A away or PERSONNEL puma: AND mums wrm 11mm" 79 UTILIZAYQON m vacum FROM ms Mme muons-w mm? m CERTAIN MiCHtGAN wane swam. mmms flush it): flu Maw 61’ PB. 0. MiCHlGAN STATE UNIVfiRSfi'Y Jack Me Bridt Eyck? 1962 IIMMWW1Iflfllfllflfilmllflfimifl'lflfll 3 1293 01070 6913 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF PERSONNEL PRACTICES AND POLICIES WITH RELATION TO UTILIZATION OF TEACHERS FROM THE NEGRO MINORITY GROUT IN CERTAIN MICHIGAN fUBLIC ' ”‘ ‘ SCHOOT: D‘TSTRICT-sio 'J ... ---J.- "g .a f‘-""_ ,"_l... u“ I l .‘l n f; R ‘-\ '-\ Q H 31.3%...“ ,nggcwcgpde Rider '3 has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Educational Administration A» paw // Major professor Date 11/9/62 0-169 LIBRARy Michigan State mvcrsitv PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE we Jl ll . MSU to An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution Wane-9.1 fl A ABSTRACT A STUDY OF PERSONNEL PRACTICES AND POLICIES WITH RELATION TO UTILIZATION OF TEACHERS FROM THE NEGRO MINORITY GROUP IN CERTAIN MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICTS by Jack McBride Ryder The purpose of this study was to gain insights into the operating personnel practices, policies, and procedures existing in certain Michigan public schools to discover those factors involved in the employment and integration of Negro teachers. It was hoped that common patterns might be discovered among districts which could result in the devel- opment of a set of guidelines for the practicing adminis— trator; and that numerous hypotheses would be generated which would be worthy of considerable research effort. The following research directing questions provided a framework for the study: 1. What factors were related to the initial employment of Negro teachers in the school districts involved in this study? 2. What factors were related to the process of the successful integration of the Negro teacher on the faculty? 3. What factors were perceived as important to the future successful employment and integration of Negro teachers in the school districts involved in this study? Jack McBride Ryder Because of the complex nature of the problem an ex- tensive review of the literature was conducted and related to the findings of this study. In this review attention was given to Negro employment in the armed services, govern- ment service, business and the professions, industry, unions, and education. In addition sociological theory relating to the employment and integration of Negroes was studied and presented in an effort to provide a framework for analysis. 1. 2. 3. The research procedure consisted of: The identification of six school districts to serve as case studies selected on the basis of a number of pertinent criteria. Four of the six districts were studied in considerable depth. 'The development of interview schedules to be used as guides for depth interviews with school board members, superintendents and other administrators, as well as Negro teachers. Securing data by visiting the six school districts and conducting personal interviews with four (4) school board members, five (5) superintendents, seven 7) other administrators (not including prin- cipals , eight (8) elementary school principals, seven 7) high school principals, ten (10) elemen- tary school Negro teachers, seven (7) high school Negro teachers and one white elementary school teacher. The conclusions advanced in relation to the major re- search directing questions are as follows: factors related £3 the initial employment gf Negro teachers 1. The superintendent of schools is the key to the deci- sion to employ the Negro teacher. He may serve to prevent or advance the cause of nondiscriminatory employment practices. The boards of education and other administrators share in their influence with regard to employment Factors Jack McBride Ryder of Negro teachers. The support of both the board and the principals is essential to successful in- tegration of the Negro teacher. Written personnel policy concerning employment with- out regard to race, religion, color or national origin existed, if at all, in only one district and thus was not considered a major influence in the districts involved in the study. The pressure of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Fair Employment Practices laws are important factors stimulating the employment of Negro teachers. Recent changes in the attitudes and memberships of boards of education have resulted in more liberal attitudes toward nondiscriminatory employment practices. The universities often play a major role in stimulat- ing employment of Negro teachers by encouraging the placement of Negro student teachers in districts which do not have integrated faculties. related tg_the process 2; integration 3; Negro teachers l. The Negro teachers were viewed by themselves and by white teachers as symbols or models for Negro youth to emulate, thus creating more esteem for the Negro teacher. The lack of opportunity for social contact with Negroes on the same educational level was a major problem for the Negro teacher. Negro teachers felt they were restricted to a great extent from advancing to administrative positions within the system as a result of continued dis- criminatory practices. Negro teachers expected much more difficulty in the integration process than was encountered. Administrators should expect more problems with Negro teachers as they become accepted members of the staff who perceive themselves as having the same rights and privileges as white teachers. Advancement opportunities were, in fact, limited to some extent but will be opening up rapidly for the exceptionally qualified Negro teacher. Jack McBride Ryder Factors perceived as important 33 future utilisation pf Negro‘teachers 1. IO. 11. The employment and integration of Negro teachers in the districts involved in this study were highly successful. The relationships between the Negro teacher and school personnel, students, parents, and community citizens were highly satisfactory and better than anyone expected. Negro teachers perform a quality teaching service on a highly professional basis. Few significant problems developed as a result of integration and the advantages far outweighed the disadvantages. There was a need for the development of a definition of teachin competency within each district to serve as a guIde to alIiteachers, particularly the Negro. There was a need for a systematic and careful screen- ing process of all teachers to properly assess per- sonality characteristics, professional qualifications, and other factors relating to successful integration. Negro teachers educated in the South were not considered as highly qualified as those educated in the North. Negro teachers are placed in buildings with some con- cern for race, but this was considered to be to the advantage of both the district and the teacher. Stereotypes of the Negro still play a significant role in the employment and integration of the Negro teacher. White teachers and administrators need more basic understanding of the Negro in America. Oversensitivity of the Negro teacher was considered a major barrier to employment and a significant source of difficulty after employment. In addition a set of guidelines for the practicing ad- ministrator, numerous recommendations, hypotheses and sugges- tions for further study are advanced. Capyright by JACK chRIDE RYDERv 1963 A STUDY OF PERSONNEL PRACTICES AND POLICIES WITH RELATION TO UTILIZATION OF TEACHERS FROM THE NEGRO MINORITY GROUP IN CERTAIN MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICTS By Jack McBride Ryder A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1962 PLEASE NOTE: Thesis is not an original COPY- Type is dark, somewhat blurred. Filmed as received. UNIVERSITY MICROFIIMS, INC. (\ (3‘ {ex} L3 E‘J’ [N _.—r‘ _./ fax ‘5“ .13.} 1.3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to acknowledge with humble gratitude the as- sistance of individuals without whose help this study could never have been completed. To Dr. William H. Roe, chairman of my doctoral commit- tee whose guidance and encouragement through many critical stages of my professional career have been a sustaining source and inspiration, my deepest appreciation. To Dr. Floyd G. Parker, a member of the doctoral committee who with patience and kindness has provided en- couragement when it was needed most. To Dr. Cole S. Brembeck and Dr. Fred B. Waisanen both members of the doctoral committee who were so helpful with insightful constructive criticism and continuous moral support. To Dr. James B. McKee of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology who was so generous with his time in as- sisting with the development of the interview schedules. To Michigan State University for the Hinman Graduate Fellowship and the College of Education for the appointment as Assistant Instructor both essential factors permitting the time needed for this endeavor. To my colleagues in the College of Education whose interest, suggestions and continuous good humor has been most helpful. ii To the board members, school administrators, and teachers of the districts involved whose generous gift of time and mental effort was so important to this study. To my wife, Roberts, and our children Joyce, Connie, Judy and John, all of whom have suffered much, I owe the deepest debt of gratitude for their understanding, love, and affection. 111 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . Statement of the Problem Importance of the Study . . . . . . . . . Assumptions Procedural Steps and Methods Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . Definitions of Terms . . . . Organization of Remainder of Study . . . II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Historical Aspects of Negro Employment The Great Migration Employment of the Negro in Various Sectors of the Economy . Armed services Government'service Business and the professions Industry and the unions Sociological Theory: The Employment and Integration of the Negro Prejudice and discrimination Self-image iv PAGE . viii 12 12 15 16 18 19 2O 22 33 £41 47 51 55 67 68 72 CHAPTER PAGE Social class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Strategy for social change . . . . . . . . 79 Employment and Integration of Negro Teachers. 85 Integration in the South . . . . . . . . . 87 Integration in the North . . . . . . . . . 93 Problems and process of Negro teacher integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Method of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Interview Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Confidential Nature of Study . . . . . . . . 109 Selection of Districts for Study . . . . . . llO Sampling Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Problem of Securing Cooperation . . . . . . . 114 Process of Data Collection . . . . . . . . . 116 Implications of Data Collection Process . . . 123 IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Characteristics of Interviewees . . . . . . . 128 School board members . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Superintendents and other administrators . 131 Principals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Negro teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Analysis Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 CHAPTER PAGE Factors Related to Initial Employment of Negro Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 School board members . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Superintendents and other administrators . 142 Principals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Negro teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Factors Related to the Process of ‘Integration of Negro Teachers . . . . . . . 164 School board members . . . . . . . . . . . 16h Superintendents and other administrators . 166 Principals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Negro teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Factors Perceived as Important to Future Utilization of Negro Teachers . . . . . . . 176 School board members . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Superintendents, principals and other administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Negro teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 General Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 V. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 vi CHAPTER PAGE Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Guidelines for the Practicing Administrator . 195 VI. RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z . . 197 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Suggestions for Further Study . . . . . . . . 201 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 vii TABLE II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII . IX. LIST OF TABLES White and Negro Population in the Coterminous United States 1850-1960 . Employed White and Nonwhite Persons in the United States, by Major Occupational Group, 19h0 to 1960 Analysis of Districts by Various Factors Used in Selecting the Sample Analysis of Respondents by Position and District Personal Data on Respondents . . . . . Analysis of the Interview Question Numbers by Schedule as they Relate to the Major Research Questions Analysis by District of Factors Involved in Employment of First Negro Teacher as Per- ceived by Board Members Positive Factors Affecting the Decision to Employ the First Negro Teacher as Perceived by Superintendents and other Administrators Negative Factors Affecting the Decision to Employ the First Negro Teacher as Perceived by Superintendents and other Administrators viii PAGE 2h 29 111 113 129 13a 138 1A3 147 TABLE PAGE x. Factors Affecting the Decision to Employ the First Negro Teacher as Perceived by Principals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The rampant social change evident in American society is a cause for consternation and confusion among scholars who endeavor to understand it and for the average citizen who hopes to function effectively as a participant in a milieu where patterns of behavior seem to shift from one moment to the next. Inherent to rapid social change are many problems which need research analysis, but none are of more immedi- ate concern to our American democracy than the relation- ships among people of different colors, creeds, or national origins. This exploratory study, dealing with one aspect of this major problem area, is concerned with the recent deVel- opments in the employment and integration of Negro teachers in Michigan public schools. It appears to be timely and meaningful in terms of extending the range of knowledge and suggesting insights for more successful human relations. 1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The specific problem is to gain insights into the operating personnel practices, policies and procedures of certain Nichigan public schools, as viewed by personnel directly connected with the schools, in an effort to dis- cover and analyze those practices, policies and procedures which have proven successful in the employment and integra- tion of Negro teachers. Through analysis of the findings, common and di- vergent patterns of perceptions regarding solutions to the existing problems are identified and developed into a set of guidelines which may be of use to the practicing administrator. Finally, through the analysis of the findings of this study, numerous hypotheses are generated which may be worthy of considerable research effort. In order to provide a structure for a systematic analysis of the problem, the following research-directing questions are considered. 1. What factors were related to the initial employment of Negro teachers in the school districts involved in this study? a) Who are the "significant others" with regard to the employment decision? b) What personal qualifications and characteristics were considered in the initial employment? c) What role, if any, did written personnel policies play in the initial employment? d) What preparations were made for the integration of the Negro teacher on the faculty? 2. What factors were related to the process of the successful integration of the Negro teacher on the faculty? a) What problems are related to the successful performance of the Negro teacher in the teaching role? b) What opportunities are available for the Negro teacher? 3. What factors were perceived as important to the future, successful employment and integration of Negro teachers in the school districts involved in this study? a) What preparations should be made for the suc- cessful integration of Negro teachers? b) What problems can be anticipated with regard to the employment and integration of Negro teachers? c) What practices, policies and procedures should be considered as basic to successful employment and integration of Negro teachers? II. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY The controversy concerning the integration of Negro children in Southern schools is well known throughout the nation but only more recently have problems of integration in the large Northern cities come into focus. Although the 195A Supreme Court decision has had a tremendous impact upon the integration of Negro children, until recently compara- tively little national attention has been given to the em- ployment and integration of Negro teaching personnel. In the 1960 Report of the President's Commission on National Goals, compiled by a non-partisan group of out- standing national leaders, the second goal concerning equality states that: Vestiges of religious prejudice, handicaps to women, and, most important, discrimination on the basis of race must be recognized as morally wrong, econom- ically wasteful, and in many respects dangerous. In this decade we must sharply lower these last stubborn barriers. Respect for the individual means respect for every individual. Every man and woman must have equal rights before the law, and an equal opportunity to vote and hold office, to be educated, to get a Job and to be promoted when qualified, to buy a home, to participate fully in community affairs. These goals, which are at the core of our system, must be achieved by action at all levels. Thus, a factor in the total social scene, which in- fluences school administrators and boards of education at least indirectly with regard to the employment of Negro teachers, is the national and international concern over equality as a goal of our democratic society. The inter- national implications of discrhsination against the American Negro are difficult to fully assess, but to most students of international relationships they appear to be tremendous. In each instance of racial strife in the united States, whether it be a lynching or denying a Negro the right to eat in a restaurant, the response is heard around the world. lany of the people of the emerging nations of Africa seem to know more about the Americans' racial problems than do the citizens of the United States. The Russian Communists 1The Report of the President's Commission of National Goals, Goals for Americans (New Ybrk: The American Assembly, 1960).iif'3=¥T—’ revel in any opportunity to picture the Communist world as providing the only chance for full racial equality. Although resulting propaganda may be far from an accurate portrayal of conditions, either in Russia or in the united States, it does have a bearing on the American democratic image. This is an important factor in United States foreign policy. The implications with regard to America's staunchest allies are substantial and are indicated by the following quotation from a Paris newspaper. The problem is the eternal problem of colonialism, which is a manifestation of the eternal problem of racism. Colonialism is a problem, or was yesterday in Great Britain, whose colonies are overseas. The essential difference is that the united States has its colony in the very interior of the country, while a third kind of empire, the USSR, has its on the borders--not too many frenchmen [sic] have the right to give lessons to Americans in this area. However, cer- tain Americans have a tendency to give lessons to others before having swept before their own doors.2 0n the Federal level there have been extremely im- portant developments in the protection of civil rights over the past twenty years, from the executive order by President Roosevelt in 19u1 to establish a Fair Employment Practices Commission to insure nondiscrimination in plants holding defense contracts, to the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 establishing the Civil Rights Commission with its 2 Liston Pope The 30nd Caste (New Yerk: Friendship Press, l9m .-32‘Iz-'_—z-—* fact-finding power and right to make recommendations. Recent executive orders of Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy enforce even more strongly the nondiscrimination clauses in govern- ment contracts. ’ Noreover, the decisions of the united States Supreme Court have tended to uphold the Federal government in suits pressed to obtain civil rights in various sectors of indi- vidual life. All these developments on the part of local, state, and national government set the trend and establish the need for more serious consideration of the most effec- tive method of dealing with the problem. On the domestic scene, deveIOpments in the use of the authority of the law to prevent discrimination in em- ployment has created the need for close attention to the problems of employment of people from all minority groups, particularly the Negro. ' Nany cities have passed ordinances insuring employ- ment without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin. These ordinances vary from barring discrimination in public employment by the city to bans on all employment discrimina- tion whether private or public. Sixteen states have Fair Employment Practices Acts empowering investigation of discrimination in employment and other fields. These states contain fifty percent of the nation's total population and twenty-five percent of the nation's Negro population.3 In 1955 the state of Nichigan passed a Fair Employ- ment Practices Act (Act 251, Public Acts of 1955) estab- lishing a Fair Employment Practices Commission. The Act specifically states that it is: An Act to promote and protect the welfare of the people of this state by prevention and elimination of discriminatory employment practices and policies based upon race, color, religion, national origin or anr cestry: to create a state fair employment practices commission, defining its functions, powers and duties; and for other purposes. The_Peogle of the State of Nichiggn enac : Sec. 1. The Opportunity to obtain employment with- out discrimination because of race, color, religion, national origin or ancestry is hereby recognised as and declared to be a civil right. Sec. 3. It shall be an unfair employment practice: (a) For any employer, because of the race, color, religion, national origin or ancestry of any individual, to refuse to hire or otherwise to discriminate against him with respect to hire, tenure, terms, conditions or privileges of employment, or any matter, directly or indirectly related to employment, except w ere based on a bona fide occupational qualification. The Act goes on to define the functions, powers and duties of the Fair Employment Practices Commission in con- siderable detail giving it the right to establish certain types of rules and regulations which relate to compliance with the laws. 3Jacob K. Javits, Discrimination - U. S.‘A. (New Ybrk: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1966!, p. 97.- “State of Nichigan, "Act 251 of the Public Acts of 1955 Fair Employment Practices Act” (Lansing, 1955), 115. The Commission's task has three phases which include, (1) the processing of claims of discrimination, (2) educa- tional and community services, and (3) research. Through efforts on behalf of the educational and community services phase, the Commission seeks to make the citizens of Nichigan more aware of their "rights" under law and the employers, labor organizations, and employment agencies more aware of their "obligations" under law. As a part of this function the Commission has pub- lished a "Pro-Employment Inquiry Guide" which outlines law- ful and unlawful pre—employment inquiries which can be made with regard to various subjects that might be included in application forms or discussed in personal interviews. In addition to the Act's implication for recruitment it also has many ramifications with regard to personnel prac- tices which exist in the places of employment. Although most of the cases, where sufficient evidence of discrimination is found, are settled by persuasion and conciliation, some are carried to the courts for final disposition. For example, the Nichigan Fair Employment Practices Commission after proper public hearings, on November 9, 1960, issued orders to the Taylor Township Board of Education requiring the Board to offer immediate employment to the Negro claimants as well as back pay from the dates of the discriminatory acts. This case has been ‘Ppealed to the Circuit Court, which has not yet rendered a decision, but it illustrates the impact of the law on discriminatory practices in public schools.5 Thus, school superintendents and boards of education in the state of Nichigan should be cognizant of the pro- visions of this law as it applies to the implementation of recruitment and personnel policies. Other factors influencing the domestic scene are the mobility of the American Negro, which has increased at a rapid pace, and the migration to the Northern cities which has resulted in major changes in the problems of urban areas. In most Northern metropolitan areas, such as Detroit, Chicago and New Terk, the immigration of Negroes plus the natural population increase have contributed to the lack of sufficient school facilities and teachers necessary to provide the education required for today's complex world. The problems of housing, economic competition and employ- ment opportunity are other vital factors connected with this phenomenal shift in population from the South. Dr. James Conant in his recent book, £1.31“. and; Suburbs, points to the massive problems developing in large cities which are closely related to the lack of employment opportunity for Negroes. He sees an integrated staff as making a significant contribution to the solution of these 5Fair Employment Practices Commission, On the Job in Nichi n (Information bulletin 1960-61 Special—Year-Eia'riiue, BitroII: Fair Employment Practices Commission, 1961), p. 2. 10 problems in terms of providing better models for Negro youth as well as enlarging the employment Opportunity for the Negro in the teaching profession. In fact, Conant feels that the principle of an inte- grated teaching staff, if initiated previously, might have prevented many of the problems we face today. Conant states: As we now recognize so plainly, but so belatedly, a caste system finds its clearest manifestation in an educational system. By the same token, in the critical days when slavery had Just vanished and caste lines were not yet established on a new basis, a system of free public schools for Negroes and whites together might have softened the caste lines even if a majority of pupils attended all-white or all-Negro schools. Above all, the existence of such schools, guaranteed by the power of the federal government, might have assured the eventual establishment of a corps of Negro and white teachers working together for the betterment of the recently liberated Negro slaves. To be sure, most of the white teachers would have come from the Northern states at first, and normal schools for both races would have been required. The principle of an integrated teaching staff, however, would have been established. And once such a staff had been established in at least some of the former Confederate states, the whole problem of Negro edugation would have been viewed in a different light. The employment of more Negro teachers could help to alleviate the critical teacher shortage confronted by many school districts in the state of Michigan. In addi- tion it would provide white children with the educational Opportunity of a close association with a successful per- son of the Negro race. 6James B. Conant, Slums and Suburbs (New York: NcGraw-Nillnook Company, Inc.. T551), p. 11. 