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PEOPLE AND ITS CORRELATES

Thesis Ior Hm Degree OI M. A.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Ernest Bruni
1963

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ABSTRACT

A FILM TEST OF ACCURACY IN OBSERVING PEOPLE
AND ITS CORRELATES

by Ernest Bruni

A test of observation was developed, based on six
five-minute filmed interviews with people. The final form
of 120 four—choice items has two subtests to measure accuracy
in observing appearance and conversation respectively. Half
of the test is based on observing men and half on observing
women. The test is improved over a former instrument developed
byHarris (1962) in that it is shorter, requires less time,
and the reliability coefficient of +.74 is higher.

Along with other instruments, the test was administered
to 130 students to test the following five hypotheses; (l) Ob—
servation is a general ability, (2) Good observers are good
judges of both groups and individuals, (3) Women are more
accurate observers than men, (4) The correlates of good
listening and looking are different, and (5) Good observers

have constructive leadership attitudes.

Ernest Bruni

The first hypothesis was supported by correlations
that showed that good observers of men are good observers
of women, and good listeners are also good observers of
physical appearance.

The second hypothesis was also supported. Cor-
relations between observing and inference tests were all
positive and for men, all were significant. Non—signifi-
cant correlations for women observers were concluded to be
due to the small number of women in the sample.

For the third hypothesis, tests of difference be—
tween mean scores on observation for men and women observers
showed that women in this sample are more accurate observers,
but the differences are not significant and general conclu—
sions cannot be drawn.

To test hypothesis four, the differences between
correlations with appearance and conversation scores for
each variable were calculated and tested for significance.
Seven variables were found related to better listening than
looking, among them, leadership attitudes and low interest
in money.

The fifth hypothesis was not supported; no correlations
between observation and tests measuring leadership attitudes

were significantly different from zero.

Ernest Bruni

Harris' conclusions that observation is an important
variable related to judging people has been verified. An
experimental training program and study of interpersonal

attitudes were suggested for further research.

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A FILM TEST OF ACCURACY IN OBSERVING PEOPLE

AND ITS CORRELATES

BY

Ernest Bruni

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Psychology

1963

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer is indebted to Dr. Henry Clay Smith for
his patience and his generosity with time and advice. His
guidance helped turn a maze of data into intelligible facts.
Appreciation is also extended to committee members Dr. Joseph

Reyher and Dr. Hans Toch for helpful criticism and suggestions.

ii

INTRODUCTION . . .

HISTORY . . . . . .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Measurement of Observational Accuracy
An Analysis of Observational Cues
The Correlates of Observational Accuracy

PROBLEM . . . . . .
Hypotheses Teste
METHOD AND PROCEDURE

Subjects

The Measurement

The Measurement

The Measurement

The Measurement

The Measurement

The Measurement

Other Measures a
General Procedur

RESWTS . O O O O O

Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 3
Hypothesis 4

Hypothesis 5

d

of
of
of
of
of
of
nd
e

Observation/

Interpersonal Sensitivity
Group Sensitivity

Empathic Drive

Level and Spread of Rating
Leadership Attitudes
Information

Item Analysis of Personality Scales

DISCUSSION . . . .

SUMMARY . . . . . .

iii

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14

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l6
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21
21
22
23
23
23
24

25

25
28
30
30
31
33

35

39

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDICES

iv

10.

LIST OF TABLES

Age and sex of subjects . . . . . . . . . .

Corrected odd-even reliability coefficients of

the tests of observing men and women .

Corrected odd-even reliability coefficients of
the appearance and conversation subtests

Correlations between observation of men and
observation of women . . . . . . . . .

Correlations between accurate listening and
observation of appearance . . . . . . .

Correlations between observation and inter-
personal sensitivity scores and groups
sensitivity scores and interpersonal
and group sensitivity combined . . . .

Comparison of means for the test of observation

Variables that differentiate between good
listening and looking . . . . . . . . .

Items from the personality scales that
differentiate good observers from poor

observers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Level of demonstrated support for each
hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page

17

20

26

28

29

32

34

35

INTRODUCTION

Skill in observing people has long been assumed to
be an essential attribute of the good judge of people.
Harris (1962), in testing this assumption, developed a film
test of observational accuracy and found that scores on it
were related to the ability to make correct inferences
about others. The purpose of the present study was to
develop a more valid and analytic form of the Observation
test, to verify Harris' principle finding, and to test a
series of hypotheses regarding the nature of accurate

observation.

HISTORY

This discussionof history reviews the work of Harris,
analyzes some of its limitations, and considers, more

generally, the nature of the observation process.

The Measurement of Observational Accuracy

The many cues in interpersonal perception are all
assumed to be more or less relevant to the understanding
of the stimulus person. Most studies are designed to show
the value of a specific set of cues to judgments of specific
traits or feelings of the observed person. A different
problem might be posed—~whether the careful observation of
many cues is relevant to a more global understanding of
persons. Harris (1962) focused on this issue. He showed
that the extent to which an observer remembered details of
appearance, actions, and content of conversation of others
was related to his ability to understand others.

Harris' measure of observation involved three kinds
of cues: those of appearance, actions, and content of speech.
These are the cues readily available for empirical investi—
gation; they can be studied by questionnaire, and more-

2

significantly, they are verifiable by objective criteria.
Although other cues are assumed to be present and "observed,"
for the purpose of his study, observation was limited by
definition to only three types of cues.

A study by Showel (1960) illustrates the essentials
of a good test of observation. He tested infantry trainees
for specific information they had observed and could recall
about other trainees that they had known for six weeks. They
were asked, for example, whether the other trainee had been
on KP in the last week, and whether he had been on sick call.
This was in essence a test of how accurately and how extensively”?
they observed and recalled information heard and seen about
others. Like Harris' study, the observations pertained to
verifiable kinds of information, and exposure to cues was
not a variable. Only information to which all were exposed
was asked and consequently variations in observing avail-
able cues was reflected in the scores. Showel, incidentally,
found these scores related to ratings of leadership
potential.

Recall is an aspect of observation as measured in
the studies by both Harris and Showel. It is necessary
that awareness of a specific observation be sufficiently

salient to be recalled fifteen to twenty minutes later when

the observer completes the questionnaire. Guilford (1929)
notes that some persons tend to make interpretations of

facial cues intuitively, and thus neither the cue nor its
meaning reach a high level of awareness. However, in the
measurement of observation there is an implicit differentiation
between observations that reach awareness at the moment of
perception but are not recalled a short time later, and

those observations that are not only noted, but are recalled.

Observation, as it has been studied especially by
Harris, involves noting and recalling specific details that
can be verbally reported and empirically verified. The
details involve the appearance, actions, and content of
speech of the observed persons, and observational measures
combine these into a total score.

Harris (1962) concluded that a number of techniques
utilized in the study of social perception are not appropriate
to the investigation of observation. It is necessary that
each observer be exposed to the same array of stimulus cues,
and that the cues be readily available to establish an
objective basis for verification of the observer's reports.
Still photos or tape recordings limit the amount of available
cues; live presentation of the stimulus person creates

difficulties in establishing objective criteria of what

cues actually are presented, and precise replicability is
impossible.

