothesis
two is not supported. No positive relationship was found between
empathic drive and any measure of accuracy in judging another. The
evidence indicates that empathic drive is independent of accuracy,
either in observing the external characteristics of others or in making
inferences about others. The implications of these findings with

reSpect to previous research on empathy is discussed.

R EF ER ENC ES

1. Allport, G. W. The historical background of modern social
In Lindzey, G. (Ed.) Handbook of Social Psychology,

psychology.
Cambridge: Addison Wesley, 1954.

2. Allport, G. W. . Personality: A Psychological Interpretation.

New York: Holt, 1937.

3. Ball, K. L. Interpersonal perception and empathy in an industrial
problem solving group. Dissertation Abstr., 1960, 20, 3824-3825.

4. Bronfenbrenner, Urie, Harding, J., and Gallwey, Mary. The
measurement of skill in social perception. . In McClelland, D.

(Ed.) Talent and Society, New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1958.

5. Bruner, J. S. and Taguiri, R. The perception of other people.
(Ed.) Handbook of Social Psychology, Cambridge:

In Lindzey, G.
Addison Wesley, 1954.

 

6. Chambers, F. M. Empathy and Scholastic success. . Personnel Guid. J.

1957, 36, 282-284.
7. Cline, V. B. and Richards, J. M., Jr. Accuracy of interpersonal

perception--a general trait? J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol., 1960,
60, l-7.

8. Cronbach, L. J. , Process affecting scores on "understanding of
others" and "assumed similarity. " Psychol. Bull. , 1955, 52,

177-193.

9. Cottrell,. L. , Jr. , and Dymond, Rosalind F. The empathic response:
a neglected field of research. - Psychiatrl, 1949, 12,, 355-359.

10. Cottrell, L. , Jr. , Some neglected problems in social psychology.
.Amer. Sociol- Rev., 1950, 15, 705-712.
11. Dore, R. The development and validation of forced-choice scales
measuring attitudes toward leadership methods. Unpublished
Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1960.

26

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

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20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

27

Dymond, Rosaline F. A preliminary investigation of the relation of
insight and empathy. - J. Consult- Psychol. , 1948, 12, 228-233.

 

Dymond, Rosalind F. A scale for the measurement of empathic
ability. J. Consult- Psychol. , 1949, 13, 127-133.

 

Dymond, Rosalind F. Personality and empathy. J. Consult- Psychol. ,

 

1950, 14, 343-350.

Fiedler, F. E. The psychological-distance dimension in inter-
personal relations. J. Pers., 1953, 22, 142-150.

Foa, U. G. Empathy or behavioral transparency. J. Abnorm. Soc.
Psychol., 1958, 56, 62-66.

 

Gage, N. L. and Cronbach, L. J. Conceptual and methodological
problems in interpersonal perception. Psychol. Rev., 1955, 62,
411-422.

 

Halpern, H. M. Some factors involved in empathy. Dissertation
Abstr., 1954, 14, 1458-1459.

 

 

Harris, W. .The relation of observational to inferential accuracy in
judging people. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State
University, 1962.

Hastorf, A. H. and Bender, I. E. A caution respecting the measure-
ment of empathic ability. J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol., 1952, 47,
574-576.

 

Hawkes, G. R. and Egbert, R. L. Personal values and the empathic
response: Their inter-relationship. . J. Educ. Psychol., 1954,
45, 469-476.

 

Heidbreder, E. Seven Psycholcgies, New York: Appleton-Century,
1933.

 

Hershey, G. L. College grades in relation to inventory measures
of personality. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State
University, 1958.

Johnson, J. M. . Empathy, projection and job performance of plant
supervisors. - Dissertation Abstr. , 1958, 14, 355.

 

Kerr, W. A. and Speroff, B. J. The measurement of empathy.
Chicago: Psychometric Affiliates, 1951.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

28

Kerr, W. A. Primary empathic abilities. Manual of instructions.
Chicago: Psychometric Affiliates, 1957.