11 If superintendents and boards of education could con- .sider all of the ramifications of employing Negro teachers, they would be more likely to utilize them far more exten- sively. However, the reason for considerable hesitation at this point among many educators seems to be concerned with the fact that there is insufficient evidence avail- able which could be helpful in approaching the problems which they perceive as confronting them. They need prin- ciples Or guidelines for developing procedures which would enable them to successfully employ and integrate Negro teachers without creating conflict among faculty members, students and community citizens. One of the cen- tral purposes of this study is to discover those factors which will enable school boards and administrators to ex- ercise good Judgment with regard to this problem. It is not the purpose of this study to prove or disprove arguments concerning the integration of Negro and white students. But it does seem apparent from the trends in the law and in the thinking of our national leadership that the course of events will continue in the same direc- tion and will advance at an even more rapid pace than it has in recent years. Thus, it appears that it is to the interest Of the individual, the state, and the nation that this sociological change occur with a minimal amount of disorder in the society. 12 III. ASSUIPTIOIS The following assumptions are basic to this disserta- tion and consequently must be considered in relation to con- clusions and recommendations drawn from the study. 1. 3. That the weight of law and national trends will continue to support increased employment of Negro teachers in the public schools. That school personnel including board of education members, superintendents, other administrative personnel, principals and teachers have an appre- ciable influence on the employment and successful integration of Negro teachers. That the employment of Negro teachers is a prob-- lem of concern to superintendents and boards of education in the state of Nichigan. That the writer was able to secure valid informa— tion and true perceptions of the respondents in the interview process. IV. PROCEDURAL STEPS AID'IETHODB To provide the reader with an understanding of the methodology utilized in this study it will be reviewed ‘1‘19: 1’ e A more detailed account of the procedure employed will be found in Chapter III on Nethodology. 13 because of the delicate nature of the subject under study the interview technique was considered a major factor in the Nethodology. Thus, extensive treatment is given to this aspect. Efforts to replicate this study would require the development of similar levels of rapport achieved in the relationships of the interviewer with all persons who directly or indirectly affected the interview. The author's experience in the employment of Negro teachers and the close friendship with superintendents who would permit the study in their respective districts are both factors which were considered important in securing valid data. The six districts involved in this study were se— lected on the basis of six criteria, (1) variation in number of enrollments, (2) number of Negroes in the com- munity, (3) location in the state, (4) number of Negro teachers in the system, (5) length of time Negro teachers had been in the system, and (6) availability of the system in terms of personal acquaintance with the superintendent or other administrative officers who would permit the oppor- tunity to probe beneath the surface of this delicate subject. The school districts involved are designated (A, B, C, D, E, and F) to protect the identity of the district. See Table III on page 111 for an analysis of each district. Based upon the experience of the author, the review of literature with regard to the employment and integration 14 of Negro teachers and the help of committee advisers an in- terview schedule was constructed. It was designed to draw out responses which could, when properly analyzed, suggest answers to the problem as previously stated.1 To improve the conversational flow of questions, to get some idea of the space needs for writing down responses and to eliminate ambiguity, the interview schedule was ad- ministered to two doctoral graduate students on campus. Both had previous experience working on integrated public school faculties, one as an assistant superintendent and the other, a Negro, as a school psychologist. The interview schedule was then administered to person- nel connected with the school districts included in the study. Out Of the six districts four were studied in con- siderable depth while two of the districts were represented by one interview each with a respondent who was perceived as being reliable and having rather comprehensive knowledge of the developments within the system. The interview results were recorded and analyzed to ascertain any differences or similarities of problems, prac- tices or perceptions. The results were then compared with the findings of studies done in American industry and other fields of employment. 18cc interview schedules in the Appendix, p. 213. 15 V. LIIITATIONS OF THE STUDY This study has a number of limitations which must be acknowledged. It is limited to six school districts in the state of Nichigan. Thus, although it may have implications for other districts within and outside the state, it cannot be expected to produce results which are necessarily generalizable.~ Five of the school districts studied had previously employed Negro teachers and one had contracted with a Negro teacher for the coming year. Consequently, the study was confined to districts which are now utilizing or plan to utilize Negro teachers. The investigation was limited to interviews with school board members, superintendents of schools, princi- pals, Negro teachers, other administrators and one white teacher in a building with a Negro principal. This modified case study approach precludes white teachers with one ex- ception, students, parents and community organizations as factors which might have a bearing on the employment and integration Of Negro teachers. Despite these limitations the body of material gathered in these "depth" interviews is believed to be in most part, factual and reliable. The opinions expressed by the respondents are also considered to substantially repre- sent their true feelings. 16 Both the experience, background of the author in employment and association with Negro teachers and the close acquaintanceship with the school administrators who agreed to permit this study, contributed to close rapport with the respondents. Further, many of the questions asked of the various respondents were substantially the same and thus there was an Opportunity to audit the responses. Noreover, all administrators and most of the other respondents in the districts involved were generally proud of the fact that their district had assumed successful leadership in this area. Thus, perhaps, they were more willing to contribute information concerning both past and present experiences. VI. DEFINITION OF TERNS Some terms are used in this dissertation which may not be commonly defined in the vocabulary of persons who may read it. Thus, it is importint that these words be defined since they will be used throughout the dissertation. .ggggg teacher. A teacher who is perceptibly a member of the Negroid Race or who declares himself/Or is accepted as being of the Negroid Race. White teacher. A teacher who is perceptibly a member of the Caucasian Race or who declares himself/or is accepted 8- being of the Caucasian Race. 17 Interview schedule. The series of written questions and phrases used by the interviewer to elicit responses re- garding pertinent areas of the study. Interview schedules are found in the Appendix. Prejudice. "A categOrizing pro-judgment of the meme bers of a human group; it is an attitude or belief that may or may not express itself in overt action."7 Thus, preju- dice is a belief or judgment while discrimination involves action which may or may not be the result of prejudice. No real attempt was made in this study to measure the ex- tent of prejudice held by the respondents. Discrimination, racial. "The denial of certain rights or privileges to some individuals on the basis of race or "8 color. In this study it will refer to the Negro teacher. Numerous questions in the interview schedules attempt to identify discrimination. For example, questions (5, 12, and la) in interview schedule number one are specific questions relating to discrimination. Integration, social. "Harmonious personal adjustment of the individual to the standards, demands, and responsi- bilities of the group of which he is a part."9 Thus, the 7George Simpson and J. Hilton Yinger, “The Changing Patterns of Race Relations," Phylon XV (October, 1954), 328. BCarter v. Good (ed. ), Dictiona of Education .(New York: NcGraw-Hill Book Company, nc., 959W ), p. 91bid., p. 292. 18 term integration as used in this study regarding the Negro teacher as a member of a social group, the school faculty, is distinguished from the simple condition of employing Negro teachers in a school system. Questions (8 and 14-19), for example, in interview schedule number one,all concern the extent of integration of Negro teachers. VII. ORGANIZATION OF REHAINDER OF STUDY This study has been divided into six chapters: Chapter I includes a statement of the problem and a general orientation to the study; Chapter II contains a review of the pertinent literature on the tOpic under study as well as‘ a review of the literature concerning aspects of the employ- ment and integration of the Negro in other occupations and professions; Chapter III reports in considerable detail on the methodology involved in the construction of the interview schedule, the selection of districts, the process of data col- lection and the implications of the data collection process. Chapter IV consists of the analysis of the practices, policies, problems and perceptions related by the interview respondents; Chapter V discusses the conclusions and implica- tions of the study for educational leaders with some sugges- tions for practicing administrators with regard to the employment and integration of Negro teachers; Chapter VI is the final chapter and includes recommendations and sugges- tions for further study. CHAPTER II REVIEW 0? LITERATURE This chapter is devoted to a careful review of the literature pertinent to the employment and integration of Negro teachers. To place the problem under study in its proper perspective, it is important to comprehend the de- velopmental aspects of Negro employment, generally, and Negro teacher employment, specifically. Thus, Chapter II is divided into four parts. The first part deals briefly with the general historical as- pects of Negro employment in the United States. ‘The next part is a review of studies conducted concerning the em- ployment and integration of Negroes in various sectors of the economy including military, government service, business and the professions, industry, and unions. The third part presents the findings in the sociological: psychological fields which are directly concerned with the processes of change involved in the employment and integra- tion of Negroes in many fields of endeavor. The last part reviews the pertinent writings and research studies con- ducted concerning the employment and integration of Negro teachers in American public schools. 19 20 I. HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF NEGRO EMPLOYMENT Prior to Emancipation the Negro was primarily located in the South where, as a slave, he represented a major economic force in the plantation economy. Since unskilled work was considered to be inferior and fit only for Negroes, most were relegated to domestic and laboring jobs. A relatively small number of Negroes were trained to perform as mechanics and draftsmen, developing skills as carpenters, painters, bricklayers, harnessmakers, tailors, blacksmiths and shoemakers. These were considered "Negro jobs" and few white people in the South developed such skills since the slave owners preferred slave labor.1 After Emancipation, the only protection the Negro had for employment was the fact that the Southern white was reluctant to give up his view of unskilled work and the crafts as typically "Negro jobs." Even though these jobs were badly paid it did provide employment opportunity for the Negro. However, as Rose points out, the position of the Negro in the nonagricultural labor market of the South was affected by two trends working in opposite directions: (1) the general expansion of the Southern nonagricultural 1Arnold Rose, The Ne 0‘13 America (Boston: The Beacon Press, 1948), p. l . ' 21 economy, which tended to increase employment opportunity for Negroes, as well as for whites and (2) competition from white jobseekers which tended to exclude Negroes from em- ployment and to relegate them to the very lowest occupa- tional levels.2 The result of these two trends was that the newly developing industries which were usually less strenuous, less dirty and generally more attractive became known as "white man's" work. Nhile the hazardous, dirty, strenuous occupations in more backward industries were considered ”Negro jobs." ‘ Although the Negro was denied access to the better jobs, opportunities did increase and between 1890 and 1910 Negro male workers in nonagricultural pursuits increased by two-thirds. lost of the increase was in the saw and planing mill, coal mining, and railroad maintenance occupa- tions which were now considered "Negro jobs."3 In the North and Nest where small numbers of Negroes had migrated, there was stiff competition by white job seekers for the traditionally Negro jobs. The rapidly ex- panding industries of the North sought the skilled and un- skilled cheap labor provided by the European immigrants who 2Ibid. 3Ibid., p. 103. 22 were at that time streaming into the Northern states. Thus, the Negro was again relegated to the most menial tasks. The labor union, such as the American Federation of Labor, which was stronger in the Nerth than in the South, either denied the Negro access to the union or organised him separately placing him in competition with the white unions. This fact and the use of Negroes by industry for strike breakers increased racial antipathy and resulted in even stronger restrictions against Negro labor.“ until about the time of World war I, the employment of the Negro was characterized largely by relegation to the occupations of menial nature or those jobs in industry con- sidered to be at the bottom of the occupational ladder. However, the advent of the war stimulated both Southern and Northern industrial development Opening up employment Opportunity in both regions. As a result of the strong racial barriers in the South and the pronounced need for cheap labor in the North, the opportunities were brighter for the Negro in Northern cities. Thus began the great migration which is still per- sistant. The gggg£_migration. In 1910 almost ninety percent of the Negro pOpulation lived in the South while according “”wegro American," Encyclgpaedia Britannica (30 ed.), xvx, 199. 23 to the 1950 census about sixty-five percent of the Negroes lived in that same region. The 1960 census registered a five percent decrease in the ten year period indicating that only sixty percent of the Negro population still lives in the South. Although the percentage of Negroes in the population declined from 1h.l percent in 1860 to 9.8 percent in 1940, it is shown in Table I that the trend may be reversing, evidenced by a figure of 10.6 percent in 1960. Despite this decline in percentage, the number of Negroes continued to increase in the South as well as the North, but it was offset by the more rapid increase in the white population primarily as a result of foreign immigration. In describing the migration, mobility and assimilation of the Negro, Taueber reached the conclusion that "the fundamental change in the Negro population was not the movement from south to north but the concentration in indus- trial sections of the country, including the South."5 Usually the first move was from the rural areas of the South to southern industrial cities. Afterwards, the prom- ise of improved employment opportunities in the industrial cities of the Nerth and the experience of migrating resulted 5Irene B. Taeuber, ”Nigration, Nobility, and the Assimilation of the Negro," Population Bulletin, XIV, (November, 1958), 129. 24 Table I.-—White and Negro population in the coterminous United States 1860 — 1960‘ Census All classes White Negro f Distribution** year Nhite Negro 1960 178,u6u,236 158,454,956 18,860,117 88.8 10.6 1950 150,697,361‘ 13u,9u2,028 15,0n2,286 89.5 10.0 1940‘ 131,669,275 118,21u,870 12,865,518 89.8 9.8 1930 122.775.0u6 110,286,7u0 11,891,1u3 89.8 9.7 _1920 105,710,620 9u,820,915 10,463,131 89.7 9.9 1910 91,972,266 81,731,957 9,827,763 "88.9 10.7 1900 75.993.575 66,809,196 8,833,994 87.9 11.6 1890 62,9u7,71u 55,101,258 7,988,676 87.5 11.9 1880 50,155,783 43,u02,970 6,580,793 86.5 13.1 1370 38.558.371 33.539.377 u,880,009 87.1 12.7 1860 3i,uu3,321 26,922,537 u,uu1,830 85.6 iu.1 'U. S. Bureau of the Census, U. S. Census of P0 la- tion: 1 0 General Po ulation Character'fstmnfi flea—£35.31" 17W overmm Summa , naI Repor MTIce, Nashington, D. C., 1961), p. 11‘ 5. ‘”Figures do not include the percentage of other non- white races. 25 in an exodus to large cities of the Northeast, North Central and Western regions of the nation. Thus, according to an analysis of Census data in 1960 the Negro represented 6.8 percent of the population of the Northeast region; 6.7 percent in the North Central region; 20.6 percent in the South and 3.9 percent in the Western region. The concentration of these apparently small percentages of Negroes in the large industrial cities of the Northern and Western regions is a major factor in the development of enormously complex problems faced by cities like Detroit, Chicago, and New York City. A sample of major cities in the North where the percentage of Negroes has increased significantly between 1950 and 1960 shows the following: Washington - up from 35.0 percent Negro in 1950 to 53.9 percent in 1960. Newark, N. J. - B from 17.1 percent in 1950 to 3 .1 percent in 1960. Baltimore, Nd. - up from 23.7 percent to 34.7 percent. Detroit, Nich. - up from 16.2 to 28.9 percent. St. Louis, No. - up from 18.0 to 28.6 percent. Chicago, Ill. - up from 13.6 to 22.9 percent. Philadelphia, Pa. - up from 18.1 to 26.4 percent. It should be noted that Washington D. C. is the only major metr0politan area in the country with a majority 26 of Negroes in its population.6 However, Taeuber states: Numerical facts alone indicate that the great his- toric process of Negro migration and mobility is nearing an end. The number of southern farms operated by non-whites declined 17.1 percent in the four years from 1950 to 1954. Decline amounted to 8.2 percent for owners, 27.5 percent for crop-share tenants and 19.1 percent for croppers. By 1954, there were only 160 thousand farms operated by non-white croppers in the south, and more than two-fifths of the operators were aged 45 and above. Clearly the croppers cannot long remain a major sougce of supply for urban labor, whether south or north. Therefore, as Clark points out this great population shift can best be understood in terms of the change in the American economy from agrarian to a highly industrialized economy.8 After World War I the migration continued and employ- ment opportunities for the Negro were increasing steadily, although slowly, until the Great Depression. The Negro was the first to lose his job and was without significant political power with which to gain his share of the relief and government spending initiated to regain stability in the country. This was a time of despair for the American Negro. 6"Nigration 0f N°8r098--Nere is the Real Story," '2. g. News and Norld Repgrt, LII (Nay 7, 1962), 55. 7Taeuber,‘22. cit., p. 130. 8Nathew H. Ahmann, The New Ne r0 (Notre Dame, Indiana: Rides Publishers, 19617, p. 45. 27 The advent of World War II again bolstered the economy and full production required for the War effort led to a rapid increase in industrial employment for the Negro in the factories of the North. Migration of Negroes from the rural south to southern and northern industrial cities again increased rapidly. Despite the need for labor in American industry as it prepared for capacity production, there was still widespread discrimination against the Negro. On June 25, 1941, President Roosevelt in response to a proposed march on Washington, D. c. by Negroes throughout the country signed an executive order declaring that there should be no discrimination in the employment of workers in govern- ment or defense industries because of race, creed, color or national origin. This meant that all defense contracts written by all government agencies would have this provi- sion written into the contract, regardless of whether the industry was located in the North or South.9 The presidential order also established a Committee on Fair Employment Practices to carry out its provisions by receiving and investigating violations. Although the order was violated to a large extent in the South, it had a great impact on employment opportunity for the Negro in the North. 9”Ne ro American,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, (30 ed.), XVI, V01. 1 , p. 198. 28 Reviewing the developments in Negro employment P0pe said: Vast changes have occurred in the economic state and opportunities of Negroes during the last fifteen years. Traditionally they have been confined largely to domestic service and agriculture; when they en- tered industry at all, it was generally at the level of unskilled employment, and opportunities for train- ing and advancement were poor. During World War II, an unprecedented number of Negro workers were admitted to the factories. Hitherto barred from white—collar jobs that would bring them into contact with the general public--serving as clerks in departments stores, front office secretaries and receptionists, and the 1ike--they have now been admitted to such occupations very widely. The riots and boycotts that had been feared have failed to materialize.10 A review of census data in Table II revealed striking changes in Negro employment which occurred between 1940 and 1960. Although it is a fact that the Negro was more highly represented in the unskilled jobs, somewhat dis- torting percentage figures to suggest large gains in certain areas of employment, it is significant that major gains have been made. Between 1940 and 1960 the percentage of Negroes em- ployed as professional, technical and kindred workers increased 181.6 percent compared to a 113.6 percent in- crease among the white population. The Negro occupied as a farmer had decreased by 72.4 percent in the same period of time reflecting the industrialization of the 10Liston Pope, The Kin dom Beyond Caste (New York: Friendship Press, 1957), p. 68. 29 .otmmz handset... .wam .Q .mwma .couwCacmmz .oommub mchchn unmannewmw wm vb .DH : “Hm pmlwmoamm Hmcwm headesdm meadow vegan: .uoaumaneuommeo HedoOm flamenco owma “acaumaa on no nmucoo .m .o .usemeo on» no metasm .m .Dtss .wmmuwbm .an . .co mfiwwwmul.0ommmb mcmwchn acmecco>oo .m .D ..o Lounmzo .mnmeasm .m .D .H when .mo«ucas om oz» no noaunapepommmso .HH .Ho> .omma "comnsfisnoa co ezeceo .m .2 .nssceo on» no scream .m .o.. .omumm . a .maoH .zopmmanmmz .moauu mm c pcescao>oo .m .n .anm853m.mwwmwm nomads .H;btmm,eohcm gonna 0:9 .HHH .Ho> .cowuma: om Gama "nephew popes: emu mo nzncmo cuceeuxam .msncuu or» no asthma .m .3: e.mwma+ mm mm Fem m.Hmo+ Ham eme eme.m seenooen no: scencoseeo e.mm+ mew hem mom m.e- mae.m oem.m oom.m some and Show paooxm .mconopmq 0.0m- mmw Hem mom m.mm- pom.m mmm.fl mmo.m essence one enenonsm stem e.moH+ men mew mmm.fl o.om+ mom.m mme.m mmm.e shortness ens>eno pacoxm .emexmoz moa>hom e.w- mmo.m mam 0mm o.mm- omo.m mam mm» stucco: emoneezoc sunsets m.mom+ we: eeo.m enm.m o.em+ eon.» moe.oH Hmm.oH stereo: conceax ncm mm>wpmheao m.0mm+ emfl mmm mm: H.mo+ mam.e owe.» ham.m stereo: concede new .cmEmnou .ccEnnemco e.©mH+ mm mm 00H w.mm+ wmm.m qmw.m mmm.q msmeo: modem m.mme+ em can em: o.mm+ mmm.e mow.o mmw.w scents: nuances ens assensau H.mm+ mm mod awe m.me+ mam.m mom.e mmw.m enac .oxe .enoeeanoonn mam enamaOfimmo .mnmwmcmz e.me- ooe mmm mmm o.me- mee.e Hme.m mam.m stomachs ease one essence o.HmH+ mme mod mmm w.mme+ own.m een.e 0mm.o stereo: concede one Hmoaccomu .HmCOamnmuopm m.ee+ Hem.e ooe.m mmo.m m.me+ mme.oe mmo.0m oHo.mm Hence m.-oemm oema comm owed o -oemH came ommfl come 0 cmno o cmno s as at: m R a30hm choaquSOoo easavpaczcoz muanz Aeeceesecn sea coma on oemm .nssne mesons-n 1:000 tonal he .eoawvm moved: on» ma smouhem opummmo: one enac: mohoanamic.HH eamma 30 cities both North and South and the resultant increase in employment opportunity. The traditional Negro occupation as a private household worker decreased for the Negro by 8.4 percent while perhaps the most outstanding increase has come in the clerical and kindred occupations where a gain of 685.2 percent has occurred. Substantial gains were registered in the crafts- men, foremen, and kindred occupations, the operatives and service workers, reflecting to some degree increasing opportunities within the unions. To complete this brief analysis of the historical aspects of Negro employment, two additional interrelated factors must be considered. The first is the growing political power of the Negro in the North where he is concentrated in the large central cities. Wilson points to the fact that: There is greater ferment among Northern Negroes today than at any period since the Depression. In most cities, Negroes are better organized for race ends than ever before, and these organizations are devoting more and more attention to the problems of the Negro in the northern city than they have in the past. Local issues in the North are coming to have an importance that rival: the continuing national issue of race relations. 1 11James G. Wilson, Ne 0 Politics (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1960), p. 345. 31 The second related factor is the growing strength and overt action of two large organizations which adhere to equal employment opportunity as a major goal. These are the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the National Urban League. Both of these organizations include both white and Negroes in their ranks and both have had a major in- fluence in promoting civil rights legislation and equal employment opportunity . Bozeman contrasts the two organizations by the ap- proach used in implementing their respective objectives. The National Urban League's efforts tend to be char— acterized by more indirection, less militancy, and by a conspicuous reliance upon interracial good will and interracial cooperation. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People's program is better characterized by its more direct approach, its vocal militancy, and its persistent utilization of the courts as an instrument to facilitate desired modifica- tions in aspects of educational opportunities for Negroes. The NAACP was instrumental in the legal fight which finally resulted in the 1954 Supreme Court decision ending legal segregation in the public schools of the nation. It provided the major legal support against the resistance to 12Herman Hollis Bozeman, "Attitudes of Selected Racial Leadership Organizations Toward Educational Policies and Practices for Negroes During the Twentieth Century" (unpublished Doctoral Thesis, the University of Niohigan, Ann Arbor, 1956), p. 305. 