The color and sound motion picture film produced by
Cline (1960) and used by Harris solves most of these problems.
Cline filmed five-minute interviews of three men and three
women. The interviewer and general orientation of the
interviews is identical. Harris showed the film i0 70
students who were given questionnaires following the pre—
sentation. The first questionnaire was his Observation
Accuracy Test. His observers were asked to respond to
thirty "True" and "False" statements about each of the ob-
served persons regarding how he had appeared, what actions
and gestures he had made, and what he had said. The obser-
vation of the film by the experimenter and several judges
was the criterion of correct responses, and the sum of
correct responses was the score. The split—half reliability
coefficient derived (using Spearman-Brown correction) was
+.67. He also performed a factor analysis of hrs data and
found a high level of communality among his six subtests of

observation, which further substantiates his conclusion

that observation is a general ability.

An Analysis of Observational Cues

 

The influence of physiognomy, facial patterns,
speech and gestures upon observational and inferential
accuracy have been the focus of study. Here we examine
each of these areas of study in turn.

Physiognomy or the study of facial cues involves
both structural features and expressive muscle patterns as
sources of information about the stimulus person. Secord
(1958) points out that some structural features are
associated with stereotypes and that ready-made social
judgments often occur when the cue is present. For example,
a dark complexion is most frequently associated with the
personality characteristics of the villain stereotype.

He noted also that functional properties of a part of the
face may be generalized by the observer into a character-
istic of the person. Compressed lips, for example, may be
taken as indication of a "tight lipped" person--one who
talks very little.

Studies of expressive facial patterns have been
equivocal. Buzby (1924) concluded that the eyes and upper
part of the face are more relevant to the expression and
correct judgment of emotions than the mouth, whereas Dunlap

(1927) concluded the converse. Rump (1960) in a critique

and duplication of a study by Frijda (1958) showed that even
general attitudes cannot be judged on the basis of facial
expression, but that situational information (verbally
communicated) was the significant cue source for judgments.
Landis (in Jenness, 1932, p. 228) found that accurate judg—
ment of emotions expressed in photos did not exceed chance.

Although these latter studies imply that facial.
expression has little value for the observer in understanding
the subject as an individual or as member of a group,
Jenness (1932) noted that all of the studies used still
photographs and that a photograph of swiftly moving muscula-
ture is not an adequate portrayal of the expression of
emotion. Changes in tension and relaxation are also signifi-
cant. Furthermore, all of the studies dealt with detailed
judgments about affective qualities momentarily communicated
by expressive patterns and have not shown the relationship
of the observation of these cues to global inferences about
the person observed. In general, it still seems possible
that physiognomy gives information that allows the observer
to make more accurate judgments about the affective state
of the person observed.

The bulk of information about a person is communicated

by vocal speech. The content of speech is basic, but the

"good listener" obtains additional information from a number
of other cues. Disorganization of speech, for example, was
demonstrated by Gynther (1957) to be due to stress and
anxiety. Using a communication efficiency score (ratio of
relevant to irrelevant thoughts in responses to questions),
he found that both chronically anxious subjects and normal
subjects in a stress interview became disorganized and used
fragmentary speech significantly more than did controls.

It seems theoretically possible to rate subjects as to
experienced anxiety or stress simply on the basis of observed
disturbance in verbal communication.

The vocal component of speech also communicates the
emotional state of the speaker. Davitz and Davitz (1959,
1959a) have shown, for example, that feeling can be communi-
cated by content-free speech. Subjects recited the alphabet
ten times, each time in such a way as to portray a specific
emotional state (anger, sympathy, etc.). The feelings were
identified by listeners beyond chance expectancy. The
authors conclude that ". . . within any given speech community
there are more or less stereotyped formal aspects of speech
associated with the expression of particular feelings"
(1959, p. 7). Thus, the good listener must be alert to cues

in vocal tone, volume, rate, and melodic aspects as well

as semantic organization and content.

Gestures and variations in motility are the "language
of the body"--considered especially in the clinical inter—
view as sources of essential information about the observed
person. No systematic studies of gestures have been done.
Observations by Freud (1951), Deutsch (1947, 1952), and
Needles (1959) all emphasize the symbolic meaning of gestures
and symptomatic acts, and they imply that much can be inferred
about a person by noting such actions and gestures. Deutsch
states: "The correlation of psychological (verbal) with
postural expression shows . . . the defenses and the
repressed emotions are readily reflected in bodily behavior"
(1947, p. 211). Excessive anxiety or inhibition regarding
a specific topic, for example, is readily observed in
variations in motility and posture.

In natural interpersonal situations, the observer
must both combine and selectively attend to significant
cues within the total array. Beier and Stumpf (1959)
studied the additive effect of four types of cues on judg-
ments of four personality characteristics. Judges first
heard the subject's voice, after which they were allowed
to see his gestures, then his face and then they were given

brief social interaction in a question and answer form.

10

After each cue situation, judgments were made concerning
intelligence, affective tone, sociability and productivity
of the observed person. As exposure time increased, judg-
ments became more positive. There was a variation in
evaluations as a function of the quantity of cues and time.
These studies point out a variety of cues involved
in observation of persons, many of which are included in
Harris' measure. Appearance and action cues include physio—
gnomic features and patterns, gestures, and grooming, and
the conversation category delimits vocal cues that are
readily measured. These two resultant categories, used
in the present study, include a broad area of cues in ob-
servation while they also allow a two-fold differentiation

and measurement of observation.

The Correlates of Observational Accuracy

Empirical studies show that a number of factors are

related, directly or indirectly, to observational accuracy.

Interpersonal sensitivity has been demonstrated to

be related to observation. A second questionnaire adminis-
tered in Harris' study was an Inference Accuracy Test de-
signed to measure understanding of the observed person by

the judge. A variety of tests and questions had been

ll

administered earlier to each observed interviewee (in the
films), and also to friends and relatives of each inter-
viewee. The accuracy with which each observing judge answered
the questions just as the interviewee had answered them or

as his friends had rated him, was used as a measure of his
interpersonal sensitivity. Harris emphasized that the
responses were inferred; that is, the correct answers could
not be directly observed in the film.

Harris found that judges who made accurate obser-
vations tended also to make accurate inferences. He con—
cluded that there is a relationship between observation and
interpersonal sensitivity, but he noted also that three of
six correlations measuring this relationship were not
significant—-indicating that observation accuracy is not the
only determinant of inference accuracy.

Group sensitivity or accuracy of predicting typical
stereotype responses was also studied by Harris. Using
measures of stereotype accuracy previously developed, he
found accurate observers of men were accurate on the psycho-
logist stereotype questionnaire. Subjects who were accurate
on the women stereotype test were also accurate observers
of both men and women. Kogan and Shelton (1960) demonstrated

the tendency of judges to fit observed persons into stereotypes

12

on the basis of information available--that is, information
observed by the judge. Sherif (1935) also noted with verbal
material that stereotype awareness in_judges affects perception
of the objective stimulus. Whatever the precise nature of

the interaction, observation is related to stereotyping and

to stereotype sensitivity.

Sex differences have been noted in both observation
and inferential judgments. Jenness (1932) reported that
women are better than men in judging emotional expression
in photos. Women students did better than men in social
memory tasks in research by Witryol and Kaess (1957).

Using both photos and actual presentation of persons,
women were better able to recall the names of each person
presented. The authors reasoned that the variation is due
to greater social facility demanded of the female sex role
and concomitant development of better social skills.

In the previously mentioned study of infantry
trainees by Showel (1960), observation accuracy was related
to ratings of leadership potential. The more observant a
trainee, the higher was his rating by fellow trainees and
officers as a potential leader.

It was pointed out by Murray (1933) that emotional

state of the judge can influence "apperception"-—the

13

interpretation of the cues observed. Kogan and Shelton
(1960) also noted that the information that judges selected
and utilized in inferences was partly determined by relevance
of the information to themselves. For example, college
students are themselves concerned about choosing an
occupation; consequently, they used information about the
occupation of an individual more readily than less personally
relevant information. Conceivably, accuracy of observing
stimulus cues is affected by any number of such personal

factors.