Lindgren, H. C. and Robinson, Jacqueline. An evaluation of
Dymond's test of insight and empathy. J. Consult. Psychol. ,
1953, 17, 172-176.

 

Mahoney, S. C. and Auston, C. A. The empathy test and self
awareness of Kuder interest pattern. . Psychol. Rep. , 1958, 4,
422.

 

McClelland, W. A. A preliminary test of role-playing ability.
J. Consult. Psychol., 1951, 15, 102-108.

Miller, F. G. and Remmers, H. H. Studies in industrial empathy:
II. Management attitude toward industrial supervisors and their
estimates of labor's attitude. . Personnel Psychol. , 1950, 3, 33-40.

 

Mills, R. B. Empathy related to real similarity, group identification
and interpersonal attraction. Dissertation Abstr. , 1958, 14,
173- 174.

 

Newbigging, P. L. The relationship between rate of reversal of
figures of reversible perspective and empathy. . Canad. J. Psychol. ,

 

1953, 7, 172-176.

Remmers, H. H. A quantitative index of social-psychological
empathy. Amer. J. Orthopsychiatry., 1950, 20, 161-165.

 

Schulyz, I- J. Empathy in personnel management. . Personnel J. ,
1954, 33, 258-259.

 

Spilka, B. and Lewis M. Empathy, assimilative projection, and
disowning projection, Psychol. Rec., 1959, 9, 99-102.

 

Strunk, O. , Jr. Empathy: A review of theory and research.
.Psychol. Newsletter, 1957, 9, 47-57.

 

Thorndike, R. L. and Stein, P. An evaluation of the attempts to
measure social intelligence. Psychol. Bull., 1937, 34, 275-
285.

 

Wolin, L. R. An analysis of the content of interpersonal perception.
(Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, Cornell University, University
Microfilms, 1955.

Zavala, A. A test of stereotype accuracy. Unpublished Master's
‘Thesis, Michigan State University, 1960.

APPENDIX A

29

 

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APPENDIX B

31

A STUDY OF FIRST IMPRESIONS

H. C. Smith
Winter. 1961

Directions:
.._...__.....,..

This is a study of the impressions people make on others. You will

see three people in silent movies. Try to form as life-like an impression
of each as you can.

The first will be of Mrs. P.; the second of Mr. 11.: and the third of
Mrs. N. As each film is finished the camera will be stopped. Then, in
each of the groups of statements numbered below pick the one that is most

likejggr_igio.ressi.on of the _person. Mark the number of this statement
on the separate answer sheet.

Work as rapidly as you can!

7.

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
11+.

15.
16.

17.

18.
19.

THE CASE OF MRS. P.
(l) is gesturing with her hands (2) not a good mother (3) feels she
is religious.

(l) is above average in intelligence (2) has a poor hairstyle
(3) is troubled.

(l) is forcing herself to pay attention (2) has no physical impair-
ments (3) bites her lips.

(I) is sincere (2) wearing a coat (3) fairly attractive.

(l) is about “0 years Old (2) talkative' (3) self-satisfied.

(1) did most of the talking (2) felt the interview had.been successful
(3) is one who makes a good.impression.

(l) moistens her lips (2) is glad to leave (3) experienced with
small groups.

(1) is interested in outside activities (2) gives lengthy answers
(3) smiles suddenly.

(I) is being questioned (2) a high school graduate (3) feels religious.
(1) is polite (2) somewhat fearful .(3) emotionally expressive.

(l) feels inadequate (2) is facially expressive (3) average looking.
(1) is attentive (2) occasionally swallowing (3) average looking.

(1) is a hardnworker (2) feels at ease (3) swallows with effort.

(1) is an anxious person (2) a pleasing person (3) a conservative
dresser.

(1) is an average person (2) smiles Openly (3) is looking for work.

(1) considers the interview serious (2) is gregarious (3) shows signs
of amusement.