32 integration encountered in the South and is now turning its attention to the conditions existing in the large northern metropolitan areas. The National Urban League works more quietly with employers in the large cities and it has been instrumental in securing the breakdown of racial barriers in many businesses and industries. Although there is still much discrimination in the North as well as in the South, the tide appears to be turning. The massive pressure exerted by the change from an agrarian to an industrial economy and the subsequent migration of the Negro from the South; the-enactment of Fair Employment Practices Acts on the federal and state levels, the prevailing decisions of the Supreme Court; the political power of the Negro and liberal white sup- porters; and the increasing efforts of such organizations as the Urban League and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; all contribute to the con- clusion that equal employment opportunity for Negroes will continue to grow at a rapid pace. In analyzing the revolution which has taken place in the last twenty years Pope says: This revolution has brought not only a remarkable improvement in the condition of the Negro; it has also wrought profound changes in his relations with the whites. When viewed in long perspective, one of the salient characteristics of this generation in the United States may be the fact that the walls of segregation have been torn down at a rapid rate. 1 33 For the most part this has been effected thus far in nonviolent fashion, with occasional mobs and riots receiving publicity out of all proportion to their importance in relation to the total picture. So many changes have taken place thlg many pages would be required merely to list them. II. EMPLOYMENT OF THE NEGRO IN VARIOUS SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY The literature related to the employment of the Negro in various sectors of the economy is primarily limited to the writings of people interested and working in the field of race relations. Except for the classic works of sociologist Gunner Nyrdal and Arnold Rose in 1944, An American Dilemma, there has been extremely little compre- hensive research. However this part deals with the pertin- ent writings and the limited research which does exist}!4 Despite the great advances in employment opportunity for the Negro, there is still discrimination in the market place. In a report submitted to theeflouse of Representatives of the Fifth Congress of the United States by the Committee on Education and Labor in support of a bill for equal em- ployment opportunity, the following statement was presented: 13Pope, 22. _c_i_t_., p. 63. 1“Gunner Nyrdal, An American Dilemma 2 Vela. (New York: Harper and Brothers PfibIIsfiers, ). 34 The committee finds that testimony received regarding the need for this legislation could scarcely be more cogent and convincing. The conclusion ines- capably to be drawn from 98 witnesses in 12 days of hearings, held in various sections of the country as well as in Washington, and from many statements filed without oral testimony, is that in all likelihood fully 50 per cent of the people of the United States in search of employment suffer some kind of job opportunity discrimination because of their race, religion, color, national origin, ancestry, or age. It should be made clear that the evidence poured in from all parts of the Nation--East, West, North, and South. This act cannot then be viewed as an act in- tended merely to correct abuses in any one section of the country. Clear enunciation and implementation of a national policy on equal employment opportunity are obviously long overdue at this point in the history of the United States. To emphasize specifically the extent of the prob- lem and the acute need for this act, the following items are pertinent: A. Employment discrimination of some kind can be found in almost every industry-~if not with respect to initial employment, then certainly with respect to opportunity for promotion. C. Industries such as banks and financial institu- tions, electronic and electrical manufacturing com- panies, advertising agencies, insurance companies, trade associations, management consulting firms, book and publication companies, and paper products firms-- traditionally the prime employers of young people-- are perhaps the most flagrant practitioners pg employ- ment discrimination against minority groups. Clark elaborated further stating that: Northern patterns of segregation and discrimination, however, exist in spite of laws against them and in spite of protestations of elected political officials. 15United States Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Education and Labor, ual El 10 ent ortunit Act of 1262, Report No. 1370 (To Accompany Oggg), ' ‘87Eh—Congress 20 Session, February 21, 1962 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1962), pp. 1- 2. 35 Northern patterns of segregation and discrimination reflect among other things custom, habit, apathy, conflicts, and inconsistencies among whites and some Negroes. In spite of the fact that a number of northern states such as New York, Massachusetts, and Michigan, have fairly strong laws against racial discrimination in employment, there is rather consistent evidence that this type of discrimination never-the-less per- sists in these states. The progress in this sphere cannot mask the pervasive residual patterns of racial discrimination in employment. The role of labor unions in the perpetuation of these violatigns must be examined with more toughminded realism.1 In a study by Turner it was found that: For nonwhite males discrimination is principally on the basis of type of occupation available rather than on attainment of educational qualification, and excessive unemployment is principally a by-product of the occupational distribution. In the South, for both men and women, discrimination is more on the basis of educational qualifications and less on em- ployment per se. For nonwhite women, the principal focus of discrimiggtion is on employment rather than on qualification. However, Lewis pointed out that most jobs in the South lead nowhere for the Negro. Moreover, he indicated that many employers outside the South refused to hire Negroes. It was particularly true in the major fields of female employment, where only recently a small number of Negro girls and women have been employed. Furthermore, he suggested that Negroes were concentrated in jobs which .16Nathew H. Ahmann, The New Negro, pp. 29-30. 17Rs1ph n. Turner, "Foci of Discrimination in the hployment of Nonwhites American Journal of Sociology LVIII (November, 1952),'2u . “""" ’ 36 provide the least Opportunity for advancement.18 Ginsberg viewed discrimination against the Negro as a great waste of human resources. He pointed to the serious economic losses in the South and the expected losses in the North unless action is forthcoming.19 The elimination of discrimination against the Negro will not solve the immediate problem since it will take a period of time to undo the damage already perpetrated. Ne stated that: A major disability of the young Negro in the , world of work is his lack of intimate knowledge of the values and behavior of the white population with whom he is in frequent contact. His ability to cOpe with the problems presented by working with whites depends largely on the opportunities he has had in his formative years to live in close association with members of the white race. The armed forces provide him with an excellent chance to expand such experience in living and working with whites as he has earlier acquired. Hence, rejection for service represents a much greater loss, for the Negro than for the white man. By the time the Negro youth reaches adulthood, he is likely to be triply handicapped in his prepara- tion for work by experiences at home, in school: and in connection with service in the armed forces. -« Furthermore, the most significant of recent gains for the Negro family with resultant better opportunity for 18311 Ginsberg (ed.), The Nation's Children (New York: Columbia University Press, 19657, p. 115. 19311 Ginsberg, "Segregation and Manpower waste," Phylon, XXI (winter, 1960), 311. 20E11 Ginsberg, The Ne ro Potential (New York: Columbia University Press, TygfiT, p. 15‘. 37 more complete development of its youth, was the improvement in job opportunity for the Negro husband who received the increased status and monetary rewards which derive from the job.21 Thus, the central concern of all, who are interested in eliminating discrimination and improving racial relation- ships, is job opportunity since the basic problem is eco- nomic.22 However, education and housing are so interrelated to job opportunity that all three areas need attention at the same time.23 In a study by Moore in Cleveland he found that the status of the Negro in terms of economic opportunity was and continues to be inferior, although there was some evi- dence of recent gains. It was found that many jobs formerly closed to Negroes now have some Negro representation, the most obvious to the general public being sales and cleri- cal jobs in all the large department stores. Negroes are being upgraded in some industries for the first time, and labor unions which formerly refused member- ship to Negroes now have a few. Segregation, in those industries which formerly practiced it, is 211:11 Ginsberg, (ed.), The Nation's Children, p. 136; Ginsberg, "Segregation and Manpower WasEeJ'Pfionn, XXI, 312. 22Roi Ottley New World A-Coming (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, igfijTT'oT‘3HB. 23Edward Duff, "Discrimination's Blight," Social Order, XI (April, 1961), 1&6. 38 being abandoned. This is true in Ehe garment in- dustry and the taxi organization.2 He attributes much of the prOgress to the years of armament manufacture, the National Fair Employment Prac- tices Commission and since 1950, the Fair Employment Practices Ordinance of Cleveland which opened new oppor- tunities for Negro labor. In a paper concerning the Negro's prOgress toward em- ployment equality, Augustine points to the fact that the Negro made great advances during the 1940's. Using this period as a base he projects the changes in employment equality to the time when Negroes would achieve equality in proportion to the percentage of the population which they represent. According to his findings: 1. Negro women would achieve equality at the professional level in 1990. 2. Negro males, becoming a progressively smaller part of the employed male professionals, would be only 2.1 per cent of all male professionals in 1990. 3. While Negro women would attain equality as proprietors and managers in 1980, Negro males would not reach equality in this occupational group until 2010. 4. In clerical and sales occupations, Negro men, leading Negro women slightly, would attain equality in 1970. 5. As skilled workers, Negro women would reach equality about 1960, but it would be at least 1990 before gegro men attain equality in this occupational group.2 AA... 2hwinin- Franklin Moore, Jr., "Status of the Negro in Cleveland," (unpublished Doctoral thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, 1953), p. 105. 25Thomas Augustine, "The Negro Progress Em loyment Equality," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXVI March, 1958) , 63ne 39 Other significant developments which indicate the growing concern for improved racial relations and increased opportunity for the Negro, have come in the entertainment and movie industries. The Negro entertainer and actor has long contributed his talents to the American scene. But in the past the en- tertainment provided or the portrayal of a role in movies was such that white people could consider it either something for their amusement or the work of an outstanding individual who was unique and very different from his‘race. In recent years the movie industry has cast Negro actors in more serious roles. Some movie productions have dealt with the problems of race relations attempting to explore, at least to some degree, the bases for prejudice and discrimination. The role of the Negro entertainer has changed from one concerned with the exploitation of typical white stereo- types of the Negro as a lazy, slow talking, imcompetent fool to the image of a sophisticated individual whom both white and Negroes can appreciate for his talent. The most recent and perhaps most indicative develop- ment related to changing racial attitudes is the acceptance of a Negro comic, Dick Gregory. His routine is replete with jibes and innuendoes related to prejudice and discrimina- tion against the Negro. Gregory is able to make light, witty remarks which point up the foibles of prejudice and 40 discrimination, the inconsistencies to which white people ordinarily give little attention. It is doubtful that Gregory would have been accepted ten years ago, but now his routine goes into the living room of people all over the country, including the South, on nationwide television. One of the most dramatic breakthroughs in equal employment opportunity for the Negro has come in the field of professional baseball. "Prior to 19“? there were no Negroes playing professional baseball in either the American or National Leagues."26 Many said that it would not work out, that white people would boycott the baseball parks, but none of these predictions proved to be true. In some Southern training camps, however, there have been problems with regard to ac- commodations and eating arrangements for the Negro players. "0f the sixteen (16) major league teams, (in 1956) all but two (2) have Negroes on their varsity teams and fifty-five out of the 400 players during the regular season are Negroes."27 Since that time numerous other Negro players have joined the National and American Baseball Leagues achieving great success. 26James Allen Moss, "Utilization of Negro Teachers in Colleges of New York State" (unpublished Doctoral thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1957), p. 267. 27Ibid. #1 Professional football has followed the same pattern and as the game has become increasingly more popular through television, the Negro stars have achieved success on the same level as whites. Despite the fact that breakthroughs in sports and entertainment involves only a limited number of employment opportunities for Negroes it does prove to both whites and Negroes that the Negro can achieve success in competi- tion with whites. In addition the nationwide attention which is given to sports activities, makes it even more significant. According to Steele in a study of integration in industrial plants, one ". . . firm placed its first Negro on a tough, skilled job about the time that Larry Doby entered big league baseball. The personnel director pointed out to the new worker that he too was 'carrying the ball' for his race."28 £3329 services. Prior to World War II the Armed Services were completely segregated among the races. Negroes were assigned to all Negro units under white com- manders, primarily in the transportation and construction batallions. This limited their opportunities to develop 28E11sworth H. Steele, "Jobs for Negroes: Some North-South Plant Studies," Social Forces, XXXII (December, 1953): 159- 42 skills required for significant advancement, thus con- tributing to low morale. In 19h0 the Selective Training and Service Act contained a clause barring discrimination against draftees, however this was interpreted by the Armed Services as meaning "separate but equal" facilities and training. Although considerable pressure was exerted on the military and even the President of the United States, the condition was considered to be a reflection of prevailing social conditions in the country. Thus, any changes were viewed as creating conditions detrimental to preparation for the defense of the country.29 During the war some progress occurred resulting in the appointment of a Negro, Benjamin 0. Davis, as a brigadier general and Judge William Hastie, dean of the Howard University Law School, to a post as aid to the Secretary of War. Although the officers candidate schools were integrated, almost total segregation of the Armed Services lasted throughout the war.30 ' Contrary to the image of the Negro as a happy, dull, indifferent creature who accepted his role in the military system, Stouffer, £3 21. found this could not be supported 29U. S. Commission1 on Civil Rights,U . S. Commission ona Civil Ri ts Repor :61 Em lo ent, V31. III ngton: overnment ntIng U¥¥Ice, 1961), p. #6. 3OIbid. “3 by facts. It was learned that "Negro attitudes indicated a basic racial orientation highly sensitized to evidences of racial discrimination, both real and imagined. There was a readiness to protest which was quite inconsistent with the stereotype of the happy-go-luck indifference."31 The Negro soldier legithmized his protest on the basis of the American creed which emphasizes achieved status based on individual performance, contrary to as- cribed status based upon birth, class, religious, or ethnic group. This was a powerful argument.32 After the war, Lieutenant General Alvan C. Gillem was appointed by the War Department to head a board to review the situation regarding the Negro soldier. The Gillem report contained recommendations which were partially adopted as Army policy in April of 1946. Later the re- mainder of the recommendations were accepted. They are as follows: 1. Inclusion of Negroes in the Army in the same ratio as in the civilian pepulation. 2. Assignment of Negroes to both combat and service- type units. 3. Assignment of Negroes to separate outfits to range in size from companies to regiments, some of which units will be grouped together with white units into composite organization. 318amuel A. Stouffer, The American Soldier: Adjustment Duri Arm Life, Vol. I of studies of Social PE cho o _g Perla War I, 3 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University liOCI, 19:49.7) p0 595° 32Ibid., p. 599 4h 4. Establishment of uniform procedures in processing all enlisted men to insure proper classification and assignment of individuals. 5. Gradual, complete replacement of white officers assigned to Negro units with qualified Negro officers. 6. Acceptance of officers into the Regular Army without regard to race and continuation of "the present policy of according all officers, regardless of race, equal opportunities for appointment, advancement, professional improvement, promotion and retention in all components of the Army." 7. Continuation of present policies barring segre- gation in the use of recreational facilities at Army posts. 8. Stationing of‘Negro units in localities and communities where attitudes are most favorable and in such numbers as will not const tute an undue burden to the local civilian facilities. However, the action taken by President Truman in July, l9#8, signaled the beginning of the end of segrega- tion in the Armed Services when he issued Executive Order 9881. It laid down the provision that there would be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the Armed Services without regard to race, color, re- ligion or national origin. The policy was to be put into effect as rapidly as possible.3u Judge Charles Fahy formerly United States‘Solicitor General was appointed chairman of a seven-man.advisory committee to advise the President on the manner of carry- ing out the policy. After sufficient study the committee made recommendations for integration without racial quotas 331bid., pp. 597-598. 3“U. 8. Commission on Civil Rights, 22. 213:: p. #6. “5 its all services. The Korean conflict hastened the process drastically and finally "in 1955 the Department of Defense announced that integration in the regular armed forces had been achieved. . . ."35 Although there is some reason to question the ex- tent of progress since 1955.36 it is apparent that great changes have occurred in the regular Armed Services since 191:8. Dwyer indicates that the Army found segregation tc> result in: (1) caste consciousness; (2) inefficiency 111 terms of time and money: (3) discriminatory practices 111 job and unit assignments and (4) a lack of quality in Iflegro leadership.37 0n the other hand, since desegrega— txion, he reports there are indications of more adequate and economical utilization of available manpower, higher Iorale and greater all-around efficiency. The policy of the Armed Forces in the integration Ho>cH mpoampeeo on» do awashcocm on» madman new new .mosun man» no emoansa on» how modusshoucH ucoaoauusm oca>omn span was» no coaunpcouomo on» ma non: newcsm mow: 029 .meoz E o capssnsm cassaosospsz m-o as a soon m 0H ss>o cans: cssHHoeosssz omnoH a: a Hoes m m-o canssnsm cassaoaosss: mmuc oooe.ooma a CH mm>o some: eusueuoo maum a: a H00» 0 ofium Assam suspense mwuma cockuooma m 0H me>o Hessm suspense mmuma coonsoomn 4 Smash» CH pcmEHHomcm ecu ucoEHHomco neocoeeu osmez mama neausooq ca meoamez assumes no nooampuao enema no names: as emcee omusEapem swoon cannon on» wcapooaoe cm can: nmouosu escapes hm eaoapueao ho uumhaecH oHpaa 114 study. In three of these four schools the princi- pal and the Negro teacher, who had remained on the staff longest, were interviewed. The exception was in one junior high school where the principal and the Negro teacher, who was readily available and second in tenure on the staff, were interviewed. 2. Four elementary schools ranging from less than 1 percent to approximately 100 percent Negro students in enrollment were selected and the principal and the Negro teacher, who had the"longest tenure on the staff, were interviewed. Included within these four schools was one which had changed the charac- ter of its student population from a minority of Negro students to a substantial majority in a rela- tively few years. All of the interviews were conducted between March 1, 1962, and July 6, 1962. Interviews ranged from forty-five minutes to four hours in length and averaged approximately two and one-half hours. The interviews with Negro teachers usually lasted closer to three hours while the other inter- views were about two hours in duration. VI. PROBLEMS OF COOPERATION Several months prior to the initiation of this study it was discussed briefly with three close associates who are superintendents of schools with Negro teachers in their 115 districts. Later, when the formal request was made to in- clude their districts in the study, their cooperation was granted with enthusiasm. However, in the other three districts where there was only an acquaintanceship with the administrator, reluc- tance to participate was shown at first on the part of either the superintendent of schools or another administra- tive officer whom the superintendent invited into the dis- cussion. In two of these districts the superintendent of schools had previously been contacted by the major advisor Dr. William H. Roe, indicating that the investigator was fully competent to handle such a delicate area, assuring them of its confidential nature and requesting their participation. After the nature and purpose of the study was ex- plained more fully, two of the three administrators agreed to cooperate and lend their support to the study. In one_ case only,'district "E," cooperation was never completely achieved and permission to interview the number of people desired was not granted. However, an interview was con- ducted with an administrator in the district who was per- ceived as being reliable and having rather comprehensive knowledge concerning the employment and integration of Negro teachers in the system. Some of the questions in the interview schedule requested the administrators to supply statistics concerning 116 the number of Negro teachers, custodians, secretaries and other information which according to the Fair Employment Practices Act in the State of Nichigan should not be re- corded. As a result, it was not surprising to find that some administrators were reluctant to provide information until the nature and purposes of the study were fully ex- plained and they were convinced of the strictly confiden- tial aspect of the study. There was some concern that supplying such informa- tion might, in some way, jeopardize the proper functioning of the respective districts. Furthermore, there was some fear that a "politician" in his own personal interest might twist the facts and exploit the situation to the disad- vantage of the school district. VII. PROCESS OF DRTA COLLECTION In each district the superintendent of schools was contacted and asked if he would consent to a personal in- terview. Moreover, in the four districts "A, B, C, and D" he was asked to make arrangements for the interview of cer- tain personnel connected with the school districts. In the above mentioned districts the superintendent and in one instance the elementary principal scheduled ap- pointments with the people to be interviewed or contacted them, indicating that the author would be calling them for an appointment and requested their cooperation in the study. 117 The person to be interviewed was informed that the study concerned the employment and integration of Negro teachers in Nichigan public schools. Thus, the initial contacts for all of the inter- views were made by an administrator in the school system, implying his approval. The actual interviews were either arranged with the respondent by phone or personal contact or were the result of a schedule worked out by the administrator. Interviews were conducted in numerous locations in- cluding a principal's office, superintendent's office, motel room, teacher's classroom, teacher's lounge, teacher's home, auxiliary office, board room and a picnic table in a teacher's back yard. The only request made of the inter- viewee was that the location of the interview should pro- vide a measure of privacy which would permit the respondent to speak freely. In describing the relationship which should exist between the interviewer and respondent, "a state of rapport," say Goochand Hatt, "exists between interviewer and respon- dent when the latter has accepted the research goals of the interviewer, and actively seeks to help him in obtaining the necessary information."11 11Goods and Hatt, 22. ci ., p. 190. 118 The development of rapport with the respondents was considered of primary importance in this study because of its unusually delicate nature. Consequently, at the outset of the interview the author indicated: (1) that the study concerned the employment andintegration of Negro teachers; (2) that he had been a superintendent in a school system which employed Negro teachers; (3) that the study was be- ing conducted as a part of the requirement for the doctor's degree; (4) that the study might prove helpful to school administrators and Negro teachers; and (5) that it was im— perative that the research get beneath the surface of the topic in order to achieve anything of value. It was also pointed out to administrators, partic- ularly, that the author had full knowledge of the Fair Employment Practices laws regarding the employment and in- tegration of Negro teachers, but that again it was neces- sary to get beneath this formal level if the study was to be of any significance. ' Referring to the problem of developing adequate rapport with the respondent Hahn and Cannell suggest that: First, the interviewer should tell the respondent as much as he can, without negating the purpose of the interview. In cases where information must be withheld from the respondent, the interviewer should state the general purpose of the interview, withhold- ing some information rather than making a fictitious statement. Second, the interviewer should, in these cases as in all others, make clear to the respondent what the process of the interview will be, and what 119 will be required of him during the interview.12 Furthermore, they go on to say: Applying these criteria to the information-getting interview, we may conclude that a basic condition for optimum communication is that the respondent perceive the interviewer as one who is likely to understand and accept him and what he has to say. The interviewer must be perceived as "within range" that is, he must be seen as a person to whom the respondent's statements and experience will not be foreign or offensive. This does not mean that the respondent needs to see the in- terviewer as similar to himself, but he must view the interviewer as capable of understanding his point of view, and of doing so without rejecting him. 3 An endeavor was made to state these opening remarks in a matter-of-fact way without value connotations. It was an effort to bring to the interview the aspect of objective scholarly investigation and yet with the attempt to com- municate a feeling of warmth and good will. Discussing the need for intrinsic motivation in the development of rapport in the interview situation Hahn and Cannell state that: An individual is motivated to communicate with another , when he receives gratification from the communication process and the personal relationship of which it is a part. Such motivation sometimes occurs because the interview offers the respondent an opportunity to talk about topics in which he is interested but which usually do not obtain adequate opportunity of expres- sion. This does not imply that the respondent in an informational interview ordinarily obtains the cathar- tic release that we associate with the psychiatric interview. It means simply that he obtains satisfac- tion from talking with a receptive, understanding 12Kahn and Cannell, op. cit., p. 89. 