A RHETORICAL ANALYSIS OF THE PRJNCQPAL SPEECHES OF CARLOS P. ROMULG AT THE ASIAN‘AFRICAN CONFERENCE Thesis {at H» 0229?» cf M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNWERSITY Davié fiohm Mail W59 U Willi Ill lfll IUWWIW 3 1293 01072 0880 xchlgan Stan LIBRA R Y M' . University W.— - __. .___._—-—-~—— PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES rotum on or before date duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE A; ——il MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equol Opportunity Institution Warts-on .3.» ‘p-J‘ ” av”“' “V" «F . . I “.1.“ Po A hdgTOthAL ANALYSIS OF TdE PnlNGlEAL S£J£CHHS 0E CARLOS P. hOmULO AT THE AdlAH—AfinlCAfl CONFEAJBCE David John Mall AH ABSThACT Submitted to the College of Communication Arts Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of EASTJR OF ALTS Department of Speech Year 1959 Approve afgbwmfifi use .:.1 e322 It 2.: 1515.11- :755, to t: '3 gauze-.11 altered at am e,eeche 3122.7 Set-:31 me, and 3 David J. mall ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to examine, criti— cise and evaluate the principal speeches of Carlos P. Romulo at the Asian-African Conference. In achieving these objec— tives, the writer attempted to direct attention to all of the pertinent aspects associated with three speeches Romulo delivered at this important international gathering. The three Speeches were: 1) an address before the Opening Plenary Session, 2) an address before the Political Com- mittee, and 3) an address before the Closing Plenary Ses— sion. This study was undertaken because homulo is con— sidered to be an outstanding speaker, and because the Asian— African Conference was considered to be a significant mile- stone in the history of international diplomacy. Since no prior study of any aspect of Romulo's speaking has as yet been made, it is therefore_felt that this study will help to fill a conspicuous void in the accumulated know- ledge of public address. The method used in this study embodied the basic formula of rhetorical criticism, which states that a speech is the result of an interaction of speaker, audience, and occasion. This study, therefore, embraced both historical 3:33:31“: ‘ I; 0.1;" (OISE: in; m" belie a sin-Kris 53:3;tic-n o' ‘ use s;eaker' m lgeaker. I we sit nudism In a: in Inter util hated was as W ethical ups-ate :2;ng ‘“ Draper LL'. “1:011, an 311?. littemMuc 313:; ”SE'Cns-a “Nil '33 f 1: its total 11 1:0 ”wily fro; my tan. cm: 112 , aha-‘10:) 1 Con, “tine-o . cu. and biographical materials. Specifically it considered all those forces and experiences from the Speaker's life which were believed to have influenced his speaking at the Asian-African Conference. It presented an analytical description of the conference itself, including an analysis of the speaker's audience, and of how that audience viewed the speaker. The general attitudes of the speaker toward both his audience and the occasion were likewise considered. In analyzing the speaker's three principal speeches, the writer utilized classical concepts. Each speech was treated separately in terms of invention (logical, emotion- al, and ethical proof), arrangement and style. The three separate analyses were each preceded by sections devoted to a preper understanding of the immediate speaking sit- uation, an authentication of available speech texts, and a determination of the speaker's purpose in speaking. Since response is considered the key to oratory, each speech analysis was followed by a section devoted to this facet of the total speaking event. The material used in this study, which was derived primarily from books, magazines, and newspapers, has been organized into five chapters. Chapter I introduces the problem. Chapter II seeks to provide sufficient background information for a preper understanding of the Asian-African Conference and the Philippine position at the conference. . . v 1 we: 11* “1"“ 51.13, the Lead 0 [if-'1 $313!. main of the :1 s: the conference that con-.21.: inseam. he pr tispterl 5:1; mini ape-es; “J -- ‘L. , stain-mg, hexane-:3 u ’c‘G"! F ‘{ . otu‘efi ‘10“cJJI u , & 8m ihfL‘ud the. Chapter III furnishes a general description of Carlos P. homulo, the head of the Philippine delegation, as both man and speaker. Chapter IV contains a separate rhetorical analysis of the three principal Speeches homulo delivered at the conference, while Chapter V attempts to draw some pertinent conclusions concerning his overall Speaking ef- fectiveness. The primary conclusions of this study, included in Chapter V and at the end of Chapter iV, were that homulo's principal speeches are excellent examples of rhetorical craftsmanship, that they were well adapted to himself, his audiences and the general orientation of Philippine foreign policy, that they achieved response, and that they had some influence upon the final outcome of the confer- ence. I.“ ".3 In 2'3”, 8‘ 1 31L») ’3? . h" h 33$ ii t y. A REETOBICAL murals or THE PRINCIPAL seasons as cmos r. HOW’LO u was ASlm-AFRICAR LULFAJLLiCB 3: David John Hall A THESIS Submitted to the College of Communication Arts hiehigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of EASTER OF ARTS Department of Speech 1959 TM n Wu. to Dr alter being a '3- lo: the human. : ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer would like to express his sincere gratitude to Dr. Donald H. Ecrcyd for directing this study and for being so generous of his guidance and encourage- ment. For the advice and assistance of Dr. Kenneth G. Hence and Dr. David 0. Ralph the writer is also deeply grateful. Additionally and especially. the writer would like to thank Ambassador Carlos P. Romulo whose uncommon eloquence made this study possible. “I .re O“ Chapter TABLE OF oomreure lfltIOdUCtioneeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Eurpoee................................... LimitatiOHSeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Justification............................. materials................................. UbStflCleaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee MBtHOdeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Ur;anization.............................. Background................................ fhe ABian”ArrlCfin Conference.............. Hiatorioal GeneSiseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee bbjectives.......o................... Ireparationso........................ Attefld&nc¢eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Lrbanization......................... LQSUltSeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee fhe rhilippine fOSitioneeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee xhe inilippine View of the Conference ire-conference Cutl°0k.......... rre-conference otrategy......... The Conference View of the rhilip- pines..........................o.... The neeulte of the Conference Favor- able to the iflilippifle roeition..... Ran and the Speakereeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Ina man................................... family BaCkgroundeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Lducationeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Career............................... Newspaperman.................... beldler......................... btatebuan....................... fersonality lraitaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Eriendlinese.................... 69 75 75 75 79 65 83 89 9'5 98 100 .48 "' ,‘I .1. .23 £3.44 "5"! b: e. C” i. 4 (-9" IV. The m0deaty......................... dBlf‘COflfidenCeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee IhllOSOphy........................... ldefllismeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee blze............................ influeflCGSeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Gregorio hOmQIOeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Manuel Le {Hezoneeeeeeeeeeeeeeee [he bpeaker............................... lreparation.......................... Appearance........................... DelIVdryeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Analysis.........o........................ LBtHOdeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee byeecn Una} the Ofeniflg AddreBS.......... immediate getting.................... Ieltdal AUtflenticationeeeeeeeeeeeeeee rurpose.............................. Arrangement.......................... 1nvention —- Logical froof........... invention -‘ EMOtiOnal rrOOfeeeeeeeee invention ~* Ltflical 1rQOfeeeeeeeeeee otyle................................ Audience heEponseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee opeech Two: the Address hefore the £011- tical Committee.......................... immediate bettingeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee leXtUdl AuthenticatiOn............... rurpose.............................. Arranéeulenteeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee invention -— Loaicel Lroof........... invention -- hmotiOUal iroof......... invention -- Qtflical IIOOf........... DtylEeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee findidnce besponfle.................... opeeCA Three: the closing address........ immediate setting.................... iBXtual Autfieflticatloneeeeeeeeeeeeeee IUIQOSGeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Arrangement.......................... invention *- Logical irOOfeeeeeeeeeee lnventiQn -- AMUtiunai frOOfeeeeeeeee invention -‘ fitUical 1r00feeeeeeeeeee otyle................................ findience Response.................... summdryeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 102 104 105 105 109 111 111 112 117 118 119 121 124 124 128 128 135 157 138 145 155 160 167 175 178 178 182 187 190 197 211 215 221 228 230 230 251 255 233 256 "58 240 241 245 245 ‘ .' ' $00 been béeel “‘0' I A I. unedbe a” . . v. concl‘QSionO.ICCOOIOCOOOOO00.000000000000000... Appendix 100.000.00.0000000000000eeeeooeeoOOeOeOe ilOOOCCOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOO lli......'.......C.......O.............O.. Bibliograpliy.OOOOOOOOOOOOOIIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.... 250 255 261 266 271 mm pm the and evaluate It a. him-Afr: nautical in M. M of a case a acted to all of “3°" Princig 1113:1126. It 1 "hasten in 1 M 1h. Erin-(21‘ m “filatle l Chapter I INThODUCTlCN Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine, criti- cize and evaluate the principal speeches of Carlos P. Romulo at the Asian-African Conference. Since the analysis is rhetorical in nature, and since its form is essentially that of a case study, attention must of necessity be di- rected to all of the pertinent aspects associated with homulo'l principal speeches at this important international gathering. It is, however, not meant to be definitive. Limitations The major limitation imposed upon this study, as suggested in the title, is to examine and criticize only the principal speeches delivered by homulo at the Asian-African Conference. A careful inspection of all the available literature pertaining to the conference, indicates that Romulo's principal speeches were three i number: l) his address before the opening plenary session, 2: :1! address h 51m fldIOSI I m lyeeceel I Size 3' mi by answer dish: 1’. L: 113“. In; an: m! then qu um: inspect I Mid figuz' ”51mm. Carlc m "mum “will in t: W mm: '1‘. “ “West! India“ "M 2) his address before the closing plenary session, and 3) hie address before the Political Committee. Only these three speeches will be analyzed. Justification The Justification for this study can be deter- mined by answering two questions: Why study the speeches of Carlos P. Romulo in the‘giggt place, and, in the second place, shy study his speeches at the Asian-African Confer— ence? fheee questions can be answered respectively with a brief inspection of Romulo’s reputation as a speaker and world figure, and by the historic significance of the conference. Carlos P. Romulo has been referred to as Asia's asset articulate spokesman of democracy in English.1 An editorial in the Chicago Epilx,figflg.orystallised this pre- vailing attitude when it said: “He is probably as trench- snt an advocate of a truly democratic Asia as ever kept an audience spellbound.“2 Noted for his spirited and coura- ge~ous attacks against Communism within the United Rationa, 1.. homulo Carlos P. na ' Current Biography ed. Marjorie Dent Gandee, 18th ed.(219 8)7'p?'172. ’ zchicagg Daily News, April 15, 1955. p. 14. inf-10'“ once rm " "3 mm {16331114 tunic. W 85. m1 was; i '| world-re. Rom; mu. co he in mt oloqua hind latienl. U. hitcnbo: “50111 “56me In omens It‘d fiat 'ho 1 We.“ \ 3.,1 .. no 32.! (30¢.an «.13 5. , 11.193). p. h“ 3110 c333 L: 8,. 333495;} “L4” 0: Ronulo was once described by Russia's late Andrei Y. Vishinsky as ”this little man with the big, big voice."3 Besides fighting Communism, however, he has also sought to voice the aspirations of millions of voiceless Asians.4 Bessweek magazine considers his to be ”a sparkling orator" and "a world-renowned voice of Asia.”5 Ronnie's speaking ability has warranted many favorable ecumente. he has been universally acclaimed the nest eloquent speaker to appear on the rostrum of the United Nations.6 8. V. Ialtenborn speaks of hiu.as "the best orator of the In fact, the noted radio commentator, General Assembly."7 The source of his eloquence was gauged by an editorial appearing in the indiaggpolis Star. it said that "he has a unique ability to marry passion with logic.“8 3"Romulo - Little hen Who Was There," Eewswcek, xiiiv (December 19. 1949). p. 22. 4"hormilo, Carlos P. (ens).'.;22-.2_1- 5s 'Rommy‘ Goes Out," Newsweek, XXXXII (August 31, 1953)s P. 40' 5 a - . George A. aalcolm girst as a an no ublic (Bos- ton: The Christopher Publishing ouse, 9515, p. 254. 7Ib1de. Do 2550 8u. s. c ressional Record, 81th Cong., lst Sess., 1955, 01. §§%%”I3I“1537b7'333¥1ng from the Indiana- polio §33£,of April 21, 1955. . £0311 £13410 thi I; use}! 35 3 '5 #1113, 0.21.11 dials: he 11': :1: the blitz his; the Sec mm: o! G u rained Ir: Nerd. In .‘ salmon 1,: "1.91.7- HO '1 Bomulo's reputation, however, is not solely cons fined to the speaker's platform; he has also distinguished himself as a world figure in the following fields: news— pupcrman, soldier, and statesman. In 1941 a series of articles he wrote predicting Japanese aggression won for him the Pulitzer Prize for distinguished correspondence. During the Second World Bar in the Pacific he served on the staff of General Douglass hacirthur and by war’s end was raised from the rank of major to that of brigadier general. In January of 1949 he received the honor of be- ing elected to the chairmanship of the U. R. General is- sembly. He was the first Asian to hold this position. The reputation Romulo has earned for himself as a world figure has also brought him a large number or decorations from foreign governments as well as from his own government, including the Golden Heart, the highest Philippine decoration. He has received soms.thirty hon— orary degrees from colleges and universities across the globe. Among the.more recent or many awards presented to him by organisations in the United States are the Phi Beta Kappa Distingdahed Service Award (1955) and the Pie- neer Hedalicn cf the World Brotherhood (1956).9 Looking now at the historic significance of the 9"Ronulo, Osrlos P. (one),";gg.‘2;1.. p. 474. warmer. first inter-c or] of w- Hq sources 11;:th 12.: £221.11 I'm: a: or its g1 aim histc: 1: his ever Asianpifrican Conference, it can be said that it was the first inter-continental meeting of colored pecple in his- tory of mankind.10 In this one respect, then, it is unique. many sources have also considered the conference to be an important landmark in the growth of international sooner- ation.11 The historian Ian Thompson wrote that it “marks one of the greatest and most crucial turning points of modern history.'12 The Christian Centur1_saidx “Few events in Asia ever attracted such brilliant representatives of the fourth estatc.'13 Ehg_§gg'1g£§‘giggg maintained that “in scope and importance it will rank second in world af- fairs only to a meeting of the General Assembly of the 7—— —-— fi—v—MA—LH- loAlex Jasey, “The Multitude at Bandung,” Egg; Statesman and Nation, IL, No. 1259 (April 23, 1955). P. S. 11While one source wrote that ”in history it may come to be ranked with the Congress of Vienna, at which modern Euroyean diplomacy was launched" 0. hand, "Our Far-Flung Correspondents," fig! Yorker, Kill (June 11, 1955). p. 39 , by way of contrast another wrote that"in sheer geographical seeps the gathering at Bandoeng makes all the congresses that Europe has held over the centuries look like a neighbourly chat over garden fences“ "coun- oil of Asia,” Economist, onixv (April 16, 1955). p. 179 . 12lan Thongon, The_Rige gg'godern fifiiQ (London: John surrey Ltd, 1957). p. 230. He alsomsaid quite poeti- cally: "Bandung was the touch-stone of a new age, the articulation of a new dynamic. Early morning had broken over the east." See lbiV. 13e’inburn T. Thomas, "Bandung shows spirit of Unity,“ ghristian Ce tur , LXXII (say 11, 1955). p. 572. End 531035 3:23:95 t5“ ’5‘. .". a] a 363...; 0 .‘., a“. matinee, J 3.1:» has t; ml: fig-.113, ”dance a: five-Lag a a. n; :mtii‘ic R101 the 1:; Meal. that km of 333‘. “View of a] k h (455;). Mme-Te oz" "'1 “mam it .315 181a,; United nations,"1‘ nails a high a. a. official himself declared that it was “the most important conference of the century."15 tith these factual and testimonial observations in evidence, it is possible to conclude that Carlos I. homulo has the reputation of an outstanding speaker and world figure, and that when he attended the Asian-African Conference as head of the Philippine delegation, he was attending a meeting of genuine importance. Deepite these twin Justificaticne for the present study, however, a sur- vey of the Knower and Auer Indexes in Speech monographs reveal. that no critical investigation dealing with any facet of Romulc's speaking career has as yet been attempted. in view of all these facts, therefore, it would appear to be highly desirable to fill a conspicuous void in the knowledge of public address by examining, criticizing, and evaluating the principal speeches of Carlos E. Ronnie at the Asian—African Conference. “2.1.1.2 regressing. mu 17. 1955. see. 4, P0 50 ~ 15'The Chinese Communist Invitation to Talk,” New Republig, oxxxxx (May 2, 1955). p. 5. ted: to obta [26:15.1 Ian (I arm n lit guard indexe meters. 1 ha‘uo led 1 Bee: “large nu: “1 literature “'55-’94 in 134 mu people 1 M about 1 Listeria. o “hmtm ‘11. ”-' dun... . fiaterials -The information used in this study was not dif- ficult to obtain. A wealth of primary and secondary source material was discovered by consulting such bibliographical sources as library card catalogues, national trade lists, general indexes to periodical literature, and various daily newspapers. Letters to the Philippine Embassy in Washing- ton also led to excellent material. Because the Asianplfrioan Conference was attended by a large number of Journalists, an abundance of periodi- cal literature was written about it, including that which appeared in both magazines and newspapers. In addition, three peeple who attended the conference subsequently wrote books about it, while others published their observations in sections of books. Several pamphlets, devoted exclu- sively to the conference, also appeared. with respect to newspapers, a half-dozen Ameri— can dailiee were consulted as well as a leading Manila daily. An interview with Dr. Fiederiok Siebert, the Di- rector cf the School of Journalism at Kichigan State Uni- versity, suggested that the following American newspapers would probably contain the most extensive and factually objective information about what went on at the L133 Renter. a. 311m L: m boil “.1 {crud £311.»! £4 Lied {romance 5.; aim his OK. 31351 grcved t situation it Ms among-a... ll ustciee a, Miible tile 53' ““45 0: L; conferencexl6 the St. Louis‘gggtaflis atch, the Chicago liaily Hews, the Sani‘rancisco Chronicle and Ell-2 M m " es. lo this list were subsequently added the Christian ficience Mo "tor, the Detroit 3333 M, and fly; Kamila II;§32, Since the manila daily contained the best infor- mation both qualitatively and quantitatively, it has been quoted rather eiteneively throughout this study.17 material dealing with homulo himself was obtained from.numorous magazine articles written about him as well as from his official biography. Since the speaker's bio- graphy proved to be far from definitive, however, what information it did contain had to be supplemented by his own autobiographical writings and by two short biographi- cal sketches appearing in Qggrent Biography. Wherever possible the greatest reliance was placed upon what homulo has said of himself. hegarding speech texts, no outstanding difficul— ties were encountered. Ber Romulo'e Gpening Address, five i_.._. 4.; 15interview with Dr. Frederick Siebert, Director of the School of Journalism, Michigan State University, harsh, 1959e 17The reason for this qualitative and quantita- tive excellence is quite simple. ‘ggg Manila Times evident- ly looked upon Bomulo as a 'favorite son'. This is read- 1 y observable from the number of 'interpretive' articles devoted exclusively to him, and from the fact that news agency dispatches were obviously utilized discriminately in favor of those which contained the most information about We Want will" mm Comt n‘. for his 0105 cm to soon I m: m be In: sum. it in 1 :21; mi in ta ta maker 09.1 in an mum were 1 Mm m 1 m: in; m the “3133 M lO.t “13‘ w different cepiee were obtained; for his speech before the Political Committee, three different copies were obtained; and for hie Closing Address, one cepy was obtained in ad- dition to eome extensive excerpte. Although none of these texte can be said to be completely accurate for varying reaeone. it ie nevertheless felt that the versions actu- ally need in thie analyeie most accurately reflect what the speaker eaid. In analyzing the speeches themselves, critical concepts were obtained from.rhonseen and Baird's Speech ££1112i§5,and from Gilman. Aly. and Reid's Egg guacamen- jggghgg’spgaking. The former was used extensively through- out the analyeie while the latter was called upon in cir- cunetancee requiring a more specialized approach. Both booke proved very helpful. Obstacles Of the obstacles encountered in this study the two meet important were derived from the nature of some of the material used and from.the nature of some of the conference proceedings. The first obstacle is partially eXplained in the following quotation: All during the week there were two ways of regarding the conference - as a contest and gzel cull an p12: pro- IOI‘ M m: can u omidera trim 1011: an been (21'! e1, Mendelian mm of a “50 ”his. 10 and as a get tozether. The forIer had the greater appeal for the Western, and parti- cularli the American Journalists. Therefore. any do agate who could be made to seem like an anti-Gonnunist gladiator was apt to be plazzd up, and the element of conflict was pro bl: overemphaeised in the pictpre the 'world was given of the proceedings. 8 What this comment clearly implies is that since Romulo was considered to be an 'anti-Oommunist gladiator“ by the leeriean Journalists, his conference activities might not have been given the most objective treataent. the danger that Boaulc did not receive the most dispassicnate reporting is further seen in some of the results of a study dealing with the newspaper coverage I! the ecnferenee.19' Iqbal Hasan Burney, a.qurnalist who reperted the conference for the Associated Press of Pakistan. has eade a ooaparative analysis of the Journal- istie viewpoint which seven prestige newspapers presented te their readers. these seven newspapers were: line of Me (Baum) flig§§,(ladrae) Hindustan 1m (New Delhi) ‘2553,(Karachi) ' Ewgf' - ** ”as M. me me. D. 62s 1’J‘Iiiqbeil. Hasan Barney, ’lewspaper Coverage of the r.s landing Genf e' (unpublished haste thesis. Sta-[era Iniweesity. was. 1956). 1 , * Waugh cent a; dictate: II of the f Bur m me it M u: of 1 ' “i1. '51! “all 1330] union is be M It mg ‘ “W399“ m ‘5' mm ob be “lance “93921-3 a h h “Pact h‘ comm 2'3 21 a 33 “in “a .. ll Iran {.- ll Pakistan‘2;g§g (Lahore) 21ggg,(London) lew York‘giggg Although convenience and the factor of availability parti- ally dictated the choice of the newspapers analyzed,20 ease of the findings are quite noteworthy. Barney concluded in his study that 2.9.9. fig! 19;}; um gave its readers a "more lop-sided “picture of Bosnia than an: of the other newspapers. "gag, .1191 2933 um.” he said. "gives hin.a tremendous boost, while he is more or less ignored by all the other newspapers."21 This con- clusion is better understood, however, when it is realised that at the writer's own admission, “six out of the seven newspapers reflected support in their news coverage for the known objectives of their national foreign policies."22 The absence of complinentary news about Ronulo in such newspapers as the three published in India is therefore to be expected. India and the Philippines pursue foreign policy objectives that are quite different. The former is a confirmed neutralist, while the second is a staunch zoigide, Pe 2e 21M" p. u. 2?;p;g.. p. 122. The only exception was the .Pakistan gimeg which reportedly subscribes to extra-nation- 31 1.831n83e mom: of ti: my man, i at he! been i n m conferen "aim one d1: Even Mlhlt has I meant: tn It nliabilit; 3'? uncle. t ll Under-rep: II ‘ Pmdmiz ““1- 50 a: m. aHem-.1. far cm for. Nile 'try 1: “he“ “a: {at .1“. A; um, “01 1 h “”1 at: “he. has 1: \ 2': 2 . 12 supporter of the West. The comparative analysis which Burney makes, therefore. has only limited application to what.has been included in this thesis. If the reporting at the conference was “lap-sided“, it was not ”loposided” in just one direction. Even though Burney's study cannot adversely af- fect what has been included in this thesis. there is the pessibility that some of it night even enhance the quality and reliability of the material used here. He states, for example, that the Asian and African newspaper world was under-represented at the conference and that there was a predmainance of European and American newspaper per- sonnel. He also states that the newspapers of Asia and Africa depended largely upon international news agencies 25 for their foreign news and that these news agencies as a rule ”try to separate facts from comment."24 In light of these admissions, therefore, it should be pointed out that since American periodical literature has been exten- sively need in this thesis, the most quantitative source has been utilized. Also, since the greatest possible re- liance has been placed upon news agency dispatches, the 23M. 1 Po 19. 2‘;b1a., pp. 121-22. momenta I e! 25 II“- !te ea “spinal: ti ”110215. Since mt. reports: III ”11:11 quot simian polic; up: disco a sec betcr cone atle 31333.27 11‘ \25 on" La EM“ 111 the uteri-II“ 261i 271‘ 13 most objective source, qualitatively, has been utilized as well.25 The second important obstacle concerns an absence of completely reliable news about what went on in the closed sessions. Since these closed sessions were conducted in secret, reporters were not permitted to cover them. The same study quoted above, however. does not consider this exclusion policy to be such a debilitating factor. Burney says: When the Conference started, it was discovered that nothing at all could be kept a secret. Newsmen had their 'pet’ delegates and would know what was happening inside before a particular session would formally come to an end. Hews agencies were thus able to keep a sort at running commentary on the proceedings.2 He also states that “most of the delegates were eager to air their respective viewpoints" and that nearly all imp portant delegations had planted their officers to "culti- vate the world press.” He concludes, therefore, that the conference presented little difficulty to the resourceful newsman.27 Although what went on in these closed sessions 25in attempt has been made to isolate these dis— patches in the footnotes by including the author and title or all interpretive articles. 