(l) laughs easily' (2) left the interview satisfied (3) is married to
a laborer.

(1) is a typical housewife (2) has family problems (3) is intelligent.
(l) is seeking employment (2) responding quickly (3) an average dresser.
(l) is sitting straight (2) enjoying herself (3) a good.sport.

21.
22.

23.

21‘".

25.

26.

27.

28.

33.
31+.

35.

36.

(l) is satisfied with life (2) clenching her hands (3) cooperative.

(l) is middle aged (2) easy to get along with (3) in a happy frame
Of mind.

(1) is well liked (2) trying to cover up her nervousness (3) from a
fair sized family.

(1) is fidgeting (2) shy (3) feeling nervous.

(l) is a modest dresser (2) active in the community (3) uncertain of
her answers.

(1) Wishes a job to provide for her children's education (2) seems
a well balanced person (3) talks fluently.

(1) is between 35-110 years old (2) an motionany stable person
(3) looking for a job.

(1) is single (2) has a pleasing manner (3) would feel relaxed in
social interaction.

(1) is enjoying life (2) dark complected (3) married.

(1) is seeking information (2) about 35 years old (3) participating
in the conversation.

(l) feels excited (2) lacks movement (3) is likable.

(l) is shrugging her shoulders (2) looking for a job (3) lower middle
01333.

(1) sits rigidly (2) feels very happy (3) responds well.

(1) is very friendly (2) left the interview feeling very satisfied
(3) Sitting stifly.

(1) gave short answers at first (2) enjoys her family (3) has dark
features.

(1) is a clerical worker (2) has her coat partly unbuttoned (3) feels
anger easily.

(1) is amusing (2) a modest dresser (3) feels inadequate.
(l) is an easy going person (2) pretty well groomed (3) very tense.

(l) wants to make an impression on interviewer (2) is from a laboring
class (3) has good posture.

(l) is one who would go to a neighborhood bar (2) feels self con-
scious (3) dressed in red.

111.
1+2.

(+3.

(1) is verbal (2) a housewife ( 3) feeling under pressure.

(1) is very happy (2) a mother of 3 children (3) doing most of the
talking. '

(1) is using too much makeup (2) worries a lot ( 3) gabby.
(1) enjoyed the experience (2) lacks movement (3) dressed okay.
(1) will hold a grudge (2) is outwardly relaxed (3) solidly built.

(1) sat on edge of chair (2) became self confident as interview pro-
gressed (3) is a good listener.

(l) is worrying (2) moving her head ( 3) wearing a coat.
(I) is chatty (2) a good housekeeper ( 3) not sure of herself.
(l) is a neat dresser (2) laughing often (3) indecisive.

' (l) married while at college (2) overjoyed at end of interview

(3) uses her hands.

51.

53-

51+.
55.

56.
5?.

58.

61.

62.

63.

61b.

65-

THE CASEIOF,MR~ W:

(l) prefers to work with his mind (2) had a subservient role in
the interview (3) is the indifferent type.

(1) is unsure of himself (2) looks like a "beat" (3) is wearing a
striped sweater.

(1) is an egressive individual (2) feels tense (3) could be a
college student.

(1) is a nonconformist (2) has black hair (3) is relaxed.

(l) is thinking the questions through (2) wearing a sweater
(3) talking fast.

(1) is wearing glasses (2) somewhat perplexed (3) holding his chin.

(1) is unshaven (2) had mo years of college (3) does not feel like
saying much.

(1) is unnarried (2) often grasps his chin ( 3) is on guard most of
the time.

(1) is a "103+. youth" (2) has 11m. money (3) has little patience
with his intellectual interiors.

(1) feels like helping people (2) is the studious type (3) about
ZS-m years 01d.

(1) is probably in college (2) felt fully relaxed only at the end
(3) kept hand on chin.

(l) is uncertain of his ability (2) aphasizes his words (3) has a
sense of humor.

(1) wears horn rimed glasses (2) is the serious type (3) has an
academic problem on his mind.