13Ib1d., p. u7. 120 person about something in which he is interested and involved. Interviewers are often surprised to encounter this intrinsic motivation in an interview in which the possibility (or desirability) of a therapeutic type of relationship appears remote. Experience shows, however, that if the information-getting in— terview is conducted properly, this intrinsic motiva- tion is usually present. The relationship between the interviewer and respondent in such interviews resembles the counseling relationship in many respects.14 Goods and Hatt point out that even the inexperienced researcher will usually meet with an adequate reaction. The interviewer is providing the respondent with an oppor- tunity to present his views on a vital’subject and these views are taken seriously by the interviewer. Thus, it is relatively easy to establish initial rapport.15 Another factor contributing to the rapport developed with the respondent in the interview stems from the social norm which exists among members of the teaching profession. First, as a professional person there is a wrong and right way to treat the researcher, for example, courteously, hospitably, answering when spoken to, telling the truth, and conforming to reasonable requests on the positive side and the reverse of those factors on the negative side. Furthermore, the image of the educator includes the concept of research as an integral part of the academic life and lulbid. 15ooode and Hatt, 22. cit., p. 190. 121 thus there is some empathy for the interviewer on the part of the respondent. The respondents were told that notes would be taken during the interview since it was so lengthy and it would be impossible to remember all the reactions. Thus the respondent-interviewer relationship was conversational for the most part with notes taken as rapidly as possible. Nany direct statements were taken in the respondent's own words in an effort to preserve the exact meaning. At times the respondent was stopped at a convenient point and asked to repeat a reaction or to clarify a point. In describing the interview process Goods and Hatt indicate that: . . . when the interview is of an intensive, quali- tative type, with many unstructured probe questions, the problem of recording becomes crucial. So far as possible, the exact words of the respondent should be recorded. They should not be edited for grammar or meaning. Since most interviewers will not have a command of shorthand, it is necessary to develop skill in writing fast and legibly, with some atten- tion to symbols for common short phrases such as "of the," or words common in the particular research study. However, even the best writer will fail to copy all that is said at conversational speed. It will often be useful, at such times, to interrupt by some such comment as "That sounds like a very important point. Would you mind repeating it, so that I can get your words exactly as you say them?" The respondent is usually flatteigd by this attention and rapport is not disturbed. 15Ib1d., p. 207. 122 At the end of the interview there was usually a period of from ten to thirty minutes in which the respondent with enthusiasm and good humor seemed interested in con- tinuation of the discussion. Usually this continued dis— cussion was interesting but the press of time called for a tactful move to end the meeting within a reasonable period. Considering the rapport developed and the termina- tion of the interview, Goods and Hatt suggest that for the more intensive interview of long duration the interviewer should carefully select the moment of departure. Although the interviewer has obtained the necessary information he needs, the respondent has expended between forty-five minutes to several hours in the questioning process. He deserves not to be antagonized by an abrupt ending to the interview. Moreover, the good relations which an inter- viewer develops will have a bearing upon the rapport which future researchers might establish with a particular respondent.17 At the termination of each interview genuine appre- ciation was expressed in recognition of the respondent's cooperation and generous provision of time and attention. Later the interview notes were read by the author and put on tape in an effort to make complete sentences, 17Ib1d., p. 208. 123 recall discussion that was not recorded and to record some reactions to the respondent's attitudes and expressed feelings. Subsequently, the responses to each question were typed on separate cards to permit analysis of reac- tions among respondents occupying various positibns in the school systems under study. VIII. IMPLICATIONS OF THE DATA COLLECTION PROCESS The author was repeatedly impressed by the apparent resistance of many respondents at the outset of the inter- view. However, after only a few minutes had passed there was complete cooperation. There appeared to be some cathartic value in the interview process, since invariably after the interview the respondent would express his enthusiastic appreication for the opportunity of being interviewed, despite the fact that it lasted from two to three hours or more. The re- spondents also expressed the hope their reactions would be of value to the study. Some respondents, particularly Negro teachers, ex- pressed their interest in the results of the research and praised the author for undertaking such a study. In the book Hg! 22 Interview Bingham and Moore point out that: The interview may have any one of all three main functions. It may be used in securing information from people, in giving information to them, and in 124 influencing their behavior in certain ways. Included in this last, although differing somewhat in integt and strategy, is psychotherapeutic interviewing.1 Although there was no intent to change the behavior of the respondent or to do therapeutic counseling, the nature of the questions asked and the thinking required of the respondent to answer them may have led directly or indirectly to changes in the attitudes of the respondents. In one or two cases the author took the liberty of indirectly suggesting a new line of thought which might have been helpful to the individual and the school system. This process was used with great discretion in order to protect the confidential nature of the study as well as in consideration of the effect on the validity and reli- ability of the interview results. An apparent failure by an administrator to notify one respondent concerning the study, may have provided a good example of what can happen if sufficient rapport is not established. The respondent, an administrator who was contacted for the purpose of arranging an interview, indicated that he knew nothing about the study. He was informed that the interview concerned the employment and integration of Negro teachers and that it might take up to two hours to complete. 18Bingham and Moore,Igp. ci ., p. 7. 125 The respondent indicated that he could not devote that much time to it. However, after assurance that the study was legitimate and the suggestion that he call the central administrative officer who had authorized it, he agreed to spend up to an hour. When the author arrived at the office he was wel- comed with the comment, "I can only devote a few minutes to this." The author, somewhat startled at this prospect of limited time, simply indicated the nature of the study, failing to precede the questioning with remarks concerning the fact that the author had been a superintendent in a system employing Negro teachers, that he knew all about the Fair Employment Practices Act and that it was impera- tive to get beneath this level of discussion. The result was a lack of rapport which resulted in typical responses which might be expected in such a touchy area. Nany of the questions were simply not an— swered while others drew stock responses such as "There is nothing different in the entire program." After the interview was completed, which only lasted approximately 25 minutes, the respondent continued to talk for 15 or 20 minutes in such a way as to suggest that, perhaps, he felt somewhat guilty about the way he had treated the author, withholding information which he had available. 126 Certainly, there could be numerous other possible explanations for the lack of rapport in this particular case but it seemed to stand out vividly in contrast with all of the other forty-eight interviews. CHAPTER Iv ANALYSIS 0? DATA I. INTRODUCTION To determine the existing patterns of practices, policies and problels related to the enploynent and in- tegration of Negro teachers, interview schedules were prepared and administered in six selected school districts in Michigan. A board member, the superintendent, other central office administrators, principals, and negro teachers were interviewed in four of the districts involved in the study. In addition a white teacher in one of the four districts was also interviewed. The other two districts were studied through interviews with a single respondent in each dis- trict, an assistant superintendent and a superintendent, both of who. had historical and developmental perspective with regard to the elploynent and integration of Negro teachers within the system. In this chapter the data secured by means of inter- views are presented and analyzed. The findings are sum- marized and related to the results of the findings in Chapter II concerning employment and integration of Negroes in the military, government service, business and the professions, ‘\ 127 128 industry, and education. Chapter V presents conclusions and implications for educational leaders with some specific guidelines which may prove useful to practicing school administrators. Chapter VI includes recommendations, hypotheses, and sug- gestions for further study. II. CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERVIENEES School board members. The board members interviewed in this study were selected by the superintendents as mature individuals with insightful comprehension of devel- opments within the system relating to the employment and integration of Negro teachers. Analysis of personal data in Table V showed that of the four board members interviewed all were from an urban background, with fathers who were professional men. The age range of the group was from forty-one to fifty-six with an average of forty-six years. Two of the members were women who had completed high school in the North. The two male members were professional men both educated in the North, one with a law degree and the other a masters. None of the members had their elementary education in integrated schools although two had their high school education in inte- grated schools. Considering their prior contact with Negroes all respondents indicated "some" association on a scale of "little," "some" or "much." 129 flowed awe: no coacauCOov g o o m o uLOooon m ma 0 H ensues: m o o H naoHonoem "mopwma unenmam m o a o aEsom 3H ma OH m nuaoz "owmfiaoo oumzommmmeocs 3H OH 5 o chofimwmmommucoz m m a : mampofisaomm _ so Hecoamnouonm "scaueQSooo genome 3H NH 3 a cane: m m a o H 93m uucsommxodm ma m m m maesem m ma m N saw: I "mom lfiwcosvmnm NoConWLm Nweozmeam mdcoswopm nowumanmpompmgo wfisz mez Hawz eaz encosnunacasow hospo nmonoeou onwoz maeoaocHnm one uceocepcwnoazm nnmpeos opeom ‘ii’ upceonomeon so even asconnemun.> maoee 130 .enenomea osmez no Ahomeuso mama on» o» eonwmen :« noonmoz can» nomads seams: near codumaoonee ou enemas eases m.mm m.o: w.Hm we mwa oaaam>a NH m H 0 nos: m w m a meow o w m o oflpuaq ”codpamom menu on no«nm moopwez new: c0aneaooee<¢ ea co ma ma no HH Ha co m a eo.m Amseveeawamecsv mamfiaoo ea eo ma ma me o Ha so H a co m meaecoomm NH mo w ma no m Ha no H a no 0 aseucosefim anaconom commemooCH ea oocoapeoxm aeCOHpmosom mecmswosm mocoswomm monomvoam accommWLm mowpnwmopomnmno wawz mawz Hasz :Iz usenommp onwez mmoumaumHCHEom smzuo naeaaoc«pm one aceocepcanemsm ”menses madam IIW ‘||H| ii Aoo:c«ucoov .> magma 131 Superintendents and other administrators. The anal- ysis of personal data for superintendents and other adminis- trators in Table v including eight men and three women showed that seven out of eleven had rural backgrounds with only four coming from homes where the father was a profes- sional or proprietor. Of the total only one attended under- graduate college in the South and only two had elementary or secondary educational experiences in schools where there were any significant numbers of Negro students. Out of eleven, two had doctor's degrees while nine had com- pleted Masters degrees. The average age of the respondents was 51.6 years and only one had "much" association with Negroes prior to his experience in the present position. Principals. The breakdown of personal data in Table V, pages 129 and 130, for principals showed that of the thirteen males and two females only three came from rural backgrounds. One-third of the principals were the chil- dren of professional or proprietary families and all had graduated with Masters degrees from Northern colleges. Only nine had a public school education where there was a significant number of Negro students, while eleven received their undergraduate college education in integrated col- leges or universities. The average age of the principals was no.2 years. Only three indicated ”much" association with legroes prior to his present position. 132 ggggg teachers. It is shown in Table V, pages 129 and 130, that only three out of seventeen Negro teacher respondents came from a rural background. Fourteen were from non-professional families. Of the five male and twelve female respondents fourteen had received their under- graduate college education in the North. Nine had com- pleted only the bachelors degree while eight had received masters degrees. Eight of the respondents attended ele- mentary schools in which they were one of few Negroes in a white school, or at least it was not a segregated Negro school. Twelve ofit of seventeen attended the same kind of high school situation while thirteen received their degrees from integrated colleges. The average age of the Negro teachers was 38.5 years and all seventeen respon- dents had "some" or "much” association with white people prior to their present experience. III. ANALYSIS PROCEDURES Systematic analysis of the interview data follows the procedure of interpreting, categorizing, when possible, and presenting the data with regard to the three major research directing questions stated in Chapter I. The maJor questions and subquestions are as follows: 1. What factors were related to the initial employment of Negro teachers in the school districts involved in this study? 133 a) Who are the "significant others" with regard to the employment decision? b) What personal qualifications and characteristics were considered in the initial employment? c) What role, if any, did written personnel policies play in the initial employment? d) What preparations were made for the integration of the Negro teacher on the faculty? 2. What factors were related to the process of the successful integration of the Negro teacher on the faculty? a) What problems are related to the successful performance of the Negro teacher in the teaching role? ~ ~ b) What opportunities are available for the Negro teacher? 3. What factors were perceived as important to the future, successful employment and integration of Negro teachers in the school districts involved in this study? a) What preparations should be made for the success— ful integration of Negro teachers? b) What problems can be anticipated with regard to the employment and integration of Negro teachers? 0) What practices, policies and procedures should be considered as basic to successful employment integration of Negro teachers? . In analyzing the interview responses with relation to these three major research questions, different queries in the interview schedule were considered to be most pertinent. Although there is some overlapping, Table VI presents an analysis of the interview schedule by query number and re- lates it to the major research directing questions. 134 em mm om amass» man» an eo>ao>ca .mm .mauuoH .mH-um maeappean Hoocom on» on oneness» .maooma .m .s ocwez no codenameucfi one newshoaoio Hammeooose snappy on» on unsunooma me oesaeoaeo one: unoaeeu pen: .m em--:fl mm--wa ma--m~ aauasoea .HH .OH .:H .m .mH .mfi an» no oneness» oammz on» no code .ofluuw unaweuca Hameeooosm on» go unoooam one on oopeaon one: mLOpoeu own: .m m--H a--H o--H amuse» nuns ca oesao>ca «nonhuman Hoonou mm» on anemone» onwoz no uceamoHnae aeau«:« on» on empefien one: mnouoeu pen: .H mLonEdz mnonEdz memossz mnoaumemw nonwomom nowMfl campmosa cpwumodc, comembm m .02 m .02 H .02 weasoocom 3ma>pouCH mcoapmoso someones LOnsE on» on cacao; men» an oasoonoe mp unopesc coaumosc soa>nooCH man no mummnen vanes 135 Despite the fact that question number one in all three interview schedules is primarily concerned with the first research question, pertinent information was obtained relating to the remaining two research questions. In addi- tion to the interview queries tabled as pertaining to the research questions, other information was secured in the administration of the interview schedule. For example, responses to those items found on pages 216 through 221 of schedule number one, were used in the analysis pertain- ing to all three research questions. Tables III and IV in Chapter III presented a de- tailed breakdown of the districts included in the study. For the purpose of analysis, the respondents were grouped into four larger categories: (1) School board members; (2) Superintendents and Other administrators; (3) Principals; and (4) Negro teachers. A separate analysis was made of interviews conducted with the Negro elementary principal and the one white teacher. One interview of a central office administrator was considered insignificant as a result of a lack of ade- quate rapport, and the interview results were eliminated from analysis. This was discussed in Chapter III. Generally, the responses of these groups are presented, analysed and summarized in relation to each of the research directing questions. The following headings are used in the format: (1) School board members; (2) Superintendents and 136 other administrators; (3) Principals; (4) Negro teachers and (5) Summary. Next the findings of the analyses are summarized and compared to those found in the military, business and professions, industry, government, and education. IV. FACTORS RELATED TO THE INITIAL EMPLOYMENT OF NEGRO TEACHERS One of the districts involved in this study had em- ployed Negro teachers in a segregated school from World War I until the abandonment of that school in the early 1950's. Of the four Negro teachers who had served the school for many years, one retired, another was released and two remained in the system. However, the two remain- ing Negro teachers were not assigned regular classroom teaching duties until 1956. Since then the two Negro teachers, both of whom had taught in the segregated Negro school for nine years or more, have taught mixed classes. Despite the fact that two Negroes were on the staff, the district did not employ a single new Negro teacher in the period ten years prior to 1960. Thus, for the purpose of this analysis, attention was given to the factors relat- ing'to the employment of Negro teachers in that district since 1960. . School 22359 members. Of the four respondents three were members of the board of education during the period of 137 the employment of the first Negro teacher. The fourth board member was unable to provide any information concern- ing the initial employment. The three responding indicated that significant fac- tors leading to the employment of the first Negro teacher were: (1) a more liberal viewpoint by new board members in recent years; (2) the expectation of criticism or pressure from the Negro community through such an organization as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; (3) the difficulty of securing qualified white teachers; (4) pressure placed on the superintendent by the board of education to secure highly qualified Negro teachers; (5) the establishment of board policy in the minutes to em- ploy teacher candidates without regard to race, creed or color; (6) the employment of a new superintendent who either had experience with Negro teacher employment or at least was interested in employing teachers on the basis of quali- fications and (7) the encouragement of the new superinten- dent by the board of education to employ Negro teachers. Negative factors as shown in Table VII which delayed the employment of Negro teachers were: (1) the inertia of historical evidence of nonemployment of Negro teachers; (2) apprehensiveness on the part of the superintendent and prin- cipal; and (3) the reluctance of the board of education to force the superintendent to take action which he apparently did not feel wise at that time. Although the numbers of 138 Table VII.--Ana1ysis by district of factors involved in employment of first Negro teacher as perceived by board members Districts Responses ' A B D Total Positive - More liberal viewpoint by new board members in recent years x x x 3 Expectation of criticism from Negro community x x 2 Difficulty of securing qualified white teachers x 1 Pressure on superintendent by board of education x x 2 Employment of a new superintendent with a more liberal viewpoint x x x 3 Encouragement of new superintendent by board to employ Negro teacher x 1 Established board policy in minutes on employment without regard to race, creed, or color x 1 Negative History of nonemployment of Negro teachers x x 2 Apprehensiveness of superintendent x x x 3 Reluctance of board to force superintendent to act x x 2 Apprehensiveness by principal x x x 3 v.7 , wV—v'fi r 139 responses by district were shown in Table VII, page 138, it is not so important as the nature of the factors sug- gested by the board members. For example, the superinten- dent appeared as a maJor stumbling block until a new super- intendent was employed. The respondents indicated that the superintendents who blocked the Negro teacher employment were good ad- ministrators, but apprehensive about possible reaction in the community. In one district, according to the board mem- bers, when interviewing candidates to replace the former superintendent, questions were raised by board members to determine attitude toward and extent of experience with the employment of Negro teachers. Both of the top two candidates for the position had prior experience in the employment of Negroes. ' With regard to the board members' perceptions of the attitudes of others concerning the first employment, two of the members representing districts which had sizable Negro populations felt that, although some principals were apprehensive, the other school personnel, business people, professionals, opinion leaders, average citizens, students, and laboring people were ready to accept the Negro teacher. However, it was cautioned there would be exceptions among all groups. One board member suggested that if the board and superintendent agree on employment of the Negro teacher 140 then nobody else would have to be informed. It was also suggested that some peOple would say no, if asked, and thus it would not be wise to raise the question. In district "D" there were no Negroes living in the district and many people, by their own admission according to the respondent, had moved into the area to escape asso- ciation with Negroes. The board member expressed the view that the average citizen would not be too favorable to the idea at the outset. This was attributed to a tendency on the part of the average citizen in the district to associ- ate all Negroes with the "undesirable Negro." In general students were expected to reflect the attitudes of their parents. Board members in districts "A" and "D" felt that laboring people from the South, some of whom are the so- called "white trash" would be against the employment of Negro teachers. However, according to these board members, the most important factor preventing the decision to em- ploy was the attitude of the superintendent and not the reactions of others in the schoolsor com-unity. Districts vary in their procedures with regard to the selection of teacher candidates. All those studied rely upon the superintendent for recomlendations for selection. Some districts have teacher credentials at the board meeting for perusal by the members, others do not. In three cases of initial employment of the Negro teacher, the candidates lhl were discussed at somewhat greater length than were white teacher candidates. In any event, the recommendation for employment was left to the discretion of the superintendent in a routine manner and was endorsed upon his recommendation. Only one of three districts had personnel policies in the board minutes which stated that teachers would be employed without regard to race, creed or color. Even here, this policy was not made available to the public so that few people realized it existed. In district "B" the board member suggested that writ- ten policies did have a bearing on employment while the other two districts had no written policies. However, all three respondents indicated that board members were aware of the Fair Employment Practices Law in the State of Michigan and suggested it may have had some effect but it was not considered a controlling factor. Considering characteristics which were important or should be significant in the decision to employ the Negro teacher candidate, the respondents indicated that: l. The candidate should be highly qualified with every likelihood of achieving success as a teacher. 2. Experience was desirable but not necessary. 3. The candidates should meet the same qualifications as white teachers in appearance and vocal expression. 4. The candidate should be better than the average white teacher. 1&2 5. The moral and home background was important but no more than with the white teacher. 6. Marital status was not too significant. 7. Steadiness or maturity was important. 