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ABSTRACT

RACE VERSUS BELIEF REVISITED:
A BI-RACIAL EXAMINATION

By
Dallas C. Williams

This research re-examined Rokeach's earlier (1960, l966)
findings that the professed beliefs of a target person had a greater
effect on liking than did the target's race in light of the possibility
that this relationship was differentially valid for black and white
subjects.

A 2 (Race of §s; Black or White) by 2 (Race of Target Person;
Black or White) by 3 (Belief of Target Person; Left. Moderate, Right)
factorial design was used to examine the effects of race vs. belief
differences among blacks and whites. The l20 gs, 60 black and 60 white
undergraduates. were randomly assigned to one of six experimental
conditions. In each condition. two target persons, always of the same
race, were rated; one target person expressed views about President
Nixon. the other expressed views about the black movement. In each

condition. both targets displayed the same political orientation.

Dallas C. Williams

After all §s completed this questionnaire, another question-
naire was administered. However, this latter instrument differed as a
function of the race of the §s. For black §s, the instrument was a
questionnaire which attempted to differentiate between those black s;
who choose on the basis of a positive belief about the black movement
and the so-called "racist." who seems to act out of a rather undiffer-
entiated hatred of whites. White §s received a neutral questionnaire
with irrelevant materials.

Two analysis of variance were conducted to determine the
effects of race vs. belief similarity. Contrary to expectation, no
race of §s X belief of target or race of §s X race of target interac-
tions reached statistical significance for either raw liking scores
or absolute deviation from neutrality. It appeared that the results
of both analysis supported Rokeach's earlier finding (i.e., beliefs
are more important than race in the areas of interpersonal attraction
that have been examined) in that the §§ were more influenced by the
content of the statements made by the target person than they were
about the race of the target. Thus, the hypothesis that race would
be more important to blacks and beliefs more important to whites was
not supported. Implications of these findings, especially their
generality to other subjects' populations, were discussed.

”W ’2 /
2 x—7Z:;””1;”fldlal 7<7ilzj7lAP¢£

RACE VERSUS BELIEF REVISITED:
A BI-RACIAL EXAMINATION

By
Dallas C. Williams

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Psychology

1974

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my wife. Jackie, and

my parents.

11

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his great appreciation and warm
regards to Dr. Lawrence Hesse. chairman of the thesis committee, not
only for his invaluable assistance throughout the planning and execu-
tion of this study but also his assistance in analyzing my data.

A debt of gratitude is also due Dr. Andrew Barclay and
Dr. Barbara Riemer. for their helpful suggestions and worthwhile
criticisms as members of my thesis committee. ‘

Special thanks are due Shelly Stokes for taking time from his
work to serve on my committee. I am deeply grateful for all the
invaluable rap sessions we had throughout the course of this thesis.

I would also like to thank Lonnie Anderson for his helpful
criticisms in the early stages of this research.

Finally. I wish to thank my wife. Jackie. for her willingness
to work over the past two years in supporting my education. I would
especially like to thank her fbr her confidence and encouragement,
and above all for her love and consideration that have sustained me

over the years and hopefully throughout the years to come. ‘

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES ................ . ......... vi

LIST OF APPENDICES ........................ vii
Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ....................... l

The Present Research ................. 7

II. METHOD .......................... 8

Subjects ....................... 8

Instrument ...................... 8

Design and Procedure ................. 9

III. RESULTS ......................... ll

IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ................ 18

Results of the First ANOVA for Liking Scores ..... 18

Results of the Second ANOVA for Deviation Scores. . . 20

Methodological Considerations ............ 20
Theoretical Consideration .............. 21
Implications for Future Research ........... 23

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)

Page
APPENDICES ............................ 25
REFERENCES ............... . ............ 47

Table

LIST OF TABLES

Summary of ANOVA for Liking Scores ............

Mean Liking Scores as a Function of Belief of Target
and Issue ........................

Table of Means for Race of S; X Race of Target X Belief
of Target X Issue. ...................

Summary of ANOVA for Influence ..............

Table of Means for Race of Target X Belief of Target
X Issue .........................

Appendix

Al.

A2.

A3.

Summary of Analysis of Simple Effects for Liking Within
Nixon. . . ........... . . . . .......

Summary of Analysis of Simple Effects for Liking Within .
Movement ........................

Summary of Analysis of Simple Effects for Deviation
Scores Within Movement ........... . .....

vi

Page

12

13

14

16

17

45

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page
A. INSTRUMENTS ....................... 25
Demographic Questionnaire .............. 25

Race-Belief Questionnaire .............. 27

Attitudinal Questionnaire .............. 41

B. SUMMARY TABLES FOR ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE EFFECTS ...... 45

vii

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

To be black in America is to question constantly the motives
of whites with whom you have contact. Is the clerk just mean. or does
he dislike blacks. or dislike me because I am black? Was the apart-
ment really taken or was an excuse given to keep from renting it to a
black person? In attempting to explain the motivations or intentions
underlying a negative action initiated by someone white. a black person
has several alternatives: l) the white person has a negative person-
ality (i.e. he dislikes people in general); 2) the white person has
a negative attitude toward black people; 3) the white person and I have
different beliefs; 4) the white person has a negative attitude about me
personally. Stated in its general form, the question becomes: con-
sidering an attitudinal relation between two people (A and B), which
characteristic is more important in A's relation to B. B's race, or
B's beliefs?