(1) leaves smiling (2) is an attentive young men ( 3) is uncertain
of the future.

(1) does not trust the interviewer (2) could be a delinquent
(3) smiles 11w...

(1) is a cold person (2) glad to leave (3) a semi-skilled work.

(1) is nervous (2) above average in intelligence (3) holding a pencil.
(1) uses his hands as props (2) enjoys reading (3) licks his lips.

(l) is confident in his opinions (2) of mec'Liim height (3) does not

70.

71.
72.
73-

74.
75-

76.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

(1) Looks like a rebel (2) changes his facial expression little
(3) enjoys talking to his peers.

(l) was eager to leave (2) left quickly (3) is reliable.
(1) changes his mind often (2*) replys quickly (3) is an introvert.

(1) has been turned down by several fraternities (2) hopes he has
put his story over (3) has black hair. ,

(1) left quickly (2) lacks social graces (3) feels self conscious.

(l) is slightly cocky (2) thought the interview a challenge (3) is
a bum.

(1) answers quickly (2) is a skilled workman ( 3) felt satisfied with
his showing.

(1) is mechanically inclined (2) preoccupied with being precisely
correct (3) a pseudo-intellectual.

(1) did most of the talking (2) felt under stress (3) smiled when
”116d at.

(l; is wearing a sweater (2) unable to project his persomlity
(3 considers himself well informed. .

(l) is on guard (2) has a wuick sense of minor (3) has apart time
30b.

(1) rocked back and forth (2) has curly hair (3) is earnestly
interested in the situation.

(1) knows what's going on (2) needs a shave (3) is fluent in.
speaking.

(l) talks with‘iqhasis (2) feels religious (3)-leads an uncoupli-
08th 11:30 .

(l) is from a large city (2) lacks tact (3) was very glad when
interview was over. . _

(1) makes quick replies (2) was worried at first (3) sat forward on
the Chair. - ' ,

(1) raises eyebrows (z) raisins twee throughout interview ( 3) talks
With Vigor.

(I) felt fully relaxed only at end (2) is probably in college
(3) kept band on chin.

(1) has nervous habits (2) is not too intelligent (3) aspires to
be great.

89.
90.

91.

92.

930

94.

95.

96.

97-

98.

99.

100.

(l) is happy to leave (2) a rebel (3) a careless dresser.

(l) feels confused (2) raises eyebrows when speaking (3) had on a
loud sweater.

(1) did not enjoy the conversation (2) smiled only when smiled at
(3) refrained from eye contact with interviewer.

(l) is not the intellectual type (2) left in an abrupt manner (3) is
happy to leave.

(1) feels a bit insecure (2) uses his hands in expression (3) is in
his early 20's.

(1) can't keep his mouth shut (2) is an attentive young man (3) is
upset by the situation.

(1) dresses poorly (2) feels he is being treated-.lunjustly (3) is
dark complected.

(1) changed his tone of voice as interview progressed (2) gave a
quick smile upon leaving (3) thought he had put his side of the
story over.

(1) has a closed smile (2) thinks before answering (3) needs a
haircut.

(l) feels quite relaxed (2) gives answers to the point (3) is
opinionated.

(1) gives no details in his answers (2) changes his facial expression
little (3) is self-concerned.

(l) is fearful of the future (2) is a mnconformist (3) would nurse
a beer.

101 .
102.

103.

101}.

105.

106.

107 .

108.

109.

110 .

111+.

115.

116.

117.
118.

m CASE QF MRS: N...

(l) enjoys gossip (2) looks drawn 1(3) is a scrub woman.
(1) is a sweet old lady (2) looks Midwestern (3) felt confident

at the beginning.

(1) is not interested in the discussion (2) fidgets her fingers
(3) is dominant at home.

(1) responds in an easy manner (2) feels sure of herself (3) is a
sweet old lady.

(1) has a low skilled job (2) is concerned with giving the right
answers (3) wearing glasses.