8. Educational qualifications were left to the super- intendent as were the assessmentsci’all the above factors. Prior to the acceptance of the Negro teacher all ad- ministrators in the system were informed about the impend- ing employment. Although board members considered it the responsibility of the superintendent to make any other necessary preparations, they were of the opinion that it was unnecessary to prepare anyone else including teachers, students, or community citizens. Superintendents 229.22E25 administrators. An anal- ysis of factors which affected the decision to employ the first Negro teacher as perceived by superintendents and other administrators is shown in Table VIII. There was considerable variation in the nature of factors perceived as affecting the initial employment. Part of this was due to differences among the districts in relation to factors which go beyond this study. But it was significant to find that the preponderance of responses relate to the position manifested by the superintendent and board of education. In Table VIII it is shown that seven responses con- cerned the readiness of the board of education and 143 Table VIII.-—Positive factors affecting the decision to employ the first Negro teacher as perceived by superintendents and other administrators . Nell Response Frequency Historical change to more liberal attitude by the board 1 Board felt community was ready and that competent Negro teachers should be employed 4 Board went along with superintendent 3 Apparent readiness by P.T.A. groups in each attendance area 2 Pressure from the NAACP or F.E.P.C. 4 Superintendent's discussion with board regarding F.E.P.C. laws 2 Publicity concerning F.E.P.C. cases of discriminatory employment in schools 2 Written personnel policies approving employment without regard to race, creed, or color 1 Superintendent submitted recommendations for Negro teacher in routine manner-- the board was not aware l Superintendent has support of the administrator of school in which the Negro teacher was to be placed 4 Administrators felt need for Negro teacher because of significant Negro enrollment 2 (continued on next page) 14H Table VIII (continued) *— ‘mr—‘f. "' j. lel Response __.. _ FHPQ”ZQSX. Administrator had background of experience in employment or association with Negro teachers 2 Reports by other districts of gowd experience with Negro teachers a Needed teachers badly and Negro was only one available I Needed teachers and it was expected that highly qualified Negroes could be obtained 3 An intercultural program conducted with the staff CVer a period of time a Liberal-minded staff 2 Association of staff memters with Negro teachers who 8 rved the district from an outside source 2 Encouragement by the universities to accept Negro student teachers u 145 superintendent. Three other major factors affecting the decision to employ were: (I) support by the administrator in the school in which the Negro teacher would be placed; (2) encouragement of school officials to accept Negro stu- dent teachers by the universities; and (3) pressure from the NAACP or the Fair Employment Practices Commission. The frequency of these responses suggested that superintendents and other administrators basically viewed the board, the-superintendent and principals as "prime movers" concerning Negro teacher employment. Although pressure from the NAACP or F.E.P.C. and encouragement from the universities were not deciding factors, they were also considered significant. Analysis with regard to personnel policies relating to employment without regard to race, creed or color showed that only one district had such policies written and as a part of the board records. Even in this district some ad- ministrators were not certain this was a part of the written personnel policies. In most districts the superintendent arrived at the conclusion that he had approval from the board to recommend Negro teacher candidates as a result of informal discussion with the board of education. 0n the issue of written policy there was confusion among administrators and board members. In two different districts, a board member and superintendent and a super- intendent and central office administrator respectively, 1&6 disagreed on the question of whether or not written policy existed on this matter. Discussion by the board and superintendent concern- ing the F.E.P.C. laws and the publicity resulting from court cases on discriminatory employment practices, ap- peared to stimulate more thorough consideration of employ- ment practices. Experience of administrators in employment or association with Negroes on an integrated staff also had a bearing on the decision to employ but few of the adminis- trators had this background. The teacher shortage, the perceived availability of highly qualified Negro teachers, the association of staff members with Negro teachers who served the system as part of a county-wide service, and reports by other districts of good experience with Negro teachers, all were factors contributing in different situations to the employ- ment of the Negro teacher. Analysis of Table IX suggests that in certain dis- tricts few teachers apply for available vacancies. The two involved particularly were found to be those without Negroes living in the district. Some concern was shown in those districts for the adjustment of the Negro teacher with regard to finding housing or companionship with other members of the Negro race. In districts including a size- able Negro population the administration usually contacted a Negro leader in the community to help find suitable o 147 Table IX.--ngative factors affecting the decision to employ the first Negro teacher as perceived by superintendents and other administrators W N-ll Response Frequency Not many Negro teachers apply 2 Lack of Negroes in community 3 Negative attitude on part of principal l Negro teacher married to a white spouse 1 Negro teacher might be a "plant" by organized group 1 Housing for the Negro teacher 2 Previous superintendent overly selective or anti-Negro and board reluctant to press the issue 2 Administrator perceived certain board members as not being receptive to employment of Negro teachers , 2 After employment of first Negro one gets numerous other applications 1 1&8 housing for the Negro teacher. The negative attitude of a principal or previous superintendent were both factors presenting barriers to employment. Moreover, superintendents and other adminis- trators had some fear that the first Negro teacher might be a "plant" by the NAACP Just for the purpose of breaking down the barrier. A Negro teacher married to a white spouse was con— sidered a barrier to employment, largely on the basis that it would not be socially acceptable in the community. The administrator did not want the responsibility of, in ef- fect, condoning such an arrangement by providing employment. Finally, the superintendents' perceptions of disap- proval of the idea of Negro employment on the part of even one or two board members creates some feelings of insecurity. The superintendent usually likes to have unanimous support on an issue which has the potential of being so controversial. In relation to those who might be considered "signi- ficant others," there was most agreement among respondents that students would accept the Negro teacher as an individ- ual. School personnel were expected to be somewhat more receptive than the average citizen although the respondents did not feel it wise to consult them since they might re- flect the more conservative elements in the community. More- over, the respondents did not consider it a proper thing for school personnel, other than administrators, to decide. 149 Generally, the respondents expected the opinion leaders and professional people to support utilization of Negro teachers while there was wide division of opinion concerning business people. Some reactions by average citi- zens or laboring people were expected but to the surprise of the respondents there was little reaction even among people from the South. One superintendent suggested that laboring people had accepted Negroes on the job as individ- uals and thus he expected they would accept Negro teachers as individuals. Thus, superintendents and administrators perceived students and school personnel as the most receptive and the average citizens and laboring people as the least recep- tive, prior to the actual employment of the first Negro teacher. Despite the initial apprehensiveness among all groups including the respondents, fears were soon dispelled and the respondents were surprised at the relative ease of adjustment. Reacting to the question concerning the characteris- tics which were considered or should be considered in the employment of Negro teachers, the respondents suggested the following: 1. Appearance--Qualifications should be the same for white and Negro. Some considered Caucasian features with absence of large lips and nose as most de- sirable. Skin color was not considered a significant 150 factor among most respondents. A neat attractive person Negro or white was considered desirable. Professional qualifications--For the initial Negro teacher the qualifications were set high. Creden- tials were expected to be very good including a good experience record or student teaching perform- ance. Although experience was not considered impera- tive it was considered desirable. A good experience record was perceived as providing a measure of as- surance of success in the routine formal education aspects of the teaching role. All of the above factors were considered important in the employment of white teachers but the strength of concern was greater for the Negro. The first Negro teacher was- expected to present an over-all impression of being better than the average white teacher. Marital status was not considered too important. Personality-~The most important factor was a sense of poise and maturity with a positive outlook on life. Oversensitivity to the responses of others with regard to race was considered very undesirable. Moral and home background-~This was considered impor- tant for any teacher. In some cases a more thorough investigation was made of the Negro teacher. The procedure was no longer considered necessary and now the same procedures as for whites are utilized. 151 5. Southern training-~Almost all respondents had reservations about Negro teachers trained in the South. There was some question of the quality of training including the lack of adequate contact with white students and parents in the student teaching situation. The remaining few considered each institution in the South on its own merits. Although there was some disagreement on this point, some felt that even accredited Negro colleges were inferior to Northern institutions. Preparation of people for the Negro teacher usually involved acceptance by the principals in the system, par- ticularly the principals in whose building the Negro teacher would be working. In two cases, the total teaching and ad- ministrative staff of the building and the Parent Teachers Associations were required to express approval before a Negro teacher was placed in the building. This same general practice has continued in one of the two districts while the other district has abandoned the plan. In five of the six districts, teachers, students or community citizens were informed about the Negro only after the employment and often this was a result of contact with or observation of the Negro teacher. One administrator sug- gested that the employment of a teacher on bases other than qualifications was not within the rights of teachers, stu- dents or community citizens to decide and thus they were 152 not informed. Moreover, it was felt the less attention given the change the better chance of success. The board of education in one district adopted a policy prior to the employment of the Negro teacher which stated that no student would be permitted to change from one teacher to another for reasons based on race. During the teacher orientation period prior to the opening of school, a white teacher served as a buddy to the new Negro teacher in the same pattern as followed for white teachers. Principals. Table X presents an analysis which shows that principals also attributed most of the influence in the decision to employ Negro teachers directly to the super- intendent and the board of education. An insight into this perception was achieved by analysis of responses con- cerning the principals' perception of how people felt prior to the employment of the Negro teacher. There was divided opinion, but in most cases where Negro teachers have been employed principals perceived the attitudes of school personnel, citizens, opinion leaders, business people and professionals as being much more opposed than did board members or superintendents and other administrators. One principal suggested the notion that board members and the superintendent were somewhat removed from the firing line. As a result, it was his perception that the principal would receive all the headaches that would come with the 153 Table X.--Factors affecting the decision to employ the first Negro teacher as perceived by principals w-1u Responses Frequengy Historical change to more liberal attitude by the board 1 New superintendent and board mutually interested in employment of Negro teacher 4 Pressure from NAACP or other members of the Negro community 3 Superintendent's prior experience in ' mixed community 1 Needed teacher badly 2 Satisfaction with Negro student teacher or substitute 4 A Negro teacher employed now would prevent difficulty later when Negro population grows l 154 employment of the Negro teacher. The principals, whether approving or not, considered the superintendent and board of education to be the innovators, with the superintendent the most important. Again, the influence of association in developing a receptive attitude toward the Negro teacher was brought out by the response regarding experience with Negro student teachers. Pressure by the NAACP or F.E.P.C. through claims made against the district also had much saliency in stimu- lating action by the board and superintendent. This factor was mentioned previously by board members and superintendents and other administrators. Despite the fact that perceptions were divided regard- ing the attitude of various groups within the community, few principals disagreed with the feeling that school chil- dren would accept the Negro teacher as an individual. The major barriers were perceived as being within the adult community. _ Analysis indicated that the major negative influences on Negro teacher employment as perceived by principals were as follows: (1) previous superintendent was against employ- ment of Negro teachers; (2) apprehensiveness by principals; (3) in the high schools, the fear of parental attitude con- cerning the association of a male Negro teacher with white daughters; (h) fear of citizen attitudes reflected by their statements that they had moved to that community to escape 155 association with Negroes and (5) the notion that it takes considerable time to break down prejudice and thus the Negro teacher should not be employed until there were Negroes in the community. None of the respondents were aware of any written policy regarding employment without regard to race, creed or color. Although some indicated there were informally accepted policies to which they ascribed. Moreover, according to the principals, they knew of no such policy existing as a part of the constitution of any of the teacher organizations represented in the dis- trict. There were, however, Negro teachers who were members of those organizations. Despite considerable difference in perceptions the respondents suggested the following five areas as most important: 1. Appearance--Good grooming, appropriate dress not too flashy, were both considered significant. Skin color was not deemed of much importance although Caucasian features were considered desirable by some. 2. Ability to communicate successfully-~This was con- sidered imperative for both Negro and white but was more important for the Negro because of the need to break down white stereotypes. 3. Positive attitude--A resentful, militant, oversensi- tive attitude was considered a major deterrent. 156 h. Personality--A mature professional person who gets along well with people, is sincere, honest, and has a sense of humor was most desirable. 5. High qualifications-~The Negro teacher was expected to impress the principals as being above the average white teacher in teaching skill and ability. Analysis shows that most of the factors suggested by the principals were applied, as well to white teacher can- didates. The major difference was the strength of the trait which was required of the Negro teacher. , The respondents, in almost total agreement, indicated that the only people who were informed prior to the actual employment of the first Negro teacher outside the board and superintendent were the principals. Again the assumption was made that requesting approval by teachers, citizens, or students might result in a negative response. One-fifth of the principals indicated that either the respondent or the superintendent had specifically discussed with the Negro teacher her role in the community and the problems which might arise. Some Negro teachers were told they would have the full backing of the principal. Other respondents accepted the Negro teacher on the same basis as white teachers making no special overtures. Negro teachers. Analysis of the data concerning the Negro teachers' perceptions of factors important to the em- ployment of the first Negro teacher in the system show an 157 absence of any particular pattern. In two cases, it was the superintendent who took the initiative while the other two districts apparently responded to pressure from the NAACP, among other forces which were not perceptible to the Negro teachers. Continued employment of Negro teachers was related to acceptance of Negro teacher candidates who had completed student teaching in the district or who were products of the local school system. In the early stages of Negro teacher employment as they perceived it, certain districts maintain quota systems. For example, no more than two Negro teachers were to be em- ployed each year. After the successful performance of Negro teachers this quota system was apparently lifted and, to a great extent, Negroes are now employed on the basis of qualifications. The perceptions of Negro teachers relating to the feelings of people in the community vary to some degree but generally they expected white people at all levels to be somewhat apprehensive. However they were confident this fear would dissipate over a short period of time. The respondents expected at least a majority of the board to support Negro employment since the board was con- sidered the final authority in their employment. Despite the fact that the respondents expected some reactions in the community, very few heard of any problems which resulted 158 from their employment. Practically all of the respondents had made applica- tions to other districts without success before securing employment. Many were denied employment previously in the district in which they were presently employed. In some cases persistent applications resulted in employment, while pressure was applied in others. Once the district had employed a Negro teacher its access seemed to be more likely. The respondents made applications on their own, or were recommended personally by whites. Both types of applications have been successful and no patterns can be discerned. The respondents felt that, in the initial stage, Negro teachers were more carefully screened for employment. Sometimes they were interviewed by a number of people rather than by only one or two as in the case of white teachers. Respondents were not aware of any written policies in the school districts regarding employment without regard to race, creed or color but after being employed they as- sumed the district would now employ additional Negroes. All respondents replied in the affirmative to the question of applying for and accepting a teaching position in a school district which had not previously employed Negroes. Some school districts were well known by the re- spondents for discriminatory employment practices. o 159 At least two Negro teachers who were previously denied teaching positions in two of the districts involved where they made their homes, commuted to cities at some distance and returned home on week-ends. This went on for up to ten years prior to their appointment in their home communities. Another two respondents indicated they accepted their present positions at a financial loss in an effort to make a step forward for their race. Generally the respondents perceived the principals as the only persons except the board members when the super- intendent had prepared for their appearance as faculty mem- bers. There were no significant discernible reactions except in a few cases. In the districts including a sig- nificant Negro community, the respondents perceived satis- faction on the part of Negro citizens as a result of their employment. Often the first Negro teacher in a building was counseled by the superintendent, the principal or both con- cerning any problems that might arise related to race. The next Negro teacher was usually given the same preparation as white teachers. Analysis shows that the respondents pointed to many of the same factors previously mentioned with regard to important personal characteristics required of the Negro teacher. 160 l. Appearance--Respondents considered neatness, appro- priate dress, and good manners as important. Some felt that lightness of skin was considered desir- able by administrators but that it should be no factor. 2. Ability to communicate--It was considered a signi- ficant factor in employment and a desirable criteria, recognizing the poor speech patterns of many Southern Negroes. 3. Positive attitude--This was considered one of the most significant attributes for the Negro teacher. He must be able to withstand inadvertent and blatant examples of prejudice with composure. Ob- sequious behavior should not be expected of the Negro teacher but he should not be oversensitive. A. Professional qualifications-~The respondents felt they were fully qualified to teach, often better than white teachers. 5. Personality—-The same characteristics as expected yof whites should be required of the Negro teacher. Respondents expected more careful screening of home and moral background in the initial stages but firmly be- lieved that no special concern was given after successful integration of the Negro teacher. There was no reason to believe that marital status was a factor in Negro teacher em- ployment but some felt stability was more likely if the 161 teacher was married. The attitude concerning Southern college training for Negro teachers was mixed but Northern training was preferred. Those few trained in Southern colleges indi- cated that the quality of teaching was very good but the facilities and available resources such as libraries and laboratory equipment were very poor. Summary. The key factor in the employment of Negro teachers as perceived by all groups was the positive atti— tude of the superintendent of schools. If he supported nondiscriminatory employment practices, the board of educa- tion supported him or at least the board was willing to go along with him. Changes in the attitude and membership on boards of education has resulted in more liberal attitudes toward nondiscriminatory employment practices. In some cases boards and the people of the community were ready for the employment of Negro teachers long before the superintendent of schools. The attitude of the principal in the school where the Negro teacher might be placed was considered critical in the decision to employ a Negro teacher at a particular time. To place a person in an environment where the principal was not eager to make it work was considered undesirable for all involved. In high schools the principal usually was 162 given veto power over employment of any teacher while this was not true in elementary schools. However, the elemen- tary principal often was given the power to veto a Negro teacher for his building In three districts all groups perceived the NAACP as being a factor stimulating the initial employment of the Negro teacher. Two other districts were responsive to some extent to recognition of the Fair Employment Practices law. Thus, some external pressure emerges as a significant factor in the employment of Negro teachers. The shortage of qualified white teachers in some par- ticular areas such as special education had a bearing on initial employment. In addition some respondents assumed that highly qualified Negro teachers could be secured more easily than white teachers to teach in predominantly Negro schools. Encouragement from the universities to accept a Negro teacher or at least a Negro student teacher often led to changes in attitudes among school personnel. Once accept- ance was gained in a school-community by a Negro student teacher it was considered possible to employ a Negro teacher on a full time basis. Written personnel policies concerning employment with- out regard to race, creed or color were almost nonexistent. There were unwritten policies perceived by all groups but there was much.contusion concerning the basic elements. 163 Even within the same district there were often differences in perceptions of the basic elements of the informal policy. A high degree of uniformity was manifested among respondents concerning characteristics considered desirable in the Negro teacher. 1. 2. Positive attitude-~An expression of maturity and perspective. Oversensitivity was a most undesirable trait which according to all respondents character- ized many Negroes. lgigh_qualification--The Negro teacher was expected to efficiently and successfully handle the formal teaching role. Personality--The ability to get along with others, interest in others, sense of humor and ability to withstand some emotional pressure. Appearance and ability £3 communicate-~Although stressed for whites as well, was considered more im- portant for the Negro. Predominant factors which tended to prevent the employ- ment of Negro teachers were: . 1. Lack of Negroes in the community and thus no apparent urgency or pressure to employ. Lack of adequate housing for a middle class Negro teacher. Apprehensiveness by superintendents and principals. 