25;;;g,. p. 18. 27lbid. m to be 23355! i . ‘ ‘ _' cogs‘QI'JC we tribe, an: of a 39634 of peter-.1 {-18 101101 toricsl E_ crititis; Eteracti therefgré late rials 14 has to be pieced together from a number of journalistic sources, it is nevertheless believed that an accurate re- construction of events has been made in this study. Method The function of the rhetorical critic is to des— cribe, analyze, interpret, and evaluate the various aspects of a speaker's ability to discover all the available means of persuasion in a given case. An effort will be made in the following pages to satisfy this function. The kind of treatment required for a prayer rhe- torical analysis embodies the basic formula of rhetorical criticism, which states that a speech is the result of an interaction of speaker, audience, and occasion. This study, therefore, will embrace both historical and bingraphical materials. Specifically, it will consider all those forces and experiences from the speaker's life which are believed to have influenced his speaking at the Asian-Afri- can Conference. It will also present an analytical descrip- tion of the conference itself, including an analysis of the speaker's audience - its composition and background .. and how that audience viewed the Speaker. The general attitudes of the speaker toward both his audience and the mm 7111 31181 nuclei, €1.11 he: mach 2.: 12:11:31. L3 Lee reasons. as heal; 15 occasion will likewise be considered. When analyzing the speaker's three principal speeches, classical concepts will be called into play. Each speech will be treated in terms of invention (logical, emotional, and ethical proof), arrangement, and style. Since response is the key to oratory, this facet of the total speaking situation will also be taken into account. Crganization The present study has been organised into five chapters of which this introductory chapter is the first. Chapter II seeks to provide sufficient background mater- ial for a proper understanding of the Asian-African Con- ference and the Philippine position at the conference. Chapter III furnishes a general description of Carlos P. Romulc as both man and speaker. Chapter IV contains a separate rhetorical analysis for each of the three speeches Romulc delivered at the conference, while Chapter V attempts to draw some valid conclusions concerning the overall ef- fectiveness of these speeches. The conclusions drawn will be based on the material supplied in the preceding chap- tors. 11 2st: of Ca: it will be 1 Ipmhea in tu been Ir. function e fiflral tea I!» Chapter II THE BACKGEOUND In order to analyze prepcrly the speaking ef- forts of Carlos P. homulo at the Asian—African Conference, it will be necessary to put both the speaker and his speeches in their preper perspective. The present chapter has been written for this purpose; and all pertinent in- formation contained herein has been divided under two general headings: the Asian-African Conference and the zhilippine Pgsition at the conference. The Asian—African Conference who purpose of this section is to describe in as objective a way as possible the event that occurred at Bandung, Indonesia, between April 18th and 24th, 1955 ~- the now famous Asian-African Conference. In achieving this intended purpose the following six ele- ments will be considered: historical genesis, objectives, preparations, attendance, organization, and results. 16 It ! wt: 0! m- him Lien ' waits“ a (rupees c 111 be the y as will cc ‘4: or m rq is“. 3h: In rooted a. m m. an 'Ee‘liline p3 ha the is: mm“ 1 m ““0 11 Home“ . fl 1 17 WW 6 It would be impossible within the stipulated limits of this thesis to trace the development of the Bandung ides to its original source. for to do so would necessitate a detailed explication of the entire history of European colonialism in Asia and Africa. Rather, it will be the purpose here to consider only those events which will contribute most effectively to an understand- ing or the reasons why the Asian-African Conference took place. While the immediate origins of the conference are rooted deeply in the post-war emergence of an indepen- dent Asia and Africa,1 the first tangible expression of s genuine pan-Asian sentiment occurred in August of 1926 when the Asian delegates to the non-official International Conference for Peace declared in a memorandum that Asia must have its rightful place in the consideration of world problems. The memorandum stated in part: There is one thing which.cannot fail to strike anyone who studies the peace movements of EurOpe. It is the £act...that when.huropean peeple think of peace they V. " 1Charles H. Malik, Egg Prgblem.g£10 existence (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, §555, p. 19. w the As; 1W 1th re; Elf-govern: iim of "tea :1 nu 1.1:. h 1501 of “31! can: “"13 PM “i" 1‘8 31.11 to '3‘ ch: 18 think of it only in terms of Europe. In the insgination of European thinkers the world seems to be confined to the areas inhabited by European races. The vast continent of Asia. containing as it does sons of the nest ancient civilizations, and holding the vast najority or the world's population, and Atrics, with its paiticular problems do not come into the picture at all. This we submit wéth all humility, is s wrong point of view. A second link in the chain of events leading up to the Asian-African Conference was added in March of 1947 when representatives from 28 Asian nations and non- self-govsrning territories met in New Delhi under the aus- pices of the Indian Council of World Affairs.3 It was at this Asian Relations Conference, as it was called, that the ides. or Asian unity first began to take definite shape.‘ to this conference delegates came to consider some of the nsnifold problems which all Asia at that time had to fees, such as movements for political independence and inequal- ities resulting tron racial discrimination. Pandit Nehru. who ens ohsirnsn of the conference, crystallized the thoughts 2 i. Appadorsi The " for noe (New Delhi: Indian Council or World'AH-simfiare. 56% p. . 3Werner Levi, F as In is in Asia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1952 , pp. 36-38, cited by Alfred Crofts and Pore Buchanan .é.§12f2£1 Of gnawing East ('0' York: Longnans? Green and 00., nc.,“I9)8), p. FIE? 4Carlos P. Romulo, "The crucial Battle for Asia,“ ghg_lew Zgrk Times figgazine, September 11, 1949, p. 68. Mitt-2:111- 1 manual; 5. 9“failures 311‘ attazt; mused L-J “Asia 1.: mam“ ‘ midiitiom “a let u; flirt, the I“ that the ECU any. ‘59 kg: 19 uppermost in the minds of the delegates when he said: “In.this crisis in world history Asia will necessarily play a vital role. The scantries of Asia can no longer be used as pawns by others; they are bound to have their own policies in world affairs.“5 The rssal+ s of th.is anion Relations Conference are noteworthy. Significantly, the conference be s:c W1 th a frank discussion of what the delegates adamantly opooced, but it ggdcg with an equally frank discussion of What they essentially gavore . After much discussion concerning the failures of the white man in Asia, t.hc delegates turned their attention to a discussion of agricultural output and increased industrialization. The] objected to the concept or ”‘ “sin for the Asians" and talked instead of friendly desperation with all nations. Beyond this they also called for additional conferences to be held and a permanent staff to be set up to work upon common economic problems.6 In short, the most significant feature or the conference was that the accomplishments were not to be found in concrete actions, but rather in the mutual exchange of ideas between A A— A; SCerlos P. Romulo, ”Asia Bust Dc Soon Through Asian Eyes,” Thc .6! York Times magazine, September 3, 19.30;; Pe 150 6"Asians Hoot Africans,“ F w Lewubli , SLXKII (April 11, 1955). Do 5. uiu loader: mm»? A 1 mail of ti” 111950 at 5.: 31m curtail mad that ‘ to further ti an that th ‘1‘ Home he ‘1" W the ham to I “mum 7. “Wham c 20 Alien lccdcro concerning their future social and economic progrccc.7 A third important landmark in the hictorical genoci- ot the doinn-dtrican conference took place in may of 1950 at Baguio in the Philippines. it thin time and place certain South and Southeast Asian countries8 recoup mended that they chould consult with each other in order to further the intercotc of their own region. and to in- curc that the viewpoint of the people. they represented were prominently kept in nind.9 Reference should elcc be made at this point in time to the formation of an drab-Aeian bloc in the United lotion. on c recult or the Korean cricie and in response to a growing demand for international reocgniticn.1° 7two years later, in January of 1949. another important conference took place in New Delhi, but this time cone concrete action resulted. The conference re- ferred to brought moral preceurc to bear on the Juet and cpccdy cclution of the lndonecian problem while acting ctrictly within the framework of the United Nations. Sec Ehillipc Talbot (cd.) 80 ‘Agig 13.1331“ 58(Chi-- coco: The Univercity'of'gfigcago Preco,l 31h. oountricc present were Ceylon, India, Pak- ictmm, and the Philippinec. sippudorai, no 0&50’ p. 20 10m l. Howard, “The Arab-Anion States in the United lotions.“ 0 Mid Vll (Summer, 1953). p. 282. “QEHIEE, Itm wan a your after the international organisation wu- founded (in 1947) that the Indian Ambassador to the U! Acct Ali called together all the Alien-Atrium unborn in an endeavor to unify their policy over the question of Israel. Sec Ian Thomson,‘ghg Bloc of Modern Ania (London: John Murray Ltd., 1957), PD 0 ”21““17 c beam m P“ can. fail I'm of Asia Mu mn be: hum had no caution the. in 1mm 15;; is I H mm 1 1mm, 4 Mm nth t] calm, in L;- N m Itm “lint" 1111 “191336111: q Wit cm {101: “libs 30m “at“ «'11: are“ u I d m. AER;- 21 Because the principle or a new alignment was being initi- amn.hsre, this development likewise pretigured the historic meeting of Asian-African nations in the Spring of 1955.11 It has even been suggested that it was because the United laticns had not been permitted to function as a world or- ganisation that the representatives of five-eighths of the human family were induced to assemble at Bandung.12 As a result or this common.feeling engendered and enhanced by past conicrenees and by past experience in.ths U.H.. the prime ministers of Burma and Indonesia Joined with those of Ceylon, India and Pakistan at Colombo. Ceylon. in.ipril of 1954 to seek a mutual understanding ever the struggles then going on in Indc—China.13 the delegates involved took a firm stand against the further development of nuclear weapons and in favor of admitting Communist China into the United nations. it the end of their deliberations the participating countries issued a Joint statement mentioning the desirability of holding a full dress meeting or Asian and African nations sometime in the near future. The Prime Minister of Indonesia, Dr. ”mu, m. m. 12H. Straight, 'Do We Want Asian Unity?', How m. emu (April 25. 1955). p. 5-6. '"" 13Guy Wint, Sguth Asia. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Pamphlet 500. p. 163. cited by Crofts and Buchanan, lg . c I. m swam: a possibili‘ The km: on Dec: min; Sir J Ilfiscnher disclaim 1 tie n his boulthst 1 i mm. 'm nations by '1 "than; Wider.“ _ I “ll ntituj fittgn i314 flier their \ 1 I. “Mere ; ideal .r‘sht. “the 15. ‘91 ”ii: . a8 ' fi‘fiéls 1; “Per tr, ‘4 mm“ ‘ u M. 22 Ali SastroamidJoJo, was thereupon asked to explore all the possibilities of staging such a conference.14 Ihese same Colombo Powers reconvened eight months later on.December 28, 1954. at Bogor, Indonesia. At this meeting Sir John Kotelawala of Ceylon stated the views of the other members when he said: "I do not think any of us claim.the right to speak for Asia, but until such time as Asia can speak for herself, I think we have a duty to see that our views on Asian affairs do not go unheeded.” He added. ”We should strive to usher in a new era in Asian relations by discarding the harsh word for the gentle one, by replacing suspicion and misunderstanding with trust and eon!idenee.'15 Therefore, in keeping with this commonly held attitude, the five Colombo prime.ministers agreed that an Asian-African conference should be inaugurated under their joint sponsorship. (The dates subsequently 14Most of the sources the writer has consulted seem to consider Dr. Sastroamidjojo as the originator of the conference idea. In fact. nichard Wright calls him “the ideoIOgioal father of the conference;“ see hichard Wright, The Color Curtain (Cleveland: The World Publish- ing Company. I953), p. 136. This assertion might be par« tially based on the fact that in August of 1953. when the struggle in lads-China was most acute, Dr. Sastroamidjojo shad reportedly suggested that it was than time for the countries of Asia and Africa to begin working together in unison. -8ee Thomson. gp.‘gi3.. p. 220. 15Homer A. Jack, gandggg (Chicago: Toward Free~ dom, 1956), p. l. greed upon as to be B it: manta: ! n: of the trim Cc:- stians re; 1% can be I m occur: unfmace bated in z N “flea; 1| the “ab 3 “3 like ll ‘4 63;:- it; Id 00.21;: “136mm“ 152a in the {NI Ritual agreed upon were April 18-24, 1955, and the meeting place was to be Bandung, Indonesia, a resort city situated in the mountains of western Java.) This brief historical sketch then, indicates one of the chief underlying causes for holding the Asian- Afrioan Conference, namely the desire on the part of the nations represented, for a larger voice in world affairs. it can be seen that the first significant historical land- mark occurred nearly a quarter of a century before the conference actually took place, that the conference was rooted in the post~war emergence of an independent Asia and Africa; and that for varying reasons it was prefigured in the Arab-Asian bloc which formed in the United Nations. It can likewise be seen that when the Colombo Powers met at the capitol of Ceylon in 1954 they were not at all meet- ing as complete strangers. 0n the contrary, a series of conferences held over the years had served to instill the idea in the public mind that much benefit could be derived from.mutual consultation. Objectives Although the five Colombo prime ministers meeting 3 Bags: ii: :1 til pro; {alto speci: 1: Means: {mice were in Bagor did not prepare an advanced agenda,16 the purposes of the preposcd Asian-African Conference were nevertheless quite specifically spelled out in their Joint communique. he subsequently stated the intended purposes or the con- tersnce were: (a) to promote good will and cosperation among the nations of Asia and Africa, to ex- plore and advance their mutual as well as com- mon interests, and to establish and further friendliness and neighborly relations. (b) to consider social, economic and cultural problems and relations of the coun- tries represented. (o) to consider problems of special in- terest to Asian and African peoples, e.g., problems affecting national sovereignty and of racialism and colonialism. (d) to view the position of Asia and Africa and their peoples in the world today and the contribution they can make to thel7 promotion of world peace and cooperation. more specifically, however, the five prime ministers be- fore leaving Eager had demanded self-rule for Tunisia and Horosco, supported Indonesia's claim to Westihfian, and expressed grave concern over experimental nuclear bomb 160arlos r. Romulo, pp; meaning 9; Band (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1956b, p. 6. Ronnie also states here that this lack of a previously drawn up agenda 'played...into the hands of the states allied with, or more or less friendly toward the West.” more will be said about this when the organization or the conference is considered. "mun-9.2m. April 17. 1955. p. 43. U‘ “1113013 at an inter. E! that were 2 paint sax-.1; :mz secret 1:311:36 the 51.0 003,“ 565-” Li a W 03 ALE: u: cac Mm 3V.-l “he!“ . PL "I'm-til the! "l 3;, I in em. .. at p“ 25 testin¢.1. The solution of these problems also constitu— ted an intended objective of the asian—African Conference. Upon first convening at Bandung the above objec- tives were lmre firmly crystallised in the form of a seven- pcint agenda prepared and agreed upon by the conference Joint secretariat. is released to the press this agenda included the following items: cultural cooperation; eco- nonis cooperation; problems of dependent peoples; human rights and self-determination; use of nuclear energy; wea~ pons of mass destruction; and promotion of world peace and cooperation.19 It was uithin this framework that the participating states hoped to gain for themselves a larger share in world affairs.20 W Ihe Indonesian government made every effort to prove at Bandung that they could arrange,with competence, 21 s.nsJor international conference. The selection of the 1.0 l !. Bevan ‘_f H torn sues-ages... 1956,1153".L W Q; the. 2222‘; ( u ”m 11mins W. April 13. 1955. p. 8- ZO‘n editorial in the Christian Science monitor observed, ”the Bandung conference is being organised around political and philosophical concepts Asians share.“ See pgggigtigngcienge Monitog, April 18, 1955. p. 12. ”Ram. 93. m” p. 585. Mex-once I «ram. 55 situated in elem, no: 220 7.1183 a: :it: in Ice. ten the e M truly a -tl II Mort cit: ”"7 may: 11111011 in; 26 conference site was one of the more significant of these efforts. Bandung. (called the ”Paris of Indonesia") is situated in an ancient lake bed. the crater of an extinct volcano, more than 2,000 feet above sea level and about 120 miles south of Djakarta on the island of Java.22 The city is located amidst wooded hills and lovely valleys where the weather is neither too warm nor too cold. It was truly an ideal spot to hold a conference. When it was finally decided to make this pleasant resort city the site of the Asiansdfrican Conference a heavy responsibility fell upon the three quarters of a million inhabitants. In general, the entire city was cleaned and renovated from top to bottom; and in less than four months Bandung was transformed into an efficient conference headquarters.23 At a cost of about $1,500,000, some 20,000 build- 24 jinn; had been painted or whitewashed. Some seventeen hotels and numerous residences were requisitioned by the government for the delegates and newspaper personnel. —-—-_1 *- 2ZWinburn.T. Thomas, “Bandung Site on a Volcano,“ Christian Century, Lilli (April an, 1955). p. 470. 23Jack, gg,‘g$£.. p. 5. ‘4Rowan, loc. cit. spud food: a visiting m mire: '1] In area; htubilea he flag-35.; use fiBléii v Pu- fish“ {1 hr taa :4 \e 27 Special foods were imported to satisfy the appetites of the visiting dignitaries, and the hotels were given spe- cial instructions in preparing their menus.25 The roads to the city were all resurfaced and new mercury arc lamps were installed. done two hundred automobiles were taken over by the government and put at the disposal of the various delegations. In addition, each delegation was furnished with a military and motor- cycle escort. Eithin the city itself, the supply of electricity was augmented to accommodate the increased demand for light- ing. Two large buildings, completely redecorated for the occasion, furnished the conference with excellent halls and rooms. One or them. an old Dutch club called "Concor- dia” was entirely rebuilt to house the plenary sessions and the press facilities.20 The building itself was located near the center of town, and its main hall could easily accommodate 2,000 peOple. The other building called the Geding Dwi Warns (formerly an Old Dutch civil service buil- ding) was situated near the outskirts of town, and it _ .A 25Jack, L93. cit. 26This building was subsequently renamed Ueding Herdeka (House of Freedom) by President Sukarno of Indo- neais a few days before the conference began. Furnishings for the main.hall were imported from Europe. purified all 31 m spew; {0:17 aunt: a: infer-Lu he hdoneaj m transit 233,930 var: 32213;: 53-31 RI 2:413 t; ‘25 51922.1; mlaiioz; 9-1! c3331 . 2! provided all the roe-s necessary for the closed sessions.27 Substantial press facilities were also set up with special cable and radio-telephone links to almost forty countries around the globe. The Indonesian ministry of Information published a daily conference bulletin; and the Indonesian telecommunications office was also prepared to transmit for the world press and delegations up to 200,000 words of news and official.reports each dey.28 The conference hall was equipped with the United Nations system of simmltaneous translation; and English was made the official language of the conference. During the plenary sessions, however, there were simultaneous translations into both English and French, while any dele- gate could have translations in any other language if he supplied his own translator. Before the conference got under way all undesir- ables were rounded up and taken out of the city for ten- porary internment. A siseable detachment of Indonesian soldiers and policemen armed with grenades and submachinc guns were stationed throughout the city specifically to 278pencer Davis, ”Hohru Sets Antinhed Weapon," ggih filings, April 9, 1955. p. 16. Where possible wr or include the author and title of all news- paper articles. zegllg. 4 . - I “v, Greer! 3:. 1:3 out; its: the us. 151:}: LEE; 7 a 31 “a in: - - ' ‘5' _. Eff-reg“ ,. .- hvs'.‘ 1 29 29 and an entire army division was stationed keep order, on the outskirts of town to prevent any surprise attack from the Darul Islam, a violent sect of Islamic extremists which threatened to disrupt the eonf“rence thereby ember- 3O Tossing the Indonesian government. Fortunately, no in— dications of rebellion occurred. Attendance In analyzing the comgosition of the membership of the Asianuifriosn Conference certain similarities and differences are easily discernible. Before considering these common and divergent factors, however, it would be well first to consider briefly the general attendance char- acteristics of the conference. General Characteristics A list or the countries invited to attend the conference includes the following independent nations:31 29Jack, loc. it. 3oKeyes Beech, “Have-Note 1flock to Bandung," Chicago Bail! H9338, April 16’ 1955, Po 1. 3lfixoeptions to the independence rule were made in the cases of the Gold Coast and the Sudan. Nehru cone sidered these exceptions justified in order to give Africa a “more adequate representation." See Detroit Free Press, 1. Afghanistan 13. Lebanon 2. Cambodia 14. Liberia 3. Central African 15. Libya Federation)3 17. Philippines 5. Egypt , 18. Saudi Arabia 6. Btdopia 19. Sudan 7. Gold Coast 20. Syria 8. Iran 21. Thailand 90 Japan 22. Turkey 100 Jordan 23. Vietnam (Earth) 11. L308 24. Vietnam (South) 12. Iraq 25. Yemen These countries plus the five Colombo powers (Indie, Burma, Ceylon, Pak.stan, and Indonesia) constituted the 29 inde— pendent stctes which sent official delegations.34 32Ths Central African Federation subsequently turned down its invitation to attend the conference because he head of state had too many problems of a rather press- ing nature to attend to at home. 33Sinco the countries invited were asked to send foreign and/or prime ministers, the head of the Philippine delegation was raised to cabinet rank without portfolio so that he could participate on a level of equality with the other chief delegates. See Vera micneles Dean, "han- dung: Acid Test for test and East," Egggigg Policx‘ggl- I125;g, ixx1v (April 15, 1955). p. 119. 34Thc official delegations totalled some 600 peeple none of whom were women. mate: of name. 3 2m Lni city ta canines «in. at? tian. fill 3: ‘30 111‘: 115th of it: ide a: flier .. , PM; 31 In addition to these official delegations, a number of unofficial observers also came to plead Special causes. North Africa was well represented by spokesmen from Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria who seized every oppor- tunity to berets French policy with respect to their own countries. The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Nadj Amir e1 Hus- sein, attended and was made a member of the Yemen delega- tion. His time was mostly spent in describing the plight of the Arab refugee in Palestine. His Highness the Arch- bishop of Cyprus, was also readily available to present the idea of freedom for his island from Great Britain. And Congressman Adam Clayton Powell was present in an un- official capacity to participate in several press confer- ences designed to paint a favorable picture of America's racial policies. For the most part, however, these and other unofficial observers of less importance worked be- hind the scenes to accomplish their individual goals.35 As far as the press was concerned, between five and six hundred journalists came from nearly 50 countries around the world. It is reported that the largest single contingent came from the United States which sent approx- imately 50 press and radio correspondents.36 The British 35James Cameron, "Chou En-lai at the Asian-Af- rican meeting,“ heporter, XII (May 19. 1955). p. 13. 36Spencer Davis, "Nehru bets Anti-med Weapon,” loc. cit., p. 16. pm It! I sepia, tr.) um mi A l l ' P“.+‘ 1‘ h—o..-oov--V .“ ‘U 1 m the re a all as it begin ti “1: Organ: teen Ire: 1 r!- ‘u anr' 1.! 32 preee wae aleo eaid to have sent a sizeable group. These people, taken.together, represented a great variety of media ranging from daily newspapers to scholarly Journals.37 Similarities The points of similarity among the member states were the result of a common ethnic and religious background ae well ae a shared political and economic exPerience. To begin with, the Asian-African Conference was unmistak- ably organized around the concept of "race," for it can be eeen from the list of the countries represented that no “white" nations were invited. Whether intentional or not the eponeoring countries had drawn a clearly discernible "color line."38 As one writer who attended the conference put it, "The delegatee...were there because of a convic- tion that the problem.g§,the twentieth century is the pro- blem‘gg the cglor line."59 )7Jack. 22e age, Pe 9e 38Thie eo-called ”color line" probably did not apply to the Turks and Iranians,"Who do not regard them- eelvee as colored.” See “Strange Bedfellows," Newsweek, VI. (April 11, 1955). p. 53. 39Saunders Bedding, "The Meaning of Bandung,“ American Scholar, XXV (Autumn, 1956), p. 411. The writer ievee that it would be generally incorrect to say that the “color line" had been deliberately drawn by the con- ferenoe planners. hather he thinks it would be more cor- rect to say that the problem of race was the result of a political, economic and historical coincidence. ’11 \u m the all: Heep and 1 11115132" 8' 1681213 :31: used Lt Kit of at: 31:33 Lie; 313519,: a, 1‘ ‘59 been :35 Se ' -_\ Velb.‘ L" n. "h .ALLAP': 33 Closely aesociated with this concept of race was the allied concept of religion. "1 began to sense a deep and organic relation...in Bandung between race and religion" stated one observer in a book he later wrote 40 dealing with the conference. This observer also main- tained that the merging of race and religion was the re- sult of attitudes and practices engendered by testern na- tions which had instilled in the peoples of their former colonies a sense of racial and religious inferiority.41 In the book's preface, which was written by the famed Swe— dish Sociologist Gunner hyrdal, appears the following quo- tation: Religion is their cultural heritage, from many thousands of years of living and dying and fearing, and it has molded their institutions and loaded their valuations. 2 Race is the eXplosive pressure of their reac- tion to West Burcpcan prejudice and discrim— ination, stored and accumulated under cen- turies of colonial domination. 3 4oWright, 22. cit., p. 140. ‘11b1d. 42The truth of this observation was later corro- borated by the moral and spiritual sentiments espressed by the heads of delegation during the Opening session. Wrote one reporter: "Expressions of religious sentiment and faith have been much more numerous than in comparable meetings of Western nations." A. Bank barnett, "heligion Steps in at Asia Parley," Chicago Daily News, April 20, ' 1955. De 2e 43Wright, _2, cit., p. 7. 