An argument in support of the greater influence of belief was
developed by Rokeach (l960) from earlier work on the authoritarian

personality. This view stressed personality differences in cognitive

processes as a central problem of race prejudice. Rokeach (l960), his
students, and colleagues were interested in demonstrating that to
characterize a person as dogmatic was more inclusive than to charac-
terize him as authoritarian; and that to be highly opinionated was
more inclusive than to be highly ethnocentric. The dogmatic-opinionated
versus authoritarian-ethnocentric comparison provided differing accounts
of hostile racial attitudes. The former distinction emphasizes the
importance of the beliefs and opinion one holds; the latter stresses
one's group affiliation and ethnic identification. Rokeach argued that
white racial attitudes were based more on the assumed dissimilarity of
beliefs rather than on the objective racial characteristics of blacks.
Rokeach, Smith, and Evans (l960) conducted an empirical inves-
tigation of race versus beliefs as a determinant of anti—black atti-
tudes. White undergraduates at a Northern and Southern college were
given descriptions of a pair of target persons. Subjects judged on a
nine-point scale how likely they were to become friendly with each of
the target persons. The target person varied on race (white or black)
and on beliefs (eight in all, four general ones, and four reievant
ones). What they found was that subjects preferred whites to blacks
when belief was held constant and preferred people who agreed to those
who disagreed on the eight belief items when race was held constant.

More important, however, the authors' expectations were confirmed,

since belief was found to be a more important determinant of subjects'
reactions to the target person than was race. This relationship held
regardless of the region of the country.

However, the belief-prejudice interpretation seemed strikingly
inadequate primarily fbr two reasons: l) the subjects, who were cOl-
lege students and who normally interact with each other in a less
hostile environment, may not have perceived any social pressures to
discriminate on the basis of race; and 2) it was likely that such a
design did not arouse strong feelings or hostility.

Trandis (l96l) noted that belief-congruence interpretation of
prejudice perhaps is correct for the attitudinal relation "friendship,"
but seems less applicable to behaviors sampled over a wide range of
social distances. Trandis argued that if one considers the wider range
of social distances which more accurately reflects the areas in which
prejudice operates in the real world, race would be a more important
determinant than belief. To test this hypothesis, he administered a
social distance questionnaire consisting of a lOO-point scale from
willingness to marry a person (O—social distance) to willingness to
lynch a person (97-social distance). This scale was used to rate each
of sixteen stimulus persons who were constructed by factorially com-

bining four characteristics:

Race - - - - Negro or white
Religion - - - - Same or different
Occupation - - - - Coal miner or bank manager

Philosophy - — - - Same or different

Trandis told his subjects of some unspecified beliefs of the target
person were similar to or different from their own (e.g., same or
different religion). The characteristic corresponding to Rokeach's
belief variable in Trandis' study was philosophy.

Not at all surprisingly, the stimulus person receiving the
smallest social distance rating for the white University of Illinois
undergraduate was someone white, same religion. same philosophy, and
a bank manager. The largest social distance was assigned to a Negro
of different religion and philosophy who was a coal miner. Moreover,
the results confirmed Trandis' criticism of Rokeach's position. Race
accounted for social-distance ratings in a ratio of about 4-l over
belief.

Rokeach (l96l) responded to Trandis' critique by pointing out
the noncomparability of the treatment of belief in the two approaches:

The basic difference between Trandis' method and ours is
that while we asked our subjects to respond to specific
social stimuli such as "Negro who believes in God" and
"white atheist,“ Trandis asked his subjects to respond

to "Negro. same philosophy" and "white, different phi-
losophy." Trandis reports that race is now a far more

important detenninant of social distance than belief.
quite the opposite to our findings [p. 187].

Byrne and Wong (l962) reported a study which essentially repli-
cated the findings of Rokeach. These authors' findings showed that
highly prejudiced white students at the University of Texas assumed
greater attitude dissimilarity between themselves and a black stranger
than between themselves and a white stranger. These important results
suggest a correlation between race and belief which is quite difficult
to eliminate in the uncooperative (scientifically speaking) real world.
Moreover, in the same article, Byrne and Wong fbund that attitude sim-
ilarity resulted in positive ratings, attitude dissimilarity in nega-
tive ratings regardless of the prejudice of the students or the race
of the stranger.

Two final studies rounded out the controversy. The first, by
Trandis and Davis (l965), used a large-scale factor-analytic technique
to demonstrate that both race and belief were influential in subject
judgment, race more so for intimate kind of behaviors, beliefs more
so for less intimate behavior. These findings support the earlier
results of Stein et al. (1965) who, although they found the greatest
effect for belief. found a significant race effect for intimate social
behaviors (e.g.. bringing someone home for dinner or being able to

date his stster, etc.).

The second study, by Rokeach and Mesei (l966), was conducted
in a more realistic interactional situation. Subjects were given a
chance to interact with others who were white or black and who ex-
pressed attitudes which either agreed or disagreed with their's. Each
subject was then asked to state a preference for two of the four con-
federates (one white and one black who agreed with him; one white and
one black who disagreed with him). The results indicated that simi—
larity of belief was considerably more influential in subject choice
than race.