16M V. FACTORS RELATED TO THE PROCESS OF INTEGRATION OF NEGRO TEACHERS School board members. Firm patterns of perception emerge from the analysis of data concerning the factors related to the process of integration of Negro teachers. The most evident is the pattern relating to problems en- countered as a result of employment of the Negro. Fundamentally, there was consistent agreement, that the relationships between the Negro teacher and adminis- trators, teachers, students, parents and community citizens, were highly satisfactory. Many board members expected prob- lems which never materialized. The highest expectations of the respondents were confirmed as a result of almost complete acceptance of the Negro teacher by students. School board members perceived the Negro teacher as making satisfactory social adjustments including participa- tion in teacher organizations and all school social events. However, they were unaware of the extent of socialization outside the school environment, but perceived it as meeting the needs of the individual. Again, consistent agreement was exhibited with regard to the highly satisfactory performance of the Negro in the formal teaching role. No differences were observed between the effectiveness of the Negro teacher as compared to white teachers, with the exception that the Negro was often 165 . considered to represent the highest standards while some white teachers were considered to be less than the best. This observation was considered to be the result of the screening process used in selection of the Negro teacher. The respondents heard many compliments and no com- plaints from white people concerning the teaching ability of the Negro teacher. This reaction was considered to be the result of novelty and the ill-defined expectations of white parents to a highly qualified, effective Negro teacher. One respondent expressed the Opinion that all Negro teachers trained in Northern colleges and universities would be fully qualified to teach. The assumption wasr made that if a Negro could complete college or university then he must be fully prepared to teach. In one district reservations concerning Southern training of Negro teachers persisted despite the fact that two of the Negroes on the staff had received training in the South. Evidence indicated a feeling that the Negro teacher has presented a good image for Negro youngsters to emulate and provided vicarious rec0gnition for members of the Negro community. With one exception the respondents perceived no significant changes in business, industry or housing which might have been related to the employment of the Negro teacher. In the one case mentioned there had been limited 166 ' increases in the number of Negroes employed in a department store. Analysis of the data indicated that the respondents perceived all positions within the school system as open to Negro teachers. However, it was the general consensus that the appointment of a Negro principal, if made, would come as the result of observation of a Negro teacher from within the system who had proved highly satisfactory in his role as a teacher. In two cases where there was a substantial number of Negro youngsters in the high school, the respondents ex- pressed a particular need for a Negro counselor. However, it was felt that a Negro counselor would not be expected to counsel only Negro students. Superintendents and other administrators. Despite the fact that the respondents expected problems of many kinds as a result of the employment of Negro teachers, most of the difficulties never materialized. The relation- ship with school personnel, students, parents and community citizens were considered highly satisfactory. Respondents perceived the Negro teachers as making highly satisfactory adjustments to community life except with regard to social life in the Negro community. In the smaller community the shortage of educated professional Negroes created problems for the Negro teacher in terms of desirable social relations. 167 The respondents stated that the only problems of some concern which had arisen in their past experience were related to: (1) the sensitivity of some white parents con- cerning a Negro male teacher's classroom association with white daughters; (2) requests by the Negro teacher for ad- ministrative or supervisory positions for which the adminis- tration‘considered them unqualified; and (3) the releese or firing of a Negro teacher for good reason. Although these problems could involve white teachers as well as Negroes, they assume greater proportions with the Negro. Any suspected familarity of a Negro teacher with either white or Negro girls tends to reinforce the stereo- types held by many white parents. Some respondents expressed concern about the possi- bility of the Negro teacher using the charge of racial dis- crimination against the administration with regard to lack of promotions or releasing of Negro teachers from contracts. Respondents from two large districts suggested that the appointment of Negroes to top administrative posts often created a barrier between the appointee and the common Negro people. Thus, the selection of a Negro as a principal in a building serving lower class Negroes required a thorough screening process if success was to be achieved. In relation to the selection of a Negro principal, respondents point to the occasional accusations by Negro parents that employment of Negro teachers degrade the schools which their children attend. 168 Only one of the six districts made any special efforts to make it known to placement officials that the district was employing without regard to color. The respondents in the other five districts were somewhat fearful of the deluge of possible Negro applicants which they would have to screen if an issue was made of it. Moreover, it was felt that it was not desirable as a matter of policy to request a teacher because of race. Respondents generally agreed that Negro teachers trained in the North were more likely to succeed because of better quality education, more extensive association with white people and more experience with Northern cultural mores. Out of all the respondents only two suggested that, perhaps, some Negro teachers graduating in the North were not adequately trained because of the tendency to give a "B" to graduate students if they try hard. The respondents commended the Negro teachers in their respective systems for their excellent teaching performance which was considered equal to their best white teachers and most often better than the average. Respondents expected the Negro teacher to do much better academically with Negro students than white teachers, but generally, they concluded there was no significant difference. However, the respondents did point out that the influence of the Negro teacher was important to all Negro youngsters as a symbol of possible 169 achievement and thus raised the sights of Negro students in all classrooms. The few Negro teachers who were considered ineffec- tive had difficulty with discipline. But the following account of turnover among Negro teachers gives some idea of their success as teachers in the districts involved in this study. District NA". The contract for only one Negro teacher had not been renewed and this was the result of closing a segregated school. The teacher was not con- sidered adequate to teach in a mixed school. Another teacher resigned for a better position in a larger city. District is". One teacher was asked to resign be- cause of indiscretion with a married person of the opposite sex. The only other Negro teacher leaving the system ac- cepted a position in a larger city with higher remuneration. District fig". This is a larger district but it has only lost two persons during a decade because of unsatis- factory performance. Numerous other teachers have left the system voluntarily for reasons often common to white teachers. They are as follows: (1) marriage, (2) maternity, (3) non-promotion or better position, (4) family problems, (5) lack of marriage prospects for females, (6) to get out of teaching, (7) to be closer to home, and (8) difficulty adjusting to an all white school. 170 The consensus of Opinion indicated that the same Opportunities were open within the system to Negroes as whites but that for practical purposes certain ones would come before others. Generally, in the larger systems the appointment of principals and administrators is from within the system and thus a time period is involved in appoint- ment of Negroes to administrative posts. Two of the districts involved had appointed a Negro administrator, one in the central office and the other as an elementary principal in a school with a predominately Negro enrollment. Both appointments were considered highly successful. There was mixed opinion on opportunities available at the present time without much consistency except for special education and adult education. Both were considered outside the usual teaching role and apparently acceptable. Moreover, the shortage in special education teachers pro- vided sufficient rationalization to counter any opposition. Respondents concluded that the employment of Negro teachers generally had a healthy impact on the community, creating better understanding and good will. In some cases stores and businesses began the utilization of Negroes for positions where they met the public. Whether or not the employment of Negro teachers was a factor in those changes was not considered possible to determine. 171 Principals. The perceptions of the principals were in basic agreement with the superintendents and other ad- ministrators reaffirming the success of the Negro teacher as a highly respected member of the teaching staff. Respondents perceived oversensitivity on the part of the Negro teacher as a major problem in those few cases where it existed and was a major concern of all principals with regard to future employment of Negroes. There were some indications that Negro teachers did not show sufficient interest in extra-curricular activities and were less likely to make parent contacts. Principals received few complaints from Negro or white parents concerning Negro teachers. Compliments were perceived as given disproportionately by white parents for the Negro teachers. Usually the remarks concerned increase in the rate of learning by youngsters and the affection which.white youngsters had for their teacher. . The Negro teacher was perceivedhas accepting their share of responsibility and sometimes more than their share of professional duties. Many accepted leadership when given to them but few were aggressive in seeking it. A few were not humble about their success which apparently had an adverse effect upon relations both with Negroes and whites. 'ggggg teachers. The Negro teachers interviewed in this study considered themselves fully qualified teachers 172 doing a job equally as well or better than their white counterparts. The respondents perceived their relationships with school personnel, students, and parents as satisfactory and successful. Most problems, they felt, were a result of the guilt feelings on the part of whites. The view was expressed that white people need more help in adjusting than do Negroes. Districts which practice discriminatory employment practices appear to be well known among Negroes, although when a change in position is taken Negroes are not always aware of it. Negro teachers felt that the administrators set the stage for the relationships which will exist among Negroes and whites within the school building. Sometimes evidence of prejudicial attitudes came out but it was not considered a major problem. The lack of opportunity to secure decent housing in good neighborhoods and the unavailability of a sufficient number of Negro professionals with whom to asso- ciate were two major concerns. In one district Negro teachers refrained from attend- ing faculty affairs where dancing was a part of the scheduled activities, thus preventing strain in this sensitive area. However they did attend most affairs including dinner meetings. Negro teachers felt some social pressure to conform to white standards of behavior which were often considered 173 less professional. Negro teachers tended to dress and behave as professional persons while white teachers some- times became lax about appearance, according to the re— spondents. The respondents are net as optimistic as the ad- ministrators concerning the Opportunity to advance to ad— ministrative posts and other more visible teaching positions. In districts with a Negro population they perceive themselves as presently being limited at the elementary level to schools in lower socio-economic areas. This appeared to be true even though there were few Negro children in some areas where Negroes were teaching. Special education was viewed as wide-open to Negroes, primarily because it is an "off-beat" profession serving a high percentage of Negro youngsters. Respondents expressed the hope that Negro counselors would be employed to serve in schools with Negroes in enrollment. Negro teachers felt that administrators supported them in encounters with parents and children even better in many instances than white teachers. In a few situations, however, administrators were inclined to believe a parent's story before checking it out with the teacher. The respondents suggested the following list of pre- cautions important to successful integration for the new Negro teacher: 1. Don't be oversensitive, exhibit a positive attitude. 17% Know your subject matter. . Be punctual. . Provide a high quality teaching performance. 2 3 u 5. Maintain high moral standards. 6. Don't become a part of a clique. 7. Request a clear definition of your responsibilities. 8 Don't become too familiar socially with either white or Negro parents. 9. Be loyal to the administration but not obsequious. Be frank and open. 10. Don't push in social activities—~let people invite you. 11. Play no favorites with youngsters, white or Negro. l2. Attempt to live in a decent neighborhood. Summary. The analysis of factors related to the process of integration of Negro teachers suggested that all groups of respondents were of the common perception that Negro teachers were highly successful in the teaching role despite the apprehensiveness on the part of all those involved. The relationships which existed between the Negro teacher and students, white teachers, administrators and parents were also better than was expected. Negro teachers have enjoyed tenure in their positions and satisfaction with their jobs. Although prejudice and discrimination was decreasing it still existed to some 175 extent and was considered by Negro teachers as a barrier to advancement in administrative and more prestigeful positions within the school system. Administrators and board members considered oppor- tunities as available, but were not in complete agreement. Administrative appointments were usually made from within the system and thus the time interval was perceived as work- ing to the disadvantage of the Negro teacher. Consensus existed with regard to the desirable symbol which the Negro teacher provided for Negro youngsters and the good effect it had on white youngsters who perhaps for the first time associated with a successful intelligent Negro. Racial relationships were considered better on a community-wide basis. The primary concern of administrators was related to: (l) parental fears concerning association of white girls and the Negro male teacher, (2) fear of the charge of racial discrimination by Negro teachers as a dodge against incom- petency or behavior not consistent with the teaching profes- sion, and (3) the disharmony which an oversensitive Negro teacher could bring to the school situation. ,” Negro teachers were primarily concerned about decent housing and more opportunity for social relationships with Negroes on the same educational level. According to the Negro respondents, the administrators set the stage for ef- fective interracial relations within the school system. 176 Despite the extent of good will Negroes felt more was expected of them than of white teachers and thus they try to remain on a high professional level. VI. FACTORS PERCEIVED AS IMPORTANT TO FUTURE UTILIZATION OF NEGRO TEACHERS ‘Board members. The questions asked the respondents at this point were designed to draw out perceptions of desirable changes in the process of employment and integra- tion of Negro teachers which came as a result of past experience. In three cases the respondents indicated that some consideration was given to the placement of the Negro teacher within the system to prevent concentration in any one school. In districts with a substantial Negro enrollment the first Negro teacher was often placed in the school which had a concentration of Negro students. However, the expressed attitude was to Spread Negro teachers throughout the system including schools having only white students. Each district involved had taken positive steps to implement that policy. Board members stated that the Negro teacher could serve at any grade level and teach any type of course. There was, however, some concern for parental attitudes and stereotypes concerning the Negro male teacher in relation to high school girls. 177 One board member reaffirmed the position stated pre- ‘.viously, that teachers and P.T.A. members should be asked concerning the placement of a Negro teacher, while the other board members strongly opposed this approach suggest- ing that only the administrators should be given considera- tion since they would be responsible for the Negro teacher. They felt that it might be wise to inform the teachers of the accomplished fact and suggest their support as mature community citizens. Only one board member suggested the es- tablishment of a formal policy of employment without regard to race, creed or color. One problem suggested, which might be expected with continued employment of Negroes, revolved around the pos- sibility of agitation by organizations such as the NAACP for the transportation of students to force more effective integration than existing housing patterns would ordinarily permit. There was some concern shown for keeping the number of Negro teachers in balance on a long range basis but in— terest in high quality teaching was considered more important. This problem was not vital to board members at the time of the study because of the relatively low percentage of Negro teachers. .Although the respondents were proud of the fact of Negro employment, they were not of the opinion that Negroes should be employed because of race. Providing employment 178 Opportunity on a nonracial basis was considered a basic objective. Finally the respondents suggested consideration Of the following factors by boards and superintendents con- sidering employment of a Negro teacher: 1. Establish an understanding among board members and the superintendent concerning the employment Of Negro teachers. This could be done through open discussion Of the issues involved. Provide for careful screening of candidates, ac- cepting those with high professional qualifications and every likelihood of success. Make an attempt to eliminate those candidates who are oversensitive, lacking in maturity or serving as an NAACP sponsored candidate. Consult with the administrators including the principals when considering employment. Proceed on a firm basis as with any other teacher. DO not seek publicity. Make the same effort to involve both Negro and white teachers in school social events. DO not request aid from Negro organizations, for example the NAACP, with regard to employment of Negro teachers. Employment should be viewed as the responsibility of school officials. 179 Superintendents, principals and other administrators. The differences in the responses Of the principals and superintendent and other administrators relating to fac- tors important to future successful employment and integra- tion Of Negro teachers are so insignificant that they are treated together in this analysis. There were two different approaches to Negro teacher employment utilized by the districts involved in this study. In one district the approach consisted Of preparing com- munity citizens, teachers, and administrators for the Negro teacher by means Of a gradual process Of education. The other approach utilized by the other districts was to employ Negro teachers with the support of the board and administra- tion like any other teacher. Teachers, students, and parents were expected to behave in a mature democratic manner conforming to the law of the land and moral principle. Both approaches as perceived by administrators re- sulted in the employment Of Negro teachers with a high degree Of success. The first approach, however, after some ex- perience was changed considerably because of the finding that people were now more ready to accept the Negro teacher. In four districts with more than one or two Negro teachers it was admitted that Negro teachers were not placed indiscriminately throughout the district but were placed in those schools where the administration expected success. However a definite trend was to spread Negro teachers 180 throughout the system and not to concentrate them in the lowest socio-economic area. In response to questions concerning procedures and qualifications which should be considered in employing the Negro teacher the respondents suggested the following: 1. Procedures: 8) b) h) 1) Consult the board Of education discussing impli- cations Of the Fair Employment Practices Act and be sure Of board approval. Be sure of the support Of the principal in whose building the Negro teacher will be placed. Attempt to enlist the support Of all administrators. Thoroughly define the criteria for teaching competency. Know the community--determine extent Of readiness. Expect mature behavior of all people. Provide administrative backing or support. Don't be too quick to jump to conclusions con- cerning any problems relating to the Negro teacher. M Clearly define the Negro teacher's responsibilities. Be prepared to deal with problems which might occur. j) Maintain a frank open relationship with the Negro k) teacher concerning race. Don't patronize the Negro teacher. 1) p) 181 Have policies ready to deal with certain prob- lems such as requests for room changes on the basis of race. Be thorough in the screening process for the benefit of the district and the Negro teacher. Consider starting staff integration with a Negro student teacher. DO not publicize the employment Of the Negro teacher-~it should be matter-Of-fact. Justify employment Of the Negro teacher on the basis of need for high quality teachers, with the teacher in question more than meeting the established criteria. Qualifications: 8) b) C) d) Screen candidates for high professional qualifications. Experience should be preferred but not mandatory. Attempt a thorough assessment of the candidate's personality. Identify, if possible, the kind of self-identity which the candidate has formed. Look for a positive attitude. DO not consider a militant, oversensitive. crusader. Look for good speech patterns with ability to communicate properly. 182 f) Give stronger consideration to Negroes trained in the North. g) Be confident that the Negro teacher will be successful given a minimum of assistance. There were many other scattered suggestions, such as, working with some Negro leaders informally, placing the teacher in an attendance area of high stability, getting highly qualified Negro teachers before pressure is ex- erted, employing two Negro teachers in all white schools, and numerous others which were not considered as important as those mentioned above. 153539 teachers. The respondents believed the employ- ment of Negro teachers had a good impact on both Negroes and whites in the community. Negro students were perceived as viewing the Negro teacher as a symbol of success, of a person to emulate. In some cases teachers felt more Negro students were going on to college and others were more serious about schoolwork as a result of the employment of Negro teachers. Moreover, many white parents were surprised to find that their youngster's favorite teachers was a Negro. Respondents were firmly convinced that college in- structors had not provided special treatment for them any more than for white students. However, many had received encouragement from individual professors. 183 Negro teachers generally Opposed any special class to.help Negro candidates, but suggested more attention be given to human relations to help both white and Negroes understand each other and the problems they will face as teachers in the public schools. More Often than not many education courses were regarded as impractical and useless in providing a background for teaching. Respondents reported some Negro parents were resent- ful of the Negro teacher, claiming unfair treatment of their youngsters, but generally Negro people were happy to have Negro teachers in the public schools. Some female respondents encountered resentment by Negro males in the community who considered a tavern a satisfactory place for socialization. This example sub- stantiates the problem Of the-female Negro teacher in a small community lacking in sufficient numbers of profes- sional Negroes on an educational level with the teacher. The respondents were confident Of the future, but were skeptical concerning complete abolishment of discrim- inatory practices at all levels and in all positions within the system. The administration was expected to maintain a balance of Negro-white teachers in the system which would remain below the prOportions in the community. Despite the fact that Negro teachers preferred the employment Of all teachers on the basis of qualifications, they were also con- cerned to some degree about the problems which might occur 18u with an all Negro staff. Consensus existed among the respondents on the de— sirability Of entering the teaching profession again if they had a choice Of profession. The prestige, economic security, and opportunity to work with youngsters were given as reasons for satisfaction with teaching. However, in several interviews respondents suggested that the pres- tige of the Negro teacher in the Negro community had become lower in recent years because Of increased opportunity for the Negro in other businesses and professions. Considering factors which administrators might ex- plore in efforts to integrate the staff more easily, the respondents suggested the following: 1. DO not patronize the Negro teacher. 2. Relate to Negro and white teachers in the same manner. 3. Never discuss a Negro teacher's problems with other teachers. 4. Make some attempt to help Negro teachers find decent housing. Analysis of the Negro principal's reactions to the questionnaire were essentially the same as other Negro teachers. The respondent was aware of increasing social stratification among Negroes in the community as the Negro population grew. 185 Further analysis indicated considerable concern for single female Negro teachers who were beyond 25 years of age. Because of the limited number of single Negro men on the same educational level, it was considered difficult to provide sufficient companionship of the opposite sex. Since the Negro teacher must present a better image than white teachers they generally socialize in each other's homes through sororities and societies. Analysis Of the responses given by one white teacher interviewed suggested complete confidence in the Negro teacher as a highly competent professional person. The staff, including Negroes and whites, was considered more professional than many white staffs because the mixed staff could not afford the petty griping and back-biting which is often evident. The Negro teacher refrains from such un- professional behavior and thus raises the standards of the total group. Summary. Although the respondents perceived many factors as important to the future utilization Of Negro teachers there was no change in viewpoint concerning the approach considered most desirable. The two approaches which might be called the "gradual approach" and the "direct approach" represent significant differences. The "gradual approach," discovered in one large district, attempts to bring the people along by means Of human relations activities and relies on the Parent 186 Teachers Associations, teachers, and building principals t3 indicate readiness to accept the Negro teacher. The "direct approach" relies on the support of the board of education superintendent, administrators, and principals, with the expectation that all other people con- cerned will abide by the law and democratic principles. Except for one district there was a striking lack of concern for written policy which might be utilized in interpretation Of the position taken by the school board and administrative Officials. In consideration Of future Negro teacher employment there was agreement even among Negro teachers that it would not be desirable to concentrate Negro teachers in one building. The resultant conclusion was that Negro teachers should be spread throughout the system. Analysis indicates consistent support for those procedures and criteria for qualifications listed in this section. The major concerns Of Negro teachers relating to successful integration were largely a plea for full equality in treatment and the Opportunity to secure the rewards Of success such as decent and adequateyhousing. The white teacher suggested the significant pos- sibility that a mixed staff may behave in a more professional manner than an all white or all Negro staff. 