1% ha cs: :2: rec-sit recently { d1 aharei 4 '..A "Wit-due. 54 Another unifying factor among the delegations at the conference was that they represented nations which had received an independent political status relatively recently (twelve of post-war date) and that they nearly all shared at one time or other a condition of colonial 44 In other words, the twenty-nine nations re- servitude. presented at Bandung shared a common abhorrence of imper- ialism, because they had all arisen in general Opposition to western domination.4S In addition, the countries present at Bandung comprised the poorer and less deveIOped nations of the 46 Although the delegates represented about 62 per worlde cent of the world's peeple, their countries received only about 15 per cent of the world's income.47 According to ‘4"Counc11 of Asia," Economist, CLiiv (April 16, 1955), p. 119. 4Shalik,‘_p..git., p. 18. It would be possible to assume, therefore, that on questions involving colonies or the treatment of non—self-governing peeples, the con— ference membership would present a fairly solid front. See will haslow, "The Afro-Asian Bloc in the United Nations,” hiddle hastern Affairs, Vill (November, 1957), pp. 372-77, for further substantiation. 46homulo, The Meaning of Banduns, op. cit., p. 3. 47Ronald Stead, “Asian-African Delegates PUt Success Label on Bandung," Christian Science monitor, Ap- ril 25, 1955, p. 1. a: records c nestled at union doll: an: ccmtr: he and witj matting 32 literate-7:3 if :2. Lee held in! Yer; t; I30 ding-6; ital c1351 eti. alférence 1 H223: Cc.-; k article ; d an Ifirth-.2 C: q. I". 35 the records of the conference secretariat, the nations assembled at Bandung were importing at the time only 18 billion dollars worth of products annually, while the Eur- cpcan countries, on the other hand, exclusive of the Soviet bloc and with a much smaller pepulation (300 million), were importing 32 billion.48 Qigferegces If the nations attending the Asiannifrican Gon- fcrsncc hold certain things in common, they also reflected some very basic differences. Chief among these differences were divergent political views as well as contrasting so- 0131 and ethical values. The twenty-nine nations at the conference nominally comprised four distinct orientation blocs: Communist, pro-West, neutralist, and uncommitted. in article in the Manila Eimgg, in turn, broke these blocs down partially by countries as follows:49 Communist - China and North Vietnam Pro—West - the SEATO powers (Thailand, Pakistan and the Philippines), and possibly Japan, Cambodia, Laos, South.Vietnam, Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Lebanon ‘81 comparison of exports during the same period of time showed the Bandung countries with a combined total ctdl¢§ billion and Western Europen bloc with $28 billion. See the Q3, genie Post-Dis tch, April 26, 1955. p. 2A. 4921-: W Lime. April 6. 1955. pp. 1 and 3. 11¢: 71., U..- Iigtt has h pcssitly eve cached this 1‘... .. ’35 he ace. hi. :4, s .“~ M\ in :3 s! t;"'\ Q .I‘ - b . ‘ I“ A “vi N Eng“ k“ h tun “cal, It in --. , _ a 36 Hsutralist - India, Burma, Indonesia and Ceylon50 Uncommitted - the Arab bloc (Afghanistan, Libya, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Jordan and Yemen), plus Liberia, Nepal,51 Ethiopia and the Gold Coast. is great as the differences of a political nature might have been, those of a social and ethical nature were possibly even greater. One observer previously quoted couched these differences in the following terms: "They ran the scale from animal worship to ancestor worship; from polygamy to polyandry; from practical classlessness to theoretically rigid caste; from industrial competence n52 to agrarian stagnation. Another stated: "Mingled to— gsther were Catholic and Buddhist from Burma; Hindu, hoslem 50Generally, the neutralist powers at the con- ference pull more weight in Asian-African affairs than ‘thcss nations committed by alliances and philosOphy to the scat. See 0 New York imes, April 17, 1955, see. IV, p. 5. Spec dEITy, Ind a endeavored to promote her thesis that the more of Asia and Africa remaining neutralist in the Cold War, free from any military alliances, the better would be the chances for maintaining peace. See George HcTurman Kahin,‘§hg Asian-African Conference (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1953), p. 5. slit is also significant to note here that of these twenty—nine nations only seven recognized Communist China "Upset at Bandung," Time, LEV (flay 2, 1955), p. 28 , more than one third did not belong to the U.N. A. C. Pow- ell, Jr., "nod China Exposed - hot Dominant in Asia," y.§. ews g Wgrld Re ort, XXXVIII (April 29, 1955). P. 43 , and wenty had received U.S. aid during the previous year Cordon Walker, "Bandung Corners Spotlight," Christian §gir cnge hogitgr, April 19, 19b5, p. l. . 52hedding, loo. cit., p. 412. Latins had lelibera i is; N pass‘ 2,; d.- scans-mes, Ease prct 1. we: Eat??? ' 9.“; lrhjb ‘ n8 Elven" Y" E. o 333‘ of tilt-j mt€r8Lt 1‘ \fl kn 4:. 'r; 0 Ln M V! v:- Ir.- 0) 37 and Sikh from India; heslem and athiest from China..."53 Linked to the above political, social and ethi- cal differences was the additional fact that many of the countries which came to the conference had particular axes to grind for nearly every one of the two nty-nine member nations had problems with neighboring countries.54 "The deliberations, in fact, disclosed differences deep—seated and passing, inviving contested territories and borders, economics, politics and minority groups."55 Examples of these problems included Pakistan's differences with lndia over Kashmir and with Afghanistan over the Bathan tribes— men.56 As the London iconomist remarked just prior to the convening of the conference: "The sad fact is plain that most of the delegations are coming with expectations so different from each other as to be virtually contra dictory." "57 53Bowen, 0 . cit., p. 390. 54”Bandung Conference," world nodal, 11 (June, 1955), p. 236 and st. Louis rcet~hl_Latcn, Aplil 17, 1955, p. 23A. 591m 56Ronald Stead, "Bandung Flexes New Nationalism", Christian Science honitor, April 19, 1955, p. 3- 57"Council of Asia . ,L loo. cit. How true this statement eventually bee ‘e can be seen in a similar idea presented by an eyewitness observer: "had there been provision for the recording of votes for and against the prepcsals considered, mule, The Meaning of Bandung, g2. cit., p. 35. fr d. . 0', - in: I 1.1 I“, Vh: “(I i av 38 Organization As was stated previously, the dates agreed upon by the five Sponsoring powers for the holding of the Asian- African Conference were April le~24, 1955. And, as with most such gatherings of similar size, the preliminary pro- blems of organization and procedure naturally fell into the following main categories: the adeption of an agenda; the establishment of voting regulations; the setting up of committees; and the issuance of communiqués. The conference agenda, according to the Bagor communique, which had been sent to all the participating countries, was to be determined by a plenary session of the 58 A seven point conference as its first order of business. agenda, as already noted, was agreed upon and constituted the potential scope of the conference committees. These conference committees as set up were three in number -- __.v_ differences in points of view would have been emphasized and sharpened, nd it would pro- bably have been much more difficult to dis- cover common denominators of attitude or to find the basis for compromise." See Kahlil, 22. 21:3... p. 100 58All of the nations attending were asked to send in any items which they wanted placed on the agenda. flack— ground memoranda and explanatory notes interpreting these items were also requested. See helix, pp, git., p. 19. 39 political, economic, and cultural. The most controversial issues were submitted to the Political Committee and the Chiefs-of-Delegation were assigned to it as paraffieio members. should difficulties happen to arise on a parti— cular question these committees were also enpouered to set up subcommittees which, in turn, would consider the matter and then refer it back to the parent body for further dis- cussion and eventual decision.59 With respect to voting regulations, it was agreed that there would be no formal voting. instead, the freei- dent or committee chairman were to ascertain whether or not a consensus prevailed, and if a unanimous agreement could not be reached, no decisions were to be taken. With respect to the issuance of communiqués, the conference secretariat was authorized to issue one daily and also one at the end of the conference. The plenary sessions, (both Opening and closing), were Open to the public and provided each chief delegate with an opportunity to speak. The closed sessions, in which all the committee work took place, were not Open to the public. ihe reason for this secrecy was that the conference sponsors wished to build a defense against what 59mm, 22. cit., p. 12. 40 they considered to be the tendency of the press to distort 60 These closed and exaggerate in order to sensatiozlalize. ssions, however, were tape recorded so that there could be no misunderstandings later on if disputes happened to arise.61 After two days of 15 minute formal policy state- mensgez the conference remained in closed sessions until the evening of the final day. Then the delegates net once again in plenary session and those chief delegates who 63 wished were allowed 5 minutes for any closing remarks. The work of the conference on the whole was conducted in 60Winburn T. Thomas, "Bandung was it Key to En oure‘i", Christian Centurg, LXKII (hey: 18, 1955), p. 603. 61 Also, the "access of the deleb .ates to the con— ference premises was "closely and effectively" controlled by an elaborate system of passes and badges See ihe [ew York time s, April 20, 1955, p. 9. 62 There was a great deal of disaureement among the delegates concerning the necessity for tnese oyenin3 policy statements. in the beginning, lrime minister Nehru of india, who was anxious to use the relatively unstruc- tured meetings of the British Commonwealth as a pattern for the conference procedure, sudgested tnat no cgening statements be made. Although he was originally sole to secure the endorsement of twenty-one nations for his pro— posal, the idea, heuever, encountered much resistance from a handful of delee gations led by Prime Minister mohammed All of xakistan and Carlos l. nomulo oi the rhiliptines and was finally defeated by an overwhelming vote. For additional information see nahin, on. cit., p. 9, and the fit, Louis Post-Dispatch, April 27 ,_i555. p. 58. 5353;. Louis Egg-gsgatch, April 25. 1955. p- 4A- Li H. bu 41 accordance with Western parliamentary rules; and English was made the official language.64 Results A truly objective assessment of the results of the Asian-African Conference would be impossible at this time for two reasons; first, we are too near its initial impact to arrive at any kind of detached estimate; and, second, too little is known about what went on in the closed sessions where the most important matters of the conference reportedly took place.65 This situation does not appear ‘to be completely hOpeless, however, for while the first reason can be remedied only with the passage of time, the second can be partially remedied by referring to the pub- lished final communique and by couching our remarks in general terms. It should also be pointed out here that since reporters and news commentators with friends among . 66 the delegates had access to the secret meetings, we can 64C. Rand, "Our Far-Elung Correspondents,"‘flgg 192333: AXXI (June 11, 1955). p. 39. By securing accep- tance of the United Nation's rules of parliamentary pro- cedure, the nations friendly to the West succeeded in steer— ing the deliberations of the conference. See Romulo, gag ;. ‘! meanings 0f Bandung, Op c Cite, p. 6. 65mm, 211. cit., p. 24. 66 100. cit. Thomas, "Bandun~: Was It Key to Future?”, *- '1 to Hi? 42 by piecing tagether certain bits of information gathered from these sources, determine some of the chief accomplish- ments of the conference. In the writer's estimation some of the more important results of the conference were the following. Cultural Committee In the Cultural Committee the countries involved recommended that cultural exchanges take place among the participating nations especially with reSpect to artists, writers, and various kinds of publications. fhe committee also recommended the holding of festivals of art, music, drama, and dancing on an intra-regional basis as well as on occasions of historic or religious significance. for the exchange of information the committee also recommended the establishment of news agencies, and the exchange of cultural broadcasts and documentary films.67 An important feature of this enchance of information item was the re- commendation that news correspondents be allowed to move freely in all countries attending the conference. In its draft to the conference the committee said: "Governments should encoura e the provision of facilities for the entry, movement and the accommodation of correspondents in accordance 67"Communique, Final of the Bandung Conference,” Current history, June, 1955: PP. 371-75. 43 With the laws and regulations of each country."68 Economic Committee sent (L! In the Economic Committee the countries tr~ stressed mutual aid and cooyeration. They looked with favor upon the continuance and enlargement of aid from other nations, especially in the field of new capital in- vestment. They likewise recommended the establishment of a special U.N. fund for economic develoyncnt, and urged the establishment of the International Atomic hnergy Agency plus the adequate representation of the Asian and African nations on that body. This committee also recognized the need to stabilize commodity trade and suggested that ship— ping lines review their freight rates more often and adopt a more "reasonable attitude."69 Reports filtering from the closed committee sessions finally indicated that an attempt to censure the U.N. bar on selling strategic goods to Red China was successfully blocked by friends of the West 0 7O Political.gommittee In the Political Committee, it is reported, most 6 1 13‘ o ' - t“- BTne manila Times, April 24, 1995. P- 5- 6gfit. Louis Post~Dispsteh, Agril 26, 1955, p. 2A. 79ihig.. April 21. 1955, p. 6A. It was also felt by some that such action would be straying too far into the political field. a! the verbs-L mum; um: reduced the I 1) guestiozs 36:12:12 of £331.25 Ecrl; Uz. emittee d; the diSfiite the Arab de] as finally inflamed ii a: ‘5 Arab nan Qf -. aux" -J 44 of the verbal clashes of the conference took place. After deciding upon a working agenda the chief delegates finally reduced the outstanding political isSues to three categories: 1) questions of human rights and self-determination; 2) problems of dependent peoples; and 3) the question of pro- noting world peace and cooperation.71 Under human rights and self—determination the committee discussed such issues as the controversial Pales- tine dispute. There could be no peace in Western Asia, the Arab delegates declared, unless and until this problem was finally resolved. After prolonged debate the committee contented itself with declaring its support for the rights of the Arab peoples, and with calling for the implemente- tion of pertinent U.R. resolutions. Under the question of dependent peoples some more serious debate was engendered. it is reported that the delegate from Ceylon, Sir John hotelawele, raised an issue which had considerable repercussions. In talking about two kinds of colonialism he said: "If we are united in our opposition to colonialism should it not be our duty to declare our ongosition to Soviet colonialism as much as to Western imaerialism?"72 As a result of this line 1 A .— 4 ‘ ww— ~—*.fi--m “helix, 32. cit., p. 21. 72. « Jack, 2Q,Ig;£., 9. lb. tt 45 of argument 3 resolution was presented to the committee by certain friends of the West rejecting all types of colonialism "including international doctrines resorting to methods of force, infiltration and subversion."73 A deadlock was thereby produced; and, although this par- ticular phrasing did not find its way into the final con- ference communique the ambiguous phrase "colonialism in all its manifestations" was used instead. 0f the other problems concerned with dependent peeples, the questions of teetlrian and the North African colonies of Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria loomed most prominently in the committee deliberations. in keeping with its attitude toward the freedom of dependent peeples, the conference supported the claims of the agrieved par- ties in each of these instances.74 The last major area dealt with by the Political Committee involved the promotion of world peace and cosp- eration. After the chief delegates had discussed several of the manifold facets of this problem, the question of 73The resolution was endorsed by Turkey, Pakis- tan, Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, Libya, Liberia, the Sudan, and the Philippines. 74The question of the Aden protectorate was likewise brought up, for discussion. The Country of Yemen was particularly interested in obtaining it from British rule. nations me ii I"! I‘. 46 national security was finally reduced to the need for some kind of mutual deterence. Three broad solutions were subsequently examined and evaluated. These solutions were: 1) passive resistance, 2) military pacts, and 3) an enlargement of the unaligned area of peace.75 In analyzing the outstanding accomplishments of the three committees Just mentioned it should be noted that a mere itemization of results falls to tell the whole story. It is also significant to note that frankness and a spirit of compromise were said to be in evidence through- out all committee deliberations. As one delegate exglained, "We were able to work toward peaceful conclusions because we were a peaceful conference." In the closed sessions, he stated, whenever feelings began to rise a recess would be called and the delegates would later reconvene and continue aorking without any ill-will.76 Patience and a consideration for the viewpoints of others helped to orplain what was achieved. Ehe areas of common purpose were defined and delineated, while concentration was placed primarily upon those things which could be mutually achieved. Finally, it should be noted that the consideration of their 7Sippadoraihgp. cit., p. 24. 76Winburn T. Thomas, ”The Community of the Hurt," Christian Oentur , LiXil (May ll, 1955). p. 560. '9 V I" v 47 common problems evoked among the delegates a solidarity of aspiration and a strong sense of unity.77 This last idea was summed up by a Filipino delegate who said, It was a miracle. Twenty-nine nations met and adopted 39 resolutions unanimously. I've never seen anything like it. We never took a vote. Nothing was passed by show or hands. We had no ballots. we Just talked until we had explored each other's minds. 8 The Philippine Position The purpose of this section is to analyze the most important factors which influenced the position of the rhilippine delegation at the Asian-African Conference. This analysis will include a consideration of the Philip- pine view of the conference and or the conference view of the Philippines. Particular emphasis throughout will also be given to the special role played by the chairman of the Philippine delegation, Carlos P. homulo. The sec- tion will end with a brief analysis of the results of the conference which were favorable to the Philippine position. 77Ronald Stead, "Bandung Finale from Backstage," Christian Science Monitor, April 30, 1955. P. 4. 78James A. Richener, "Historic Meeting in In- donesia,“ Reader's Digest, LXVII (August, 1955). P. 79. duet 1‘39 1 pecan basic I N lei. u.‘ 0‘: ‘ e 41.912“. so; ”its: heat £5.26 N g3‘3581‘5 1mg: 1 Dr «Ya I \ The Philippine View 2; t e Conference The manner in which the Philippine delegation viewed the Asian-African Conference was influenced in large part by certain preconditioning factors, and these preconditioning factors were, in turn, influenced by the basic orientation of Philippine foreign policy. It would be well, therefore, to consider some of the principles and objectives underlying the conduct of this country's international relations. gggrconference Outlook: rhilippine Foreign Policy Without going into lengthy detail here, the writer would like to confine his remarks to the most prom- inent features of Philippine foreign policy, ;,g,, to general characteristics and practical applications. General Characteristics Under the Philippine Constitution, the Chief- executive is by clear implication the foregn.policy spokes- man of the nation.79 Although the Philippine presidents have not deviated from each other very greatly in the 79sdward w. mill, ”The Philippines in the World Setting,” Ehilippine Social Sciences and Humanities Egg iew, XX (March, 1955): p. 7. Cited hereafter as TSBHR. 49 field of international relations, we might limit ourselves only to those official pronouncements made by the presi- dent who held office during the time of the conference - Ramon magsaysay. Fortunately, until his death, hamon hagsaysay was considered to be his country’s most vocal chief-executive on foreign policy matters. in an article appearing in Eoreign gffaigs magazine, magsaysay listed the following trends and tendencies of his country's in— ternational relations: In shaping its foreign policy the Philippines is primarily moved by three considerations; first, national security; second, economic stability; and, third, political and cultural relations with the free world. These considerations are equal to each other in importance and they receive varied attention only because of the difference in urgency and in the time, effort, and financing required for their implimentation.80 In addition to these stated foreign policy ob- Jectives, the Philippines has also endeavored to play an interpretative role between Western and other Far Eastern powers.81 In this regard Magsaysay can once again be 8oliamon Magsaysay, "Roots of Philippine Policy," Foreign Affairs, XXXV (October, 1956), p. 28. 8limry Vandenbosch and Richard A. Butwell, §Qutheast Asia among the World Powers (Lexington: Uni— versity of Kentucky Press, 19377} p. 95. 50 quoted. In an exclusive interview he said: The Philippines can play such an interpretative role. he are an Oriental nation which has derived many benefits from our western contacts. Cur common religious roots contribute greatly to our understanding of the nest. This is true nowhere else in Asia today. in a way we feel that we have already played the role on a number of occasions. In recent years, for example, numbers of Asiatic leaders have come to the Philippines. They have learned and liked the idea that the United States of America is no longer here as a colonizer.8 Another chief characteristic of the overall Philippine foreign policy has been its frank anti-commu— nist tendencies. Unlike some Southeast Asian states, the Philippines has adOpted an active anti-communist for- eign policy.83 in fact, governmental leaders consider communism to be the most serious challenge which the na- tion has had to face. Eagsaysay, for example, stated that his government did not view Communism as Just another world force to be satiated with territory and gold; it was rather a vicious international conspiracy designed to overthrow helpless Asian states.84 The Philippines, 82"where the Philippines Stand in Critical Asia," Newsweek, lileV (August 2, 1954), p. 38. 83Johh Kerr ‘ l p y King, boutheast Asia in lers ec- tive (New York: The Macmillan Company, l95677'p. 49. 84Hagsaysay, loc. cit., p. 33. 51 therefore, has constructed a foreign policy designed spe- cifically to curb potential communist aggression.85 A final Philippine foreign policy characteris- tic to be taken up here includes an active participation in the United Nations and a strict adherence to the U.N. Charter. As befits a small country the Philippines finds its best hope for peace in an agency like the United Ha- tions, and as a result has never hesitated to give the 86 The Phil- international organization its loyal support. ippines has placed much confidence and reliance in the UN and "the record indicates that it has given more sup- port to the United Nations than any other nation in Asia."87 Practical Applications The importance of these stated foreign policy 85such of the credit for this strong anti-com- munist attitude can be given to the Catholic Church to which a large majority of the Filipino people belong. See Edward s. mill, ”The Conduct of Philippine Foreign Relations" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1954), p. 215. 86George A. malcolm, First Malayan Republic (Boston: The ChristOpher Publishing House, 1951), p. 254. 87111111, PSSHH, loc. cit., p. 29. This state- ment lends credence to an observation made nearly ten years earlier that "...the Philippines, having been priv- ileged to Join the United Nations, will undoubtedly make every effort to fu%f111 her commitments under the United Nations Charter... see "Philippine Foreign Affairs Train- éng Program,“‘£§§ Eastern Surve , 1V (July 3, 1946), p. O . chective o! Lair 1:] o‘t;ec a! 81,531} this It's: 1330 4‘ M Alia “fin t‘n‘l‘ “43*- J 5:251; 52 objectives can be further realized by considering some of their practical applications. rhilippine foreign pol- icy objectives have manifested themselves in a number of significant ways three of which are of importance to this study. 1) The quest for national security. National security has always been a prime factor in the thinking of Philippine governmental leaders. This desire to pre- serve the territorial integrity of the country has been enhanced for several reasons. To begin with, the primary reason is the fact that the lhilippine islands are situ- ated in an exposed and threatened sector of the free world.88 The over 7,000 islands of the arohepelago extend for some 1500 miles from north to south just off the Eastern coast of Asia, and the nearly 10,000 miles of coastline which these islands provide constitutes a defense problem of the first magnitude. Also, bitter memories of Japanese aggression still linger in the islands, and the foreign policy makers are determined not to let this happen again.89 Furthermore, the communist advances in China in 1948 and in lndo-china in 1954 awakened tlie country to the need for adequate defenses.90 88m111, rssna, lo . cit., p. 33. 89Malcolmgp. cit., p. 272. 9oIt should likewise be borne in mind that in- ternally the Hukbalahap movement caused a great deal of consternation. security treat; 1: 111;): I‘d! Lie algae tarsal a: titan: 53 As a result of this preoccupation with national security the Ehilippines entered into a mutual defense treaty in the Fall of 1951.91 The Charter of this treaty, which subsequently came to be known as ShATO, called upon the signatory nations to seeperate in resisting any ex- ternal armed attack. mach party to the treaty agreed that an armed attack against another member would'gg'ipgg constitute a threat to its own peace and security and "in that event would act in accordance with its consti- tutional processes." Another significant feature of this defense treaty was its provisions dealing with internal acts of subversion and infiltration. These possibilities were likewise brought within the scope of the charter 92 commitments. 91Two years prior to this treaty the rhilippines entered into a mutual defense pact with the United States. Both countries pledged their forces to each other in the event of armed attack, but because of the concern which the Filipinos have had for their territorial integrity, in the islands felt at the time that the terms of the pact did not commit America definitely enough. See Theodore A. Gill, "home Away from Home," Christian‘ggg- tur , LXXIV (January 23, 1957), p. 107. i 92For additional information concerning the Philippine role in SdATO the following books should be consulted: Francis Law, Struggle for Asia (New York: Frederick A. kraeger, lnc., 1935) and noyal Institute of International Affairs, Collective Defense in_50uth hast Asia (London: Chiswick Press, 1956). 