(1) does not feel disturbed (2) her face shows hard work (3) doesn't
get along at work.

(1) feels she is religious
unpty smile.

(l) thinks out the answer to each question (2) has her hair combeid
back (3) is friendly.

(2) is in her sixties (3) left with an

(1) wears a black coat (2) is well mannered (3) concerned with what
is happening. .

(l) is applying for relief (2) wringing her hands
looking.

(1) is a typical grandmother (2) is well mannered
in others.

(3) pleasant
(3) interested

(l)is concerned about the future (2) well groomed (3) poised.

(l) puckers her lips (2) doubts future employment (3) gives

answers of moderate length.

(1) could be a retired school teacher (2) felt she told everything
necessary (3) facially expressive.

(1) has her hair in a net (2) has a dry manner (3) does not care
about wealth.

(1) her husband is dead (2) is expressive in a subdued way (3) feels
lonesome.
(l) is retired (2) has a meager education (3) enjoys her grandchildren.

(1) uses her hands in talking (2) is an independent old lack

119.

120.
121.

122.

123.
121%.

125.
126.

131.
132.

133.

131+.

135-
136.

137.

138.

139.
1140.

(1) has animated hands (2) feels lonesome at times (3) has a
quiet nature.
(1) is seeking a job (2) adaptable (3) elderly.

(1) is a slow person (2) has a high school education (3) is trying
to emlain why she was fired.

(1) is content with life (2) has a sense of humor (3) is dressed
sufficiently well.

(1) is pleasant (2) feels confident (3) is a gossip.
(l) felt excited (2) is from lower middle class ( 3) timid.
(1) feels arm-ions (2) is elderly (3) smug

(1) visits her grandchildren from time to time (2) wonders what
she'll do when she steps working (3) is in good health.

(1) has brown hair (2) is a slow speaker (3) feels related.
(1) is a grandmother (2) thinking of retiring (3) lives alone.
(1) smirks (2) has wed hair ( 3) wanted to impress the interviewer.

(1) is wearing errings (2), enjoys reading women's magazines. (3) has
a placid manner.

(1) is wearing glasses (2) proud of her past (3) 50-60 years old.

(Die the easy going type (2) is wearing a coat (3) enjoys dis-
cussing her grandchildren.

(1) feels tense (2) is self-sufficient (3) moves her head and
shoulders.

(1) never feels angry long (2) is the practical type ( 3) fumbled
with a magazine.

(1) left smiling (2) has been married marsr years (3) feels calm.

(l) is middle class (2) trying to make a good impression ( 3) was
born on a farm.

(1) smiles (2) talks at a moderate pace (3) wonders about her
children.

(I) didn't get much out of the situation (2) wears glasses (3) has
a closed mile.

(1) is a good homemaker (2) a neat dresser (3) is a satisfied person.

(1) feels qualified for a housekeeping Job

(2) is able to get along
(3) elderly.

141.

1112.
Ill-3.
1154.
145.

1146.
1’47 .
ins.

lll9.
lfl.

10
E1; is intelligent (2) is happy to be sitting and talking
3 stubborn. .
(1) enjoys music (2) is selfish (3) uses her hands.
(l)is elderly (2) unmoved by the situation (3) lower middle class.
(1) loves to gossip (2) has a twitch (3) is hard working type.

(1) could be a sales clerk (2) feels nationally stable (3) is the
resourseful type.

(1) is in her sixties (2) felt relieved when she got up (3) is a
nice old lady. '

(1) her hands became nervous (2) is the grandmother type (3) thought ‘
deeply on most questions.

(1) clenched her hands '(2) is not used to city life (3) is a
stabilizing influence.

(1) is dignified (2) wants to keep active (3) is wearing Jewelry.
(1) gives short answers at first (2) is charming (3) feels bored.