In summary, the research cited above on race and belief as
determinants of racial attitudes (with the exception of Trandis) leads
to the conclusion that in most areas of interpersonal relations, belief
is a more important consideration than race. On the face of it, this
would seem to diminish the importance of racism and social conflict.
Quite the opposite, however, often seems the case in the "real world."
According to Rokeach's position, belief dominates race in determination
of prejudice. It could be, though, that a large portion of what passes
as belief-based hostility is but a cover up for a primary feelings of

racial or ethnic hatred.

The Present Research

Upon reviewing Rokeach's findings, several possible alternative
explanations could be advanced, but one is most relevant to the present
research. Since there was no indication of the proportion of subjects
who were black vs. white the results could be valid only for whites.
Given that Rokeach only categorized subjects on the basis of belief,
he probably examined only white Ss.

Realizing that the importance of race and belief in determining
people's racial attitudes cannot be overemphasized, this research re-
examined Rokeach's (l960, 1966) findings in light of the possibilities
of a response difference between blacks and whites. In short, it
examined which of the two variables, belief or race, is most important
to whom (blacks or whites). It was predicted that beliefs would be
more important to whites than to blacks and that race would be more
important to blacks than to whites. The second prediction follows
from the perspective that blacks in this country are the focal point
of all discrimination, and, being that focal point, they are constantly
aware of race. Another possible explanation as to why race would be
more important to blacks than to whites is the awareness, pride, and
positive self-image that black people now have of themselves and of

other blacks.

CHAPTER II
METHOD

Subjects

Subjects were l20 (60 blacks and 60 whites) male undergrad-
uates recruited from Lansing Community College and Michigan State
University. These students received extra credit or money for par-

ticipating in this study.

Instruments

Three questionnaires were constructed to test the hypothesis.
The first questionnaire (presented in Appendix A) was a background
information questionnaire administered to all Ss. However, its major
purpose was, if possible, to divide black S; into high and low aware-
ness groups, as indicated by (l) the number of black organizations in
which they were members, and (2) their level of involvement in any of
these organizations.

The second and most relevant questionnaire (presented in

Appendix B) was designed to yield the major dependent measure. This

was a race-belief questionnaire in which §s received four hypothetical
descriptions of target persons. Two of the target persons remained
constant across questionnaire conditions. The remaining two targets
were varied systematically according to their race and position on two
issues (President Nixon and the race movement). In each condition, the
two critical target persons were always of the same race, and they both
were either left-wing, middle, or right-wing in their opinion concern-
ing the two issues. Subjects of each race were randomly assigned to
one of the conditions of race of target and belief of target.

The third questionnaire (presented in Appendix C) was a racism
questionnaire designed to measure the extent to which a black subject
was evaluating a target on the basis of a positive belief about the
black movement versus so-called black "racism," which seems to reflect
a rather undifferentiated hatred of whites. Whites received a neutral

questionnaire composed of irrelevant materials.

Design and Procedure

The study employed an experimental design whose dimensions were
2 (Race of gs; Black or White) by 2 (Race 0f.I§ persons; Black or White)
by 3 (Belief of Target person; left, middle, or right).

The §s were told that the g was interested in studying their

opinions concerning several social issues affecting them as students.

10

There was always one black and one white §_present. All Es were in-
formally but neatly dressed for the experimental session.

After the S; had been seated they were told that they would be
given three questionnaires and that each one would be passed out sep-
arately when everyone had finished a given instrument. All S; were
given as much time as was necessary to complete each questionnaire
(this generally did not take longer than l5 min.). After alli§s com-
pleted the background infbrmation questionnaire they were told by one
of the gs that at the beginning of each new questionnaire someone would
read the appropriate set of instructions, so that they would be stand—
ardized for all persons.

After all §s completed the first questionnaire they were given
a second questionnaire. Their task was to show on a scale from l to 9
to what extent they could or could not see themselves becoming friends
with each of the four target persons described. After the §s completed
this questionnaire a third questionnaire was administered, but as noted
above, this questionnaire differed as a function of the race of the_§s.
For black Ss, this was a racism questionnaire which attempted to dif-
ferentiate between those black §s who choose on the basis of a positive
belief about the black movement and the so-called “racist,“ who seems
to act out of a rather undifferentiated hatred of whites. White §s

received a neutral questionnaire which contained irrelevant materials.

CHAPTER III

RESULTS

Because--as the results presented in detail below indicate-—the
hypothesis was not supported, the background information questionnaire
and the racism questionnaire were not used in the analysis of the
liking data. Therefore, the results of this study are derived solely
from the data collected by the race-belief questionnaire.

To test if the hypdthesis that race would be more important
to blacks and beliefs more important to whites, two separate analysis
of variance tests were conducted. By having gs respond on a Likert
type scale, it was possible to analyze the data in two ways. In the
first ANOVA, the §fs two liking scores (one for each relevant person)
were determined simply by their responses on the scale. In the second
ANOVA, the §s two scores were determined by the degree to which their
reactions to each target person was influenced by the independent
variable. This score was the degree to which his indication of liking
deviated in absolute amount from 5, the neutral point. As an example,
if a person's score was l his absolute deviation score would now be-

come 4.