54 2) The interest in economic develOpment. A1- most every regional conference which the rhilippines has attended contains some provisions dealing with economic COOperation. As fresident magsaysay pointed out, "we must broaden our economic horizons and develop the meter- ial well-being of our peeple. l believe this can be done by strengthening our existing foreign relationships, and the development of new channels of intercourse."93 in pursuit of the above aim the rhilippines has relied upon both multilateral and bilateral economic arrangements. In 1954 the island republic became a mem- ber of the Colombo Elan, and for quite some time has been receiving extensive aid from the United States.94 3) The desire for improved cultural and poli- tical relations with the free world. (nelations with Asia) Since achieving independence in 1946 the Phil— ippines has been trying to develop closer relations with neighbors in Asia;95 and, in one respect, her participation 932.139. M 223$ iiaae. November 16. 1953. Do 11- 94"The Philippines -- Foreign Relations,” Our- rent Notes an international Affairs, iaVll (1956), p7"821. To date, the total American foreign aid expenditures to the rhilippines has run well into the billions. 95Mill, (unpublished Ih. D. dissertation), 10c. ci ., p. 168. in to A ate;- in head of 26:71“ ticn at heights: based c: Pine 3: 55 in the Asian—African Conference could be considered a step in this direction. In fact, it was averred by the head of the Ihilippine delegation in his first press in- terview that the main mission of the thilippine delega- tion at the conference was "to make friends with Asian neighbors."96 This frank admission, it will be seen, is based on stated foreign policy objectives of the rhilip- pine government. A year prior to the Asian—African Conference concern was expressed in the Ihilippines that Philippine relations with other countries in Asia had not been suf- ficiently close.97 An outgrowth of this concern was an attempt to resurrect the Japanese wartime elegan "Asia for the Asians." The public controversy which this slo- gan engendered did not quickly subside until Iresident magsaysay was forced to make a formal statement clarify- ing his country's foreign policy intentions with respect to Asia. Excerpts from that statement follow: The Philippine Government stands for the right of self determination and independence of all Asian nations; for closer cultural and economic relations and mutual cOOperation with freedom- 96The manila Times, April 17, 1955. p- 2- 97"Foreign Policy of the Philip ines,” QEEEEEE Notes an international Affairs, 13V (1954 , P. 633. Ease Plies 5&1 j the g; 56 loving Asian countries as a group and within the framework of the charter of the United Nations; and for the preposi- tion that a return to colonialism, of which the last vestiges are now disap- pearing from Asia, shall not be tolerated in any form. The Filipino peeple can best serve the cause of freedom and democracy by Gosperating actively with other Asian peeples in achievement and maintenance of political independence, economic sta- bility and social justice. he cannot contribute to that cause if we isolate ourselves from other freedom-loving Asian states and are suspected by them of ul— terior motives or insincerity in our relations with them. uur Asian policy must, therefore, seek to remove all causes of distrust.35 These excerpts indicate the Asian policy of the Philip- ‘pines during the period of the conference. More will be said in this regard when we analyze the general view of the Ihilippines held by the other Asian and African states. (Relations with the United States) By and large the Philippines has followed what nuéflit be termed an American oriented foreign policy. One of the gpals of the khilippine governmental leaders has been to maintain close relations with the United :5tates.99 981bid., pp. 634-35. 99Vandenbosch and Putwell, pp. cit., p. 93. fhe extent of these relations launched the "great debate" in the evolution of Philippine foreign policy. see Claude. A..Buss, The Far East (New York: ihe hacmillan Company, 1955). P0 6230 57 The current ideological struggle between hast and seat has confirmed the Filipino people in their desire to stick by the United states at all costs. hagsaysay has said, for example, "negardless of what the politicians here say in an election campaign don't let anyone tell you that the Eilipino peeple don't know who their real friends are."100 but while it is true that on any fundamental issue between democracy and totalitarianism the Philip- pines can be empected to follow a line of policy closely parallel to that of the United states, deviations have nevertheless occurred from the orthodox Hashington line.101 in the United Nations, for example, where the lhilippines has voted consistently with America on a majority of is- sues, she has also just as consistently differed with America on various trusteeship questions and on the gen— eral question of human rights.102 ihis stand, it should be pointed out, is in basic agreement with the position taken by the Afro-Asian bloc, and is prompted, no doubt, by the desire of the Filipinos to see the complete _ lOOBruno Shaw, "ueHave a Loyal Ally in the Orient -~ the flaili'pines," fiaturday evening Lost, UCLXX (September 28, 1957 , p. 10. IOIMalcolm, pp. cit., p. 254. 102ncward, loc. cit., p. 286. 58 independence of all subject peoples.103 A classic example of the independent spirit of Philippine foreign policy in the U.N. can be seen in the stand taken on the self-determination question of Tunisia and morocco. She very presence of this question on the agenda of the U.N. had been a constant source of embarassment to the United States; and, because of con- flicting loyalties, no clear cut position could be taken.104 When showdown votes finally occurred the American delega- tion was forced to abstain and, in some cases, actually to vote with the minority. The Philippines, on the other hand, took an active and forthright position from the very start. She consistently took the stand, whenever the question arose, that, contrary to the American view, lo’rhe New York Times, July 5, 1949,p. 18. is far back as 1943, the year of rhilippine independence, Carlos 2. homulc declared: "te of the Ehilippines know the aspira— tions and yearnings of the dependent people of the Ear hast because we are part of their world. we know how they hunger for freedom. we know, too, the fears and the resentments which they have long harbored in their hearts." See Carlos r. homulo, "Human nights as a Condition of fence in the far east, " ihe nnna is of the .émerican Aca- degyo of rolitical and Social ocience, bonianili (January, 1946)! P0 8. 104 hcbert E. higgs, iolitics in the United Ha- tions (Urbana: The University of lllinoisw iiess, 19337, p. 135. 59 the U.N. General Assembly was fully competent to take constructive part in the negotiations between France and her two North African protectorates. She held, further- more, that Tunisia and morocco were sovereign states, that a treaty had been violated by francs, and that the problem constituted a present and potential threat to 105 This is just one example of the indepen- the peace. dent role played by the rhilippines in the United Nations; others could be cited with little difficulty. Eggyconference strategy In addition to following the basic orientation of her foreign policy at Bandung, the ihilippine delega- tion was also given some specific instructions prior to departure. During the week preceding the conference, the Philippine delegation met in manila with President hab- saysay, the Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committees of both Houses of the Philippine Congress, and with cer- tain political figures composing the so-called Council of Leaders. The purpose of this meeting was to map out the strategy which the Philippine delegation was to fol- low. The charges subsequently given were quite simple 105United Nations, General Assembly, First Com- mittee, Th3 Tunisian guestion (Ale. 1/537, use. 4, 1952), p. 187 and The guestion‘gg morocco (Alc. 1/547, Dec. 13, 1952)! p. 2750 60 and in no way did they impose upon the delegation an ob- ligation to bring back any concrete accomplishments. nether, the delegation was simply enjoined to so repre- sent its country as to avoid the pitfalls of commitment 106 After the conference the chief- on any critical issues. delegate stated, "we were given instructions as simple and as historic as those the ancient homans gave their proconsuls in times of danger: See to it that the hepub- lic comes to no harm."107 while the Philippine delegation was not put in any policy strait-jacket at Bandung, specific recom- mendations were nevertheless given. In considering the possibility that the countries at the conference might be asked to renounce their military commitments with the seat, for example, the delegation was instructed to re— affirm strongly the purely defensive and non-aggressive character of its obligations. in considering the possi- bility that the participating nations might be asked to ad0pt Nehru's "five principles" of coexistence, the dele— gation was instructed to maintain that although the prin- ciples were certainly meritorious on paper, the territory 106The Manila Times, April 27. 1955. P- 4- 107This is an excerpt from a speech homulo de- livered before the rhilippine Columbian association, Ap- ril 29, 1955. bee The nanila Times, April 30, 1955, p. 12. 61 they covered had already been adequately covered by the UN Charter, and that the problem involved was not one of recognizing what the necessary bases for peace were, but of sincerity in implementing the requirements for peace.108 In anticipating the question of colonialism being raised, the delegation was told to stress the fact that imperialism should have no label, but that imperi— alien in all its forms should be condemned.109 Apart, however, from the strategy laid out for its delegation by the Philippine government, the chair- man, Mr. Romulo, went to the conference with some precon- ceived notions of his own. He knew, for instance, that the delegation which he headed was likely to be a minor- ity pro-Western voice. he even expected to be outvoted at times, but still he maintained hope that his delega- tion would be able to exercise enough influence on the proceedings to solidify temporarily the dangerous politi- cal and racial tendencies then forming in Asia and Africa.110 The political fallacies he wished to expose were neutralism 108This, in reality, was the only plausible po- sition which the rhilippine delegation could have taken, for if they were to oppose the "five principles", they would be accused of wanting war by some of the other con— ference members. See Keyes beech, "rive Principles' Key to Asia Earley," Chicago Daily News, April 16, 1955, p. 14. 109The Manila Times, April 14, 1955. p. 18. 110Carlos P. Romulo, "Warning to Americans: Watch Bandung," ghis seek magazine, April 16, 1955. Po 7. 62 and communism; and the racial fallacy he wanted to pre- vent was the possible nurturing of an alliance based on race which could develop, in his words, "into an enormity 111 that would convulse the earth." During the week prior to his departure hr. homulo said, "We have been working hard in recent weeks readying ourselves to answer the Communists, and the neutralists, point by point: to coun- ter their resolutions with constructive resolutions of our own." He further stated that his delegation fully appreciated ”the intensity of Asian-African suspicion of 112 the West.” And later, when the conference was over he summed up the prevailing attitude of the Philippine delegation by saying: But despite the odds facing the non-communist states at Bandung, the fhilippine delegation took the same attitude as that succinctly stated by Bacon in The Advancement 2£_Learning: They are ill discoverers that think there is n land when they see nothing but see.11 The Conference View g§,the Ehilippines An analysis of the Philippine position at the 1111bid., p. 29. 1121nm. llafiomulo, The Meaning 93, W9 9.2- 2.1.1.7.” p. 19. 63 Asian-African Conference would be incomplete without a corresponding examination of the manner in which the Phil- ippines was viewed by the other conference members. This section will, therefore, review briefly some of the gen- eral impressions made by the Philippines in her contacts with neighboring Asian states. It was stated previously that one of the car- dinal principles of rhilippine foreign policy has been to develop closer relations with her Asian neighbors. Because of various factors, however, only moderate suc- cess has been achieved in this direction. For one thing, the Filipinos are not generally popular with Asians. The latter feel that the Filipinos regard themselves as different and, at times, even superior to their neigh- bors.114 One of the reasons for this prevailing attitude can be traced to the fact that the peeple of the Philip- pines are regarded as alienated from their native culture.115 This criticism can be considered in large part true, for historically and even philosOphically, the Philippines is the product of a mixed Oriental-Western environment. 114Vandonbooon and Bntwell,,gp. cii-. P- 95- llslbid. 64 For over four hundred years the khilippines has been nur- tured in the Western tradition, first by Spain and then by the United States. During this period of time a dif- ferent set of values has been transplanted in the islands. heligiously, the Philippines was Christian while the rest of Asia was not.116 Politically, the Philippines was democratic while the rest of Asia was built on a strong authoritarian base. Factors such as these gave the Fil- ipinos a ”Western" way of looking at things, while their Asian neighbors retained an "Oriental" point of view.117 A further reason why the Philippines might have been viewed with some distrust by her Asian neighbors at the Asian-African Conference can be found in the close foreign policy ties she has kept with the United States. The basic similarity between Philippine and American in- terests in the cold war struggle has given rise to the Opinion in Asia that the Philippines is a mere satellite 116The significance of this fact can be further seen in the assertion by hagsaysay that Philippine cul- ture received its most permanent and universal mark from the Catholic faith. See hagsaysay,‘1gg.|gi§., p. 30. 117In this connection Bomulo once wrote " Fili- pinos are not of the Orient." Carlos P. homulo,|gy Brother Americans (Garden City: Doubleday, Doran & Com- pany, Inc., 19455, p. 19 and "The Filipino is the cos- mOpolite of the Orient..." Carlos P. homulo, ; pg! Egg, Fall gf'ghg Phili ines (Garden City: Doubleday, Uoran & Company, Inc., 19435. p. 36. 65 of the United States with little or no sovereignty of 118 This feeling, however, appears to be con- her own. fined to those countries which are either communist dom- inated or have strong neutralist tendencies.119 Commu- nist China and neutralist lndia, for example, prefer to look upon the Philippines as some sort of American pup- pet.120 But if the last mentioned attitude gave the Philippine delegation a decided handicap at the confer— ence, the situation which gave rise to this attitude might have possessed certain compensatory advantages. It is possible to maintain, for instance, that the Philippine hepublio also illustrates one of the world's great tran- smions from colonialism to a full and vigorous indepen- 121 As the President of Indonesia publicly ac- dence. Inmwledged in the course of a tour he took of the U.S. a year after the conference, Philippine pregress was of 118Conrado Benitez, "Nationalism and Bandung," The Manila Times, April 10, 1955, p. l. 119Vandenbosch and Butwell. 22! Eli" p. 96’ lzoniil, PSSHB, loo. cit., p. 24. It is also pertinent to note here that an lndonesian press announce~ ment pictured homulo as ”the Voice of America." See Rowan, pp. cit., p. 395. 121Erwin D. Canham, "Bandung: Study in Diver- sity," Christian science Monitor, April 20, 1955, p. 16. 66 such substance that it constituted an enviable pattern for peeples who had yet to realise the full enjoyment of the blessings of freedom.122 Furthermore, it should be pointed out that while the Philippine government was Open to the criticism of being an American puppet, this was not necessarily true or the chairman of the Philippine delegation at the con— ference. homulo himself never hesitated to differ with the United States on questions of colonialism in the Uni- ted Hations; and it was for his outspoken attitude on these and similar questions that he was elected to the 3 presidency of the General Assembly in 1949.12 As an editorial in the Manila Eiggg observed, the head of the Philippine delegation was "one who will appear with the cleanest hands as far as colonialism is concerned." This editorial further stated, "No one in Asia..., has been so much in the forefront of all the struggles to end oo- lonialism... Throughout the years, no voice has sounded stronger than his, in the cause of...an honorable place for all nations and all peeples..."124 122The New York Times, July 8, 1956, See. X, p. 11. 123Ibid., p. 13. 124The manila Times, April 14, 1955, p. 4. 67 The personal stature and popularity of homulo, it was the writer's Opinion, would have served to tone down any accusations that the Philippines was a colony of the United States and a blind sympathizer of the West, and there are certain facts to substantiate this claim. For one thing, apart from his position in the UK as al- ready noted, (during his Pulitzer prise winning tour of Southeast Asia in 1941,) homulo brought to the world's attention the political aspirations of many of the lead- 125 Also, it has been stated are whom he met in Bandung. that homulo knew most of the other chief delegates per— sonally, and that some of them were able to trace their friendship with him as far back as his student days in the United States.126 Furthermore, homulo was looked upon as a leader by some of the other chief delegates. One of his close associates, for example, stated that he was quickly and eagerly sought after by his fellow chief delegates many of whom requested him to lead on several lzslbid. 1a62§g Manila Times, April 17, 1955, p. 1. In this same article it was reported that because of homulo's fight for Indonesian independence in 1949, many Indonesian leaders called upon him at his private resi- dence in Bandung and when seen in public he was greeted with cries of "nomulo! Romulo! homulol" by the Indone- sian peeple. See lbid., p. 2. 68 127 issues. The extent of his personal influence can like- wise be seen in the results of separate conferences he held with the chief delegates from each country. In two days of behind the scenes work homulo succeeded in lining up the support of 16 of the 29 participating countries.128 All these facts would lead one to believe that the head of the Philippine delegation enjoyed enough pepularity and prestige at the conference to offset any unfavorable attitudes which might have been generated toward the coun- try he represented.129 In viewing the overall position of the Philip- pine delegation at the conference, it can be concluded that the chairman of the delegation was faced with no easy assignment. In fact, prior to his departure for Bandung, it was reported that diplomats in sashington considered his assignment to be one of the hardest in 127The Manila Times, April 27, 1955, p. 5. This statement was made by the Philippine delegation co- ordinator, Paul S. hanglapus who was at the time Philip- pine Undersecretary cf Foreign Affairs. lZBLhe Manila Times, April 18, 1955. p. l. Romulo held separate conferences with the chief delegates from each country. 129As a result of homulo's efforts to promote a favorable attitude toward the ideas and interests he represented, he was Jestingly nicknamed, along with Prince Wan of Thailand, one of the "mighty mice of Asia." See Chicago Daily News, April 22, 1955, p. 2. 69 his long career.130 The significance of this statement will be seen a little more clearly in the next chapter, but first, the results of the conference which were fa- vorable to the Philippine position must be briefly ana: lyzed. The hesults of the Conference Favorable tg_the Philippine Position The Asian—African Conference showed that in Asia and Africa there is a strong pro-democratic align- ment.131 The final lineup on controversial issues, which was revealed in secret debates and declarations on "co— lonialism" and "world peace" helps to indicate this. A news analyst for the Chicaro 2Eéll.§2fl§ summarized the ———-—& final lineup as follows: 13°The Kamila Times, April 10, 1955. p. 3. The Philippine gOVernment must have realized this diffi- culty somewhat because in order to strengthen the Phil- ippine position at Bandung with respect to the rights of subject peoples, a resultion was unanimously passed in the senate expressing the sentiment of that body that the right of self-determination included the ribht of the colonial peeples to decide exclusively by themselves their ability to assume the responsibilities inherent in an independent political status. See Egg manila Times, April 14, 1955, p. l, and April 15, 1955. p. 9. l3lcarloa P. Bomulo, "shat the Asians Expect of Us," The New York Tiggg Magazine. June 19, 1955, p. 9. 70 The pro-nest group included fifteen countries: Turkey, Pakistan, Iraq, The rhilippines, Thailand, Japan, Ceylon, South Vietnam, lran, Jordan, Libya, Liberia, The Gold Coast, The Sudan and Lebanon. The other group of fourteen countries included: india, burma, lndonesia, Afghan- istan, Laos, Cambodia, Nepal, Saudi arabia, Yemen, hgypt, byria, hthiOpia as well as the Communist states of China and Berth Vietnam. This final lineup is significant in view of the composi- tion of the conference when it first opened. At that time, it will be remembered, the pro-test group numbered only eleven members. More tangible results of the conference favor- able to the Ehilippine position can be seen in the word- ing of the final communique. Pro-sestern forces cited as evidence of their strength at the conference numerous clauses in the communique.133 Although admittedly ambig- uous, or contradictory,134 there are two provisions of 132A. Doak Barnett, "Asian Talks End; Here's the Score," Chicago Daily News, April 25, 1955, p. 5. 133The New York Times, April 25, 1955. P- 1o l34fiaving this ambiguity and contradiction in mind, a delegate attending the conference said: 'Inter- national being is not a logical unity nor certainly an existential human whole, and reason in it is the servant of partial interest and often of brute or arbitrary force.’ See halik, 92, 235., p. 27. 71 the communique in particular which indicate a pro-Western attitude. “he first of these provisions deals with co- lonialism and the second deals with collective defense alliances. in Section“®"umdnr1roblems of Dependent Peo- ples," it was declared by the conference members that ”colonialism in all its manifestations is an evil which should speedily be brought to an end."135 This is, of course, the position dictated to the rhilippine delega- tion by its government in pre-conference strategy sessions. The delegation was instructed to present communism as Just another form of colonialism. In section "G" under the "Declaration on the Promotion of World Eeace and Co— Operation," it was declared that all participating nations at the conference should have "respect for the right of each nation to defend itself singly or collectively, in conformity with the Charter of the United nations."136 This was also the position which the rhilippine delegation 135"Communique of the Bandung Conference," Current History, loo. cit., p. 575. 136nm. Almost paradoxically, immediately after this clause alliances for security were also con~ demned. fhe communique said that all participating na- tions should abstain from the use of arrangements of cob lective defense to serve the particular interests of any of the big powers, and abstain from exerting pressures on other countries. This was obviously the work of com- munist and neutralist elements. 72 was requested to uphold at the conference.137 Looking now at the final communique in a broader perspective, it will be noted that on almost every page there are references made to various aspects of the United Nations which can be of benefit to the conference members.138 This is especially significant in view of the genuine rhilippine interest in that organization. In section "C" under Human nights "the Asian—African Conference de- clared its full support of the fundamental principles of human nights as set forth in the Charter of the United Nations and took note of the Universal Declaration of human nights as a common standard of achievement for all 139 peoples and all nations." In other sections there are comparable declarations. it can also be noted in viewing the final com- munique as a complete entity that the word “co-existence" 137It is surprising to note that the fhilippine delegation upheld this position in the face of what one writer called a 'prevailing mood...against eastern-organ- ized collective security.‘ has G. F. Hudson, "Balance Sheet on Bandung," Commentary, IX (June, 1955). p. 567. ljaSaid the St. Louis Post-Dispatch: 'Something much more fundamental than mere verbal agreement emerged from the parley: A common attachment to the United Na- tions and to doing things by peaceful means.‘ See St. Louis Post-Dispatch, April 23, 1955, quoting an editorial in the yes moines aegister. 139"Communique of the Bandung Conference," Cur- rent Historx, loc. cit., p. 373. 73 is conspicuously absent. Although the five principles of oo-existenoe appear in varying forms through different wording, the word "co-existence" itself does not appear. Since the fhilippine foreign policy does not favor the theory of co-existence, this can likewise be interpreted as a victory for the rhilippine position. Apart from any particular wording of the final communique, however, there are other indications that the Ihilippine position at the conference had been vindicated. As one writer stated, "the conference did not result in the formation of the feared neutralist regional bloc,"140 nor, for that matter, did it Openly favor the communist cause. of these two possibilities which the rhilippine delegation intended to prevent the one farthest of attain- ment was the latter. in this regard it should be stated that a preposal endorsing the membership of sad China 141 and into the United hations was successfully blocked, restated that amidst Open criticism the U.h. embargo on trade to had China was successfully sustained. soth of these results, it will be noted, coincided with lhilip- pine foreign policy interests. 140’i‘his writer also said that the bro-western Asians succeeded in defending 'the orientation of their foreign policies.’ See Vincent 5. Kearney, "hchoes from Bandung,“ America, VllC, ho. 6 (may 7, 1955). p. 152. 141The manila Times, April 30. 1955: P- 3- 74 summarizing briefly the results of the confer- ence favorable to the Philippine position, if it cannot be said that the Philippine delegation achieved these results einglehandedly, the least that can be said is that many of their points of view ultimately prevailed. With this thought in mind, it is easier to understand the significance of the congratulatory message which President nagsaysay sent to the rhilippine delegation at the end of the conference. he said: heartieet congratulations to you and members rhilippine delegation for brilliant performance at nandung step You have upheld highest interest of the ihilippines as well as the free world of which we are proudly a part. fhe entire country Joins me in greeting you for job well done.14 Let us now turn to an examination of the person whose speaking helped engineer the above accomplishments and who merited the foregoing congratulations. 