18? VII. GENERAL SUMMARY The findings resulting from the analysis of the interview data collected for this study were assembled and comparisons were made with the research reported in Chapter II. This involved relating the employment and integration of Negroes in the military, business and professions, in- dustry, education, and government to the utilization of Negro teachers in six Michigan school districts. Factors relatigg to initial employment. In the re- view Of literature in Chapter II it was found that in all :flelds mentioned above, disregarding education, attention to the establishment Of a firm policy Of nondiscrimination by those in authority and then strict implementation of that policy, was regarded as essential to satisfactory integration. Five Of six districts involved in the study tended to follow this course while the sixth one did not. Moreover, studies in various sectors of the economy pointed out the significant value of written policy in the initial stage of employment of the Negro. A clearly written nondiscriminatory policy followed by strict adherence was cited as providing no room for doubt among the workers. However, only one respondent of the districts repre- sented in this study reported any written policy concerning employment Of teachers without regard to race, religion, color or national origin. In this one case, if written 188 policy in fact did exist it was not widely known but was to be found only in the minutes of the board of education. Studies in the field of education in the South pro— vided evidence Of failure and success with both the "gradual" approach and the "direct" approach. Both approaches were largely successful in the North which was consistent with the findings Of this study of six Michigan school districts. Perhaps some combination of both approaches would bring the best results since each have advantages and disadvan- tages in the school situation. Studies reported by Rivers1 in education and others in different fields tended to confirm the importance of leadership and the support of persons in authority. Thus, a similar finding resulting from this study was further substantiated. Chapter II and the analysis of data in this study both suggested that the act Of integration of the Negro teacher based upon a firm policy on the part of authorities tends to effectively break down the prejudice which existed prior to integration. The importance of some external pressure, suggested in Chapter II as a result of NAACP action, Fair Employment 1Marie Davidson Rivers,"Peer Acceptance and Rejection of Negro Teachers Who Were First or Among the First to be Employed in White or Predominantly White Schools North of The Mason-Dixon Line," (unpublished Doctoral thesis, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1959), p. 68. 189 Practices Acts, or non-discriminatory policies with regard to defense contracts, seemed to help create the conditions which resulted in change. Expernal pressure was established as a significant factor in this study. Factors relating to the integration process. Con- sistent agreement was found in this study with those com- pleted in other fields with regard to the finding that after the decision to employ was made and implemented, integra- tion occurred with a minimum Of difficulty and the Negro teacher demonstrated a highly satisfactory performance. The attention given in this study to the oversensitivity of some Negro teachers as a major source of difficulty was matched by similar concern in other fields as well as in the studies reviewed in education. This chapter has brought together the basic research directing questions, the interview results, and the review of literature, and presented an analysis of them in terms of the data collected. It now remains to draw conclu- sions, set forth a set of guidelines for the practicing administrator, propose pertinent recommendations, and make suggestions for further study. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERS I. INTRODUCTION This dissertation is concerned with the personnel practices and policies used in the employment and integra- tion of Negro teachers. It traces the history of Negro employment, presents the research findings in other fields including the military, government service, business and the professions, industry and unions, analyzes the results of interviews in six Michigan school districts and relates the findings each to the other. Interview schedules were designed as guides for the purpose of investigating by means of interviews with board members, superintendents, other administrators, principals and Negro teachers the following questions: 1. What factors were related to the initial employment of Negro teachers in the school districts involved in this study? a) Who are the "significant others" with regard to the employment decision? b) What personal qualifications and characteristics were considered in the initial employment? c) What role, if any, did written personnel policies play in the initial employment? d) What preparations were made for the integra- tion of the Negro teacher on the faculty? 190 191 What factors were related to the process of the successful integration of the Negro teacher on the faculty? a) What problems are related to the successful performance of the Negro teacher in the teaching role? b) What opportunities are available for the Negro teacher? What factors were perceived as important to the future successful employment and integration of Negro teachers in the school districts involved in this study? a) What preparations should be made for the success- ful integration of Negro teachers? b) What problems can be anticipated with regard to the employment and integration of Negro teachers? c) What practices, policies and procedures should be considered as basic to successful employment and integration of Negro teachers? The results of these interviews were presented, analyzed, and related to other fields of Negro employment. This chapter states the conclusions of the study and ad- vances some guidelines for the practicing administrator. II. CONCLUSIONS The conclusions are advanced in relation to the major research directing questions: Factors related to the initial employment 25 Negro teachers. 1. The superintendent of schools was the key to the decision to employ the Negro teacher. He may serve to prevent or advance the cause of nondiscriminatory employment practices. _£BCtors 1. 192 The boards of education and other administrators shared in their influence with regard to employment of Negro teachers. The support of both the board and the principals is essential to successful integra- tion of the Negro teacher. Written personnel policy concerning employment without regard to race, religion, color or national origin existed, if at all, in only one district and thus it was not considered a major influence in the districts involved in the study. The pressure of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Fair Employment Practices laws were important factors stimulating the employment of Negro teachers. Recent changes in the attitudes and memberships of boards of education have resulted in more liberal attitudes toward nondiscriminatory employment practics. The universities often played a major role in stimu- lating employment of Negro teachers by encouraging ‘” the placement of Negro student teachers in districts which did not have integrated faculties. related 23 the process 2: integration 23 Negro teachers The Negro teachers were viewed by themselves and by white teachers as symbols or models for Negro youth to emulate, thus creating more esteem for the Negro teacher. 193 The lack of opportunity for social contact with Negroes on the same educational level was a major problem for the Negro teacher. Negro teachers felt they were restricted to a great extent from advancing to administrative positions within the system as a result of continued dis- criminatory practices. Negro teachers expected much more difficulty in the the integration process than was encountered. Administrators should expect more problems with Negro teachers as they become accepted members of the staff who perceive themselves as having the same rights and privileges as white teachers. Advancement opportunities were, in fact, limited to some extent but will be opening up rapidly for the exceptionally qualified Negro teacher. Factors perceived a3 important £3 future utilization 23 NEgro teachers 1. The employment and integration of Negro teachers in the districts involved in this study were highly successful. The relationships between the Negro teacher and school personnel, students, parents, and community citizens were highly satisfactory and better than anyone expected. Negro teachers performed a quality teaching service on a highly professional basis. 19a a. Few significant problems developed as a result of faculty integration and the advantages far out- weighed the disadvantages. 5. There was a need for the development of a definition of teaching competency within each district to serve as a guide for all teachers, particularly the Negro. 6. There was a need for a systematic and careful screen- ing process of all teachers to properly assess person- ality characteristics, professional qualifications, and other factors relating to successful integration. 7. Negro teachers educated in the South were not re- garded as highly qualified as those educated in the North. 8. Negro teachers were placed in buildings with some concern for race, but this was considered to be to the advantage of both the district and the teacher. 9. Stereotypes of the Negro still play a significant role in the employment and integration of the Negro teacher. 10. White teachers and administrators need more basic understanding of the Negro in America. 11. Oversensitivity of the Negro teacher was considered a major barrier to employment and a significant source of difficulty after employment. Fundamentally, the findings of this research with re- gard to strategies for employment and integration of Negro 195 - teachers are the same as those suggested by sociologists as reviewed in Chapter II. However, it is striking to find a significant amount of ignorance of the findings of existing research even among educators judged to be well informed. III. GUIDELINES FOR THE PRACTICING ADMINISTRATOR The conclusions of this study suggest guidelines which could serve the administrator who is preparing for the employment of the Negro teacher. Although these guide- lines may be simple and often self-evident, representing the best practice and behavior of any good administrator, their cogency in relation to the successful employment and integration offlNegro teachers cannot be overestimated. While these guidelines are important to the operation of a school system including only white teachers, they become imperative for successful administration of the em- ployment and integration ofsa mixed Negro and white staff. 1. Establish written policies, declaring employment without regard to race, religion, color, or national origin, which are approved by the board of education. 2. Make the policy known in writing within the school system and community in a matter-of-fact manner re- lating it to state law. 3. Develop a definition of teaching competency and pro- vide a copy for all teachers within the system. 10. Be sure Develop ment of Develop quested another 196 of administrative support. a careful screening process for the employ- all teachers. policies concerning such problems as re- transfers by students from one class to based on race. Employ teachers on a nondiscriminatory basis. Be prepared for difficulties but don't expect them. Be armed with information and knowledge which can quickly answer irrational charges. Implement a continuous program on human relations. Treat Negro teachers like white teachers. Perform your role as an administrator based on the best administrative practice and don't make an issue of Negro teacher employment. CHAPTER VI RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY The conclusions listed previously suggest some changes or modifications which may serve to improve exist- ing practices or policies. The following recommendations were submitted to that end. I. RECOMMENDATIONS The universities should give more attention to including interracial professional experiences for prospective teachers. This could be in rela- tion to observations and student teaching. University curriculums in teacher education and programs for administrators should contain units dealing with minority individuals as members of the teaching profession. University programs of teacher education should ex- plore with candidates the difference between prej- udice and discrimination and establish acceptance of nondiscriminatory employment and integration of minority teachers as central to the ethics of the professional teacher. University leaders in educational administration should provide refresher workshops and institutes 198 for practicing administrators which deal with policy, procedures, and practices of special im- portance in working with integrated teaching staffs. School board members should give serious considera- tion to attitudes concerning employment without re— gard to race, religion, color or national origin when interviewing candidates for the superintendency or principalship, in particular, and of other em- ployees to a lesser extent. Administrators employing Negro teachers should continue to consider race as a factor in placing Negro teachers within the system. Moreover, as rapidly as Negro teachers become available as the best qualified teacher candidate, they should be spread throughout the district without regard to the socio—economic level of the attendance area. In the event that,racial discrimination against the Negro disappears from the American scene this recommendation would no longer be of value. All school districts should adopt written policies which specifically state that employment of per- sonnel is without regard to race, religion, color, or national origin. All school districts should develop a definition of teaching competency and a careful screening process for all teachers. 10. ll. 12. 13o 13. 199 All districts should employ teachers on the basis of qualifications with the reservation that a balance among the races may be an important factor in the total educational development of children. In the event of essential racial equality this recommendation may become obsolete. All teaching and administrative positions in all schools should, in fact, be available for qualified Negro teachers and administrators. All teachers including Negroes should be released from contract or fired on the basis of specific pro- cedure with no fear of charges of discrimination. All teacher organizations should establish as central to the fabric of their constitution, the employment of all teachers without regard to race, religion, color or national origin. This position should be widely publicized throughout the organization. Téacher organizations should provide legal support for any teacher who is a member and who is the victim of discriminatory employment practices. A more forthright effort should be made in all school districts to develop understanding among students con- cerning minority group membership, prejudice, discrimination, and general human relations. II. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY One of the major objectives of this study was the generation of hypotheses which might stimulate further research effort. Therefore, the following hypotheses and suggestions for study are set forth with the hope that ex- tensive research efforts will be concentrated on this most important aspect of human relations. Hypotheses. l. The nature and extent of prior association with Negroes on the part of white school officials is a determining factor in the decision to em- ploy Negro teachers. 2. The Northern background of school officials and board members is a determining factor in the decision to employ Negro teachers. 3. An urban background of board members, super- intendents, and principals is a determining fac- tor in the decision to employ Negro teachers. a. Professional training in the North on the part of school administrators is a determining factor in the decision to employ Negro teachers. 5. Negro teachers from urban backgrounds, educated in the North, have greater opportunity for employ- ment as teachers in Northern schools because of this background than other Negro teachers. 6. The prior association of Negro teachers with white people during secondary and college educa- tion in integrated (mixed) or predominantly white schools is a favorable factor in their employment. ‘ 7. External pressure from organized groups like the Association for the Advancement of Colored People or state Fair Employment Practices laws are neces- sary ingredients to the precipitation of decisions required for basic social changes involved in the nondiscriminatory employment of teachers. 201 Suggestions for study. 1. An exploratory study should be made in depth in a single school system including interviews with representative people from the total community in an effort to discover addItIonal factors not within the scope of this study. A study should be conducted to determine the extent of understanding which exists among school authorities concerning human relations and the process of social change. A study should be made of the social class ex- pectations of Negro teachers and its effect on their contribution in the integration process. A study should be made to develop a testing program or technique to discover the extent of oversensitivity existing as a function of the personality of the individual Negro teacher candidate. The results might be used as one factor in the screening of Negro teacher candidates. A study should be made of university programs on a nationwide basis in the field of teacher education to discover the nature and extent of time and attention given to developing better understanding of minority group teachers in American public schools as ae11 as minority group children. A study should be made in depth of an "all white" or "all Negro" staff prior to integration and -after integration of the faculty in an effort to appraise the results in terms of overall educational effectiveness. A study should be made of social interaction within a faculty-integrated school as a social system to ascertain what factors lessen or in— tensify social distances. BIBLIOGRAPHY 202 203 BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Ahmann, Mathew n. The New Negr . Notre Dame, Indiana: Pides Publishers, —l‘951. Ashmore Harry 8. We 0 and the Sch ls. Chapel Hill: The'Universityo glorEE Carol? as, 1954 . . The Other Side of Jordan. New York: W. W. lor' ton I Company, Inc., W hrrett, Richard, and Joseph oarai. ~Where the 3 tea Land onCivil R1 ts. 969" York: Stu-WEST:- Company, Decker, Gary 3. The Iconomics of Discrimination. Chicago: ihe University of CfiIc' ago P'r'e'ss, . Pinata, Walter Van ”kc, and Bruce Victor floors. How 53 Interview. New York: Harper and mothers. 1959'.- h-ookover, Wilbur 3., _A_. 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New York: Jehn Wiley 5 Sons, l53., l556. Good, Carter V., and Douglas E. Scates. Nethods 35 Research: Educational, Pa cholo ical, Sociol ical. low York: IppleEon-Century-Crofés, Inc., l95g. Geode, Williaa J., and Paul I. Ratt. Nethods'ig §ocial s or 2.2 b. New York: NcGraw-Nill My 1 . Nansen, Carl P. Niracle of Social Ad ustment: Dose ration In the Washi Eon, gJ-C. Schools. ew ork: Infil- Ef‘amatlon fiague o final-Tm, 1957. Hope, John II. uali of O rtunit . Washington, D. 0.: Public Affairs ss,‘l§5£. Javits, Jacob K. Discriaination - U.‘§.l5. New Yerk: Harcourt, Brace aifl Company, 1950. Kahn, Robert L., and Charles P. Cannell. The Elfiigifil of .Interviewing. New York: John Wiley e Sons, o.,'l§57. Lee, Prank P. Ne o and White in Connecticut Town. New York: Book-an IssociaE3s, l§6l. Harden, Charles P. linorities‘ig,American Society. New York: Aperican 5555 Company, . Nyrdal, Gunner. 'An Aaericen Bile-la. 2 vols. New York: Harper and BrSEhers PEElisESrs, l9hh. Nichols, Lee. 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The Ne re 33 Ninnesota. Ninneapolis, Ninnesota: T'T'S. gnlson Compan'y, 1961. Stouffer, Sa-uel A., at 2.1.- The American Soldier: AdJustment Duri "K 11.1737 Vol. I om“ _i_r_g oc a s cfiolo n oFlC'War II. 4 vols. Princeton: filnceton U'r'i'lversi't'y fish-mg: The Report of the President's Co-ission on National Goals. Goals for Americans. New York: The American Assembly, Truaan, Harry 3. Freedom and lit . Columbia, Nissouri: University of llssouri-PFess, . Tuain, Nelvin N. Se e tion and Desegegtion: A Di est _o_1_’_ Recent Research. Igw York: An - ana on League 01' I'm! I'rm‘n'. I957. . Se e tion and Donation: A Di est 25 Recent I Cu leaeng. law for : n - fam'a'tlon [Segue of B'nal l'rltfi, 1960. U. 8. Bureau of the Census. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1 no. Po lane—“"VT'n. o . um; lib—'7‘” orce firt l, ed SEEs Smary. Washington, 5. C.: U. 3. Covert-ent Printing Office, 1943. 206 U. S. Bureau of the Census. U. S. Census of Po ulation: Unltea SE3 1 Ge a1 Po lation cfier‘i F176! 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University of a s, 1959. Wey, Rar’bert, and John Corey. Action Patterns 1 School Desegreggtion. Bloomington7_l53lana: F5! III—Iiipa, a, 0 Williams, Robin, and Nargaret W. Ryan (eds.). Schools.gg Transition, Com-unit riences in Dese e El . W1: Unlversigy of NorEE Ciro na as, 1959. Wilson, Janos Q. Negro Pglities. Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1960. Wynn Daniel Webster. The NAACP versus Ne o Revolutionary Protest. New Yorki"lxposlfion FFiss, l955. 207 B. PERIODICALS Augustine, Tho-as. "The Negro Progress Toward Elployment Equality," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXVI Besse, Ralph N. "Line Around the World," ‘53; Delta Nagpgn mu (April, 1962). 270-275. "" ' Blood, Robert 0. Jr. "Discrinination Without Pregudice," Social Probleng, III (July, 1955--April, 1956 . 11h-117. Brown, Norgan. "The Status of Jobs and Occupations as Evaluated by an Urban Ne 0 Sample,” Aaerican Sociological Review, XX October, 1955’, SCI-566. Clark, Kenneth B. 'Deaegregation: An Appraisal of the Evidence," The Journal 25 Social Issues, IX (October, 195377511". "'"""""'"""" . Davis, John W. ”Protecting the Negro Teacher ' The Journal 2;; logo Education, xxv (Winter, 1956), 162-183.” Doddy, Hurley N. "Desegregation and the Ripley-ent of Negro Teachers The Journal 25 Negro Educatigg XXIV (Fall, 1955), hos-m.“ ’ Duff, Edwards. 'Ddscrinination's Blight,“ Social Order, 11 (April, 1961), 1115-149. ""'"""' """"" Dwyer, Robert J. ”The Adainistrative Role in Desegregation," Sociolo and Social Research, XLIII (January-oFebruary, . ”The Negro in the United States Arny,“ Sociolo an! Social Research, XXXVIII (Septenber--October, , ‘153-112 . “The Negro me... and Desegregation," iolo 3'53 Social Research, LXXXII (Septenber--October, , 35:35. Edmunds, Edwin R. "The Nyrdalian Hypothesis: Rank Order of Discrilination," Phllon, XV (Septenber, 1951), 297-303. Everett, Samuel. "A Community School Ends Segregation," The School Executive, (July, 195*), 52-53. "Factories and Offices: New Targets of Integration," U.‘§. News 5 World Reggrt, XLIII (Decenber 6, 1957), 101-l03. 208 Fsir Elploynent Practices Connission. On the Job in Nichigan. Information Bulletin 1960-61 Special—YEar4flfid‘l3sue. Detroit: Fair EIploylent Practices Col-ission, 1961, 2. Ferguson, Harold A., and Richard L. Plaut. “Talent: To Develop or to Lose,” Educational Record, XXXV (April, 195“) . 137-1no. '—'— Ford Aaron. "A Teacher Looks at Integration ' Phllon XV (Septenber, 195“), 261-266. ’ ’ . "Consider the Negro Teacher," The New Renglic W (April 8, 1957), 114-15. "" ' ”For Negroes: lore and Better Jobs in Govern-ent " ‘2. g. News 2 World Reggr , LII (larch 5, 1962), 83-613. Frasier, E. Franklin. "The Negro Niddle Class and 23segrigation,” Social Probleas, IV (April, 1957), I'Oe Gandy, Willard E. ”Implications of Integration for the Southern Teacher," The Journal gg‘ggggg Education, m1 (Spring. 1962) 713171977" Ginsberg Eli. "Se gation and Nanpower Waste ” Phllon, xxx (Winter, 1 0), 311-315. ' Group for the Advance-ent of Psychiatry. ”Psychiatric As- pects of School Desegregation," Report No. 37. New York: Group for the Advance-ent of Psychiatry, 1951, 1'95e Harding, John, and Russell Hogrefe. "Attitudes of White Department Store Elployees toward Negro Co-workers," e Journal g£_Social Issues, VIII No. 1 (larch, 1952), 23. Hill, Herbert. "Racisn Within Organised Labor: A Report of Five Years of the AFLPCIO, 1955-1960," Journal 2; Neggo Education, XXX (Spring, 1961), 109-113. . ”The Negro in Industry,” .222”!!! ader, XL “"1137 6. 1957). 3-5. L Hope, John 11. ”Industrial Integration of Negroes: The Upgrading Process,” Hgggn_ggggnisation, XI (Winter, 1952)) 5-1“ s . "The Problen of Unemployaent as it Relates to Negroes," Studies in Uneaploynent, Special Committee on Unenployment Problens, United States Senate, 86th Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, 1960), 185. 209 Nephart, William N. "Negro Visibility," Anerican Sociological Review, XIX (August, 195“}, 562-367. Killian, Lewis N. "The Effects of Southern White Workers on Race Relations in Northern Plants," Anerican Sociological Review, m1 (June, 1952), 327-7331? King, Charles E. ”The Process of Social Stratification Along an Urban Southern Ninority Population,” Social Forces, XXXI (HIP. 1953): 352-355- Xnoll, Erwin. "Washington: Showcase of Integration," Conmenta , New York: American Jewish Conmittee, (Frcfi. 11.559). 202. Lieberaan, Nyron. “Civil Rights and the NBA,“ School 39g Society, LXXXV (Nay 11, 1957). 166-169. “"— Lohlan, Joseph D., and Dietrich C. Reitsee. "Note on Race Relations in less Society," Aaerican J 1‘25 Sociology, LVIII (Novenber, 195277—2CO- . London, Jack, and Richard Ham-ett. 'Iapact of Company- Policy Upon Discrinination," Sociolo and Social Research, IXL (November--Deoem r, ), . Nhrshall, Ray. ”Union Racial Practices and the Labor :ggkggé' Nonthly Labor Review, LXXXV (larch, 1962), Nedalia, Nahuns. "Nyrdal's Assumption on Race Relations; A Conceptual Co-entary,” Social Forcgs, XL (hrch, 1%2)1 223-227e | 'Nigration of Negroes-onere is Real Story ' ‘g..§. News‘s World Repgr , LII (NI! 7. 1962), 5b-5 . Noon, Henry Lee. ”Negroes with White Collars,” 1!! New Norris, Nortiner H. ”Into ted Senools Nean Teachers Too," Phi Delta 5322;, I!Z'TC§%ET'I§5357_CCB=RC6. National Association for the Advance-ent of Colored People. Civil Ri ts Crisis of 1 . NAACP Annual Report Forty- nlnCfi ear. IEw vest? ional Association for the Advance-ent of Colored People, 1958. "Negro, Alerican,” Encycloggedia Britgggica (30th ed.), m, 197'NI O 210 "Negroes Getting Better Jobs " U. §. News g‘World Re or XLV (December 5, 1958), 94-95. """'"'"' ‘_"£"‘" "Negroes on the Way Up," The Economist, CXIV (February 27, 1960), 816. "" . Record, Wilson. "Racial Integration in California Schools," Journal 33 Negro Education, XXVII (Winter, 1958), 17-23. Rokeach, Nilton. "Belief Versus Race as Determinants of Social Distance: Comment on Triandis‘ Paper,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psyghology, LXII (January, l96l), Rose, Arnold N. ”Intergroup Relations vs. Prejudice: Pertinent Theory for the Study of Social Change," Social Problems, IV (October, 1956), 173-176. Rosenthal, Jonas Oi "Negro Teacher's Attitude Toward Desegregation The JOurnal gr Negro Education XXVI (Winter, 1957), 75. , Shuey, Audrey N. 