11

12

Table 1 presents a summary of the analysis of variance of raw
scores for liking. It indicates that the hypothesis that race would be
more important to blacks and beliefs more important to whites was not
supported (Fs < l for both the race of S; X ract of target and race of
S; x belief of target interactions, as well as fer the 3-way interac-

tion).

TABLE l.--Summary of ANOVA for Liking Scores.

 

 

 

df MS F
Race of Subject (A) l 3.725 < l
Race of Target (B) l l7.422 3.836*
Belief of Target (C) 2 70.028 15.4l8***
A X B 1 0.020 < 1
A X C 2 3.755 < 1
B X C 2 18.143 3.994**
A X B X C 2 2.245 < 1
Error I lOB 4.542
Target Issue (D) l 50.728 12.944**
A X D 1 0.070 < 1
B X D 1 1.252 < 1
C X D 2 16.951 4.325**
A X B X D 1 3.844 < 1
A X C X D 2 0.765 < 1
B X C X D 2 3.144 < 1
A X B X C X D 2 9.908 2.528*
Error II l08 3.9l9

 

*p < .lO; **p < .05; ***p < .01

13

The analysis, however, did yield significant main effects for
the race of target, belief of target, and issue. Significant effects
were also obtained for the race of target X belief of target interac-
tion and belief of target X issue interaction. Inspection of the means
relevant to the belief of target X issue interaction (presented in
Table 2), indicate that while both issues generated similar patterns
of responses, those persons who were right-wing (i.e., in favor of)

President Nixon, by far were liked the least.

TABLE 2.--Mean Liking Scores as a Function of Belief of Target and

 

 

 

 

Issue.
Belief of Target
Left Middle Right
Nixon 6.87 6.43 4.2
Movement 7.2 6.8 6.2

 

Table l also revealed a marginally significant race of §s X
race of target X belief of target X issue interaction. Table 3 pre-
sents the cell means relevant to this effect. From this four-way
interaction, an analysis of simple effects was performed. These tests
for the Nixon target person revealed significant effects for the be-
lief of target main effect (F = l8.l5, p < .Ol) and race of target X

belief of target interaction (F = 2.77, p < .lO). Further tests

14

revealed a significant effect for belief of target for both black

and white targets (WI_F = 16.92, p < .01; BI_F = 3.99, p < .05).

TABLE 3.--Table of Means for Race of S5 X Race of Target X Belief of
Target X Issue.

 

 

Issue: Nixon

Belief of Target

 

Race of Subject Race of Target

 

 

 

Left Middle Right
- Black 6.556 7.000 5.444
B‘aCK White 7.900 6.000 3.100
White Black 6.455 6.333 4.545
White 6.556 6.400 4.000
Issue: Movement
Belief of Target
Race of Subject Race of Target ~ '
Left Middle Right
Black Black 7.333 8.000 6.000
White 7.800 6.091 6.100
White Black 6.636 7.222 7.545
White 7.333 5.900 5.400

 

Marginally significant effects were also found within the race

movement target, for the race of target main effect (F = 3.31, p<:.10),

belief of target main effect (F = .242, p < .10) and the race of

target X belief of target interaction (F = 3.04, p <

.10).

Further

15

tests revealed a significant effect within liking scores for W1_within
the movement but not for §I_(F = 4.56, p < .05). See Appendix D for
a summary of analysis of simple effects.

A summary of the second ANOVA (presented in Table 4) shows
again that the hypothesis was not supported (relevant Fs < 1). How-
ever, there was a significant race of S main effect found, indicating
that black §s tended to respond more extremely (X’= 2.44) than did
white §§ (X'= 2.09).

The only other significant finding observed in the second
analysis was a race of target X belief of target X issue interaction.
Table 5 presents the cell means relevant to this effect. A test of
simple effects were performed for this interaction; however, these
tests failed to show any significant effects within the Nixon target
person. However a significant result was found within the movement
target person for the belief of target simple main effect (F = 2.665,
p < .05). See Appendix D for summary of the analysis of simple

effects.

16

TABLE 4.--Summary of ANOVA for Influence.

 

 

 

df MS F

Race of Subject (A) 1 8.358 6.4395*
Race of Target (B) 1 1.090

Belief of Target (C) 2 3.970 2.0693
A X B 1 0.090

A X C 2 2.995 1.0262
B X C 2 .235

A X B X C 2 4.025 2.0980
Error I . 108 1.9185

Target Issue (D) 1 2.180 2.0580
A X D 1 1.180

B X D 1 0.470

C X D 2 0.710

A X B X D 1 0.190
.A X C X D 2 1.075

B X C X D 2 3.240 3.0586*
A X B X C X D 2 0.225

Error 11 108 1.0593

 

*P < .05

17

TABLE 5.--Table of Means for Race of Target X Belief of Target X Issue.

 

 

 

1.813

Nixon Movement
2.111 2.444
2.820 2.600
2.211 1.663
2.277 2.390
2.449 2.697

2.373

 

CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The hypothesis that race would be more important to blacks and
beliefs more important to whites was not supported. Instead the
results of both analyses supported to some extent Rokeach's earlier
finding that belief similarity is an important antecedent to liking.