PROBLEM

The objectives of the present study were to develop
a more reliable and analytical test of observation than
that of Harris, to investigate the relationship between
observation and both group and interpersonal sensitivity,

and to determine the correlates of good listening and looking.

Hypotheses Tested

 

1. Observation is a general ability. Although limited

 

to the film-test situation, Harris demonstrated that obser-
vation is a dimension that can be measured with some relia—
bility and that a factor analysis revealed an observation
factor. Two further tests of the generality hypothesis were
undertaken in the present study: (a) Good observers of men
are good observers of women, and (b) Good listeners are good
observers of physical appearance.

2. Good dbservers are good judges of both individuals
and_grogps. This hypothesis is a replication-test of Harris'
study which obtained positive results. The judgment tests
were revised so that the individual inference tests are
everywhere free of the group sensitivity component, and

14

15

the group sensitivity test was expanded.

3. Women are more accurate observers than men. Women
have been demonstrated to be better at interpreting photos
and in remembering faces. Assuming that recall and skill
in these social tasks is part of observation, the hypothesis
tests a broader area of difference between men and women
observers.

4. The correlates of good listening and looking are
different. While the literature provides no evidence for
different determinants of looking and listening, an exploratory
hypothesis seemed warranted.

5. Good observers have constructive leadership attitudes.
Showel found leadership ratings were correlated with accuracy
of observation in natural settings. In further exploration
of this conclusion, the test of the hypothesis here was
assumed to determine whether attitudes empirically shown
to be characteristics of good leaders are related to obser-

vation in a film situation.

METHOD AND PROCEDURE

In the first phase of this study, a new instrument
for the measurement of observation was developed, based on
an earlier test used by Harris (1962) developed from color-
sound films produced by Cline (1960). The revised test
of observation was then included in a battery of measures
administered to a group of college students. Some of the
instruments used were measures of abilities and factors
postulated to be related to observation, while others were
included in an effort to probe for relationships that would

suggest hypotheses for future investigation.

Subjects

The subjects for the major phase of the study were
130 students in an Industrial Psychology class at Michigan
State University during the Spring, 1963, term. All sub-
jects had previously taken at least one psychology course.
Table 1 provides information about the subjects. Students
from two classes in Educational Psychology at a level
approximately equivalent to that of the main experimental
group were subjects during the development of the test.

16

17

Table 1. Age and sex of subjects.

 

 

 

 

Age Male Female Total
Under 20 15 8 23
2O - 24 79 ll 90
Over 24 16 . 1 17

Total 110 20 130

 

The Measurement of Observation

 

The test of observation was developed specifically
to derive two independent subtest scores measuring respective-
ly (a) the extent and accuracy of observing cues of appearance
and action: (b) the extent and accuracy of observing the
content of conversation. The appearance subtest (a)
includes observation of both physical features and actions,
while the conversation subtest (b) is limited to information
in speech. The total observation score is the appearance -
and conversation scores combined. In contrast, Harris'
test had furnished one score only, and chance error by
loading with either type of observation was not controlled.
The format of the test was altered to increase the

reliability. Four answer choices were provided instead of

18

the "True" and "False" items used before, thereby increasing L,-

choicesvand power while reducing the total number of items
and the administration time.

The films used in the study have been described above.
The three films of male interviewees were administered as
a series, and the three films of female interviewees formed
a second series. Both the test development and final testing
are based on these two separate series of three films each.

The original 240 items for the test were collected
from four judges who observed the films a number of times,
each time noting only those cues of observation that dif-
ferentiate the interviewees. That is, items that were
relevant (correct) for only one of the three interviewees
were used. From the pool of items suggested, 90 appearance
and 90 conversation items were chosen. Sixty additional
items were developed that were considered plausible, but
were inapplicable to any of the interviewees on the films.
The 120 items for observing men and 120 for observing women
were verified by reviewing the films two or more times.
Consensus among the judges concerning the differentiating
significance and clarity of each item was a prerequisite to
inclusion in the test.

The preliminary test of observing was administered

19

to students in Educational Psychology. The appearance

and conversation subtests of both tests (observing men and
women) were scored separately. The most discriminating
items from each test were chosen by the method of item
analysis. The quartile of highest scorers and the quartile
of lowest scorers were separated for an item count to deter—
mine the percentage of subjects in each group that correctly
answered each item. The difference between these percentages
was an index of item discriminability. The most discrimin—
ating items (17% or greater) were chosen for the final form
of the test of 120 items, which is presented in Appendix A.
An equal number of items was chosen for each answer category
(1 to 4) for each test.

The odd-even reliability coefficient corrected for
test length was calculated for each test and subtest. Those
for each test are reported in Table 2. Total test reliability
is +.74, an increase over the reliability ofj+.677reported
for the original test, although the revised test is shorter
by 60 items. The test of observing women has considerably
lower reliability than that of men: no comparison data is
available on Haris' test.

The internal consistency of the conversation subtest

is appreciably higher than that of the appearance subtest,

20

Table 2. Corrected odd-even reliability coefficients of the
tests of observing men and women.

 

 

 

 

N = 130
Objects Observed Reliability
The Men Test (60 four-choice items) .68
The Women Test (60 four-choice items) .57
Total (both films; 120 items) .74

 

Table 3. Corrected odd-even reliability coefficients of the
appearance and conversation subtests.

 

 

 

 

N = 130
Type of Observations Reliability
The Appearance Test (60 four—choice items) .49
The Conversation Test (60 four-choice items) .73
Total Test (120 items) .74

 

but both are satisfactory for the purpose of the present
investigation. Listening to men is the most consistent

subtest, while appearance of women is the least reliable.

21
The Measurement of Interpersonal Sensitivity

The test of Inference Accuracy developed by Harris
(1962) described above was revised bnyrossman (1963), and
the revised instrument was used to measure the interpersonal
sensitivity of the subjects. The test measures the ability
of the judge to make accurate inferences about the inter-
viewees--to predict how the interviewee would respond to
specific test items. The criterion of accuracy is the
responses of the interviewee himself. The test consists of
60 items concerning the male interviewees and 60 items con-
cerning the female interviewees. Grossman introduced alter-
ations in order to eliminate sources of error due to rating
bias, assumed similarity between judge and stimulus person,

and the effect of stereotype accuracy.

The Measurement of GroupgSensitivity

Zavala (1960) developed a test of stereotype accuracy
that has been revised by both Silkiner (1962) and Johnson
(1963). Johnson's test of Group Sensitivity is an attempt
to measure.the understanding of individuals of group norms,
and of differences between groups. The format of the test
forces the judge to make differential choices between two

criterion groups for each item. He must determine not only

22

whether an item is typical of a particular group, but he
must also determine whether it is more typical of one group
than another. Scores are based on actual responses of each
group. There are four sub-scales in the test used in this
study, the first two consisting of 30 items and the last two
of 45 each:

Men—Women Stereotype: the criterion groups were

business and professional men and a large sample

of women.

Young-Old Stereotype: the criterion groups were

15 and 55 years old.

Executive—Unskilled Stereotype: the criterion

groups were business and professional men and

unskilled male employees.

Psychologist-Nonepsychologist Stereotype: the

criterion groups were male psychologists and other

business and professional men.