142Vicente J. Guzman, "rJ mission Uue Today," The manila Times, April 26, 1995, p. l. Chapter III THE MAN AND THE SPEAKER Before speeches can be fully analyzed from a rhetorical point of view, there must be a previous analy- sis of the man and the speaker. The present chapter has been written for this purpose. lashes A logical precursor to a study of the speaker is a study of the man, for it is in the nature of a phi- losophical truism that a proper understanding of the for- mer is dependent upon a sufficient knowledge of the lat- ter. The purpose of this section, therefore, is to ar- ticulate the study of homulo the speaker with the most prominent features of Romulo the man. In so doing chief emphasis will be given to those aspects of fiomulo's life which should have contributed most to his speaking effec- tiveness at the Asian-African Conference. Family Background Carlos Pena homulo was born in hanila in the 75 76 Philippine Islands on January 14, 1901, to Gregorio and l maria (Pena) homulo. From Manila the family moved 75 miles north to the small town of Camiling in Tarlac Pro- vince, Luzon.2 It was here that Romulo spent his earli- est childhood years. In his own words, Camiling was "a town of nipa shacks and tin-roofed houses under which the pigs and goats lived. there was little sanitation, few roads, no telephones nor public libraries."3 Not too much is known of Romulo's parents.other than the fact that his father was a well-known guerrilla fighter in Tarlac Province during the first days of the American occupation.4 As Romulo simply puts it, ”then the Americans came, and my father fought them."5 The intensity of his father's devotion to his country can be seen in the fact that he was wounded seven times by l"liomulo, Carlos P (ena)," Current Biography, ed. Maxine Block, 4th ed. (1944): p. 626. Cited hereafter as Block. 38 2"Against the Odds," Time, LXI (may 25, 1953), p. . 3Carlos P. Romulo, nether America (Garden City: Doubleday, Doran a Company, inc., 1945). p. XIV. 4His father was the first Filipino in Camiling to learn English; he was elected 8 municipal councilor and later mayor, and eventually became governor of Tarlac Province. See Bloc, lag.‘g;t. Sfiobert van Gelder, eriter and Writing (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1946}, p. 370. 77 American bullets. "nut he finally surrendered and took his oath of allegiance to America."6 One of the earliest recollections homulo had of his father was that of a man who deeply resented the "blue-eyed devils" camped out in the town park. As a result, nomulo learned at an early age to distrust the Americans; and he resolved to hate them as long as he lived.7 Curiously, this animosity remained unchanged even after his father became sincerely reconciled to the American rule. The friendly Americans who eventually came to live at the homulo household were treated as ex— ceptions -- as being different from the other "foreign devils."8 while in intermediate school this animosity found a convenient outlet. Ihe story is told by homulo that he was able to center part of his resentment toward Americans on the son of an American supervising teacher. In the intermediate school our Amer- ican supervising teacher had a son named Charlie... We were the same age and in the same grade, and I chose him to be my rival and representative of all the hated Ameri- cans. How I worked that semester! I had 6Carlos P. Romulo, "The People of the Philip— pines," 3, §, Office of nducation Bulletins, 1945, No. 7, p. 27. 7 81bid. Bloc, 100. ci . 78 to beat Charlie in every subject. Finally I beat him up physically one afternoon in the school yard, and finished the Job by wedging him so firmly in the fork of a camachili tree that his father had to come out of the building and pry him loose. I stood watching small and defiant. I was prepared for anything.9 This resentment was brought to a climax several years later while Romulo was a senior in high school. For some reason he had occasion to visit an Army and Navy Club in Manila. he didn't stay long because he promptly learned that peeple of Filipino ancestry were not wanted. This was evidently a bitter blow to a sensitive young man for he later disclosed the incident to his high school principal, hichael J. C‘halley, who gave him much needed 10 This, and doubtless other sympathy and understanding. incidents, however, were softened by time and experience, till they seemingly form no part of the man today. homulo now considers Americans and Eilipinos to have much in common.11 9Carlos P. Romulo,.; Saw the Fall of the Phil- ippines (Garden City: Doubleday, Doran a Company, Inc., 943 p p. 51. 10M' n P0 53- 11Carlos P. Romulo, E1 Brother Americans (Gar- den City: Doubleday, Doran & Company, 1no., 19457, pp. 3-4. homulo once referred to America as "my second home- land." See Carlos r. homulo, ;,§gg,thg Phili- ines Rise (Garden City: Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 9455, P0 10. 79 hducation Although initially a student in the Philippines, homulo's education was basically in the American tradi- tion. he considers himself a product of the American 12 In 1935 while public school system and is proud of it. delivering an address before the student body of Notre Dame University from the same platform as President Frank- lin D. hoosevelt he had occasion to remark that the long distance he had travelled from Camiling to Hotre Dame was due to the public school system in the Ihilippines as introduced by America. “It his success was part of the economic, intellectual, and spiritual pregress develOped in a foreign country by America."13 From all indications homulo spoke Spanish and his native Tagalog before he learned English: and his subsequent mastery of the latter language began as the result of an incident in his childhood. Among the Amer- ican soldiers stationed in his hometown was a friendly sergeant who took it upon himself to teach the neighbor— hood children to read English.14 he gathered a small 12Carlos P. homulo, "Not Born for Death," Na- tional Education Association Journal, kllix (April, 1950), P0 2510 13Romulo, mother America, loc. cit. 143100, loc. cit. 80 group of Filipino children about him in the town park and regularly taught them from Baldwins Primer.15 homulo was reluctant to attend these lessons at first because of the suspicion toward Americans which was being instilled in him at home. But curiosity and the twitting of his companions that he was too dumb to learn got the best of him and he decided to return. A1- so, the apples which the friendly sergeant handed out were incentives "a small barefoot boy found impossible to resist."16 ln homulo's own words, "Sitting at the feet of this big fellow whose name I never knew caught my first childish glimpse of a friendly, fascinating, 17 wise America." Romulo's education, continued later in America, might be said to have begun at that unknown soldier's knee. Another American soldier to assist in the edu- cation of homulo whom we know more about was a revenue officer named A. V. E. Dalrymple. During his stay in the homulo house he impressed the young homulo with sto— awe of great Americans.18 As a result of this inspiration l5aomulo, ; Saw the Fall 2; the Philippines, 920 Cite, P0 48. lbhomulo, fly Brother Americans, 23, cit., p. 185. 17lbid. 18Cornelia Spencer, homulo: Voice g£_Freedom (New York: John Day Company, 1955). p. 25. 81 one of his teachers, hrs. Leo J. Grove, relates that "she saw him lugging armfuls of books from her library to read about Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln and the other phi- ~19 losophers of freedom. homulo liked these stories be— cause in his own mind the heroes mentioned were facsimi- lies of Filipino patriots and lovers of freedom.20 He pays tribute to the lessons in democracy learned from his American teachers in the following words: we owe it to the American teacher that we are today a democracy conscious of our vital part in the great movement to hold secure the fundamental freedom of man. He taught us respect for the right of the individual to speak his mind and stand for his liberties. he trained us to be understanding of others' views. Under his code, we learned to abhor all21 totalitarian regimentaticn of the mind. thile his family lived in Tarlac, homulc attended the manila High School. Little has been written about his high school days other than the fact that rhetoric was his favorite subject‘?2 and eventually deve10ped into one of his passions.23 In his senior year he was declared 19Who Are the 'Imperialist fiarmcngers?'" Senior Scholastic, LXiV (April 14, 1954). P. 12. 20 21 Spencer, loc. cit. homulo, "Hot Born for Death," loo. cit. 22Spencer, 22. cit., p. 27. 23nomulo, g1 Brother Americans, op. cit., p. 31. the firmer of mm in her Ugo inthe Univer graduated 111‘. his major sub interestaflb labia Univer or the khili; Ihe Eel York were life and made "some of my b llearned the am always :2 Ohm; Bide wk: \ . 2% eq, Karjorie hereafter as 25. 261. 27“ 2:5“ 0". cit ,. -1 82 the winner of an oratorical contest on the subject "My Faith in America."24 Upon graduating from high school Romulo enrolled in the University of the lhilippines from which he was graduated with a Bachelor's Degree in 1918. hnglish was his major subject and Journalism became one of his main interests.25 These subjects were later continued at Co- lumbia University which he attended under the auspices of the Ihilippine government.26 The four years homulo subsequently spent in New York were considered by him to be thehappiest in his life and made him feel forever a part of .‘nuericaf'7 "Some of my best friendships were made during these years. I learned that the average American is fundamentally fair and always for the underdog... The audiences were always 28 on my side when I competed on the debating team." He further states that even in his earliest days he was never 24"homulo, Carlos E (ena)," Current Biography, ed. Marjorie bent Candee, 18th ed. (1958), p. 473. cited hereafter as Candee. 251b1a. 26 27 Qahomulo,‘l Saw the Fall 2£_the rhilippines, 22. Cite. P0 540 Bloc, loc. cit., p. 627. homulo, E1 Brother Americans, 2p. cit., p. 3. 83 made to feel an alien in the United states. Bhere had been no consciousness of race impressed upon me at Columbia, where in classes and on the debating team my fellow students, professors, and audances had seemed inordinately pleased with the success of a Eilipino boy reared in the American tradition. rerhaps because of this they had gone out of their way to be kind. if my Speech stumbled and my sense of humor proved difficult for tnem to understand, this very difference seemed to amuse and delight my Amerigan friends and bring us closer together. 9 Romulo was graduated from Columbia in 1921; and he con- sidered his graduation day to be one of the two most im- portant days in his entire life.30 Chronologically, domulc's career up till the time of the Asian-African Conference can be traced through three distinct phases, newspaperman, soldier, and states- man. Newspaperman homulo's interest in journalism started while he was working on his school annual. This interest was 29 homulo, El Brother Americans, op. cit., p. 164. 30The other day was when he first spoke before Congress. See Romulo,'; See the rhilippines hiss, pp. 21!. , Po 28. 84 enhanced when he took a job as cub reporter for The nanila Times. His salary was a reported four street car tickets 31 a day. Mr. Horbert Lyons, then editor of the Philip- pine paper the Cablenews-nmerican, said of homulo's jour- nalistic talents: l was very much impressed with his intelligence and unusual ability to use the anglish language. He was one of the very few Eilipino reporters I ever employed whose copy did not necessitate strenuous and back- breaking editiné before it was fit for the composing room -- both from the standpoint of'language and journalistic treatment. In fact, it was often superior, from these criteria, to the copy submitted by the American staff.3 In fulfillment of his schoolboy ambitions as cub reporter, honulo was made assistant editor of the Philippines herald in 1922 and editor in 1923. He became editor of IVE rublicstions (Tribune-Vanguardia—Taliba) in 1931, and then for several years he was publisher of the bang NeWSpapers, comprising the Debate in opanish, the sabuhaz in Iagalog, and the monday nail and ihilip- pings Herald in anglish.33 By the eve of the Japanese invasion Romulo's name had become familiar throughout 31Spencer, loo. 1 . 321bid., p. 28. 53 Candee, loc. cit. 85 the islands because of his newspaper work.54 It was just before rearl Harbor, in September of 1941, that homulo set out on an extensive tour of the countries in Asia neighboring the ihilippines. in his capacity as newspaper editor and publisher he visited all the countries of Joutheast Asia "including China, burns, "3’ As India, Siam, indo-Uhina, halaya, and lndonesia. a result of this trip he later wrote a series of forty- five articles which were published in his own newspapers and in the United states by the hing Feature Syndicate, and which won for him the rulitzer rrize "for better un- derstanding between nations."36 The articles he wrote were pessimistic in na- ture and accurately predicted tne successful Japanese invasion of southeast asia. much of the pessimism was based on the pro—Japanese attitude which had been fostered 341bid. 3)‘arlos l. nomulo, "The Crucial Battle for Asia", Ihe New Xorh ‘iiznes .aabazine, neptember ll, 1949, p. 13. 56nomulo, I Saw tne E‘all of the rnilipeines, 22, git., p. 4. ins trip itseli‘ came about as the result of conversations homulo had previously held vith General Douglas machrthur in manila. macertnur wanted to know how the peoples of Asia were then reacting to Japanese imperialism. he therefore gave letters of intronuction to homulo for all the nmerican military observers in the Ear hast. see ibid., p. 3. by the colonial mismanagement of Great Britain, France, 37 and the Netherlands. wherever he went he reported a fierce hunger for freedom and a sense of nsian betrayal at the hands of the white nan.38 A more candid expose might easily have been written, for as he later wrote, "1 can tell you now that those articles would never have won the Pulitzer Prize if 1 had told all of my experiences in the Urient. I held back a lot because as a writer I knew hatred is created by incidents.“39 Before proceeding to the second phase of nomulo's professional career, it would be well to mention at this point in time two important but more supplementary aspects of his neWSpaper career —- teaching and authorship. he- tracing our steps somewhat it is also significant to note that during the period of his newspaper work honulo was 40 associated with the teaching profession. in 1923 he 373100, 100. cit. . jBCarlos r. nonulo, "Asia nust be Free," lier's UhVi (uctober 20, 1945), p. 12. ..‘ Lel— ”Bloc, _1_g_g. _c_:____t_. 40Little is known about this aspect of honulo’s career. his biography and his own autobiographical writ- ings tell almost nothing. rhe information included here, hawever, is to point up the speaker's continued close association witn the field of written rhetoric. 87 was appointed assistant professor of English at the Uni- versity of the Philippines, and in 1924 he became asso- ciate professor and acting head of the English department. It is reported that he left the university in 1928 after a year as lecturer in American literature, but retained his association with it as a member of the board of re- gents from.1929-1945.41 Romulo's writing career began as an outgrowth of his teaching career. During his period of teaching he wrote two textbooks, Better English (1924) and College Composifian (1925), and two other books, Daughters £3; §_a_]_._§_ and. QM 21.5113 (1924) and w, 5 Chronicle Ell-El (1926).42 His book writing ceased for over a decade and then began again in 1942 with the publication or the best- selling 3 w the 33;; 9;; the Philippines, which is con- eidered now to be a Philippine classic.43 or this book I. L. White wrote, “Carlos P. Ronnie has complete canmand 41Candee, loo. cit. It is also reported that in 1928 he brought a debate team to the United States prepared to defend the much discussed issue of indepen- dence for the Philippines. See Brooks Quimby, "A Decade of international Debating“ (unpublished Master's thesis, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, 1930), p. l. 421bid. ‘3George A. Malcolm, First Malayan Republic (Boston: ChristoPher Publishing House, 1931), p. 431. of & clear. agreat ato mu“ a quietly wri recommended D ‘ul J I c H‘ \ ‘1 3. I“ v" ‘32: _._tu:...__ \J J. of a clear, vivid nnglish necessary for the telling of a great story... It is a beautiful story, beautifully told."44 Katherine Shorey said that it was "simply and quietly written but carrying heavy punch," and she highly recommended it, for "information and vieWpoint."45. Between the period of _l'_ 1533. the. gig; g; the Philippines and the publication of his next best seller, Crusade iQL§g;§,(l955), homulo wrote four other books: nother America (1943). gzihrother Americans (l945)..£ §gg_thg.Philippines,§;gg (1946), and,ghg United (1951). But it was Crusade ;Q,ég;a which received the highest critical acclaim. Gordon Walker described it as "a truly great achievement and one which could stand closer study "46 amidst confusion of seething Asia, while Kirkus con— sidered it "an exciting book."47 Romulo's sriting career 44W. L. White, Review of ;,§ag the Fall ggwthg Phili ines, by Carlos P. homulo, Egg York Herald Tribune books, January 17, 1943. p. l, cited by martice m. 5ames and Dorothy Brown (eds.), Book Review Digest (New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1943), PP. 658-59. 45Katherine Shorey, heview 02‘; Saw the Fall of the Phili inee, by Carlos P. homulo, l brary Journal, fiv‘11”"(s"ov‘a"lmbuezr‘ T," 1942), p. 951, cited by James 'a‘n'd""'b"'r'o'wn, ibid 46Gordon Walker, Review or Crusade in Asia, by Carlos P. homulo, Christian Science Monitor, April 21, 955, p. 7, cited by mertlce m. James and yorotny Brown (eds.), Book Review Digest (New York: H. s. ailson Company, 1956), pp. 775-77. neview or Crusade in Asia, by Carlos I. homulo, 47 Bulletin From Vir inia nirkus' Bookshop service, lilll, (February 1, 1953 , p. lUG, cited by James and Brown, ibid. 89 seems to serve as the adhesive joining his other profes- sional activities, and is mentioned here to indicate his continued close association with the field of rhetoric.48 Soldier The beginning of sorld ear 11 in the Pacific found homulo in the role of warrior and this, he states, was as much of a shock to him as “rearl Harbor was to the United ‘s-a'tates."49 Shortly after the Japanese surprise attack on the rhilippines, homulo was inducted into the 50 U.S. Army as major. he was thereupon assigned as press aide to the commander-in-chief, General Douglas MacArthur, whom he had known since 1928.31 In describing his mili- tary duties he said: My work consisted of issuing the press releases to the newspapermen and helping select headlines, in telephone conference with the local editors, that would soothe while they informed the civilian pepulation. i wrote and arranged radio pregraas calculated to arouse public opinion to an awareness of the dangerous situation of the rhilippines. nepresentative citizens went on the air in 48In 1945 homulo said of his prior books, "In my writings I had played with the gamut of human emotions." See homulo, “The reople of the khilippines,” loo. cit., P. 29. 493100, 100. cit. 50Previously he had been a major in the Philip- pine nrmy Reserves. blBloc, loc. cit., p. 628. 90 these programs. Right and day l was busy in headquarters.52 As a result of his successful efforts homulo was quickly promoted to lieutenant colonel in March of 1942 and then to full colonel in August of the same year.53 These promotions were "won under fire" as one writer 54 and the statement is essentially true since states; homulo spent some fourteen weeks in the thick of battle while on Bataan and Corregidorafter the fall of Manila. "he stayed in the hell of Bataan until the last day before surrender, and left only after macArthur had strictly ordered him to do so."59 homulo, according to the official communiqués, was the last man off Bataan before it fell.56 thile he was there, however, he continued to serve as executive officer of press and radio as well as a sort of public 57 relations man between the foxholes and headquarters. Szhomulo,‘£ Saw the Fall _§_ he Philippines, op. cit., p. 44. 53nioc, loc. cit. b4Serge Fliegers, "uarloe nomulo," American mercur', L111 (December, 1949). p. 687. 551bid. 56homulo, gy Brother Americans, op. cit., p. 19. 575100, 10c. cit. 91 These positions were held under macarthur and later under General Jonathan Wainwright when the former was compelled 58 Luring this period "on the to evacuate to Australia. hook" (Corregidor) homulo was also instrumental in set- ting up a radio transmitter called the logos of Freedom from which he regularly broadcast personal messages to his beleaguered peeple on the mainland. To this activity the Japanese promptly retaliated by putting a price on the originator'e head; and from then on homulo was con— sidered a marked man.59 Upon narrowly escaping from Bataan, homulo re— joined haoArthur in Australia and was soon appointed his aide-de-camp. It was in this capacity that he was sent to the United btates in the Summer of 1942 on a military mission that was to last only a few weeks but which was prolonged into a stay of over two years.60 On the orders of General hacarthur homulo was requested to tell the story of Bataan and the fall of the Philippines to the 58homulo, _; see the Philippines hiss, 92. cit., p. 7. 59This was one of the main reasons why homulo was requested to leave the battle area. 6OCandes, loo. cit. 9131 4. H" P} 55 92 American people.61 In complying with this directive he put himself in the hands of a lecture agency and set out upon a tour of the United States which ultimately carried him over 89,000 miles and into some 466 American cities.62 when homulo began his speaking tour he was placed on the inactive rolls of the Army by the ear Department;63 and it was not until the invasion of Leyte that he was permitted to resume his active military career. Of his two year stay in America he later wrote: I had landed in America stripped of everything that had made a lifetime of effort and ambition worthwhile. Since that time there had been very little except hard work and anxiety, sleep-rob- bing and nerve-racking lecture trips, scribbling down notes on scraps of paper in snatched moments, trying to remember 61 62nomulo, £1 Brother Americans, 22.‘git., p. 21. Concerning this lecture tour one magazine wrote that “in one eight-month period, he toyped all American riders of the cnicken~and-peas circuit by making no fewer than 500 of his spellbinding speeches." "nomulo -- Little man who Was rhere," newsweeg, nXAiV (December 19, 1949), p. 25. his lecture manager u. oolyston Leigh remarked that he was "taps in the field" and that he had "outstripked Eleanor Roosevelt in dates." nomulo, §l_Brother emeri— cans, 0p. cit., p. 36. Leoture managers in general agreed that he was the most pepular visiting lecturer to have appeared in America since ainston churchill. van Gelder, 22. 22:20, p. 363. 63 van Gelder, 22. cit., p. 366. nomulo, my brother Americans, on. cit., p. 61. 93 thousands of fa' ces and thousands of respon- sibilities la rge and shall. 1 had worked with one objective always ahead: the hepe of getting back to the racific and, event— ually, back to the rhilippines.b4 In September of 1944 homulo received the object of his hopes. having been promoted to the rank of brigadicr general, he went back to the raoific to revive the Epigg .9; Freedom broadcasts which he had directed earlier in the war and to accompany macnrthur on his triumphal march to manila.65 Statesman homulo's career as statesman began while he was still in uniform. During his war years in the United States he served as secretary of information and Public nelations in President ouezon's war Cabinet in exile, acting secretary of rublio instruction in hresident Sergio Osmena's Cabinet, and as nesident Uommissioner of the Philippines to the United states, a position which he held until the establishment of the ihilippihe nepublic 64homulo,}. See the Fhilippines hiss, 32. cit., p. 250 65During nomulo's active military career he was a recipient of two unit citations for outstanding perfor— mance oi duty. See homulo, 1 new the rail of the lhil- i ines, _p, cit., pp. 90 and 2)]. 101 publisherTsw note. he also received the :urple heart for bravery lbid., p. 256. and the silver star for gallantry in action lbid., p. 309. 94 66 Of this last named office he wrote: "No other in 1946. offer, no other office, could possibly have meant so much to me. In my most fantastic dreams I had never imagined such an honor."67 when the lhilippines became a sovereign nation homulo was appointed its permanent delegate to the United Nations with the rank of ambassador. frior to this ap- pointment he attended the United Nations Conference at San Francisco as head of the rhilippine delegation. it was as a spokesman for the international interests of his country, for good relations between hast and test, and for the voiceless peoyles of Asia and Africa that he distinguished himself at this conference.68 homulo reportedly led the fight for the establishment of the U.N. Trusteeship system against a formidable array of colonial powers spearheaded by hord Cranborne, the see— mnsd and estate representative of the United hingdon.69 66 67 68“ W ,,,,b. L . . , chunzo cahamaal, Joan a. white, and Arvin Hahn, Asia (St. Louis: webster rublishing Company, 1953). PO ZjOO Candee, loc. cit., p. 474. nomulo, l_5ee the rhilippines hiss, loc. cit. 6”capencer, g2..g;t., p. 225. in connection with this spirited defense, rresident flamilton dolt of nollins Golleée, who was an adviser to iresident noodrow wilson at the Versailles peace conference, said at a 95 honulo's U.N. record is noteworthy. In 1948 he ohairmaned the Ehilippine delegation to the First Ses- sion of the 0.3. General Assembly and in the same year was elected president of the U.h. Conference on Freedom 70 of information. a year later he received the honor and distinction of being the first Asian to be elected president of the General Assembly. nomulo reportedly "rushed at the Assembly firesident's job like a rhilippine "71 typhoon. with his gavel he pounded the Assembly through its record 72-item agenda without need for a special ses- sion. A long list of accomplishments were made to his ceremony conferring an honorary doctor of literature de~ gree upon homulo: '1 heard you at San Francisco... speak with unmatched eloquence for the 600,000,000 inarticulats and dependent beetles of the world... i witnessed your statesmansnip force into the final draft of the Charter the adoption of the state— ment that the backward peeples of the world...had the right to assire to full independence... You emerged from the cen— firence with a moral grandeur which your imperialist Opponents could not fail to recognize.’ (see ibid.) 7OCandee, loo. cit. 71"homulo -- Little man who Was There," News- week, 100. Cite, p. 220 96 credit;72 and one writer said four years later that many delegates considered him to be the best president the Assembly ever had.73 after stepping down from the presidency of the U.N. General Assembly in 1950, hemulo returned to his own country to accept the position of secretary of For~ sign Affairs which had been given him by the rhilippine President Elpidio ouirino. Ihe next two years were spent in manila «here he was occupied with fidhting the inter- 74 nal Communist menace to his country. Generally speak- ing, it has been said that he came to be the best known internationally of the rnilippine secretaries, and that the ihilippinee has probably had no more dynamic and 7zi‘he Fourth Session of the U.fl. General Assem- bly, among other things, voted self—determination for ltaly's former Arrican colonies of Libya, nomaliland, and sritrea; approved a technical assistance preyram of e25,000,ooo for underdeveloped countries; entrusted the Atomic energy Commission with exploring every possible means of nuclear control; and exerted leadership on ques— tions such as that to indoneeia. Eor additional facts see Spencer, gg.