The results of both analysis of variance revealed, however,
several unpredicted findings. Therefore tentative interpretation will

be given to account for them.

Results of the First ANOVA
for LikingScores

The results of the first ANOVA indicated that the targets most
preferred were left-wing. This indicates that the Ss, both black and
white, had a more positive judgment of the anti-Nixon and pro-movement
targets than they did of the right-wing conservative targets. One
explanation for this finding could be that the gs ignore their true
feelings toward the hypothetical person in order to appear soCially

acceptable. Socially acceptable behavior in this context means

18

19

"unprejudiced, rational, open-minded and democratic (Cook and Selltiz,
1964, p. 39)." This interpretation suggests that the S; might have
tried to influence the gfls opinion of them.

We also found that black targets who supported President Nixon
were liked more than white targets who supported President Nixon. One
possible explanation could be that the S; felt that the black target
was more honest in his opinion about President Nixon than the white
target, thereby suggesting that the black target was given more credi-
bility for saying he was not opposed to President Nixon than the white
target. This also would explain why there was a slight tendency
(though not significant) for the left-wing white targets to be liked
more than the left-wing black targets on the race movement issue.

A test of the simple effects for the race of S5 X race of Is
X belief of Is X issue interaction revealed significant belief effects
for both black targets and white targets when the issue was Nixon but
not the movement. One explanation for this could be that the Nixon
issue was a more salient issue than was the movement issue. This
could suggest that the S; didn't fully understand the issue surrounding

the movement as well as they did about Nixon.

20

Results of the Second ANOVA
for Deviation Scores

The results of the second ANOVA revealed that the black §s
were more extreme in their judgment than the white Ss. This finding
suggests that the black S; were more willing to make a non—neutral
judgment, whereas the white §s tended to be more equivocal. The only
other at least marginally significant finding (for which a test of
simple effects was performed) was the race of I; X belief of IS X
issue interaction. The simple effects analysis revealed one signifi-
cant finding; the belief of Is simple main effect for the movement.
One explanation for this (which the means, presented in Table 5, tend
to support) is that the s; appeared to be more conservative in their
evaluation of a target on the basis of his statement about Nixon than
they were about a target who made a statement about the movement.
That is, being for or against Nixon did not influence liking or dis-

liking as much as did being for or against the movement. ‘

Methodological Considerations

There are several possible reasons why this study did not
support the predictions. (1) The instruments, perhaps, were too race
related and, as a result, the §s were too defensive in their responses.

(2) The measurements were not refined enough to tap true feelings.

21

However, this fault is probably true for most paper and pencil tests.
(3) Probably, the most serious problem was that in the present study
S; were required to imagine themselves in a situation other than the
one they were actually in, and to respond as if they were in the
limagined situation. Data obtained in this fashion typically are in-
terpreted as though they generally reflect the subject's actual be-
havior. Freedman (1969), however, points out that this interpretation
is based on the untenable assumption that there is a close corre—
spondence between subjects' opinions as to what they would actually
do in a particular situation and their subsequent behavior in that
situation. This is not to deny that some studies have found a sig-
nificant relationship between subject's verbal expression of behav-
ioral intention and actual behavior (e.g., Silverman and Cochrane,
1971), but for the most part there seems to be little relationship
between what subjects say they will do in an imagined situation, and
what they in fact do (e.g., LaPiere, 1934; Kutner, Wilkens, Yarrow,

1952).

Theoretical Consideration

One possible consideration (which this study attempted to
assess) is the black Ss' level of awareness. By dividing black S;

into high and low awareness groups it may be possible to affect the

22

race vs. belief similarity outcome. It was felt that those blacks who
would say that the black movement is solely concerned with economic
and environmental inequities could not see the movement issue relating
to identity. One interpretation of this follows from the notion of
power-powerless, where the individual who is low on awareness might
conceive racial suppression solely in terms of external factors, such
as economic suppression, etc. The person high on awareness might have
more of an internal orientation and not only see external factors in-
volved in racial suppression but also recognize the problem of identity
associated with such suppression. That is, black gs high on awareness
should respond more on the basis of race and black_§s low on awareness
should respond more on the basis of belief.

As mentioned earlier this study attempted to assess the level
of black awareness but it appeared that all the §s were low on this
variable (behaviorally defined as the number of black organizations
one is a member of or affiliated with and the extent to which one is
involved in these or other relevant organizations). Thus, this
hypothesis is yet to be tested by obtaining a sample of high awareness

black persons.

23

Implication for Future Research

The data reported here indicate that for most college students
there is a strong positive relationship between belief similarity and
friendship. This generalization, however, may not apply to a non-
student population.

Further, it could be that race is more important than belief
even within the black college-student population, but this phenomenon
cannot be demonstrated using laboratory methodology. One reason for
this is that Ss' behavior in a laboratory often differs from their be-
havior in the real world. Studies (summarized, e.g., in Webb, Camp-
bell, Schwartz and Sechrest, 1967) have shown that S; who are aware
that they are being observed or studied react self-consciously, and
self-conscious §s tend to behave atypically or they distort their
actual beliefs.