The Measurement of Empathic Drive

A test developed by Mullin (1962) defines and measures
empathic drive in terms of the degree to which individuals
tend to respond to others in terms of their internal psycho-

logical states, that is, their thoughts and feelings, as

23

contrasted to physical, actional, and character level of

response.

The Measurement of Level and Spread of Rating

A test was devised to measure rating tendencies. On
the basis of brief, ambiguous sketches, subjects were to rate
three persons on a number of favorable qualities. The mean
rating of each judge is a measure of his generosity (level)
in rating others, and the variance is a measure of the

variability (spread) tendency of his ratings.

The MEasurement of Leadership Attitudes

Consideration and Initiation of Structure are sub-
scales of a leadership attitudes questionnaire developed
by Dore (1960). The first measures employee-centered
versus work-centered attitudes. The second measures the
subject's opinion about whether a leader should continue

to behave like other members of the group, or whether he

should play a different role.

Other Measures and Information

A variety of other information and measures were

included: Age, sex and class in college; curriculum, or

 

24

the student's area of major study rated on a five-point scale
based on the amount of scientific training received; psychology
credits, course grade, and grade point average received at
Michigan State University; scores on the quantitative,

linguistic, and total tests of the American Council on

 

Education College Entrance Examination; social economic
status based on the education level of parents: and
psychological distance—-a rating by the subjects as to the
degree of similarity of their own attitudes to those of the
interviewees.

Twenty-two personality scales developed by H. C.
Smith were included. A description and reliability co-

efficient of each scale is tabulated in Appendix B.

General Procedure

All measures were derived from 130 students regularly
enrolled in an Industrial Psychology course which normally
is composed of more men than women. Tests were administered
during class time, and class discussion and testing (for
grades) was done later during the term. Motivation to
participate was partially contingent on motivation for grades.
All subjects both observed the films and completed tests in
the identical order: the men film preceded the women film

by five days.

25

All measures and information were intercorrelated
by use of the Michigan State University Integral Computer.

A table of all items correlated with the observation test
for each of the subject samples (male, female and total)
respectively is presented in Appendix C.

The pool of 750 items comprising the personality
scales were studied by the method of item analysis in order
to extract those items that are related to observation. The
high and low quartiles of scorers on the total observation
test were used as criterion groups, and the percentage of
scorers in each group that answered the item correctly were
tabulated. The product-moment correlation of each item with
scores on the observation test was estimated (see Walker
and Lev, 1953, p. 275). The coefficient is an index of
the usefulness of each item to discriminate high scorers
on the observation test. Seventy—five most discriminating
items are given in Appendix D. Although no single item is
expected to indicate clear differences between high and
low observation test scorers, the pool of items derived may

suggest hypotheses for investigation.

RESULTS

The evaluation of the data relevant to each hypothesis

is tabulated and reported in detail below.

Hypothesis 1: Observation is aygeneral ability.

 

The hypothesis states that a good observer of one thing
is also a good observer of different things. This hypothesis
was tested in the present study first by determining if
accurate observers of one type of people (men) are accurate
observers of another type of people (women), and second, by
testing whether good observers of one kind (appearance) are
good observers of another kind (conversation). Correlations

for the first test are given in Table 4.

Table 4. Correlations between observation of men and
observation of women.

 

 

 

 

Observers Correlation Across Sexes
Male (N = 110) .37*** (.60)
Female (N = 20) .43 (.69)
Total (N = 130) .38*** (.62)

 

***Significant at .001 level.

26

27

For men observers the correlation between observing
men and women is highly significant; for women the correlation
is even larger, but does not reach significance because of
the small sample size. Because of the low reliability of
the observation and other tests, the empirical relationships
clearly show a minimum rather than a maximum estimate of the
relationship. The figures in parentheses are coefficients
corrected for attenuation--the measure of the true relation-
ship probably lies between these two estimates. The hypo-
thesis is supported by the first test applied: Men who are
good observers of men tend also to be good observers of women.
It can be less confidently concluded that women who are good
observers of men also tend to be good observers of women.

A second test of the hypothesis is to determine
if observers of appearance are also accurate observers of
conversation. The correlations between conversation and
appearance scores are given in Table 5; all are positive
and significant. The hypothesis is supported in that people
are consistent in these two types of observation. The good
listener is also an alert observer. In general, there is
strong substantiation for the hypothesis that observation is

a general ability.

28

Table 5. Correlations between accurate listening and
observation of appearance

 

 

Correlation Across Types

 

 

Observers of Observation
Male (N = 110) .28** (.47)
Female (N = 20) .50* (.83)

Total (N = 130) .32*** (.54)

 

*Significant at .05 level.
**Significant at .01 level.
***Significant at .001 level.

Hypothesis 2: Good observers areygoodgjudges of both

individuals and groups.

 

This hypothesis was tested by considering (l) the
relation of the scores on observation to the test of inter—
personal sensitivity, (2) the relation of the observation
test to the test of group sensitivity, and (3) the relation
of the observation test to the composite scores of both
these tests.

Correlations between observation scores and inter-
personal sensitivity are reported in Table 6. The correlation
between observation of men and interpersonal sensitivity is
significant at the .01 level, whereas the relationship between

sensitivity and observation of women is positive but lower

 

 

 

29

Table 6. Correlations between observation and interpersonal
sensitivity scores and group sensitivity scores
and interpersonal and group sensitivity combined.

 

 

 

 

N = 130
. Interpersonal Group. Total
Objects Observed Sensitivity Sensitivity Sensitivity
Men .23** (.38) .21* (.32) .31***
women .16 (.36) .12 (.20) .20*
Total (both films) .21* (.34) .22**(.34) .30***

 

*Significant at .05 level.
**Significant at .01 level.
***Significant at .001 level.

and not significant. The data regarding group sensitivity
are almost identical to those of interpersonal sensitivity.
Comparison of figures indicates in both cases a significant
correlation between observation and both aspects of
sensitivity with regard to men as objects, but the relation-
ship for female objects is not satistically reliable. Cor-
relations betWeen general sensitivity and observation are
all positive and significant. The hypothesis is supported
by all of the data, although the substantiation is most
reliable for observation of men. Good observers are good

judges of both groups and individuals.

3O
Hypothesis 3: Women are more accurate observers than men.

The difference between men and women on average
scores on (1) the appearance, (2) conversation, and (3) total
observation tests were compared to test this hypothesis.

Table 7 shows the critical ratios of three tests of
the hypothesis that women‘are more accurate observers than
men. Tests of the difference between the means of both sub—
tests and total scores for men and women fail to indicate
statistically significant variation. In all cases the
differences are in the expected direction, implying a tendency

for women to be better than men in all measures of observation.

Table 7. Comparison of means for the test of observation.

 

Male Observers Female Observers

 

 

Observation N = 110 N = 20 D1ff° CR

Appearance 33.80 34.70 1.90 1.63 ns

Conversation 39.75 42.00 2.25 1.14 ns
Total 73.55 76.75 3.20 1.53 ns

 

Hypothesis 4: The correlates of good listening and looking are

different.

 

It was the purpose of the present study to demonstrate

the similarity between looking and listening--that good lookers

31

are good listeners--but all the variance is not accounted

for in the coefficients testing these relationships. While
the history gives no evidence that looking and listening have
different determinants, it seemed worthwhile to test the
hypothesis that listening and looking have some different
correlates. In testing for these differences for 68 variables,
the differences between the correlations with appearance

and conversation were determined. Table 8 shows those
variables for which the difference between the correlations
with appearance and conversation is significant at the .05
level. As compared with accuracy in looking, good listening
is found in younger observers; it is related to less interest
in money, more considerate and constructive leadership atti-
tudes,and greater interpersonal and general sensitivity.
Listening and looking are apparently different with regard

to these correlates, but conclusions cannot be drawn with

a high level of confidence. Of 68 comparisons, 3.4 would

be expected by chance at the 5 percent level, consequently,

the seven that were found must be considered with caution.