‘gi£., p. 240. 73nalph Chapman, "Last man from nataan," sen- ior desolastic, Lil (January 14, 1953). P. 6. 74m, candee, lcc. cit. 97 inspirational figure in foreign affairs.75 At the beginning of 1952 homulo returned to the United States with the appointment of Ambassador to fiashington in addition to his position as permanent rhil- ippine representative to the United Nations. He did not stay in America long, however, since the following year he resigned from his diplomatic oificss in order to op- pose uuirino for the presidential nomination of the Lib- eral rarty. this was the first time he had sought an 76 and in this particular in- elective position at home, stance his political action no doubt was prompted by a long standing desire to become Eresident of the rhilip- pines.77 in terms of his immediate and ultimate objec— tives (to unseat euirino and become President of the 57 7’Edward s. hill, "Ihe Conduct of fhilippine Foreign helations" (unpublished 2h. D. dissertation, Prince- ton University, 1934): PP. 144-45. This writer also says, "homulo has been 'mr. Foreign Affairs' so far as the rhil- iypines is conoerned." lbid., p. 144. in addition to his work in the U.N. and his role as rhilippine Secretary of Foreign affairs, homulo also attended some imoortant international gatherin5s. lhese included the New Delhi conference on indonesia in 19495 the southeast Asia Uon— firence in 1990 (of which he was president); and the Ja- panese fence Ireaty Conference in 1951. see Candee, log, Cite 7°"Job Hunting," Newsweek, XAAAI (may 25, 1953), 77Eliegers, loo. cit. 98 rhilippines) nomulo's first venture into politics was un- successful. nfter failing to dislodge uuirino from his position of political power, nomulc thereupon decided to run as a presidential candidate on the ticket of the newly formed Democratic larty. rhis action was also abor- ted, howeVer, when political realities forced him to join 76 The forces with Lemon Lagsaysay during the campaign. result of the election was victory for hagsaysay and he became rhilippine president elect on the national larty ticket in 1933. in speaking of his decision to join for- Ces with hagsaysay during the election homulo later said, "a wise captain doesn't take his ship through a storm, "79 now wise but makes a detour. 1 an making a detour. this action turned out to be can be seen in the fact that after hagsaysay was elected he sent homulc back to sash- . .. . 60 ington as his yersonal representative. rerscnality Traits 20 provide an accurate picture of nonulo the 7doandee, loo. git. 79"nomulo withdraws," fine, bill (August 31' 1953)) P- 23' 80 This was nomulo's position until the eve of the Asian-African Conference at which time he was raised to Cabinet rank. 99 man it will be necessary to consider some of his dominant personality traits. Those traits of a specific nature will be dealt with separately. At this point the writer would like to present the general traits necessary for any successful rhilippine diplomat. taking into account the views of others on the subject and keeping in mind his own personal observations of ihilippine diplOMacy for eight years, Dr. sdward W. hill has submitted the following list of qualities desir— able in the successful and effective Philippine diplomat: 1) Character -- integrity; 2) intellectual training and excellence; 3) aesdiness to serve -- adaptability; 4) affective and friendly personality; and 5) Devotion to country and peOple.81 Since homulc could easily be con- sidered a successful and effective diplomat from what we have already observed, it will be assumed that he pos- sesses these qualities in no slight degree. what will be of greater value to us here, however, are manifesta- tions of personality which are peculiar to homulc. Al- though the writer has had no Opportunity to meet the speak- er personally, he nevertheless believes that enough evi- dence exists to support the existence of the following 81Mill, pp, cit., p. 98. 100 personality traits -- friendliness, modesty and self-con- fidsnoe. Briendliness The first personality trait nomulo possesses which is worthy of mention is friendliness. A friendly personality is a requirement for any foreign affairs ser- vice, "but in the case of the fhilippine it is a parti- "32 cularly important requirement. Since government in the rhilippines tends to Operate on a more personal basis than elsewhere, "rilipinos prefer their diplomats down to earth." And tnis means'they must be entirely approach- able."83 To be effective, therefore, it is essential that a Eilipino diplomat be a warm, friendly person. nomulo has exoressed friendliness in a number of ways. A significant detail about his suite of offices on the United nations floor of the ampire State Building, for example, is that it is the only one which has a large "welcome" mat placed outside.84 it has also been said that his appearance in the delegates lounge of the U.N. "smiling broadly, attracts other delegates, newspapermen, and just plain friends" so that he usually has a sizeable lebid., 9. 101. 831b1d. U4Fliegers, loo. cit., p. 689. 101 crowd around his.8 nomulo's friendliness is not restric— ted to fellow diplomats, however; his geniality encompass- es non—diplomats as well. One glimpse of his daily sche- dule pictured his prOgress through the waldorf lobby "a succession of hearty greetings, inquiries about a clerk's sick mother and a bellhoy’s elusive girl friend, and easy touches for autographs and tickets.“86 Inese incidents, taken together, portray a cordial, friendly nan. while most of nomulo's friendliness is probably natural, part of it more than likely stems from the phi— losOphicsl attitude he has developed toward his swell size. nomulo, barely 5' 4" with his shoes on, has been living in what nibht be called a tall man's world. he has, therefore, had to resign himself philOBOphically to this fact. Ins following passages indicate the pesitive attitude he has formulated and help reveal his basically friendly nature: as little fellows in life have still another advantage; as usually have a special gift for making fdends. reOple are less on guard with a little fellow. rhey feel protective toward us and find it easy to confide in us... 85Chapman, loc. cit. 8 w . ,. q 6"nomulo —- Little man who was Enere," news- week, 10C. Cit. 102 I suppose people would not warm up to us little fellows if we were curmud- geons. But you rarely find a short stat- ured person who is a sourpuss. host of us have learned early in life that friend- liness is as great an equalizing force as quick wits, a persuasive tongue, or phy— sical prowess. .0.0......OIO...OOOOOOOOIOOOOOIOIOOCOOO Short-statured people tend, I believe, to be more “human" and approachable than tell people. They learn as youngsters that they must not take themselves too seriously. If a big man maintains a pom- pous reserve he is referred to as "dig- nified." But if a small man tries to act 87 exactly the same way he is called "cocky." that these personal statements clearly imply is that homulo himself is a very down-to-earth and engaging person. Modesty "The taller the bamboo grows, the lower it hands." This homespun advice indicates homulo's next personality trait - modesty. The advice was given him by his father and has helped to guide him throughout his life.88 Later on when he became a newspaper reporter he observed in his contacts with men of all walks of life that "it is always the small man, the mediocre, who is arrogant and conceit- ed, who does not know how to bend. fhe truly great man 87Carlos s. Romulo, "l'm Glad I'm a Little Guy," American Magazine, CLV (June, 1953). PP. 90-91. BSCarlos r. Romulo, ”The Best Advice 1 Ever Had," Reader‘s Di est, LlVll (September, 1955): P. 61. 103 is tolerant, humble and modest."89 These words might well have been spoken of Romulo himself. A strong indication of Romulo's modesty can be found in his own frank admission that he wrote his first successful books in the'first person" against his own will and the Filipino mode of thought. “There are few things I hate more than the use of the personal pro- noun. Filipinos as a race are jarred by the word 'I.‘ The Tagalog dialect, if we use it, prefers the plural usage 'we,‘ as a more courteous term than '1.‘"90 Another and perhaps clearer indication of hom- ulo's modesty can be seen in his complete absence of pride and conceit when faced with the unmistakable proof that he had been duped by the communists. An article in the American Mercury tells how the Philippine staff at the U.H. was infiltrated by communists and fellow travelers.91 The writer of the article further states that for a time even homulo himself was a "shining knight" of the commu- nist fronts until it was learned that he could not be won overtly to the communist point of view. When this aglbid. 9Chomulo, I See the fhilippines hiss, o . cit., p ix '_ '———_ ‘—2 '—_" 9la‘dna h. Fluegel, "When the heds Captured hom- ulc," American mercury, Liailv (May, 1957), p. 58-62. 104 fact was disclosed the communists thereupon proceeded with covert means, and were content to have homulo kept busy and flattered in high policy positions where his anti- communist influence would not be so strong. homulo learned of this strategy at a time when he was proudest of his fight against the communist conspiracy, but still he pub- licly admitted that he had been fooled. In the estima- tion of the writer of the article this frank confession was "unique among world statesmen."92 figlgrconfidence The final personality trait to be taken up in this section is homulo's self-confidence. It might ap- pear upon first notice to be a contradiction to the one previously mentioned, i.e., to homulo's modesty, yet there appears to be sufficient evidence to conclude that he is basically confident of his own abilities. is he himself explained to one Writer: "every time 1 had an ambition —- teaching, politics, soldiering, or diplomacy —- I would achieve it within a few years. Then i would have to look for another ambition."95 Although this statement itself has much probative value, it could also be used to help 921bid., p. 59. 93Fliegers, loc. cit., p. 686. 105 support his biographer's claims that "he Ehomulé} never doubted his ability once his purpose was settled upon," and that “his very certainty was to make for his success all through his life."94 £n11080ph1 homulo's personal philOBOphy, it would appear, from his background and some of his published writings, is primarily conditioned by two elements, 1) his ideal- ism, and 2) his size. To obtain a proper view of his basic outlook, which in turn has influenced his speaking, it will be necessary, therefore, to consider these two elements in detail. Idealism homulo's idealism finds its genesis in his high school days in Manila when, at his own admission, he "had 94Spencer, 22. cit., p. 49. An indication of this self-confidence as rZTated to the Asian-African Con- ference can be seen in the following statement homulo made upon his arrival at hemajoran Airport in Jakarta. He said: “i took an active part in the formation of the Southeast Asia treaty organisation and I am prepared to meet all comers.” see fhe new York Times, April 16, 1955, P. 3. Ihis confirms an earlier statement made in‘ghg Manila Times that friends of nomulo did not expect him to be daunted at the conference by either lndia's Nehru or had uhina's Chou. see ghg_sanila fines, April 10, 1955’ Po 3' 106 made political prestige with its resultant powers of voic- ing public wrongs the subjects of his adolescent dreams."95 is a result, all through his public life homulo seems to have been motivated by an earnest desire to widen the boundaries of human freedom and to help his fellow man.96 his desire to preserve human freedom is revealed in a poem he once wrote for the Academy of American Poets din- ner. The poem is titled the Voice of Liberty and a short excerpt follows: Sternly, bold, unfettered men, By word of tongue or pen, in terms of truth will speak, is they have done before, fhe faith of humankind; While multitudes, unchained and free hill wave the battle flags and sing The Hymn of Liberty.97 This passage, while proving nothing itself, nevertheless 95homuloLQ; see the Philippines £2221‘22-.2££-a p. 250 96in 1949 homulo was invited by Iresident Su- karno to be a special guest of the indonesian nepublic. he was extended this honor in recognition of the services he had rendered to the cause of Indonesian independence. See Egg manila Times, April 14, 1955. P. 4. 97"homulo -- Little nan who has There," News- Week, 100. Cite. P. 25. 107 gives one a clearer insight into homulo's idealistic mo- tivations. Additional evidence of a more tangible nature is contained in the following prose passages: l have seen man's inhumanity to man in its most hideous aspect, but in the most terrible places 1 met peOple who were great and good. I have learned that all men are fundamentally the same and that there is a kinship that race or creed cg national ideologies cannot efface. 8 shile this passage merely describes nomulo's idealism, the next supplies a causative factor. Because I believe in an Almighty who created us in his image, i believe there is a spark of the divine in each of us. 1 must be colorblind in my racial relationships, as only thus can 1 appre- ciate the worth of the individual and ( be able to love my neighbor as myself.93 This passage tells more of the story because it adds the spiritual element.100 Another facet of nomulo's idealism is the ten- dency to assume the posture of an ardent nationalist and internationalist. even though this may appear contradictory, ganomulO. _1_ Saw the Fall 9;; the rhiiippines. 9-2. Ci 0, p. 3230 99Garlos P. nonulo, "if 1 here Sixteen Again," notarian, inc (December, 1957). p. ll. looln an article previously cited homulc said, " hagellan's coming left an indelible imprint upon the Philippines. Eor with magellan came the cross. That means a lot." has homulc, ”The reople of the rhilippines," l22-.2$£°v P° 25- 108 evidence seemingly existed to support the claim. in fact, some of this evidence is found within the space of a sin- gle passage. In giving advice to idealist teenagers, for example, homulo wrote in one article that "human civili— zation is the sum total of the contributions of each coun- try to the advancement of mankind. And only by nurturing an intense nationalism can my peOple contribute its share to human progress.lo1 he also said in this same article by way of eXplanation that the nationalism he had in mind was "a nationalism tempered by the knOwledge that teen- noloay having annihilated distances, the word ‘fcreigner' has been supplanted by the word 'neighbor'..."102 Viewing each element separately again, it is possible to substantiate further homulo's idealistic dual- ity. His nationalistic assertiveness was made manifest on the eve of the Asian-ifrican Conference. Before board- ing a plane in manila or handung, he said with reference to the lhilippine delegation that they were going as "Fil- ipinos first, Asians second, and Filipinos alwayson103 101 00. Cite homulo, "1f 1 were Sixteen Again," hotarian, lozlbid. 103m e Manila Times, April 16. 1925. P- 1- 109 His basic internationalism has been made repeatedly mani- fest in his attitude toward the merits of the United Ha- tions. ln an article in the hotarian he said: The United Nations is dedicated to the great although difficult task of har~ nessing man's good will for peace. It is the most potent organization ever to have dramatized the solidarity of the human race against creed, color, or national pride. ho Opportunity greater than the common counsel of its 60 sovereign members has presented itself in the interest of the enduring security of mankind.104 While this idealist combination of nationalism and inter- nationalism might appear contradictory in the same indi- vidual, it nevertheless affords a more complete view of the orientation of nomulo's philosophy. Size Since homulo stands barely over five feet with his shoes on, as was noted previously, he has been forced to develoP a philosOphical attitude toward his short sta- ture. This philosOphical attitude, it was also noted, has contributed in acne degree to his characteristic friendliness. But beyond this it has additionally con— tributed to the develOpment of a serene, positive outlook which has often worked to his advantage in dealing with 104Carlos s. homulo, "How I would Change the U.N.," hotarian, LanIi (October, 1955), p. 24. llO his fellow man.105 The heart of homulo's haithy philosophical at- titude toward his height is the feeling that being under- rated in the beginning, which a short person frequently is, can often work to the short person's advantage. This he concludes is preferable to being initially overrated, since much more is eXpected of a bigger man. when a little fellow does something well, therefore, people become pleas- antly surprised and impressed. in their customary way of viewing things the small person's achievement is magni- 106 How this fied because of low oriéinal expectations. philOSOphy has affected his speaking effectiveness will be seen in the next section when we consider homulo the speaker. In addition to the benefits to be derived from a person's snort stature, there are also certain obliga- tione according to homulo. "A little man can eXpress personal Opinions with the utmost freedOm," he says, while a taller man if he were to utter the same ideas might _ 105Romulo claims that he was helped to develop this philosOphy by A. V. B. Dalrymple, the revenue offi- cer who found lodging in his home. he was frequently reminded by this man that one's footage had little to do with personal effectiveness, provided it was not al- lowed to prey on the mind. has homulo, "i'm Glad I'm a Little (fl-13”";2-go file, p. 89. 106Ibid. 111 find himself in a fight instead of a conversation. hom— ulo, therefore, concludes that since a "shorty" has a better chance to put his ideas across without using his fists, this gives him an obligation to weigh his words carefully'Which, in consequence, makes them more effec- tive."107 influences An aspect of nomulo's life which probably did much toward shaping his career and mode of thought con- cerns the peeple who influenced him. from a close inspec- tion of his published writings it is possible to conclude that homulo was most significantly influenced by two peo- ple: his father Gregorio homulo and the idol of his youth, manual L. uuezon. He will now consider briefly the chief characteristics of each of these people. Gregorio homulo it was learned earlier that homulo's father was a Filipino patriot who took up arms abainst the United States once it had defeated spanish authority in the Phil- ippines. An important feature of his father's patriotic lo7lbid., p. 92. 112 attitude was the fact that he refused to lay down his arms until he was reasonably assured that the Ihilippines would eventually be granted its independence from Amer- ica. in fact, after his surrender to the American forces homulo's father is said to have continually stressed the idea that he was cooperating with the new colonial regime only because it had promised his country its independence.108 Ihis brand of patriotism had some effect upon homulo for he later wrote in one of his books, "i an a Nationalist first, because from my earliest childhood 1 was impressed by my father's participation in the rhilippine struggle for freedom."109 Lack of sufficient information prevents a more extensive treatment here of homulo'e father, but judging from the above admission it is possible to conclude that he had no little influence upon his son. The most that can be said at this point is that he helped shape the nationalistic element in hemulo's idealism. hanuel‘g. guezon shile little information is readily available concerning nomulo's father, much more information is at loahomulo,'l Saw the rail 3; the Phili ines, 9-2. Cito’ pi}. 18"le 1091b1d. E __ _ 113 hand concerning the second person who influenced his life, manual L. uuezon, the first President of the Philippine Commonwealth. the extent of uuezon's influence can be seen in the following quotation. In further analyzing the causes of his ardent nationalism hcnulo writes: “I am a Nationalist because hanuel L. uuezon has been my hero. 1 have watched his colorful career as our outstand- ing fighter for rhilippine independence with admiration "110 in view of that has kept growing with the years... this assertion it would be well, therefore, to catalog some of the outstanding attributes of euezon. ihis man who impressed nomulo so greatly was born August 19, 1578, in the rhilippines and studied law at the University of canto Tomas in manila. in his early twenties, as a young revolutionary, he joined the Aguin— aldo insurrection against the United states, and later when the Americans were victorious he made peace with the territorial authorities and became a fiscal or public prosecutor. in the latter capacity he made a name for himself throughout the islands.111 110 111salter Yust (ed.), Ten Eventful Years (Chi— cago: Encyclopaedia britannica, lnc., 19477, ill, p. 689. lbid. 114 Quezon's political career was as varied as it was brilliant. he was a member of the ihilippine Assem- bly from 1907 to 1909, and hesident Commissioner to the v.5. from 1909 to 1916. fie was elected President of the fhilippine Senate in 1916, a position which he held until he was elected first lresident of the new rhilippine Com- monwealth in 1935. auezon's reelection to the last named orfice in 1941 was by an overwhelming majority.112 The first time kcnulo saw manual auezon was when the latter returned in triumph to manila in 1916 after he had been instrumental as hesident Commissioner in securing passage of the Jones Act, a statute which set a definite date for rhilippine independence. nomulo states that he was very much impressed when he first saw Quezon marching through the old wall in manila which had been broken through at one place in honor of his homecom- ing. "He became my hero in that hour and I admired him as l was never again to admire any living nan."ll3 What probably impressed nonulo the most were llzlbid. 113homulo, ; deg the ghilippines nise, 2p.‘git., p. 26. homulo further declares that as a sonoolboy he copied auezon's way of wearing his clothes and the ways he danced and spoke. As further states that he had learned by heart every speech Quezon had made on the floor of Congress. See idem. 115 the personal attributes which contributed greatest to Quezon's political success. It is said that Quezon was indisputably the best orator in the rhilippines in any of three lanéuages, hnglish, Spanish, or Ia¢alog. He possessed considerable charm, executive catacity, and what one writer called a "curious combination of Ameri- can characteristics, like aggressive practicality, plus a Latin heritabe of suppleness and adroit facility in 114 he loved the poor and sot along well negotiation." with the rich. he was thoubht of as an outstanding Shil- ippine patriot and a genuine revolutionary. in fast, the writer quoted above states that i"the history of the inilippine islands in the twentieth century and the bio- graphy of manual ouezon are indisolubly one."115 homulo speaks very highly of suezon in all of his early books written during the Second world war; and in one especially strongly indicates that he and ouezon held political views which were much the same. hanuel Quezon sinCerely believed in the value of rhilippine au- tonomy and freedom, and, therefore, seized every political Opportunity afforded him to hasten the day of rhilippine 114John Gunther. Inside Asia (New York: harper & Brothers, 1939), pp. 298—99. 1151b1d., p. 287. 116 independence. From the anonymity of his editorial chair nomulo fought behind cuezon all the way. he assistant editor of quezon'e newsyaper gag Citizen, the first Fili- pino-anglish weekly published in the ihilippines, Lomulo fought for ouezon's principles or collectivism as against the outmoued unipersonal leadership. when duezon engaged in his controversy with Governor General Leonard wood he supported him vigorously in his new position as editor of the lhilippines herald. when the controversy arose over the Hare-Jawes—Cutting not, which put to the test ouezon's leadership in the ihilippines, nomulo again strongly supported him with his growina chain of news— papers. ihen when euezon ran against Aguinaldo for the presidency of the rnilippine Commonwealth in 1935 a mu- lo’s neHSpapers once more stood solidly behind him.116 Although the full extent of guezon's influence upon honuio is not completely known, the facts and in~ stances cited should provide an adequate comprehension of the general nature of that influence. This brief over- view would seem to indicate that nomulo was most affected by uuezon's dashing persOnality and republican ideals. llohomulo, ; Saw the Fall.g£ the Philippines, OU- Ci 0 ' E‘Po lb3-640 0‘.“ 117 nomulo, the man, started from humble begin- nings, received an education in the American tradition, and achieved notable distinction as newspaperman, sol— Cfier, and statesman. his is a personality flavored large- ly by friendliness, modesty, and self—confidence, and a philosoyhy conditioned by his size and his idealism. it can also be seen that handle is both a nationalist and internationalist and that he was influenced along these lines by his fatner and by his boyhood idol, nanuel L. quezon. The s eaker To obtain an accurate picture of nomulo, the speaker, it will be necessary to consider three important asyects of eVery Syenking situation, namely the speaker's method of speech preparation, his appearance, and his delivery. within this general tripartite framework the writer sill attemyt to provide some useful insights con- cerning honulo's yarticular speaking performance at the Asian-African Conference. the material contained in this section has been gathered from a variety of sources in- 117 cluding the writer's own observations, and the 117needle was observed in action by the writer 118 observations of the speaker himself. ahat follows, there- fore, can be considered an assimilation of thought on the subject. Pregaration In reply to a letter the writer sent to the rhilippinc meassy it was learned that homulo is inclined to use the following procedures in preparing his speeches. As dictated to his personal secretary nomulo's reply reads in part: 1. a. he keeps a speech materials file and also a scrap book. b. best souICes for supplying ideas and materials for his speeches are: newsflapers, magazines, latest books which he chooses from the Saturday hevicw. 2. a. He prepares an outline and sometimes dictates a complete manuscript or types it himself. b. he never rehearsos his Speeches orally. he has no critic. he does not nearly a year after the asian-African Conference took place. on march 7, 1996, nomulo delivered a lecture on the University of new mexico Irogram series in Carlisle Gymnasium in Albuquerque, New nexico. he spoke for an hour and a half beginning at 8:15 p.m. on the subject The Asia Lnoricabpoes §23_hnow. his Speech was heard by an audience of about one thousand. 