In view of the findings of this and earlier research, however,
it appears to be true that, for whatever reasons, blacks and whites
do in fact differ in many of their beliefs. A study conducted by
Bluementhal et al.,for example, found significant differences between
what acts black people consider violent and what acts white people
consider violent. They found that a large majority of black people
consider police procedure such as frisking, which in itself involves

little f0rce, as violent, compared to a small percentage of white

24

people. They also found that a large majority of white people consider
sit-ins as an act of violence whereas black people did not. They found
no racial difference, however, as a function of whether respondents
believed that violence is strong or weak, fierce or peaceful, bad or
good, nor were there any differences found as a function of such demo-
graphic characteristics as age, education, income, town size, or region.
The only semantic difference is what "violence" meant appeared to be
between blacks and whites.

The implications of these and other findings suggest that be-
lief congruence is the most frequent determinant of interpersonal
attraction. Quite often, however, this does not seem to correspond
with what goes on in the real world. Unfortunately because of the
reasons mentioned above, we were not able to prove otherwise. However,
we have pointed out that blacks and whites do in fact differ in many
of their beliefs but the nature and extent of such differences is a
matter for further investigation. In any case the realities of racism
must not be obscured by these and earlier research findings, which

place greater emphasis on belief than race.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

INSTRUMENTS

Demographic Questionnaire

Administered to All Subjects

Background Information

Part I
Please fill out the following information.

 

 

 

 

 

Name: Date: ,_
Last First Middle

Age: Sex: Date of Birth:

Local Address: Telephone Number:

 

 

(Note: If you do not have a telephone please list one where you can be
reached)

Permanent Address: Telephone:

 

City and State:

 

1. My religion is: Jewish
Catholic
Protestant
Atheist
Other

2. My race is: Black
Caucasian
Oriental
Other

3. Party Affiliation: Republican
Democrat
Other

2

26

What is or was your father's occupation?

 

What is or was your mother's occupation?

 

Would you please list.agy,organizations you belong to or are a
member of and would you describe briefly how active you are in
these organizations.

1. Organization
A. How active are you in this organization?

2. Organizationfi
A. How active are you in this organization?

3. Organization
A. How active are you in this organization?

4. Organization

 

A. How active are you in this organization?

5. Organization

A. How active are you in this organization?

Race-Belief Questionnaire

27

Mel.
Larry is a twenty-two year old college senior. Who is abovetaverage in
intelligence, and has a very poor academic record. He is very popular,
handsome, and somewhat spoiled by women. About his childhood, Larry
said: "I seldom sleep more than six hours, and likes to start the day
off with a cold shower. I try when possible to work—out about three
hours in morning and for two more hours late in the afternoon." About
his values he now says:

"I place more emphasis on trying to get better grades so that

I may secure a good paying job in the future. I still try to

work-out when possible but I devote most of my time to studying."
Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you ggn_or‘gggngt_see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling

the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself I can very easily
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person
I L J
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

28

general
Pete is a twenty-two year old college senior. Who is planning to i
attend graduate school. He and his younger brother were raised by
permissive parents in New York. Of his childhood, Pete said, “When I
was a child, in grade school, I was very outspoken, I was very loud
and boisterous and made persistent attempts to dominate my peers and
to excel in everything I did." Today he places emphasis on being a
"well-rounded person.“ About his values he now says:

"I can't think of anything more important than having a

good friend or having good friends, but I don't think it

is possible to have more than a few really close ones.

I place little value on material things: such as cars,

clothes, etc."
Directions: 0n the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you 935 or gggngt see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling

the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself I can very easily:
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANC§§_ friends with such a person a person
L I 4
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

29

Left-wing
Michael is a white twenty-two year old college senior. Who is in
deepest sympathy with blacks and all other people in their struggle
to be liberated. In talking with Michael, he has said, "I must revolt
against racism in America, its oppressive institutions and practices,
just as I would revolt against any kind of human oppression." Today
he places emphasis on the necessity of building alternative institu-
tions. About his values he now says:
"There is a great need for social change. And in the end
anti-black, anti-female, and all form of discrimination or
equivalent to the same thing--anti-humanism. The values of
life must be maintained against discrimination of any form."
Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you ggn_or cannot see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling

the number which best expresses your degree of performance. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself I can very easily
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person
I I J
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

30

Left-wing
Michael is a black twenty-two year old college senior. Who is greatly.
concerned about black people and all other people in their struggle to
be liberated. In talking with Michael, he has said, "I must revolt
against racism in America, its oppressive institutions and practices
just as I would revolt against any kind of human oppression." (Today he
places emphasis on the necessity of building alternative institutions.
About his values he now says:

"There is a great need for social change and in the end

anti-black, anti-female, and all form of discrimination or

equivalent to the same thing--anti-humanism. The values of

life must be maintained against discrimination of any form."
Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you gag_or cannot see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling

the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself i I can very easily_
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person
L l J
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9'

31

Moderate

Michael is a black twenty-two yeard old college senior. Who is aware

of the problems of racism in America. In talking with Michael, he has

consistently said, "I understand that racism exists in America, and I

do not support it." Today he places emphasis on the necessity of

improving discriminatory institutions. About his values he now says:
"There is a need for social change because all forms of
discrimination are anti-human. The values of life

should be against such discrimination."

Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you gag_or cannot see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling
the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself I can very_easily_
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person
I I J
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

32

Moderate
Michael is a white twenty-two year old college senior. Who is aware of
the problems of racism in America. In talking with Michael, he has
consistently said, "I understand that racism exists in America, and I
do not support it." Today he places emphasis on the necessity of im—
proving discriminatory institutions. About his values he now says:
"There is a need for social change because all forms of
discrimination are anti-human. The values of life should
be against such discrimination."
Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you gan_or cannot see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling

the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself I can very_easiLy
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person
I , I - J
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

33

Right-wing
Michael is a white twenty-two year old college senior who takes a
rather conservative view of racial problems in America. In talking
with Michael, he has said “America is not completely oppressive, nor
are the practices of her institutions." Today he places emphasis on
improving those institutions that need to be improved. About his
values he now says:

“There is some need for social change but blacks and

whites, male and female, are progressing well, especially

compared to other countries." He feels that blacks

should be very careful in making changes, not just for

the sake of making changes.
Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you gan_or‘ganngt_see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling

the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
fellowing scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself I can very easily
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER.ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person
L l J
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

34

Right-wing
Michael is a black twenty-two year old college senior. Who takes a
more conservative view of the problems in America. In talking with
Michael, he has said “America is not completely oppressive, nor are
the practices of her institutions." Today he places emphasis on im-
proving those institutions that need to be improved. About his values
he now says:

"There is some need for social change but blacks and

whites, male and females, are progressing very well,

especially compared to other countries." He feels that

blacks should be very careful in making changes, not

just for the sake of making changes.
Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you ggn_or gggngt see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling

the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself I can very easily_
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person
L I .1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 '8 9

35

Right-wing
John is a white twenty-two year old college senior. Who believed that

President Nixon's attitudes and behaviors will in the long run turn out
to be good. In talking with John, he has said, "Nixon is trying to
lead this country, step by step, in the right direction." Today he
places emphasis on supporting President Nixon. About his values he
now says:

"I honestly have full confidence in the present adminis-

tration and feel no real need to change it."

Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you gan_or cannot see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling
the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

I can't see myself I can very easily

 

 

being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person

I L I

 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

36

Right-wing
John is a black twenty-two year old college senior. Who believed that

President Nixon's attitudes and behaviors will in the long run turn out
to be good. In talking with John, he has said, "Nixon is trying to
lead this country, step by step, in the right direction." Today he'
places emphasis on supporting President Nixon. About his values he now
says:

"I honestly have full confidence in the present adminis-

tration. And I feel no real need to change it.“

Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you ggn_or cannot see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling
the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself I can very easily_
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with suoh
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person
I l J
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

37

Moderate
John is a black twenty-two year old college senior. Who believed that
only time will tell if President Nixon's attitudes and behaviors will
in the long run turn out to be good or bad. However, he recognizes a
need for the President to be a little more responsive to the American
people. In talking with John he has said, “Nixon should be trying to
with the aid of all American citizens, lead this country in the best
direction." Today he places emphasis on political awareness. About
his values he now says:

"I place great emphasis on being very objective, and

being very careful not to prejudge anyone."

Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you ggn_or cannot see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling
the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself I can very easiLy
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person
I I J
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

38

Moderate
John is a white twenty-two year old college senior. Who believed that
only time will tell if President Nixon's attitudes and behaviors will
in the long run turn out to be good or bad. However, he recognizes a
need for the President to be a little more responsive to the American
people. In talking with John, he has said, "Nixon should be trying to
with the aid of all American citizens, lead this country in the best
direction." Today he places emphasis on political awareness. About
his values he now says:

"I place great emphasis on being very objective, and

being very careful not to prejudge anyone."

Directions: 0n the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you ggg_or cannot see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling
the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself I can very_easiLy
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person
I I J
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

39

Left-wing
John is a black twenty—two year old college senior. Who believed that

President Nixon's attitudes and behaviors will in the long run turn out
to be his greatest downfall. In talking with John, he has said: "Nixon
is trying to lead this country, step by step, in the wrong direction."
Today he places emphasis on political opposition to President Nixon.
About his values he now says:

"I honestly have no confidence in the present administra—

tion. And if I should have to take to the streets to

change it, then I will."

Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you g§g_or cannot see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling
the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

 

I can't see myself I can very easily_
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person
I I J
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

40

Left-wing
John is a white twenty-two year old college senior. Who believed that

President Nixon's attitudes and behaviors will in the long run turn out
to be his greatest downfall. In talking with John, he has said, "Nixon
is trying to lead this country, step by step, in the wrong direction."
Today he places emphasis on political opposition to President Nixon.
About his values he now says:

"I honestly have no confidence in the present administra-

tion. And if I should have to take to the streets to

change it, then I will."

Directions: On the scale below your task is to circle at best the
degree you gan_or cannot see yourself being friends with the person
described above. Make your judgment on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling
the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the
following scale as your guide.

 

 

I can't see myself I can very easily_
being friends with I really don't know see myself being
such a person if I could become friends with such
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES friends with such a person a person

L J _l

 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Attitudinal Questionnaire

41

Racism Questionnaire
Administered to black subjects only

Public Opinion Questionnaire

Name:

 

Local Address:

 

Telephone No.:

 

This is a scientific study of the attitudes of black students.
There are no right or wrong answers in this study. The best answer
is your own opinion.