Hypothesis 5: Good observers have constructive leadership

 

attitudes.
Leadership attitudes were measured by the Consideration

and Initiation of Structure scales. The first is concerned

32

Table 8. Variables that differentiate between good
listening and looking.

 

 

 

 

Correlations
Variable Appearance Conversation Diff. CR
1. Economic values .01 -.25 -.26 2.60*
2. Consideration and
Structuring -.08 .16 .24 2.38*
3. General Sensitivity .12 .35 .23 2.37*
4. Initiation of
Structure -.12 .11 .23 2.27*
5. Age of Observer .04 -.17 .21 2.07*
6. Class of Observer .ll —.09 -.20 1.96*
7. Interpersonal
Sensitivity .07 .26 .19 1.96*

 

*Significant at .05 level.

with leaders' personal interest in workers; the second with
the leader's differential role. None of the correlations
that indicate a relationship between observation and these
tests was significantly different from zero. It cannot be
concluded that good observers have constructive leadership

attitudes.

33
Item Analysis of Personality Scales

None of the twenty-two personality measures was
significantly correlated with observation. Although no
salient personality trait appears related to observation, a
number of items within the scales were found to differentiate
between good and poor observers. From 750 items in the
scales, 75 were extracted. The seven most discriminating
items (.05 level or better) are given in Table 9 with the
total list of 75 items in Appendix D. However, thirty-seven
items from such a pool would be expected to be significant
at the five percent level or lower. Consequently, little
confidence can be placed in these items without cross—

validation.

34

Table 9. Items from the personality scales that differentiate
good observers from poor observers.

 

 

Answer of‘ Correlation

Item Good Observer With Observation

 

1. I like calling friends
by nicknames True .49

2. Compared to your own
self-respect, the
respect of others
means very little. True .48

3. I am not affected by
flattery. False .48

4. I believe that everyone's
intentions are good. False .45

5. I like looking at shop
windows. False .44

6. I am very intense about
the things which interest
me most True .43

7. I enjoy helping people
with their personal
problems False .40

 

DISCUSSION

The results of the tests of five hypotheses con—

cerned with observation are summarized in Table 10.

Table 10. Level of demonstrated support for each hypothesis.

 

 

 

Hypothesis Results
1. Observation is a general ability. + +
2. Good observers are good judges + +
3. Women are more accurate observers than men. +

4. Correlates of good listening and looking
are different. +

5. Good observers have constructive leadership
attitudes. 0

 

+ + Strong support.
+ weak support.
0 No support.

The observation test appears to be an improvement
over the earlier form used by Harris. The revised instru-
ment has greater internal consistency with fewer items, it
is administered in less time, and it has distinguished

appearance and conversation components of observation. rJ

35

36

However, while the reliability of the conversation sub-
test and the total test are adequate for research purposes,
the appearance subtest requires improvement.

To verify Harris' conclusion that observation is a
dimension that can be measured, the present study further
tested the hypothesis that observation is a general ability.
The hypothesis was strongly substantiated again: good
observers of men are good observers of women, and good
listeners are good lookers. Although both Haris' conclusions
and these are based on observation of films, the extension of
the scope of evidence here is suggestive of wider appli-
cation, for example, to observation of actual persons.

In general, good observers appear to be good judges
of individuals and groups, but the relationship is strongly
substantiated only for observation of men. This contradicts
Harris' results, which showed good observers of women were
accurate in inferences about both women and men. However,
the low correlations with observation of women here reported
probably are due to the relatively low reliability of the
test of observing women compounded with the low reliability
of the inference test (r = +.36) reported by Grossman (1963).

The relationship established between observation

and judging suggests that training judges to become better

37

observers may result in better judging. Since observing is
independent of intelligence, or specific personality dimensions,
improving observation ability does not require gross personal—
ity changes. There seem to be no severe hindrances to train-
ing any judge to be a better observer. A direct experimental
training program could test this hypothesis, and could clarify
the nature of the relation of observation to judging.

. The lack of significant mean score differences
between men and women contrasts with reports by both Witryol
and Kaess (1957) and Jenness (1932). Although women in this
sample did consistently better in appearance, conversation,
and total scores, because the differences are not significant,
conclusions cannot be generalized. The small size of the
female group along with possible sampling bias in the small
number of women who select an Industrial Psychology course
renders generalization precarious.

People who differ in looking and listening accuracy
are different in other significant ways. The results of the
study show that better listening is correlated with younger
age, less concern with money, higher interpersonal sensitivity,
and greater consideration for others--that is, high leader—
ship potential. This latter characteristic is surprising in

View of the lack of support found for the hypothesis that

38

good observers have constructive leadership attitudes.
Showel (1960) reported that ratings of leadership qualities
are correlated with observation; the present study failed to
confirm his results. Leadership potential is related to
better listening than looking, but it is not related to

good observing per se.

In general, the major finding in regard to personality
and observational accuracy was that personality traits have
little if any relationship to observation. Although no
relationship was found between good observing and twenty-
two personality scales studied, a number of items within the
scales did differentiate good observers. Of the seven items
significantly related to good observing, five refer to inter-
personal attitudes. One may be categorized as "friendly,"
but three are of an unfriendly and suspicious quality:
one connotes interpersonal immaturity, and three suggest
withdrawal from persons. Generally, it is suggested that
the good observer has negative feelings toward others.

These speculations imply that both good observing and better
listening than looking are related to interpersonal attitudes.
Follow-up study might profitably focus on such attitudes in
relation to observation rather than intra-personality

dimensions.

SUMMARY

A test of observation was developed, based on six
five-minute filmed interviews with people. The final form
of 120 four-choice items has two subtests to measure accuracy
in observing appearance and conversation respectively. Half
of the test is based on observing men and half on observing'
women. The test is improved over a former instrument develop-
ed by Harris (1962) in that it is shorter, requires less
time, and the reliability coefficient of +.74 is higher.

Along with other instruments, the test was administered
to 130 students to test the following five hypotheses:
(1) Observation is a general ability, (2) Good observers are
good judges of both groups and individuals, (3) Women are
more accurate observers than men, (4) The correlates of good
listening and looking are different, and (5) Good observers
have constructive leadership attitudes.

The first hypothesis was supported by correlations
that showed that good observers of men are good observers
of women, and good listeners are also good observers of

physical appearance.

39

40

The second hypothesis was also supported. Cor—
relations between observing and inference tests were all
positive and for men, all were significant. Non-significant
correlations for women observers were concluded to be due
to the small number of women in the sample.

For the third hypothesis, tests of differences be-
tween mean scores on observation for men and women observers
showed that women in this sample are more accurate observers,
but the differences are not significant and general conclusions
cannot be drawn.

To test hypothesis four, the differences between
correlations with appearance and conversation scores for
each variable were calculated and tested for significance.
Seven variables were found related to better listening than
looking, among them, leadership attitudes and low interest
in money.

The fifth hypothesis was not supported; no correlations
between observation and tests measuring leadership attitudes
were Significantly different from zero.

Harris' conclusions that observation is an important
variable related to judging people has been verified. An
experimental training program and study of interpersonal

attitudes were suggested for further research.

10.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beier, E. and Stumpf, J. Cues influencing judgment of
personality characteristics. J. consult. Psychol.,
1959, 2;, 219-225.