(

 

APPENDIX C

42

A STUDY OF FIRST II’IPRE‘SSIONS

H. C. Smith
Springs 1961

Qgecticns:

This is a study of the impressions people make on others. You will

see three people in silent movies. 111 to form as life-like an gression
of each as you can.

The first will be of Mrs. P.: the second of Mr. Wu And the third
of Mrs. N. As each film is finished the camera will be stopped. Then,
in each of the groups of statements numbered below pick the one that is

like your impression of the person. Mark the nmber of this statement

on the separate answer sheet.

Work as rapidly as you can!

1.
2.

3.

1P.

5.
6.

7.
8.

9.
10.

12.

13.

14.

15.
16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

ggg CASE OF MRS, P:

(l) is sincere (2) wearing a coat (3) fairly attractive.
(l) is about 1&0 years old (2) talkative (3) self-satisfied.

(1) did most of the talking (2) felt the interview had been successful
( 3) is one who makes a good impression.

(l) moistens her lips (2) is glad to leave (3) emerienced with
small groups.

(1) feels inadequate (2) is facially expressive (3) average looking.

(1) is an anxious person (2) a pleasing person (3) a conservative
dresser.

(l) is an average person (2) smiles openly ( 3) is looking for work.

(1) considers the interview serious (2) is gregarious (3) shows
signs of amusement.

(l) is a typical housewife (2) has family problems (3) is intelligent.

(l) is seeking anployment (2) responding quickly (3) an average
dresser.

(l) is sitting straight (2) enjoying herself (3) a good sport.

(1) is a modest dresser (2) active in the commity (3) uncertain
of her answers.

(1) wishes a Job to provide for her children's education (2) seems
a well balanced person (3) talks fluently.

(l) is between 35-140 years old (2) an emotionally stable person
(3) looking for a Job.

(1) is enjoying life (2) dark canplected (3) married.

(1) is shrugging her shoulders (2) looking for a Job (3) lower
middle class.

is very friendly (2) left the interview feeling very satisfied
(3) sitting stifly.

gave short answers at first (2) enjoys her family (3) has dark
features.

is a clerical worker (2) has her coat partly unbuttoned (3) feels
anger easily.

(1) is amusing (2) a modest dresser (3) feels inadequate.

22.

23.
21+.
25.
26.

27.

29. ‘

30.

(1) wants to make an" impression on interviewer (2) is from a laboring
class ( 3) has good posture.

(l) is one who would go to a neighborhood bar (2) feels self con-
scious (3) dressed in red.

(1) is verbal (2) a housewife (3) feeling under pressure.
(1) is using too much makeup (2) worries a lot. (3) gabby.
(i) enjoyed the experience (2) lacks movement (3) dressed okay.

(1) sat on edge of chair (2) became self confident as interview
progressed (3) is a good listener.

(l) is worrying (2) moving her head (3) wearing a coat.
(1) is chatty (2) a good housekeeper (3) not sure of herself.
(l) is a neat dresser (2) laughing often (3) indecisive.

(l) married while at college (2) overjoyed at end of interview
(3) uses her hands.

31.

32.
33-

31b.
35.

36.

38.
39.

40.

#1.

43.
M.

1+5.
#6.

47.

CASE F W
(l) is unsure of himself (2) looks like a “beat“ (3) is wearing a
striped sweater.
(l) is a nonconformist (2) has black hair (3) is relaxed.

(l) is thinking the questions through (2) wearing a sweater
(3) talking fast.

(1) is wearing glasses (2) somewhat perplexed ( 3) holding his chin.

(l) is unmarried (2) often grasps his chin , (3) is on guard most of
the time. . . ’

(l) is a "lost youth" (2) has little money (3) has little patience
with his intellectual inferiors.

(1) feels like helping people (2) is the studious type (3) about
25.-m years old.

(1; is probably in college (2) felt fully relaxed only at the end
(3 kept hand on chin. _ -

(l) wears horn rimmed glasses (2) is the serious type (3) has an
academic problem on his mind. -

(1) leaves smiling (2) is an attentive young man (3) is uncertain
of the future.