'Stereotyping of Negroes and White: An Analysis of Nagasine Pictures," Public Opinion Quarterly, XVII (Summer, 1953), 281-287. Simon, Paul. "Let's Integrate Our Teachers,” Christian Century, LXXIV (February 20, 1957), 230-232. Simpson, George, and J. Nilton Yinger. ”The Changing ngterns of Race Relations,” grylon, XV (October, 195“), 3 '3 50 Spruill, Albert W. "The Negro Teacher in the Process of Desegregation of Schools " Journal 2£ Negro Education, XXIV (Winter, 1960), 80- . Stanley, Eugene. "Basic Principles of Educational Integration,“ The Journal of Educational Sociolo , rxvxn (novenbe‘i-Tfim, 38311111 . State of Nichigan. ”Act 251 of the Public Acts of l 55 Fair Employment Practices Act," Lansing, 1955, 115-11 . Steele, H. Ellsworth. "Jobs for Negroes: Some North-South Plant6Studies," Social Forces, XXXII (December, 1953), 152-1 2. Taeuber, Irene B. "Nigration, Nobility and the Assimilation of the Negro," Population Bulletin, XIV (November, 1958) 9 127- 150 e 211 Triandis, Harry C. ”A Note on Rokeach's Theory of Prejudice, Journal'gr Abnormal and Social Psychology, LXII (January, l96l), 183485. Turner, Ralph H. "Pool of Discrimination in the Employment of Non-whites,” American Journal 25 Sociology, LVIII (November, 1952), 237-255. . ”Negro Job Status and Education," Social Forces, *nm (October, 1953). 115-52. "“— "“— United States Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Education and Labor. 'Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1962," Report No. 1370 (To Accompany H. R. 101th) 87th Congress 2nd Session. February 21 1962 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1962), 1-22. United States Department of Labor. The Economic Situation of Ne oes _1_:_x the United States .111“ n -3""""""""". 'UisfilngEon: GovernmenE PFIBClEg Office, 1960. Velie, Lester. "Race Discrimination with a union Label," Reader's Diges , LXXX (Nay, 1962), 66-71. Westie, Frank R. "Negro-White Status Differentials and Social Distance,” American Sociological Review, XVII (October. 1952) . 55W , and David H. Howard. ”Social Status Differentials .33 the Race Attitudes of Negroes," American Sociological Review, xxx (October, 1951177585691. Wright, Narion Thompson. "Extending Civil Rights in New Jersey Through the Division Against Discrimination,“ e Journal 2_f_ Negro History, xxxvn (January, 1953), -1U’e Zimmer, Basil G. ”The Ad‘usnment of Negroes in a Northern Industrial Community, Social Problems, IX (Spring, 1962). 378-386. c. unrunrxsnzn»nnrnnxans Boseman, Herman Hollis. "Attitudes of Selected Racial Leadership Organisations Toward Educational Policies and Practices for Negroes During the Twentieth Century." Unpublished Doctoral thesis, The university of Nichigan, Ann Arbor, 1956. 212 Kaufman, Nae Elizabeth. “Some Problems of Negro Teachers Related to Integration of Pupils in Public Schools.“ Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1960. Noore, William Franklin Jr. "Status of the Negro in Cleveland." Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, 1953. less, James Allen. ”Utilisation of Negro Teachers in the Colleges of New York State." Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1957. Rivers, Narie Davidson. ”Peer Acceptance and ReJectiom of Negro Teachers Who Were First or Among the First to be Employed in White or Predominantly White Schools North 'of the Nason-Dixon Line.” Unpublished Doctoral thesis, The University of Nichigan, Ann Arbor, 1959. Spruill, Albert Westly. ”Consequences‘Encountered by Negro Teachers in the Process of Desegregation of Schools in Four Southern States." Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, 1958. .e APPENDIX 213 214 Date of Interview Schedule No. 1 'Initial Enrrgyment of a Negro Teacher 1. 2. 3. 5. Please tell me the story of how the first Negro teacher was employed in this school system and the circumstances surrounding it. Was anything in particular done to prepare people for the Negro teacher? a. Administrators b. Teachers 0. Students d. Community citizens How did the board of education members feel about the employment of a Negro teacher? a. Before the first one was employed? b. After the first, how about subsequent Negro teachers? How did you feel people felt about this before you em- ployed the Negro teacher? a. School personnel b . Business people c. Opinion leaders d. Professionals e. Average citizens f. Students 3. Laboring people What particular characteristics, if any did you con- sider in employing the first Negro teacher? a. Appearance b. Speech habits, grammar, vocal expression c. EIperience in teaching d. Impression of being better than average white teacher e. Noral background f. Home background g. Credentials-southern training h. Narital status Did you have personnel policies at the time of employ- ment of the first Negro teacher? a. Did these policies have any bearing on your action? b. Were they written? In what ways would you proceed today if you were em- ploying the first Negro teacher? 215 Date of Interview Schedule No. 1 Initial grrloygent of agNegrg Teacher-2 8. 9.. 10. 11. 12. 13. Have you encountered any significant problems relating to the Negro teacher on your staff? a. Relations with the superintendent b. ' principals " ' ' other staff members d. ” ' ' students e. " " ' parents f. ' ' ' community citizens, organiza- tions, etc. g. ” " ” in teacher organisations, etc. Havem sought to make it known that you employ Negro teachers? What impact do you feel the employment of the Negro teacher or teachers has had on other segments of the community? a. Business _ b e multr’ c. Housing d. Other employment Do you see any problems in the future with relation to the employment of Negro teachers in this system? a. Do you feel there is some point in numbers beyond dhich one would go in employing Negro teachers? a b. How do you think the board feels about this? s. ' principals d. " " " teachers d. ' ” " community citizens What kind of opportunities are available within your system for the Negro teacher? a. What about the visible positions such as: 1. Counselor 2. Coaching a. Principal . Other Administration 5. Special education 6. Band director 3. Vocal Nusic . Adult education From your experience in the employment of Negro teachers what opinions do you have about the college or uni- versity preparation of them as teachers? 1h. 15'e 16. 17. 18. 19. 21. 216 Schedule No. 1 What factors do you consider now when you employ a Negro teacher? a. Placement 1. Socioeconomic level of attendance area 2. Grade level 2. Type of course . Attitude of teachers or administrators 5. Appearance, vocal expression, better than white teacher, moral or home background, marital status , training-southern Have Negro teachers had any problems that you know of making adjustments to the school system? a. Any problems adjusting with regard to social life? b. Any problems adjusting with regard to community life? How do you feel students do in classes taught by Negro teachers? a. White students? b. Negro students? c. Compared with white teachers? d. Do you have any systematic data to support this? How does the number of complaints from parents with regard to the Negro teacher compare with white teachers? a. How about compliments? What does the Negro teacher in your system do most effectively? What does the Negro teacher in your system do least effectively? What advice would you give to any school superintendent who is considering employing a Negro teacher? a. Consult the board b. Survey teachers or key citizens or public d. Consult with staff d. Consult with administrators e. Would you make a public announcement f. Involve Negro teachers in social activities 5. Contact NAACP or other Negro organisations Personal data your home town - born, raised Rural, City, Village 217 Schedule 1 Fathers occupation How many years you have lived in Nichigan Where did you attend college or university »What degrees do you have Was the elementary, Jr. Hi or High School or college you attended integrated among the races Prior to your involvement in this situation have you had some, much, or little association with Negro people a. Nature of contacts Tenure of superintendent in district by years Total enrollment Valuation per membership child Elementary enrollment Secondary enrollment Number of elementary school buildings Number of junior high school buildings Number of high school buildings Percent Negro students of total enrollment Total population of district Estimated percent Negroes of total population of district ' Tetal number of teachers, white and Negro in the system Total number of Negro teachers on the staff Total number of Negroes in other positions of a professional nature 218 Schedule No. 1 Total number of Negroes in visible positions - head a. Counselors b. Band directors c. Coaching - head d. Special education e. Vecal music f. Other How many are in assistant positions? Asst. coach etc. a. What accounts for this? Total number of Negroes in custodial, secretarial, etc. ’ Number of years since first Negro teacher was hired Number of Negroes in administrative positions lumber of Negro teachers who have not returned after receiving a contract a. What were the reasons for not return 1. Relations with parents 2. ' ' students 2. ' fl teachers . ' ' community 5.- " ” adminis- tration 6. ' ” other Number of Negro teachers who have not been offered a second contract or were released a. What were the reasons for not returning? 1. Relations with parents 2. " ” students 2. " ' teachers . " " community 5 o I . ‘tlfli" tration 6. ” ' other 219 Schedule No. 1 . wwwucoloam ones enocoeos nnonoe eons socnocooos swam nodcon A acne: unocoeo onwoz enac: no Ho>ea .om-o«oom Hoocom swam one: one: (232-33 so .2. .oz :3 £33: ES: .3353 31382.. Hoonon 1 q q a owwoamlm mm< mmmmo¢ma omcmz mamm3 muoomom 220 Schedule No. 1 List of persons in the central office who officially or unofficiallyrhave anything to do with the employment of Negro teachers or the integration of Negro teachers on the staff. Names Pogition Location Etc. List an one else in the school s stem havin rticularl 0 ns n o e resen eve 0 en s wIEfi n.55§a Co the en lo nE ana Igtegraflon o? Negroes to the teachin staff. 5%.: characteristics or circum- ce e r on listed particularly perceptive about this? Rate them (1) FOR NOST PERCEPTIVE etc. Names Position Logation 1. 2. Etc 0 (List of school board members who were_particular1y in- sigrtful into the factors involved in enrloyrent and n e rs on o e ro eac ers n our s s on. a characterlstlcs or circumstances maa; them particularly perceptive about this. Name Position Address and Phone {3‘ 2. Etc. 221 Schedule No. 1 List any persons on your total staff orppchool board mem- bers who were at one time outwardlyor covertly skeptical, by yourperception, of the employment and into ration of a Negro teacher to the staff. What character stics or circumstances made them particularly skeptical? Name Position Address and Phone 2. Etc. This schedule (number 1), used for Superintendents and miscellaneous personnel, is the same as that used for school board members with the exception that the following question number (5) replaces question number (5) in this schedule. 5. Did the board review the credentials of the first Negro teacher? 1. Was this done for all teacher candidates? 2. What characteristics did you‘look for: a. Appearance b. Speech habits, grammar, vocal expression c. Experience in teaching d. Impression of being better than average white teacher e. Noral background f. Home background g. Credentials - southern training h. Narital status INI 1. 222 Date of Interview Schedule No. 2 L EHPLOYNENT OF A NEGRO TEACHER Please tell me the story of how the first Negro teacher came to be employed in this school and the circumstances surrounding it. Was anything in particular done to prepare people for the Negro teacher? a. Administrators b. Teachers, c. Students d. Community citizens e. Was there any public or rumored announcement before the person was hired? f. Was there any reaction? How did you feel people felt about this before the first Negro teacher was employed? a. School personnel b. Students c. Average citizens d. Opinion leaders e. Business people f. Professionals Was anything done to prepare the Negro teacher for be- coming a member of the staff? What particular characteristics, if any, should be considered in employing the first Negro teacher? a. Appearance b. Speech habits, grammar, vocal expression c. Experience in teaching d. Impression of being better than average white teacher e. Noral background f. Home background 3. Credentials - southern training h. Narital status Did you have personnel policies at the time of em- ployment of the first Negro teacher? a. Did these policies have any bearing? Does the teachers organization have anything in its constitution or by-laws regarding employment without regard to race, creed or color? a. Did this have any bearing on the employment? 10. 11. 12. 13. 223 Schedule No. 2 In what ways would you proceed today if you were em- ploying the first Negro teacher? Have you encountered any significant problems relating to the Negro teachers on your staff? a. Relations with superintendent b. other staff members c. " " students d. ” ' parents e. ” ' community citizens, public organizations, etc. f. " ' in education circles, teacher organizations, etc. Have you sought to make it known that you employ Negro teachers? Why? What impact do you feel the employment of the Negro teacher or teachers has had on other segments of the community? a. Business b. Industry c. Housing d. Other employment Do you see any problems in the future with relation to the employment of Negro teachers in this system? a. Do you feel there is some point in numbers beyond which one would go in adding Negro teachers to the staff? b. How do you think the superintendent feels about this? c. How do you think the teachers feel about this? d. How do you think the community citizens feel about this? What kind of opportunities are available within this school for the Negro teacher? What about visible positions such as 1. Counselor 2. Coaching a. Principal . Other administration 5. Special education 6. Band director 3. Vocal Nusic . Dramatics 9. Adult Education 224 Schedule No. 2 14. From your experience in working with Negro teachers what opinions do you have about the college or uni- versity preparation of them as teachers? 15. What factors are considered'rgr when a Negro teacher is employed? a. Placement » 1. Socio-Economic level of attendance area 2. Grade level 3. Type of course . Attitude of teachers or administrators b. Appearance, speech, better than white, moral and home background, marital status, training institution. 16. Have Negro teachers had any problems that you know of in making adjustments to this school? a. Any problems adjusting with regard to fellow teachers? b. Any problems adjusting with regard to social life? c. Any problems adjusting with regard to community life? 17. How do you feel students do in classes taught by white teachers as compared to Negro teachers? a. Negro students 1. Discipline - relaxed, severe, more severe 2. Academic performance . Participation in extra-curricular activities . . Attendance , b. White students 1. Discipline - relaxed, severe, more severe 2. Academic performance 3. Participation in extra-curricular activities h. Attendance 18. Do parents of children in the Negro teacher's class come out for P. T. A. as often as in white teachers' classes? a. Could check banners given for most attendance, etc. b. Other community or school functions 19. How does the number of complaints from parents with regard to the Negro teacher compare with white teachers? a. What is the nature of the complaints? 1. Do they come from white or Negro parents? b. Compliments compare 1. The nature of compliments 2. Do they come from white or Negro parents? 225 Schedule No. 2 20. What does the Negro teacher in your school do most ef- fectively? 21. What does the Negro teacher in your school do least effectively? 22. Does the Negro teacher or teachers in your school readily accept leadership responsibilities? 23. What advice would you give to any school principal who is considering employing a Negro teacher? a. Consult the superintendent b. Survey teachers or key citizens or public c. Would you make a public announcement d. Involve Negro teachers in social activities 29. Personal data your home town, born, raised Rural, city, village Father's occupation How many years you have lived in Nichigan Where did you attend college or university What degrees do you have Was the elementary, Junior High, High School or college you attended integrated among the races Prior to your involvement in this situation have you had some, much, or little association with Negro people a. Nature of contacts Stltiatloal Data Tenure of principal in school ‘F district Years in this school Years as principal in this school Type of school-Elementary, Junior High or Senior High 226 Schedule No. 2 School enrollment Total number of Negro students enrolled Percent Negro students of total enrollments A Estimate of total population of attendance area Estimated percent Negroes of total population of attendance area Estimated percent Negroes of total population of district Total number of Negro teachers on the staff in this school Estimated number of teachers on the staff in this school Total number of Negroes in other positions of a professional nature. Total number of Negroes in custo- dial, secretarial, hot lunch, etc. positions in this school Number of years since first Negro teacher was hired Total number of Negro teachers in visible positions - dept. heads, etc. in this school a. Counselors b. Band directors ‘ c. Head coaches d. Special education e. Vocal Nusic f . Dramatics How many are in assistant positions ass't coaches, etc. a. What reasons for this? Number of Negroes in administrative positions Number of Negro teachers who have taught here but who have not been offered a second contract or were released What were the reasons for no contract or release a. RelaSions with parents b. students c. ' " teachers d. ' ” community citizens e. " “ administrators f. " ' other 227 Schedule No. 2 Number of Negro teachers who have not returned after having received a contract What were the reasons for not returning a. Relations with parents b. ' ' students c. " ' teachers d. " ” community citizens e. ” ' administrators f " ' other Rate the socio-economic level of the attendance area of this school- high, medium or low. List of prrsons in the central office who officially or unoffrcially have anythirg to do with the employrgnt of Negro teachers or the integration of Negro teachers on the staff. Names Position Location 1. 2. Etc. H List of an one in this school or in the whole s ten havi §§r§§culargi ioog Ineligg Into the hlsEorlcal anC resent eve o n s w re ar 0 the en lo chi and Inhggrahlon of roes to the teachi staff. What characteristics or clrcunshances made the person llsted particularly perceptive about this? Rate them (1) for most perceptive etc. Names Position Location 228 Schedule No. 2 List an (person on the total staff in this school who was a one me outwardly or covehtl‘ skeptical,fb our - caption, of the employrent and in egration o? a hegro teacher to the sta . at characteristics or circumstances made them particularly skeptical? Are they still skeptical? Names Position Location 2. etc. List apyrperson in the s tem outside the staff here who b our erce tion was s optical oftthe emflo ent andtln- te ration o? a Ne ro‘téacher to the stair. What character- s cs or circums ances made them particularly skeptical? Are they still skeptical? Names Position Location 2. etCe 229 Date of Interview Schedule No. 3 INITIAL EMPLOYMENT Keep spontaneous reactions separate 1. 2. 5. Please tell me the complete story of how you became a teacher in this school system. Did you know that no other Negro teachers were employed in the district? a. Anyone encourage you - friends, NAACP, church b. Had you been turned down in this system before c. Had you been turned down in other systems. How do you think the white peOple felt about the employment of a Negro before you were employed? a. The board of education b. Teachers c. Students As the first Negro teacher to be employed what char- acteristics do you feel you had which resulted in your getting the position? a. Appearance b. Speech habits, grammar, vocal expression c. Experience in teaching d. Impression of being better than average white teacher e. floral background f . Home background 8. Credentials - southern training h. Marital status What were the personnel policies in the school system at the time you were employed, with regard to race, creed or color? a. Here they written? b. Had you seen those policies? How many people interviewed you for the position? a. Do you think the procedures are different for Negroes and whites? b. Do you know other Negro teachers who were turned down? c. What did you have which resulted in your getting the position? Has anything in particular done to prepare people for your becoming a member of the staff? 230 Date of Interview ' Schedule No. 3 7-(continued) 8. a. Administrators b. Teachers 0. Students d. Has there any public or rumored announcement before you were hired? e. Community citizens f. Was there any reaction? g. Was too much done? was anything done to prepare you for becoming a member of the staff? PRESENT PROCEDURES 9. 10. 11. 12. If you were looking for employment today, would you do anything differently? a. Would you try in a system which had not employed Negroes? All teachers have problems the first year of teaching-- what kinds of problems did you have the first year in this school? a. Relations with administration b. " other staff members c. " ” students d. " ' parents e. ” ” community citizens f. " " in educational circles-organisations Is it well-known among Negro teachers that this system has employed Negro teachers? a. Have you encouraged a of your Negro friends to seek employment in th system? b. Are there school systems which Negro teachers consider to be out of bounds? Nhat impact do you feel your employment or that of other Negro teachers has had on other segments of the community? a. Business b. Industry c. Housing d. Other employment 13. 1a. 15. l6.' 17. 231 Schedule No. 3 Do you see any problems in the future with relation to the 8. b. c. d. employment of Negro teachers? Do you feel there is some point in numbers beyond which one should go in employing Negro teachers? How doyou think the board of education feels about this? How do you think the_community citizens feel about this? How do you think the white teachers feel about this? Negro teachers? What kind of opportunities are available within this system for you or other Negro teachers? Row had 8. b. c. d. What about the visible positions such as l. Counselor 2. Coaching 3. Principal h. Other administration 5. Special education 6. Band director 7. Vocal music 8. Dramatics 9. Adult Education would you describe the quality of preparation you for teaching? Did instructors make it easier for you because you were a Negro? How could the program of preparation for teachers be improved? Should anything special be done to help Negro teacher candidates? Southern training What factors do you think are considered now before a Negro teacher is employed? ‘ a. b. Placement 1. Socio-economic level of attendance area 2. Grade level 3. Type of course 4. Attitude of teachers or administrators Appearance, speech, better than white, moral and home background, marital status, training institution. Have Negro teachers had any problems that you know of in making adjustments to this school system? a. b. c. To the teaching staff? Any problems adjusting with regard to social life? Any problems adjusting with regard to community life? 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 232 Schedule No. 3 How do you feel students do in your classes as compared to white teachers? a. Negro students 1. Discipline 2. Academic performance 3. Participation in extra-curricular activities A. Attendance b. White students 1. Discipline 2. Academic 3. Participation in extra-curricular activities 4. Attendance Do parents of children in your class come out for P. T. A. as often as in white teacher's classes? a. How about other school activities? What kinds of complaints do you get from parents? a. White parents b. Negro parents c. What kinds of compliments? 1. White nature of compliments? 2. Negro nature of compliments? Does the Administration support the Negro teachers as well as it does white teachers? a. With parents b. With students What do you consider to be your greatest strength or contribution to this school? What do you find it most difficult to do effectively? What advice would you give to a Negro who is being employed as the first Negro teacher in the school system? a. What things would help with faculty b. students c. " " " parents d. ' ' " administrators e. " " " community citizens I. " " " social life g. Would the advice be different for subsequent teachers? h. What else might they do to make acceptance easier? What could administrators do or not do to make the Negro teacher a part of the staff more easily? 233 Schedule NO . 2 26. If you had it to do over again would you enter the teaching profession? Why? 27. save you ever encountered an expression of resentment from a Negro student, parent, or community citisen? . a. What was the reason? b. Professional status, c. letter education Tears in this school system Tears in this school Different teaching assignments Type of school - llementary, Junior High or High School lbtimate of number of Negro students enrolled ' Pzacent Negro students of total e ollment 4 Ehtinate percent Negroes of total population of attendance arse Total number of Negro teachers on I staff in this school Total number of Negroes in other professional positions in this school . Total number of Negroes in custodial secretarial, hot lunch, etc. posi- tions in this school Number of years since first Negro teacher was hired in this school Total number of Negroes in this school as a. Dept. heads b. Counselors c. Coaching d. Special education e. vocal music f. Administration [How many are in assistant positions, assistant coach, etc. a. What are the reasons for this? PERSONAL DATA 234 Schedule No. 3 Ybur home town - born, raised Rural, city, village Father's occupation How many years you have lived in Nichigan Where did you attend college or university What degrees do you have Was the elementary, Junior High, or High School or college you attended integrated among the races Prior to your involvement in this situation have you had some, much or little association with white people a.. nature of contacts Number of Negro teachers who have not returned after having received a contract a. What were the reasons for not returning a. Relations with parents b. " " students c. " " teachers d. " " community citizens e. " ' administrators ' f. " ” others Number of Negro teachers who have taught here but who have not been offered a second contract or were released a. What were the reasons for no contract or release? a. Relations with parents b. students c. " " teachers d. " " community citizens a. " " administrators f. " " others 235 Schedule No. 3 Rate the socio-economic level of the attendance area of this school high, medium or low. List of garcons in the central office who officially or uno ficially have anything:to do with the emplolgent of ‘ggggo teachers or the integration ofggeggo teachers on the staff. Names Position Location 1. 2. Etc. List of anyone in this school or in the whole system having sggticularll good insiggt into the historical and present eve opmen s w regs o e ggp_gymen a n egg; on Of Ne oes to the teachi staff. What characteristics or circumstances made the person listed particularly perceptive about this? Rate them (1) for most perceptive etc. £22.! Positigg legation l- a 2. Etc. _Ie List - . rsons on the total staff in this sch 0 were a one ~ on ‘1IIi[IIIIIiFIEIITX1§£1!ILJII !'- .e.tion, o 3 :~ - on o a e 0 er 0 3‘s s31 . ‘1 ;, c er s .cc or c ums es mac e m --r- ‘titharly skeptical? Are they still skeptical? Names Position gggatiom l. a. Alto, .4 236 Schedule No. 3 List 2!! pgrsons in the system outside the staff here who_!y your perception was s_eptical of the emplglment and integaation of a Ne 0 teacher to the staff. What characteristics or circumsiances side them particularly skeptical? Are they still skeptical? Names Position Location 1; ‘i L. .m@%fi j! . ’- .‘ -E‘ i. UU " at”? WE‘L- p ? "Ififlflfififiufififihfifm“MMWM“ 31293010 ._‘ _ III - A.—