 

Bronfenbrenner, U., Harding, J., and Gallway, M. The
Measurement of skill in social perception. In
McClelland, D. (Ed.) Talent and Society, New York:
D. Van Nostrand, 1958.

Buzby, D. E. The interpretation of facial expression.
Amer. J. Psychol., 1924, 35, 602—604.

 

Cline, V. B. and Richards, J. M. Accuracy of inter-
personal perception——a general trait? J. abnorm.
soc. Psychol., 1960, 69, 1-7.

 

 

Davitz, J. and Davitz, L. J. The communication of
feelings by content-free speech. J. Communication,
1959, 2, 6-13.

 

Davitz, J. and Davitz, L. J. Vocal communication of
feeling. J. Communication, 1959a,.2, 110-117.

Deutsch, F. Analysis of postural behavior. Psychoanal.
Quartet 1947’ l.__6_1 195-213o '

Deutsch, F. Correlations of verbal and non-verbal
communication in interviews elicited by the
associative anamnesis. Psychosom. Med., 1959, 21,
123-130.

 

Dore, R. The Development and Validation of Forced-
Choice Scales Measuring Attitudes Toward Leadership,
Master's thesis, 1960.

Edwards, A. L. Experimental Design in Psychological
Research. New York: Rinehart and Company, 1960.

41

ll.

12.

l3.

14.

15.

l6.

l7.

l8.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

42

Freud, S. Psychopathology of Evetyday Life. New York:
New American Library, 1951.

 

Frijda, N. H. Facial expression and situational cues.
J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1958, 51, 149-154.

 

Grossman, B. A Test of Interpersonal Sensitivity and
its Correlates, Master's thesis, 1963.

Guilford, J. P. An experiment in learning to read
facial expression. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1929,
23, 191-202.

 

Gynther, R. A. The effects of anxiety and of situational
stress on communication efficiency. J. abnorm. soc.
PSYChOlo: 1957’ 2.4., 274-276.

 

Harris, W. A. The Relation of Observational to
Inferential Accuracy in Judging People. Master's
thesis, 1962.

Hershey, G. L. College grades in relation to inventory
measures of personality. Master's thesis, 1958.

Ittelson, W. H. and Slack, C. W. The perception of
persons as visual objects. In Tagiuri, R., and
Petrullo, L. (Eds.) Person Perception and Inter—
gpgrsonal Behavior, Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 1958.

 

 

Jenness, A. The recognition of facial expressions of
emotions. Psychol. Bull., 1932, 22, 320-350.

 

Johnson, R. A Test of Group Sensitivity and its
Correlates. Master's thesis, 1963.

Kogan, N. and Shelton, F. Differential cue value of
age and occupation in impression formation. Psychol.
R 2" 1960' 1' 203-216.

Mullin, J. Empathic Drive and its Influence on Accuracy
in judging People. Master's thesis, 1962.

Murray, H. A. The effects of fear upon estimates of
the maliciousness.of other personalities. J. soc.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

43

Needles, W. Gesticulation and speech. Int. J. ngcho-
Anal., 1959, 49, 291-294.

Rump, E. E. Facial expression and situational cues:
Demonstration of logical error in Frijda's report.
Acta psychol., Amst., 1960, 17, 31-38.

 

Secord, P. F. Facial features and inference processes
in interpersonal perception. In Tagiuri, R.,
and Petrullo, L. (Eds.) Person Perception and
Interpersonal Behavior, Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1958.

 

 

Sherif, M. An experimental study of stereotypes. .J.
soc. Psychol., 1933, 4, 310-329.

 

Showel, M. Interpersonal knowledge and rated leader-
ship potential, J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1960,
61, 87-92.

 

Silkiner, D. A Cross-Cultural Study of the Measurement,
Determinants, and Effects of Stereotype Accuracy.
Master's thesis, 1962.

Walker, H. and Lev, J. Statistical Inference. New
York: Helt, Rinehart and Winston, 1953.

Zavala, A. A Test of Stereotype Accuracy, Master's
thesis, 1960.

APPENDIX A

q 5
EB. lac/ks
February, 1963

TIE JUmMENT OF MEN

GENERAL DIRECTIONS:

This is a test of your ability to judge men. You are going to see five-
minute filmed interviews with three men: Mr. G, Mr. W., and Mr. 2. When
the film is over you will be asked to answer questions about what they
looked like and said and also to answer questions about how they rated
themselves and what their friends think of them. That is, the test is
divided into two parts:

Part I. Observational Accuracy

Part II. Inference Accuracy

Instructions 29; Part I

 

This part of the test is concerned with the appearance, actions, “and
conversation of the three men. The statements in the test are of the
following kinds:
He had a red hat
He smiled frequently
He said he liked to play chess
Answer the questions by using spaces 1, 2, 3, and h on the separate
answer sheet!
Mark "1" if you think the correct answer is Mr. G. (the man in
' the first interview)
Mark "2" if you think the correct answer is Mr. W. (the man in
the second interview)
Mark "3" if you think the correct answer is Mr. 2. (the man in
the third interview)
Mark "I4" if you think the statement applies to none of the three
men.

Do all the items and try not to leave any blank.

11) NOT TURN THIS PAGE UNTIL THE FILM IS FINISHED
INSTRUCTIONS FOR PART 2 FOLLOW PART I

PART I

OBSERVATIONAL ACCURACY

Appearance and.Actions

The first thirty statements refer to the appearance and actions of the men.
REMEMBER to use "1" for Mr. G., "2" for Mr. W., . "3" for Mr. 2.,
statements that refer to none of the men.

1.

19.

He smiled frequently.

He kept wringing his hands.

His shirt and jacket were the same color.
He left quickly.

He shook the interviewer's hand when he entered.
He wore a knit white pullover shirt. ‘
He wore a wedding ring.

He sat far back from the table.

He gave a quick smile upon leaving.

He put his left hand to his chin.

He had a rather high forehead. ‘
He did not change his facial expression.‘
His eyes appeared to be red.

He had a nervous stutter.

His elbows were on the table.

He folded a piece of paper. '

.He had a very soft voice.

He moved his chair forward

His hands were in his lap most of the time.
He sat sideways to the interviewer.

He was wearing a shiny belt.

There was a birthmark on his upper lip.

He wore a tan sport jacket.

He needed to shave. -

He covered.his mouth.

There was a pen or pencil in his hand.

He had a pen clipped to his shirt.

His hair was parted on the right.

He wore a turtle-neck sweater.

He did.not shift his body at all during the interview;

NFWHHNNWPWF—‘NHP’W

VITNNNW‘NWWUJF'W |-'

- PC."

and "h" for

'Answers

(over)

-3-

Conversation

The following statements refer to what the interviewees said.
for Mr. G, "2“ for Mr.‘w, "3" for Mr. 2, and “4" fer none of them»

He said that:

31.
32.
33.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
b0.
#1.
42.
43.

45.

I46.
#7.
#8.
he.
50.
51.
52.
53-
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.

Remember to use "1"

Answers

He did not want to talk about himself.

He would sometimes go to a person who lied about him.

Being in movies makes him nervous.

He is not very athletic.

People don't need religion.

He has been in home movies.

He keeps his emotions in check.

He never attends church.

HO likes danCi-ngo

He likes being married.

Mbral teachings are important to most peOple.
He would get ”sore" if someone lied about him.
People need a basic belief. . .

It is good to get along with peOple.

He likes music.

He is an average person.

He likes to "play around."