(1) does not trust the interviewer (2) could be a delinquent
(3) smiles little.

(1) is confident in his opinions (2) of medium height (3) does not.
have much money.

(1) was eager to leave (2) left quickly ( 3) is reliable.

(1) has been turned down by several fraternities (2) hopes he has
put his story over (3) has black hair.

(l) answers quickly (2) is a skilled workman (3) felt satisfied with
his showing.

(1) did most of the talking (2) felt under stress (3) sailed whm
mailed at.

$1) is wearing a sweater (2) unable to project his personality
3) considers himself well informed.

$1.; is on guard (2) has a quick sense of humor (3) has a part time
0 e

z+9.

50.

51.

52.

53.

51+.

55-

56.

57.

(l) rocked back and forth (2) has curly hair (3) is earnestly
interested in the situation.

(1) knows what's going on (2) needs a shave (3) is fluent in
speaking. ‘

(l; raises eyebrows (2) raisins tense throughout interview
(3 talks with vigor.

(l) felt fully relaxed only at end (2) is probably in college
(3) kept hand on chin.

(l) feels confused (2) raises eyebrows when speaking (3) had on a
loud sweater.

(l; is not the intellectual type (2) left in an abrupt manner
(3 is happy to leave. ,

(l) feels a bit insecure (2) uses his hands in expression (3) is
in his early 20's.

(1) dresses poorly (2) feels he is being treated unjustly (3) is
dark complected.

(I) changed his tone of voice as interview progressed (2) gave a
quick smile upon leaving (3) thought he had put his side of the story
over. .

(1) has a closed smile (2) thinks before answering ( 3) needs a
haircut.

(1) gives no details in his answers (2) changes his facial expression
little (3), is self-concerned.

(l) is fearful of the future (2) is a nonconformist (3) would nurse
a beer.

61.
. 62.

63.

_-61b.

65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
7o.
71.
72.
73.

7“-
75-

76.
77.
78.

fig CASE QF w, E,

(l) enjoys gossip (2) looks drawn (3) is a scrub woman.

(1) is not interested in the discussion (2) fidgets her fingers
(3) is dominant at home.

(1) responds in an easy manner (2) feels sure of herself (3) is a
sweet old lack.

(1) has a low skilled job (2) is concerned with giving the right
answers (3) wearing glasses.

(1) does not feel disturbed (2) her face shows hard work (3)
doesn't get along at work. . '

(1) feels she is religious (2) is in her sixties (3) left with an
WW 81111160

(1) thinks out the answer to each question (2) has her hair combed
back (3) is friendly.

(1) wears a black coat (2) is well mannered (3) concerned with what
is happening. .~

(1) is a typical grandnother (2) is well mannered (3) interested
in others.

(1) packers her lips (2) doubts future mployment (3) gives answers
of moderate length.

(1) could be a retired school teacher (2) felt she told everything
necessary (3) facially expressive.

(i) has her hair in a net (2) has a dry manner (3) does not care
about wealth.

(1) has animated hands (2) feels lonesome at times (3) has a quiet
naturao

(l) is seeking a job (2) adaptable (3) elderly.

(1) is content with life (2) has a sense of humor (3) is dressed
sufficiently well.

(1) is pleasant (2) feels confident (3) is a gossip.
(1) feels anxious (2) is elderly (3) smug.

(1) visits her grandchildren from time to time (2) wonders what
she'll do when she stops working (3) is in good health.

79.

81.
82.

83.
81b.

85.

86.
87.
88.

89.

(1) has brown hair (2) is a slow speaker (3) feels relaxed.
(l) smirks (2) has dyed hair (3) wanted to impress the interviewer.
(l) is wearing glasses '(2) proud of her past (3) 50-60 years old.

(1) is the easy going type (2) is wearing a coat (3) enjoys dis.
cussing her grandchildren. .

(1) left smiling (2) has been married many years ( 3) feels calm.