Below is a list of statements about various topics. Please check
or circle appropriately that which best indicates your opinion.

1. In general, to what extent are white people concerned about giving
black people equal opportunities in America?

very much slightly very little not concerned
concerned concerned concerned at all

2. Do you agree that blacks should have nothing to do with whites if
they can help it?

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly
disagree disagree agree agree

3. Do you agree that participating in American form of government by
voting and seeking local and federal offices is an effective way
to advance black people?

5 trongl y somewhat somewhat strongly
disagree disagree agree agree

4. Do you agree that the present system of American government is
capable of solving the race problem in America?

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly
disagree disagree agree agree

*5.

*9.

42

Do you agree that all whites are genetically inferior to blacks?
strongly somewhat somewhat strongly

disagree disagree agree agree

Do you agree that through education black people will be accepted
into the mainstream of American society?

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly

disagree disagree agree agree

Do you agree that black people should recognize Africa as their
mother country?

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly

disagree disagree agree agree

Do you agree that blacks should serve in the Armed Forces?
strongly somewhat somewhat strongly

disagree disagree agree agree

Do you agree that all whites cannot really be trusted?

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly
disagree disagree agree agree

*Discriminating Items

43

General Questionnaire
Administered to white subjects only

Public Opinion Questionnaire

Name:

 

Local Address:

 

Telephone No.:

 

This is a scientific study of the attitudes of white students.
There are no right_or wrongfanswers in this study. The best answer
is your own opinion.

Below is a list of statements about various topics. Please check
or circle appropriately that which best indicates your opinion.

1. Police should not hesitate to use force to maintain order.

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly
disagree disagree agree agree

2. Although our society has to be changed, violence is not a justified

means.
strongly somewhat somewhat strongly
disagree disagree agree agree

3. If people worked hard at their jobs, they would reap the full
benefits of our society.

5 trongly somewhat somewhat strongly
disagree disagree agree agree

4. Representative democracy can respond effectively to the needs of
the people.

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly
disagree disagree agree agree

44

You can never achieve freedom within the framework of contemporary
American society.

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly

disagree disagree agree agree

A group without a clear-cut pattern of leadership cannot function
effectively.

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly

disagree disagree agree agree

You learn more from ten minutes in a political protest than ten
hours of research in a library.

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly

disagree disagree agree agree

While man has great potential for good, society brings out the
worst in him.

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly

disagree disagree agree agree

"The Establishment" unfairly controls every aspect of our lives;
we can never be free until we are rid of it.

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly
disagree disagree agree agree

APPENDIX 8

SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE EFFECTS

TABLE A1.--Sunlnary of Analysis of Simple Effects for Liking Within

 

 

 

Nixon.

df MS F
Race of S l 2.48
Race of 1 l 4.67 1.10
Belief of I 2 76.78 18.15*
A x a l 2.19
A X C 2 1.44 < 1
B X C 2 11.72 2.77*
A X B X.C 2 2.24

 

*p < .01

TABLE A2.--Sumnary of Analysis of Simple Effects for Liking Within

 

 

 

Movement.
df MS F
Race of S l . 1.39
Race of 1 l 14.01 3.31*
Belief of l 2 10.23 .2.42*
A X B 1 1.69
A X C 2 3.08
B X C 2 12.87 3.04*
A X B X C 2 5.86 1.39

 

*p < .10

45

46

TABLE A3.--Suntnary of Analysis of Simple Effects for Deviation Scores
Within Movement.

 

 

 

df MS F
Race of l (B) 1 1.4908
Belief of '_|'_ (C) 2 3.9702 2.6665*
B X C 2 1.8923

 

*p < .05

REFERENCES

REFERENCES

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Cook, S. W., and Selltiz, C. A. Multiple indicator approach to atti-
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Freedman, J. Role playing: Psychology of consensus. Journal of
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Hans, W. Statistics forypsychologjsts. New York: Holt. Rinehart
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Jones, J. M. Prejudice and racism. Massachusetts: Addison and
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Jones, R. L. Blackpsychology, New York: Harper and Row Publishing
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Kutner, 8., Wikens, C., and Yarrow, P. R. Verbal attitudes and overt
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LaPiere, R. T. Attitudes versus actions. Social Forces, 1934, 13,
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Linn, L. S. Verbal attitudes and overt behavior: A Study of racial
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47

48

Rokeach, M. The open and closed mind. New York: Basic Books, Inc.,
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Rokeach, M. Belief vs. race as determinants of social distance:
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Rokeach, M., and Mezei, L. Race and shared belief as factors in
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Rokeach. M., Smith, P. W., and Evans. R. 1. Two kinds of prejudice
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Sherif, M., and Sherif, C. Black unrest as a social movement toward
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Silverman..B. I., and Cochrane, R. The relationship between verbal
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Stein, D. D., Hardyck, J. A., and Smith. M. B. Race and belief: An
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Trandis, H. C., and Davis, E. E. Race and belief as determinants of
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MICHIGAN STQTE UNIV. LIBRQRIES

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