He wouldn't like it if his brother took his car.
Religion is not a major issue to him.

He said that people have a big conscience.
Religion keeps him from things he feels like doing.
He never goes to parties.

He has few friends. .

Only a mean or big thing makes him lose his temper.
He gets along well with intimate friends.

Religion is important to him.

He said that he doesn't mind being in movies..

It is important to have a hobby.

He likes summer sports.

He is disturbed at the way peOple get after parties.

NI—‘l-me'p'l—‘P'NI-‘F'NVHN

WFwaNWNPWWHWI-‘H

EB. BG/HS
February, 1963

THE JUDGMENT OF WOMEN

GENERAL DIRECTIONS:

This is a test of your ability to judge women. You are going to see
five-minute filmed interviews with three women: Mrs. D., Mrs. N..
and Mrs. P. When the film is over you will be asked to answer
questions about what they looked like and said and also to answer
questions about how they rated themselves and what their friends
think of them. That is, the test is divided into two parts:

Part I. Observational Accuracy

Part II. Inference Accuracy

Instructions for Part I.

This part of the test is concerned with the appearance, actions.
and conversation of the three women. The statements in the test
are of the following kinds:
She had a red hat
She smiled frequently
She said she liked to play tennis
Answer the questions by using spaces 1, 2, 3, and 4 on the
separate answer sheet:
Mark "1" if you think the correct answer is Mrs. D.
(the woman in the first interview)
Mark "2" if you think the correct answer is Mrs. N.
(the woman in the second interview) ’
Mark "3" if you think the correct answer is Mrs. P.
(the woman in the third interview)
Mark "4" if you think the statement applies to none
of the three women.
'Please answer all the statements, leaving none blank.

DO NOT TURN THIS PAGE UNTIL THE FILM IS FINISHED
Instructions for Part II follow Part I

, PART I
OBSERVATIONAL ACCURACY

Appearance_and Actions .
The first sixty statements refer to the appearance and actions of the women.
REMEMBER to use "1" for Mrs. D., "2" for Mrs. N., "3" for Mrs. P. and "u" for
statements that refer to none of the women.

:EEEEEEEE
1. She wore short sleeves. 1
2. She wore a necklace h
3. She faced the camera directly. 1
h. Her hair was messy and uncombed. l
5. She wore a ring on her right hand. 2
6. She smiled very infrequently. 2
7. Her hands were below the table. 3
8. She clenched her fingers. I
9. She had very thin eyebrows. 3
10. She straightened her glasses. h-
11. She leaned back in her chair. 1
12. Her hair was turned under on the ends. 3
13. She had a long thin neck. 1
1“. She had to clear her throat. h
15. She spoke slowly and softly. 2
16. Her coat had a button undone. 3
17. She looked down as she left. 3
18. She nervously tugged at her collar. h
19. She wore shiny silver earrings. 3
20. Her ring had a dark colored stone. 2
21. Her watch had a gold strap on it. h
22. She were no lipstick. I;
23. She had waves in her hair. 2
2h. She used no hand gestures at all. 3
25. She took something-from.the table as she left. 2
26. She gestured with both hands. 1
27. She carried no purse. 3
28. She were no earrings. 1

29. She put her gloves on the table.
30. She sat sideways to the interviewer.

nefi?

(over)

-2-

Conversation
The remaining statements refer to what the interviewees said. Remember to use "1"
for Mrs. D., "2" for Mrs. R., "3" for Mrs. P., and "4" for none of them.

SHE SAID THAT:
Answer
31. She wished she had more patience.
32. She reads a great deal.
33. She expects people to be inconsiderate.
3km She has few friends.
35. Religion makes peOple better.
36. In her spare time she works in her home.
37. It is a problem for her to put up with 10 other employees.
38. Religion is something to cling to and depend on.
39. She loses her temper when she' s tired and nervous.
#0. She thinks religious persons den't lose their temper.
#1. Religion should be the greatest thing in the home.
he. She has no time for hobbies.
#3. She would give money for mentally disturbed people.
nu. She never gets finished.with housework.
M5. She thinks she is quite a hard worker.

#6. She loses her temper often.

“7. She would laugh off a lie told about her.
#8. Religion should be "over 50% of one's life."
“9. One of her handicaps is lack of time to do what she wants to do..
50. She thinks there is good in everyone. '

51. She tends to control her temper too much.

52. Her work is in the field of religion.

53. Remembering names is her greatest problem.

5”. She can't control her temper.

55. The inconsiderateness of people makes her lose her temper.
56. A lie would make her mad.

5?. Her greatest problem is neglecting her family.

58. She likes to do things that are creative.

59. She agreed that she is "very busy."

60. Religion is important in her home.

meFHHFwNHrmmwm werwaHmFmFHSN

APPENDIX B

1

DESCRIPTION OF PERSONALITY SCALES

 

Scale Reliability

Description

 

Activity

Sensory awareness

Sexuality

Expressiveness

Self confidence

Dominance

Calmness

 

.79

.63

.80

.86

.87

.87

.87

An attempt to determine the
general activity level of the
individual.

The degree to which an
individual is aware of his
surroundings via his sense
organs. -

Interest in members of the
opposite sex and activities
pertaining thereto.

The relative amount of
freedom or restraint the
individual displays in
expressing emotion.

How the individual evaluates
his own worth, adequacy, and
competence.

Measures degree of dominance
through items related to
dominance feelings, behavior,
and leadership.

The degree to which indi—
viduals become emotionally
involved in situations and
with others.

1Developed by H. C. Smith, described in Hershey, 1958.

50

51

Scale Reliability Description

 

8. Optimism .81 The general pattern of re-
sponses to situations; is
it pessimistic or optimistic.

9. Emotional control .87 What are the individual's
reactions to emotional
emergencies and to frustra-
ting situations.

10. Religious .90 Measures the intensity and
scepticism confidence of the individual's
belief in God, in the super-
natural, and in divine
intervention.

11. Liberalism .75 Degree of liberalism and
conservatism the individual
displays in relation to a
number of issues.

12. Nonconformity .77 Attempts to differentiate
conformists from non-
conformists.

l3. Introversion .80 The degree to which a person

is inward or outward oriented
in his perception of the

environment.
14. Breadth of .82 {An attempt to measure an
Interest individual's self-extension

through determining the
number of likes in such
areas as occupations, school
subjects, amusements,
activities, and types of
people.

15. Artistic values .92 Measure of interest.in form
and harmony, beauty, and
aesthetic activities.

Scale

Reliability

Description

 

l6.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

Ambition

Organization

Economic values

Gregarious

Suppression

Scientific values

Warmth

.77

.91

.81

.87

.75

.86

.71

Whether the individual
desires to do things as
rapidly and as well as
possible; whether he makes
intense, prolonged and
repeated efforts; whether
he enjoys competition.

Attempts to measure some
aspects of Cattell's
"positive vs. immature
dependent character,"
e.g., consistently ordered
vs. relaxed; conscientious
vs. undependable, etc.

Whether the individual is
primarily interested in
what is useful; pre-
occupied with affairs of
the business world.

Measures need for affiliation,
not to be confused with
sociability, which implies
social skill, social values,
etc.

An unpublished scale
measuring the extent to
which a person will admit
unfavorable thoughts and
actions. Items are similar
to MMPI L scale.

Relative degree of interest
in scientific endeavors
and scientific method.

The degree to which an indi-
vidual likes, accepts, and
approves, feels close to

and wants to help others.