(l) didn't get much out of the situation (2) wears glasses (3) has
a closed smile.

(l) is a good honemaker (2) a neat dresser (3) is a satisfied
person.

(1) is elderly (2) umoved by the situation (3) lower middle class.
(1) loves to gossip (2) has a twitch (3) is hard working type.

(1) could be a sales clerk (2) feels emotionally stable (3) is the
resourceful type.

(1) her hands became nervous (2) is the grandmother type (3) thought
deeply on most questions.

(1) clenched her hands (2) is not used to city life (3) is a
stabilizing influence.

APPENDIX D

50

H. C. Smith
May 1961

EMP Test

DIRECTIONS: Read each statement below and decide whether or not it is true
with respect to yourself. Mark "1" if it is true or mostly true 3 mark "2"
if it is false or mostly false.

1. I particularly like to work at tasks that require great effort.

2. I see life as a constant series of problems that met be solved.

3. I generally seek whatever makes me feel most cheerful here and now.
1;. I enjoy work more than play.

5. I am guided in all my conduct by firm principles.

6. I find that a well-ordered mode of life with regular hours and an
established routine is most c'cngenial to me.

7. It is occasionally difficult for me to keep my mind on one thing for a
long time. '

8. I always keep my head in dangerous situations.
9. In difficult situations, I sometimes become too excited.
10. Failures tend to have a rather depressive effect on me.

11. The necessity for very careful and precise thinking about a critical
problem occasionally upsets m.

12. Once I have decided something is wrong, I always resist the temptation
to do its

13. Unfair criticism sometimes interferes with my work.

114. I am in my element when I am in a crowd of people.

15. Books have sometimes been more entertaining to me than companions.
16. I usually enjoy spending an evening alone. I

17. I like to have people around me practically all the time.

18. I am inclined to limit my friends to a few.

19. I treat a domineering person in the same way he treats me.

20. I believe that everyone's intentions are good.

21. I almost always forgive people who hurt m.

22‘. I approve of the things that all the other members of my family do.

(over)

23.

2h.

29.
30.

31.
32 .
33.
3h.
35.

37 .
38.
39.
1:0.
’41.
142.

b3.

hh.

I enjoy putting uyself in the background and working with zest for

. another person.

I sometimes couplain to a waiter when I am served inferior or poorly
prepmd food.

In matters of conduct I conform very closely to custom.
I an apt to criticize those who are in authority.
Compared to your own self-respect, the respect of others nieans very little.

The trouble with many people is that they do not take things seriously
Bum.

Science should have as much to say about moral values as religion does.

I avoid situations where I an expected to conform very closely to
conventional standards.

I would rather see a good movie than read a book.

I like abstract painting. .

I am only interested in ideas that are thoroughly practical.

3? daydream are a mildly important part of ry life.

I am always eager to take a chance alme in a situation of doubtful outcome.
I seldom feel despairing even when I fail. '

I feel that I have a tremendous amount to contribute to other people.

My marks on examinations are rather often lower than I really expected.
People have frequently said I was too modest. '

'I feel that I am temperamentally quite different from most people.

Personal criticism generally bothers me a little.

Occasionally, when I have failed at something, I have become angry at
someone who really had nothing to do with my failure.

I dislike working with a group unless I Imow that ny efforts are
recognized and appreciated by those present.

I am critical of people whose ideas are not very good.

For the following interests, mark "1" if you like it, "2" if you are
indifferent or dislike it. Work rapidly, recording your first impressions.

145. Consul

146. Governor of a State

’47 . Hotel Keeper or Manager
248. Inventor

’49. Magazine writer

50. Physician

51o Playground director

52. Surgeon

53. Nature study

Sb. Conventions

55. Pet monkeys

56. "American Magazine"

5?. Raising money for a charity
58. Optimists

59. Animal zoos

60. Worker in Y.M.C .A.

S/ 2 9/61 dm

 

 

 

 

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