APPENDIX C

 

 

 

 

owe mme poo moo eoo moo one mam «me lame ooaaexmoou.omxm

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56

 

 

 

 

 

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HOB coo mom uOB COD and HOB coo mmo
mnemomaoo Easm :mEOB Edam so:

 

 

 

.ooscHucoo I mamfimm Hmuoa

 

 

 

 

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woe coo mam nos :00 mm< HOE coo mm<
mummomaov Eamm coEo3 Esmm so:

 

 

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u z oHoEmm cox

.moanmmsm> sonuo nuHB c0mum>somno mo mGOHUMHossoo

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Hmuoe

59

 

 

 

 

 

mmo mms mmo- omo mms mmo- mmo- mos mso- Ammo osouoosum

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woe coo QQ< #08 C00 mom uOB soo mmo

ouHmOQEoo EHHm coEoZ EHHm coz

 

 

.omocmucou I onEmm so:

60

 

 

 

 

 

 

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.om M Z oHQEmm coEoB .moHQmmsm> sozuo spHB :oHpm>somno mo mCOHUMHossou

61

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APPENDIX D

ITEMS EXTRACTED FROM THE PERSONALITY SCALES

BY ITEM ANALYSIS

 

 

 

 

44 84 -.44

100 80 .43

64 92 -.40

Significant at

Percent

Hi Lo r Answer Item

Significant at .02 level

100 84 .49 T l. I like calling friends by
nicknames.

32 4 .48 T 2. Compared to your own self—respect,
the respect of others means very
little.

4 32 -.48 F 3. I am not affected by flattery.
Significant at .05 level
12 48 -.45 F 4. I believe that everyone's

intentions are good.
F 5. I like looking at shop windows.

T 6. I am very intense about the
things which interest me most.

 

16 48 -.37

92 68 .37

32 8 .37

F 7. I enjoy helping people with
their personal problems.
.10 level
F 8. I like cripples.
T 9. I insist on being able to come
and go as I want.
T 10. I generally keep in the back—

ground at social functions.

64

65

 

Siggificant at less

84 56
36 68
84 56
84 56

.33

-.33

.33

.33

64 88 -.33

T

F

than

Percent
Hi Lo r Answer Item

80 96 -.36 F 11. I believe that our modern
industrial age has attained a
much greater degree of culture
than that ever attained by any
previous civilization.

80 60 .36 T 12. I am pretty satisfied with the
way I am.

12 40 -.36 F 13. I have been so emotional that
I was almost sick.

4 20 -.36 F 14. Cat meat is out of the question
for the human diet under any
circumstances.

4 20 —.36 F 15. I don't especially care for
serious people.

52 20 .35 T 16. It is important to approve each
task before permitting the
worker to start another.

20 32 —.35 F 17. If it were not for my fear of

disapproval, I believe I would
violate certain social conventions.

.20 but greater than .1Qflgygl‘

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

I enjoy eating alone occasionally.

No individual, no matter what
the circumstances is justified
in committing suicide.

I control my emotions in practi-
cally all situations.

I am practically always tolerant
even in dealing with people that
I don't like.

I sometimes make useless moves
as I go about my work.

Percent

Hi
32

52

20

52

48

40

76

48

96

6O

60

Lo
12

80

48

80

20

16

48

76

84

84

32

r

.32

-031

-03].

-031

.31

.30

.30

-.3O

.30

-0 30

.29

Answer

T

Item
23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

66

It is important for a leader
to feel he belongs in his group.

Science should have as much to
say about moral values as
religion does.

It is bad for a married man
to take another man's wife to
the movies under any circum—
stances.

I enjoy reading about how
leaders of industry achieve
success as much as anything.

I can always control my temper.

It is more important for a
leader to realize that a worker
generally knows when he is a
slcaker without being told.

I generally-accept suggestions
rather than insist on working
things out in my own way.

I have extremely strong loyalties
toward my ideals of beauty.

It is not absolutely necessary
to believe in the existence of
God in order to lead a good life.

We should make our immigration
restrictions with regard to the
desirability of an individual,
and abolish the practice of a
fixed quota for each nation-
ality.

I enjoy a ride in a roller
coaster immensely.

Percent

Hi
56

28

36

68

68

28

28

32

88

12

Lo
28

56

64

40

4O

56

56

6O

24

24

68

32

r

.29

—.29

-.29

.29

.29

-.29

-.29

—.29

-.28

-028

.28

-.28

Answer

Item
34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

67

My relations with other people
are simple and uncomplicated.

Even in cold weather my skin
never becomes chapped.

I talk with my friends about
my personal reactions to people
a good deal.

I ignore the personal feelings
of other people when it is
necessary.

I avoid making people angry at
considerable sacrifice of my
own interests.

I am driven to ever greater
efforts by the challenge of
unsolved social problems.

I greatly enjoy studying the
history of Social problems to
find out what has been done
about them in the past.

I get an intense pleasure
from just locking at beautiful
buildings.

It is more important for a leader'
to make decisions independently
of the group.

It is more important for a
leader to discourage talking
between workers on the job.

I occasionally spend time
thinking about sexual matters.

I am much less emotional than
other people.

68

 

Percent
Hi Lo r Answer Item

68 88 -.28 F 46. I believe in getting as much
fun as I can out of life.

24 8 .28 T 47. I enjoy taking examinations.

24 8 .28 T 48. I would rather read an article
about a famous musician than
about a famous financier.

8 24 -.28 F 49. We, as individuals, are immortal
beings.

68 88 -.28 F 50. I like-—manufacturer.

80 56 .27 T 51. I 1ike--ship officer.

48 72 —.26 F 52. My inner ideals are all-powerful
motivating forces for me.

64 84 —.26 F 53. I like buying merchandise for
a store.

84 64 .26 T 54. I like smokers.

24 48 -.26 F 55. It is important for a leader to
act as he thinks best, regard—
less of the views of his workers.

24 48 —.26 F 56. I like to discuss my emotions
with others.

28 52 -.26 F 57. I have sometimes felt that my
difficultues were piling up so
that I was unlikely to over—
come them.

84 64 .26 T 58. I proceed on the assumption
that things almost always turn
out all right.

84 64 .26 T 59. I almost always feel that

people approve of me.

69

 

Percent
Hi Lo r Answer Item

76 52 .26 T 60. I am a rather carefree person.

52 28 .26 T 61. I can always tell when my
brow is wrinkled.

48 72 -.26 F 62. I am occasionally carried away
by an emotional impulse.

52 76 -.26 F 63. I would rather have an interest-
ing job with a very small income
than an uninteresting job with
a large income.

48 24 .26 T 64. I would rather be a reporter
than a stock broker.

16 36 —.26 F 65. The main object of scientific
research should be the dis-
covery of abstract truth.

48 72 -.26 F 66. The metric system of weights
and measures should be sub-
stituted for our present system.

24 48 -.26 F 67. The proposal to change the
present calendar to one having
13 months of 28 days is
completely unsound.

16 36 -.26 F 68. I am considered rather un-
emotional by my friends.

48 24 .26 T 69. I am seldom the center of
attention in a group.

56 32 .25 T 70. I sometimes enjoy reading
more than social gatherings.

36 60 -.25 F 71. Even when I'm in low spirits,

I always do what is best for
the long run.

70

 

Percent
Hi Lo r Answer Item
64 40 .25 T 72. Our spelling system should be
simplified.
68 44. .25 T 73. If I were a university professor
and had the necessary ability
I would rather teach literature
than physics.
32 56 -.25 F 74. I am guided in all my conduct
by firm principles.
40 64 —.25 F 75. I almost never notice minor

physical injuries.

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