119 use a speech recorder.118 Answer one above was written in reply to the question "how do you obtain ideas for your speeches," while answer two replied to the question "what steps do you follow in preparing a speech." Since the writer indicated in his letter that he was primarily interested in nomulo's proyaration tecnniques need at the Asian-African Confer- ence, it is assumed that the reply quoted above was made with this interest in mind. Appearance ns Inonsscn and Laird have indicated, in all likelihood an orator's striking apyenrance can enhance his rhetorical effectiveness, but as they have also stated such strihiné up,earancc can never be considered as an 119 honulo is infallible guide to this effectiveness. a short nan; yet we noted earlier in this chapter that his shortness bossessed for him certain advantages chief mic."r which was tne advantage of being initially underrated. llBLetter from n. 5. Carlos s. hOnulo, ihilip- nine Ambassador to the United states, ambassy of the :hil- ippines, Hashinéton, U. U., nay 4, 1993. l‘. 1 . u . i . a apefitur inonssen and A. oraig naird, osccch Criticism (flew York: nonald Press Combany, 1946), p.441. 120 To support this theory homulo cites the following incident from his speaking career. At the Opening session of the United Nations in san Francisco in 1945. the Philippines were invited, even though we were not yet an independent nation. (Amer— ica had promised us independence for 1946.) This was the first full-dress inter- national conference the Philippines had been invited to attend. Thus you can see that l headed a very Junior, almost token, delegation. 1n the opening round of speeches my turn came almost last. I mounted the platform and found 1 could barely see over the speaker's stand. When there was silence l solemnly uttered this eight-word sentence: 'Let us make this floor the last battlefield.’ There was silence, than applause. homulo concludes by saying: "The same words from a tall men might have brought polite applause. But coming from a little follow from a little country, they had an unex- pected effect."120 In analyzing the significance of this incident, it appears to the writer that homulo can take best advan- tage of his short stature only in contrasting situations, 1.6., when the majority of those around him are big men 120 . Bomulo, ”I'm Glad I'm a Little Guy," loo. c t., p. 90. 121 from big countries. lt is doubtful, therefore, that hom- ulo could have had this same effect at the Asian-African Conference where he was constantly associating with small men from small countries. Lelivegi homulo's method of delivery when not from mem- ory is usually extemporaneous. He seldom speaks from 121 notes and never from a complete manuscript. ”He was always inspired at the moment when he spoke,“ writes his biographer. "Inspiration rose from the audience for him, like the aroma of good cooking, whetting the appetite."122 121 1228pencer,_q_p_. gi3,, p. 15. Romulo did not rely exclusively upon inspiration for the successful de- livery of his speeches; he also considered his introduc- tions to be important. ficmulo, personal letter, loo. cit. 'lntroductions are important to the speaker, as they serve to break the ice and Open relations between the audience and himself. After being introduced by hundreds of chairmen and masters of cere- monies 1 find myself with the greatest respect for those who can “sell“ the speaker to his audience with a few intro— ductcry words.‘ See Romulo, §x_§rcther Americans, 2p. cit., p. 98-99. 122 An important characteristic of homulo's voice while speaking is that it contains a slight but unmistak- 123 able accent. Concerning one speaking occasion his biOgrapher wrote: He had spoken English a long time, ever since he was in primary school. Now he spoke smoothly, and although he had a slight accent Which he would never en- tirely fizse, he did not have to step to think.1 While this accent evidently constitutes no gen- eral communicative barrier for the speaker, there are times when unintelligibility might result. For example, homulo himself candidly admits: ... My English, under stress, is not all it should be. when l speak at an ordinary rate of speed, or write out my words, 1 think and speak, I hope, as a man with an American education should. but under excitement 1 find myself laying the wrong emphasis on the wrong syllable, or even worse.léb In addition to his accent, one other peculiar- ity of nomulo's speaking voice concerns the use of the pause. Because of the physical hardships he endured dur- ing the Second World War, he has had difficulty with his 123This accent was observed by the writer when he heard Romulo speak in the Spring of 1956- 124Spencer, ’22. Cite, p. 170 l25homulo,}_x;1 Brother Americans, 22, cit., Po 42- 123 throat while speaking. as a result he is often forced to stop at various points in a epeech to drink water; and this, he admits, has embarrassed him greatly. One cause of his embarrassment is the criticism that his slow, deliberate way of drinking is for added effect, "to allow w."126 the eXpectancy of the audience to gro To this crit- icism, however, homulc replies: Nothing could be further from the truth. when I stopped, it was because my throat had dried again -- the throat seared on Corregidor, the throat that every specialist i might try, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, would shake his head over hepelessly. sprays, lubricants, lotions, everything would be tried and nothing would work. hater eased it tem- porarily so i could talk again.12 1261bid., p. 31. 1271b1d. Chapter IV THE ANALYSIS The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the three principal speeches of Carlos P. homulo at the A?‘ man-african Conference. The analysis itself will be pre- ceded by a brief examination of the critical method used, and will be followed by a summary of the major character- istics found. Method The critical method used in this analysis will include an examination of each speech in terms of the first three canons of rhetoric. These canons are: in- vention, arrangement and style.1 shile each canon takes a distinctive view of a speech, it is to be understood 1In classical terminology these three canons were known as inventio, dispositio, and elocutio, respec- tively. They were part of a fivefold division of rhetoric which also included memoria or memory and pronuntiatio or delivery. rhese last two canons will not be dealt with in the present chapter, since they have already been considered in the second section of Chapter III. 124 125 that all are complexly interrelated. Something which is considered under one canon might also be properly consid- ered under another. Having stressed their true insepa- rability, we now turn to a brief view of their special characteristics. Arrangement AlthOugh arrangement has been traditionally considered the second canon of rhetoric, it will be pre- sented first in this analysis because of the clearer focus it will give to the other two canons. Under the canon of arrangement the organizational structure of the speak- er's major ideas will be investigated. It will also be determined how the speaker welds his speech materials into a unified whole, and whether or not there is the emergence of a central unifying theme. invention The canon of invention is the most comprehen- sive canon of rhetoric. Under it will be considered all of the arguments suitable to the speaker's given rhetori- cal effort. classical rhetoricians, however, have divided 126 this canon into three parts corresponding to the three modes of persuasion set down by Aristotle. These modes of persuasion (also called modes of proof) consist either in the moral character of the speaker (ethical proof) or in the production of a certain attitude in the hearer (emotional proof) or in the speech itself by means of real or apparent demonstration (legical proof).2 The speaker's invention will be analyzed within the general framework of this tripartite division. Logical figggg An analysis of the Speaker‘s legical proof will include an examination of all his rational appeals, or those appeals directed primarily to the reasoning process. In keeping with Aristotle's "conviction that the most important inaredient of a speech is rational demonstration "3 through severe argumentation, apprOpriate emphasis will be given to this mode of proof. Emotional £332; An analysis of the speaker's emotional proof will include an inspection of “all those materials and 2Lane CooPer, The Rhetoric 2g Aristotle (New York: Appleton-Century~orofts, lnc., 1932), 3Lester Thonssen and A. Graig Baird, 8 each Criticism (New York: The nonald Press Company, 1948}, P0 331. p. 8. 127 devices calculated to put the audience in a frame of mind suitable for the reception of the speaker's ideas."¢ In this section an attenpt will be made to appraise the speaker's ability to link the truth of his case with the emotional nature of his audience. gthical Proof An analysis of the speaker's ethical proof will include an investigation of the most important facets of message credibility. According to Aristotle, a speaker enhances his message credibility most through the impres- sions he gives of his sagacity, high character, and good will.5 The various ramifications of these three facets of ethical proof will be eXplored at length. Style rhe third canon of rhetoric deals with the man- ner in which a speaher clothes his thoughts with language. In this section the speaker's style will be analyzed from both a functional and an aesthetic standpoint. an attempt will be made to determine the manner in wnich he makes his ideas clear and once made clear how he impresses them ‘1b1d.. 358. 5COOper, £3. cit., pp. 91-92. 128 upon his audience. Il—J homulo's first principal speech was delivered before the Opening session. immediate betting The Asian-African Conference formally opened in plenary session on nondey, April 18, 1955. it Opened with peasantry, "with cheering throngs in the streets, dramatic comings and goings in speeding cars behind in- sistent noisy motorcycles," and "a mammoth reception fea- turing Javanese dances beneath the banyan trees at the Governor's palace."6 The inaugural session was called to order at 9:00 am.7 in the "white-walled, fluorescent- lit" main hall of the Concordia building.8 the scene Obavid Landman, "The Bandung Compromise,“ New Republic, CMQZLJ. (may 16, 19)5)p Po 8. 7Charles H. halik, ihe Problem of Coexistence (Evanston: Northwestern University tress, “1999), p. 19. The conference was formally opened by the lndonesian Pres- ident, Dr. Ahmed bukarno. 8harold h. milks, "lraq Criticizes Communism at Bandung Conference; many Delegates Applaud," st. Louis Post-hispatch, april 18, 1955, p. 1A. nhere possible the author and title of all newspaper articles will be included. 129 was reportedly a colorful one since the 400 official dele- 9 gates came dressed in national costumes. There were the flowing white kofias, the headpieces of the Arabian sheiks; there were the richly dyed yellow, brown, green and blue loose-fitting robes of the stately peeple of the Gold Coast and the light pastel shades of the longyis (§}£J. or wraps, worn by the men of burns. rhere were also the sheep's-wool hats of the diplomats from rakistan, the white turbans and white robes of the representatives of Yemen and the stark black and white striped gowns of the Liberians.lU A view from the gallery or balcony which ran around the rear and the two sides of the hall provided one observer with this picture: Down below, the place throbbed with color and self—conscious eccentricity, with every sort of robe and veil and tunic, shalwar and lungi (gig) , dhoti and burnooss, tarboosh and baffiyeh, and the simple sharkskin splendor of the Beirut business suit; something terribly serious halfway between a political con- vention and a costume ball. From this same vantage point another observer has provided more specific details. He writes: 9ibid. homulo wore a barong Tagalog which is an Openworx rilipino shirt. bee C. hand, "our Ear» flung Correspondents," New Yorker, Alli (June 11, 1955), p. 42. lofhe New York Times, April 19, 1955: P- 3- llJamee Cameron, “Chou En-lai at the Asian-Af- rican meeting," heporter, All (may 19, 1955), p. 12. 130 1 went inside and climbed to the gallery of this impressive hall, staring out over this grandiloquent array of per- sonages. fhere was Mohammad Eadhel Janali of lraq, sporting a morning coat; Colonel Nasser of Lgypt, looking smooth and virile in a plain khaki uniform; Rehru in a long brown achhan coat, sometimes called a sherwani, with a big red rose at the chest, and white chooridar pyjamas, or pants very much like Jodhpurs; nohammed Ali in a tee— tern suit; U flu in a plaid longyi and pas- tel yellow gaung buang; jet—black men from the Gold Coast in flOWlng robes of bright yellows and greens° other Chinese, dressed like Chou in Sun fat-sen tunics , gently waving black fans, the Japanese in plain western suits, waving fancy fans of their own; Krishna aenon in a dhoti and a long cotton overshirt, his gray hair long and wild as he raced from chair to chair, shaking hands; the daudi Arabians in long black robes with white trim.12 In addition to the official delegates represent- ing the nations of Asia and Africa, there were also a handful of Western ambassadors from the United States and Europe sitting as spectators in a specially designated area at the side of the hall. This area was referred to 13 as the "white man's box.“ The role of interested on- lookers was further symbolized in a small group of foreign 12Carl T. howan, The ritiful and the frond (New York: Random house, 1956), pp. 359—90. Although not suitable for reproduction here, there is a fairly good wirephoto picture of the rear of the conference hall, showing the above mentioned balcony, in.2hg‘§gw York_Times. See The new Yorh Times, April 26, 1955' p. 5. leandnan, loc. cit. 131 newspayernen, a portion of the 500 Journalists which re- 14 Inc balance of the portedly attended the conference. nearly 2,000 peeple at the Opening session was provided by guests of the indonesian governnont. after the agenda had been aggroved by the con- ference members and announced by the conference chairman, i the opening statements began.l) rhese sceeches, consum- iné three plenary sessions, started in the afternoon on nonday and continued through ’i‘uesday.16 ihe speakers took the platforn in alphabetical order for fifteen minute policy stateaents.l7 From a synopsis of eaCh spaced it is possible to conclude that the predominant note throughout the spen- ins session apneared to be one of national pride and re- cial consciousness. arote one writer on the second day of the conference: "fiverr 8*cech at the conference so 1! far has been at least in part a recital of each nation's lQhEXBB beeon. "Colonialism in for haps at Ban- dung’" Cfli°eip “ailx.eews. Aeril Is. 1395. p. 5. 15 ghe ranila Times, April 19, 1955. pp. 1-2. 16 Axial-iii, £12. 93.3., p. Z].- sltnougn 11fteen minutes angears to have been the average time allotted to each speaker, nomulo is said to have delivered a half-hour speech. has 0.0. Conwres- sional necord, o4tn cong., 1st sess., 1995, hi, iart 15, A 3566, quoting the Hashington naily News of spril 19, 1355. This is probably the actual case since the speech is much too long to have been delivered in a shorter per- iod of time. 132 attainments in freedom and its dedication to tne solid— arity of the colored peooles of the aorld."18 "rote an- Otner writer: "A certain amount of reyetitioueneee drove home the racial theme with crushing force."19 "The mood of the first day was one of tranquil- ity and high hope," with the only controversial items advanced by the speaker's being an occasional attack upon the colonial aspect of international communism.20 lran's rermanent hepreeentative to the United nations, ujalal nbdoh first alluded to this subject; and he was later followed by monamneo Fadnil Jnmali or iraq wno pursued it still further. rueeduy brought additional attacks upon communism by otner nations sympathetic to tne nest?l one of these Speakers was nomulo who addressed tne con- . (‘3 . . .. . 2 , ., ference in too morning 01 tno seOOnd day. ‘ ne Spoke 18 ‘ ‘ l ‘ 'I "' nonuld oteaa, "nanouna ralks break olo dar- riere," Christian science monitor, April 20, 1995, p. 2. _ lgniohard wrifiht, The polor Curtain (Cleveland: she world ruoliening cougany, 1330), p. 19). f 0. . . Landuan, loc. Cit. 21 ‘ _, _' i ¥ ‘ ' ..i- i .' .. ‘. ' ' 'ueorée mciurnan nanin, ine “clan-nirican Conferenqg (ltnacez~ Cornell University rrees, 1990), pp. ld‘ljo 22 St. Louis root-riegetcn, upril 19, 1995. P0 2A. 133 9 2 in tne above prevailin5 atmosyhore. 3 "extual Authentication before be5innin5 his analysis the writer was obliged to select one of five texts of nemulo'e Opening address. these texts appeared in the followin5 sources: (1) Ihe Aanila Times, April 20, 195 5, p. 8. (2) institute of iacific helations, "delec- ted Locunonts of the Landun5 Conierence.§4 New York, 1955. (wimeO5raphed. ), p. 12. (j) nonulo, earlos r., "The Asian-African Conference," Vital ‘Jeeo‘ a, nil (June 1, 1355) . p. 1270*“. (4) U.5., Congressional Lecord, 84th Cong., 136 06550, 1J5), Cl, ia£t 5, 62000 (5) nonulo, Carlos L., The fleaning f Bandung. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina 1w: as, 1956, p. 63. Q Ihey have been arranged ncrc nunsri callj and in chronolo- gical order for purgoscs of explication. The source con— taining the text which seems to reflect most accurately what the speaker said is the first mentioned -- The manila djitomulo attached great significance to the opening speeches because he felt that the feelings of the twenty-nine garticipatin5 nations could be properly au ed thzou n tue9. use Vicento J. Guzman, Landun Eonfab btartin5 ioday, " Ihe ianila “ines, April ls, $955. £4Ihe speech text used in this source was ob- tained from the lndonesian sission to the United Nations in New Xork. 134 Times. This selection was based upon a combination of interrelated factors including publication dates, inter- nal discrepancies, and the general nature of the speaker's methods of speech preyaration and delivery. because of the total number of SpeGCh texts available, publication dates mi5ht help determine which text is the most authentic. The element of time is im- portant mainly because of the pOssibility for the revi—- sion and extension of remarks. A speech text appearing immediately after the actual delivery of the speech would afford the speaker very little time for alterations. Cf the five texts mentioned above the one affordin5 the speak~ er the least Opportunity for alteration is the one found in Ihe manila Times. it was sent by wireless to manila the very day it was delivered. nn introductory notation indicates that it is "the full text of the address by £1 Chief neie5ate uarlos r. nomulo in the Asian African conference.” in all likelihood it was handed directly to the members of the ihilipyine newspaper dele5ation without need of any resortin5. A consideration of homu~ lo's methods of Speecn preparation and ueliVery would help corroborate this fact. we will review these methods presently, but let us first touch upon the hatter of in- ternal discreyancies. 135 Looking at each of the five texts, a number or significant discrepancies can be noted. To begin with, text (1) contains more actual words than any of the other iour texts. within the body it contains one more para- graph than each or the others, while at the end it con- tains three more paragraphs than either (2) or (5). hith- out benefit or these three paragraphs texts (2) and (3) “ould appear to be both stylistically and organization- ally incomplete. ine writer would therefore consider them as spurious. iexts (4) and (9) present more of a problem, the only paragraph missing from them being an internal paragraph union would not necessarily render the speeches incomplete if left out. houbt can be cast upon their authenticity in Other ways, however. her one thing it has been observed as a common practice to revise and ex- tend remarks yrinted in the uongressionel heeord.25 Text (9) would also fall heir to this possibility since in all essential respects it is an exact duplication of (4). Additionally, texts (4) and (9) show signs of a conscious attempt to improve punctuation. both, for example, contain c 2"son nobinscn, "Are speeches in Congress ne— ported Accuratelyt,” gusrterll Journal g; sneech, thllI (February, 1942), p. 12. cited by rhonssen and naird, fl. Cite. LP. jV4‘JDQ 136 commas in apprOpriate places which are conspicuously miss- ing from text (1). Ihey also do not have commas that according to the laws 01 grammar are erroneously placed in text (1). rheee facts would tend to indicate then that texts t4} and (5) were tampered with and are there— fore also spurious. Judging iron what has been just noted concern- ing the factors of time and of internal discrepancies, text (1), the text appearing in ghg manila.§;§g§, appears to be the most accurate of the five. it is impossible to place complete reliance even upon it, however, because of the nature of the speaker's habits of speech prepara- tion and delivery as noted at the end of the previous chapter. nomulo, it will be remembered, never takes a complete manuscript with him to the platform; he relies rather upon remembering what he has previously written in manuscript form. in the absence of some accurate re- cording technique or apparatus, therefore, it is impos- sible to claim that text (1) is"the verbatim version." It can only be stated that it probably reflects what the speaker said better than any of the others. Enough evi- dence, at least, seems to point in this direction. 137 Purpose The general purpose of an Opening speech at an international conference is usually to arouse enthus- iasm for what is about to occur and to deepen emotion for the causes Which brouyht the nations together. In this sense an opening adoress is nothing more than a speech to stimulate. more Specifically, however, the purpose is also to set forth the fundamental national policy of the individual governments and their general attitudes toward the issues of the day and the issues on the agenda of the conference. as one delegate stateu: "in these Opening general statements, people define themselves; they introduce themselves politically; they state th ultimate general questions on their minds; they trace the limits within which their national policy functions."26 nomulo's epeecn contains all of the above char- acteristics of an Opening address in addition to the fact that it also voices a firm resolve to discuss the condi- tion of "man's estate" as frankly and as realistically as possible. he might very well have been stating the underlying purpose of his own Speech when he said to the f Otifilik, 9‘20 Cite. Pa 22. 158 conference members: "He will serve each other if we ex- amine ourselves, if we clarify, as far as we can our choices, our deals -- and our obstacles." aithin the framework of his own beliefs and attitudes as well as the general framework provided by the peculiar orientation of his country's foreign policy Lonulo constructed his Speech. ln essence, he wished to show that democracy and not communism was the answer to the common problems 27 besetting the members of the conference. Arrangement ln harmony with the Aristotelian tradition, 27-. it is said that on the Opening day homulo 'seemed to have a smile and a good word for everyone' Egg New York Times, April 15, less, p. 5. , and that he 'stole the snow with two dramatic entrances.’ 'Eirst, when he entered dedung herdeka, hundreds of lndonesians shouted 'homulo! nomulol' as they spotted him in the long line of delegates in single file, arranged in alphabetical order in their countries. 'sgain he was applauded when he entered the session hell. he he strode in sure step to the pouium to also second eastroamidjojo's nomination, he merited more aptlause from the delegates and newsman.‘ see Vicente J. Guzman, "Opening nites at Bandung are In— pressive,” rhe nanila Iimes, Ayril 19, 1993, p. l. 139 homulo's Opening Address has an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction although quite short ex- hibits proof that the speaker attempted to place himself on common ground with his listeners and to obtain the proPer good will toward both himself and his subject. Certain passages illustrate this attempt: is of the rhilippines have a profound sense of the great historic events drama- tized by this unique gathering... we have watched with proud solidarity the estab- lishment of the other independent nations of a free Asia... us come as members of one great family long separated from each other... While the introduction encompassed less than one tenth of the total volume of words, the passages cited indicate that its function was to adapt the speaker and his subject to both the audience and the occasion. Announcement, personal reference, and eXplanation all served to make this adaptation. Turning now to the body of the speech, the lie- tener is at once confronted with the core of the Speaker's threefold sequence of ideas. These three ideas are 1) that the nations represented at the conference are con- cerned with the issues of colonialism and political free- dom, racial equality, and peaceful economic growth, 2) that the history of the world turns on how these issues WP 140 are met and resolved, and 3) that the countries of Asia and Africa must resolve these issues through either demo- cracy or communism. Although these ideas are organized in a variety of standard ways depending upon the point of view taken, the most obvious method utilized is that of distribution. homulo distributes the bulk of his in- ventive material in political, social, and economic cate- gories. hach category receives about equal treatment in terms of space, but the speaker suggests that the eco- nomic aspect is the most important. it will be noted also that these three distributive elements correspond to the objectives of the conference as outlined by the Colombo sponsors in their Bogor communique. this is evidently where the speaker obtained his organizational tOpoi. lf the structural pattern of the body as a whole were considered without reference to the distributive method Just analyzed, it would be seen that the speech develOps along the general lines of problem and solution. The speaker's material can be divided according to the logical pattern formulated for any question of policy. First there are statements with proof of the factors in— volved in the problematic situation. These factors cor- respond to the organizational tepoi already discussed. next, there is a weighing of all possible solutions 141 (communism and democracy) which culminates finally in a brief analysis of the solution desired (democracy). Althouah no democratic progran for solving the speaker's problems is spelled out in any great detail, an indirect reference is made to the democratic way of life contained in the iacific Charter. Ihis deficiency would appear to be an organizational weaaness in the problem-solution speech structure. nomulo devotes about as much time to his con— clusion as he did to his introduction; but if it is brief, it is also forceful. rhe conclusion is motivational in character. appeal is combined withquotation to enforce the speaker's purpose. after ending the body of his speech with an appeal to Asian nationalism, the speaker concludes the whole of his address by demanding an international approach to the problems then besetting all mankind. he says: The success of this conference will be measured not only by what we do for ourselves but also by what we do for the entire human community. Large as is the cause of asia, there is a cause even larger. it is the cause of the human family in a world struggling to liberate itself from the chaos of international anarchy. In short, our cause is the cause of man. he adapts his concluding sentence to the spiritual orienta- tion of his audience by invoking the diety and by quoting 142 an apprOpriate passage from the Sermon on the Mount. Let us invoke the blessing and the guidance of Almighty God over our deli- berations so that this conference may prove to be the radiating center of the divine injunction 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself' and we may help to make the mast and nest live toaether as enjoined by our ancient creed 'se are all brothers under the canopy of heaven.’ how that the three traditional parts of the speech have been considered individually a more compre- hensive View of the speaker's arrangement can be taken. duestions Ismaining unanswered concern the emergence of a central unifying theme, the use of transitions, and the adaptation of the total speech plan to the audience. To begin with, it can be seen from what was said previously in connection with the speaker's purpose that the emergence of a central unifying theme character— izes the totality of his thought. It was observed that the speaker’s purpose was to persuade his audience not to adOpt communism once hurOpean colonialism had been eliminated from Asia and Africa. Although this warning is never mentioned specifically, it is nevertheless the thread which ties the entire speech together. in addition to this central theme, it will be noted also that two minor themes arise from time to time throughout the speech. highlighting the major theme are 143 the secondary themes of nationalism and internationalism. The speaker attempts throughout his Speech to channel the uncontrolled nationalistic aspirations of his audi— ence into what he considers to be the more beneficial area of democratic internationalism. This attitude is a natural manifestation of the speaker's peculiar mode of philosophical idealism witnessed in the last chapter. more will be said about it in the next section when we trace its general develOpment wnile analysing the Speak- er's use of 1051031 proof. we now turn to the more func- tional question of transitions. the major and subsidiary parts of ncmulo's Open- ing Address are linked into an organic whole by transi- tional elements found chiefly in the forms of rhetorical questions and short anticipatory statements. Ehe follow— ing eXamples are typical. unetorical questions -— Eistween introduction and bodfl he in this room are, for our brief moment, a part of this history. how do we see it? now do we understand it? (éetween problem and solutioéx that do we want? how do we prepose to seek it? Anticipatory statements -- {Eithin the first distributive elemenil 144 There are at least three things more to be said here about this matter of national political freedom: {Eetween the first and second distribu- tive elementfl l have said that besides the issues of colonialism and political freedom, all of us here are concerned with the matter of racial equality. (éetween the second and third distribu- tive elcmenté] Lastly, l have said that all of us here are concerned with peaceful economic growth. Looking once more at the organization of the speech as a whole, the basic structural pattern appears to be alternated argument and appeal with honroe's moti- vated sequence clearly in evidence. while the arguments are usually arranged didactically -- well over half the paragraphs in the body of the speech begin with a short generalized statement followed by examples and specific instances -- the appeals are arranged in no particular order. in fact, they are at times merely implied rather than stated directly. This isparticularly true of the appeal made under the distributive element of peaceful economic growth. it remains implied but stresses the theme of international cooPeration in solving the world's economic problems. Lhe political and racial topoi, how- ever, have clearly stated appeals. homulo, for example, 145 concludes his discourse on political freedom by saying: "we have to have the imagination and courage to put our- selves in the foreiront of the attempt to create a 20th century world based on the true interdependence of peo- ples. he concludes his discourse on racial equality by saying: "Let us not preserve stupid racial supersti- tions wnich belong to the past. Let us work to remove this ugly disease wherever it is rooted, whether it be among western men or among ourselves." in all three in- stances the appeals are directed to positive goals, 1.6., to what "should" be done. Invention -- Logical Eroof fine develOpmcnt of nomulo's speech, as seen in the foreéoing section on arrangement, can be viewed from the standpoint of tne reasoning process, i.e., it falls within the general category of problem and solution. in considering his lobical proof, therefore, it would be apprOpriate to have this diapositicnal framework serve as a functional basis of judgment. ”hat, in other words, here the logical characteristics of the speaker's problem; and did he provide an adequate solution? since tne develOpment of the speaker's problem 146 followed the political, racial and GOOHOmiC divisions of his first major idea, it will be necessary to analyze his $0510 in the same sequential pattern. 1. rolitical freedom. Under the heading of political freedom nomulo's aféumcut is interonen with much eXposition. he begins by presenting some commonly held facts and beliefs Which serve to dive his reason- ing background and gereycctive. he states that the major- ity of the indekcndent nations IGyIcfieutéd at the confer- ence had won tneir indefendence only within the last ten years, that they had con their indegendence by many dif- ferent means, and that the ucnievement of Iurtner inde- pendence did not depend Ou nestern good will or slow ac- cess of wisdom and virtue. rhese factual assertions, which reflect the sneaker's understanding of the historic backdround and combosition of his audience, are suyported largely by causal relation and specific instance. :ha causal relations 50 factually unsuggorted on two occas- ions, however, as attested by the following example. nomulo says: rhe United states has at times ap- peared to us lacking in consistency and vigor in ubholding the right of non-self- governing peoples to independence. it has on SOne issues leaned heavily in favor of colonial powers and has sometimes dis- heartened us because of its failure to make its actions dovetail with its ideals of equality and freedom. 147 One would sipect nomulo to make such statements in libht of the attitude his government has taken toward American intransigence within the United hations. rhe U.N. mem- bers of the audience would also more than likely be aware of Specific instances of this intransigence. This might have been the reason honulo neglected to use some of them in the form of factual subport. having attuned his listeners to the necessity for and the desirability of obtaining political indepen- dence, nomulo then yroceeds to caution them about some of the dangers involved. he points out that national independenCe is just the beginning of the conquest of real freedom, and that the independence of small or weak nations is at best a precarious and fragile thing. in showing that national independence can be more fiction than fact, nodule uses four soecific examgles to prove that national independence can be used as an instrument for a new and different kind of subjection and that na- tional independence is subject to violently different opinions. ihese examples appear to be well chosen since the speaker sianes out two or the conference sponsors for particular mention. he says: 1 can recall reading a report of an editorial in Pravda, published in Moscow, which called newly independent lndia d 148 puppet of British imperialism. There was a time when raking newspagers and radio broadcasts were saying similar things about the neyublic of lndonesia. ihe speaker's a'nunent is strengthened not only legically with the use of these two examples but psychologically as well. Judginb iron the iact that both india and indo- nesia adhere strictly to neutralist principles in the conduct of their ioreibn aliairs, tney would be the first to deny that they were "guypets oi a foreign power." nicer cautioning his audience about some of the dangers of political indecendence, honulo thereupon ends this adamant of his aiéunentative engosition with an aypeal to historical reality. ne asserts that nation- alism is a narrow and inadequate instrument for solving Asia's and nfrica's manifold yroblens, and that a true interdegendence of seeples must be the inevitable have of the future. he states that "western nuroycun man today is paying the terrible price" for preserving too long the conceyt of the nation state. he concludes his argument with an hygothetiCal syllOgisn, the only syllo;ism used in the entire speech. ii we of “sis and Africa are to avoid reheating all of nurOye's historic errors, the Speaker says in so many words, we must achieve a greater coherence and u uniting of reaional interests. "as have 149 to try to avoid repeating all of Europe's historic errors." Therefore, the audience members are left to conclude that they must achieve a greater conerence and a uniting of regional interests. Throughout this section on colonialism and po- litical freedom the minor themes of nationalism and in- ternationalism repeatedly manifest themselves. rhe for- mer reCeivee its greatest emphasis when the speaker says that “the age of emyire is being helped into oblivion by the aroused will and action or peeple determined to be masters of their can fate.“ rhe latter receives its greatest emyhasis in the concluding paragraph which con- tains the hypothetical syllogism Just analyzed. 2. aacial equality. Because racial equality was potentially the most explosive concept with which the speaker dealt, he was compelled to measure his logic accordingly. he began this section of his speech by la- beling racial equality as a touchstone, pointing out that, although the systems and manners of racial discrimination had varied, no western colonial regime was free from im- posing it upon others. his argumentative technique was largely exyositional in which very little clear cut logic could be properly utilized. ne described what the doc— trine and bractice of nestern racism had accomplished 150 and then stated that it survived in virulent form only in the Union of South Africa - an assertion which in turn received further expositional treatment. is in the first area of controversy, so also in this one does homulo attempt to caution his audience. After discussing expositionally some of the general ram- ifications of racism, the speaker then proceeds to remind his auditors that they too must not fall into the same racist trap as the white man. He reasons causally that such a course of action would mean giving up all hope of human freedom for the countries at the conference strug- gling to be free. He states that racism.pggngg is an outcrOpping of one of the many human weaknesses which constantly plague mankind; and he cites as an example of this the racial discrimination practiced in India which Mahatma Gandhi devoted so much of his life to eradicate. Such an example was functionally appropriate in that it called to the attention of the conference members a per- eon with whom they were all reasonably familiar and one whom they respected. The speaker climaxes this section of his speech with an appeal to the authority of the Bible. "would that we all gave as much time," he said, "to the mote in our own eye as we give to denouncing the beam in the 151 eye of another." (matt. 733). Here Romulo calls upon his Christian training to provide him with an argument from authority readily conformable to the spiritual na- ture of his audience. 3. Economic growth. within the context of peaceful economic growth homulo again handled his logical materials largely inductively. He disclosed to his audi- ence the facts of their economic backwardness and con- cluded that this backwardness was“partly due to factors of climate, geOgraphy, and the stubborn survival of ob- solete cultural patterns." Carrying his causal reason- ing one step further, he additionally concluded that the economic backwardness he had Just described was also in large measure the result of patterns imposed upon the countries of Asia and Africa by Western colonialism. To the representatives of countries at the conference with long colonial records, this last assertion needed no further proof. It was easily adaptable to the prevail- ing attitudes noted in the second chapter. Once this factual groundwork had been laid, the speaker's next step was to reintroduce his minor theme into the discussion. As was the case previously, so here again the idea of interdependence as opposed to extreme nationalism is stressed. ficmulo asserts that a purely national economy is an illusion, and that the key to 152 effective economic growth for the nations represented at the conference is to be found in increasing interde- pendence. much of the speaker's reasoning here was an attempt to refute a misconception which he felt resided in the minds of his audience. This misconception resulted from the fear that a policy of economic interdependence would be a crippling disadvantage to the nations of Asia and Africa at this stage of their development. This fear was refuted by the speaker in two ways. First, he sug- gested negatively that a policy of economic interdepen- dence for the nations of Asia and Africa would mean that these same nations would not have to go through "the equiv- alent of the decades and centuries of ugly, painful and costly deve10pment which occurred in most western coun- tries." Then he suggested positively that the nations in question could make use of the most ultra-modern tech- nologies to transform themselves more rapidly, ”to make new and hitherto unforeseen use” of their resources. The underlying premise of his argument was that Asia needs the world and the world needs Asia. Turning now to an inspection of the solution phase of the problem-solution sequence, we are at once confronted with the problem of choice, the choice between communism and democracy. These are the logical alternatives 153 which the speaker presents to his audience for solving their political, racial, and economic problems. Drawing upon his can democratic ideals and the democratic orien- tation of his country's foreign policy, his logical meth- od is to reject the communist alternative. de accomplishes this by suggesting that communism is a ruthless tyranny, that it diminishes "the individual well-being and free- dom of millions of peOple," and that it would merely re- place the worst aspects of western colonialism. In ad- dition he asserts that, contrary to the communist philo— BOphers, the communist state does not wither away but becomes inherently eXpansionist. Upon discarding communism as a valid solution to the problems facing the nations at the conference, the speaker turns to democracy and finds it acceptable. The principle underlying his acceptance is that since the nations of main and nfrica want to solve their own pro- blems without any outside interference, the only suitable answer is democracy for it places no restraint upon them. specifically, what the speaker suggests by way of a con- crete pragram for the implementation of his solution is the adeption of the Iacific Charter by all concerned. he envisages it as enshrinin; "the dignity of man, his well-being, his security, his progress, his nation's right ' 154 to self-determination." No further details than these are given. neviewing now the total legical develOpment of the speaker's problem-solution sequence of ideas, certain outstanding characteristics are apparent. To begin with, it has been noted that the speaker relies heavily upon argumentative exposition to present his case. While this kind of exposition has some reasoning value, its complete worth cannot be determined from a purely lOgical stand- point. dince it does serve to make the speaker's reason- ing clearer, however, it can be properly regarded here as a useful substructure of his argument; and, in this sense, its function has been fulfilled. Also, from what has been previously observed, it can be stated that the chief means of support for the speaaer's conclusions are basically inductive. Of these inductive means, specific instance and causal relation appear to predominate with argument from authority being occasionally used. Because of the predominance of argu- mentative eXposition, however, most of the speaker's as- sertions go unsupported. he assumes that proof will be provided by his listeners, i.e., from their own past ex- periences, common beliefs, and prevailing attitudes. Judging from the purpose of his speech which was largely 155 motivational this does not appear to be an unwarranted assumption,for the audience was already convinced of the rightness of its cause. In short, no further proof was needed. Ihe greatest weakness of homulo'e case lies in his apparent failure to provide an adequate solution to the tripartite problem he presented. Yet this weak- ness is probably more psycholOgical than legical. It might very well be that the adoption of the Pacific Char~ ter by all concerned would solve their pressing politi- cal, racial, and economic problems, but they are given no specific reasons to believe that this can be so. They are told what they must do, but not specifically how to do it. Ihe speaker, in other words, merely points in the direction of a solution, and the listeners are left with no remedy or redress for their grievances. invention -- Emotional Proof In terms of his Opening address, some of hom— ulo's greatest strength derives from his ability to adapt his remarks to prevailing audience attitudes. As a whole, the speech exhibits a areful understanding of both the make-up and the motivations of the audience. it takes 156 into account the political, racial, and economic status of the listeners, as well as the known prejudices and predispositions which brought them tOgether. It was observed in Chapter 11 that the delegates to the Asian—nfrican Conference came from countries where the peoyle they represented were considered to be poli- tically impotent, racially objectionable, and economically backward. homulo acknowledged these characteristics through- out his speech. ln his introduction, for example, he said: All who are represented here are certainly concerned with the issues of (l) colonialism and political freedom, (2) racial equality, and (3) peaceful economic growth. rhe history of the world in our time turns on the ways in ehich these issues are met and resolved or not met and not resolved. within the body of his speech he said; Ihe majority of independent nations represented here won their independence only within the last decade. 00............OOOOOOOOOOO......ODCCOOOO Racial equality is a touchstone... for most of us assembled here and the pebbles we represent. .0O0.0.00.0...0..........OOOOOOOOIOOOOO It is precisely because the billion and a half people of Asia and Africa have begun in our time to strive for a better economic stake in life that most of us are here today. 157 In discussing these three topics, the speaker is,consid- ering what is best calculated to elicit the greatest rev apnea from his audience. He therefore shows his ability to adapt material to his listeners. The emotional nature of homulo's audience is encompassed by the totality of his thought, for within the tripartite framework mentioned above, the speaker appeals to the wants, needs and desires of his listeners. Such motivating factors as nationalistic self-assertion, social Justice, and material well being are directly ap- pealed to. Under the heading of colonialism and politi- cal freedom, for example, homulo appeals to the desire for nationalistic self-assertion. rho handwriting of history is spread on the wall. But not everybody reads it the same way or interprets similarly what he reads there. we know the age of mura- pean empire; not all Europeans know that yet. Not all Asians or Africans have been or are still aware that they must make them- selves the conscious instruments of historic decision. ............OOOOCOOOOOOOI0.0.0....0...... It is to be heped...that this confer- ence will help remind all the western powers that the issue of political independence for subject peeples does not depend on their good-will or slow access of wisdom and vir- tue. The age of empire is being helped into oblivion by the aroused will and ac- tion of peeple determined to be masters of their own fate. Under the heading of racial equality honulo appeals to the desire for social justice. I do not think in this company I have to labor the full import of this pernicious doctrine and practice. 1 do not think 1 have to try to measure the role played by this racism as a driving force in the development of the nation- alist movements in our many lands. For many it has made the goal of regaining a statue of simple manhood the be~all and end-all of a lifetime of devoted struggle and sacrifice. Under the heading of peaceful economic growth homulo ap- peals to the desire for material well being. fhe great masses of our peeple live in a state of rural poverty. we need to diversify our economies. we need to in- dustrialize in accordance with our re- sources and needs. we have to win a more balanced place in the market places of the world. we have to do this in a manner that will effectively raise the standard of living of our people. All of these appeals were directed to the wellsprings of human conduct, and as such they enabled the speaker to link the truth of his ideas with the emotional nature of his audience. some of somulo's appeals, however, are conceived on a higher phiIOSOpnical plane than those Just mentioned. He-appeals to a higher level of man's nature, when he calls for forgiveness, magnanimity, and fair play and refers to the dignity of man’s estate. In his conclusion 159 he says: Let us therefore draw strength not from the hurts of past or present but from our common hOpes —- hepes that can come to life in all pecples everywhere. And if the test of that strength should be our ability to forgive then let it be said that we were the giants of our time. Throughout his speech he refers to the idealistic concept of Erancis Bacon -- the dignity of man's estate. "de come as menbers of one great family long segarated from seen other," he says. "in this family reunion we are here to talk of man's estate." because of the emphasis which universal moral values receive in the nations represented at the conference, any appeal to the loftier side of man's nature can be assured of a hearing. The countries of Asia and africa, it was noted earlier, take great pride in their moral and spiritual heritage. if the Speaker links the truth of his ideas with the emotional nature of his audience, he is aided in so doing by the rhythmic flow of his sentences. Any of the above quoted passages will yield proof for this statement. also, the speaker's use of figurative lan— gangaand emotionally toned adjectives help his in his mo- tivational apneals. Again, the above passages exhibit corroboratino evidence. when his own language, however, proves emotionally inadequate he calls upon appropriate 160 language from other quarters. in discussing peaceful economic growth, for example, he pictures a world of eco- nomic interdependence as envisioned by the hindu poet and humanist, nabindranath Tagore -- a world "not divided into fragments by narrow domestic walls." such a liter- ary allusion was capable of producing much emotional im- pact not merely because of what was said but also because of the person quoted. habindranath Iagore was the first Asian ever to win the Rebel Prize for Literature. Invention -- hthical froof nonulo's Opening address gives strong support to the Aristotelian dictum that "there is no proof so effective as that of the character." fhe speaker enhances his ethical appeal through the impressions he gives of his "sagacity, high character, and good will." An analy- sis of these three ethical elements is therefore in order. 1. sagacity. nomulo establishes a feeling of intellectual integrity and wisdom by the manner in which he handles certain speech materials. In discuss- ing the siplosive issue of racial equality, for example, the speaker is careful to point out the inherent differ- ence between the words "all" and "some." he says 161 concerning the past racist attitudes of the white man: Our quarrel with racism is that it substitutes the accident of skin color for Judgment of men as men. Counter- racism would have us do the same; to lump white men by their supposed racial grouping and govern our acts and reac- tions accordingly. it is our task to rise above this noxious nonsense. he have the responsibility to remain aware that tnis kind of racist attitude has been the practice not of all white men, but only of some... Once this verbal distinction has been made clear, the speaker then goes on to plead for moderation in deal- ing with the critical racial problem. "where is the so- ciety," he asks, "in which men have not in some manner divided themselves for political, social, and economic purposes by wnolly irrational and indefensible categories of status, birth, and...skin color?" Ihe Speaker shows his ethical proof here throuph candid restraint in which he attempts to hold in check the irrational impulses of his audience. homulo's sagacity is further enhanced by his tact in handling the delicate subject of communism. Not once in his speech does he mention the word communism directly. Since acnulo's avowed goal at the conference as “OtGd earlier, was to make friends for his country, any blustering or direct attack upon communism would have .162 been strictly out of place especially in the company of the neutralist states who wished to avoid any controver- else of an ideological nature. Two Asian communist states were also present, it must be remembered, and one of them, Communist China, was considered to be the most powerful nation in Asia. Ihe sgeaker's indirect attacks against communism, therefore, were not only ethically wise but diplomatically wise as well. since homulc was playing the conference by ear, accusations had to be made as deftly as yossible. if homulo reveals his sagacity through intel— lectual integrity and wisdom as well as through tact and moderation, so also does he manifest it through a broad familiarity with the important interests of the day. He makes particular reference to the issues of the cold war, especially as those issues related to the social and economic problems faced by the conference members. it could be that nuseia's bombs or America's bombs will determine the future shape of the world and the fate of human- ity... But 1 do not think the Great de- cisicns will come that way. 1 think the shaye of the world is going to be deter- mined in large measure by the way in which the peoyles of asia and africa go about the business of transforming their lives and their societies. By the last sentence the speaker established a grasp of historical perspective -- a persgective which would have 163 little trouble coinciding with the attitudes of the audi- ence. rhe representatives of Asia and Africa could not quarrel with this view of history. 2. high character. The Speaker's high char- acter is evinced in large part by the way he handles the toucny racial issue. instead of arousing the passions of his listeners, he warns them aéainst the evils of coun— ter-racism. he calls attention to the fact that racial discrimination.pg£.§g is merely the outcropping of one of many human weaknesses which constantly plague mankind. "Surely we are entitled to our resentment and rejection of white racism wherever it exists," he says. "But we are also called upon...tc acnnowledge that in degree we all suffer from the same sin of ignorance and immorality.“ By referring to racism and counter-racism as immoral, the speaker associates himself with what is virtuous and ele- vated. in fact, throughout his discussion on racism it can be readily observed that the speaker injects into the minds of his listeners the concept of moral respon- sibility in the conduct of their relations aith themselves and with the rest of the world. since the Speaker's cause is the cause of demo- cracy, and his Opponent is totalitarianism, he bestows praise upon the former and links the latter with what 164 is not virtuous. He equates democracy with freedom and maintains that freedom is necessary for the countries of sale and Africa to solve their osn problens. Total- itarianism (comnunisn), on the other hand, is equated with enslavencnt and tyranny; the speaher refers to it as "a new superbarbarisn, a new sugerinperialisn, a new superpower." nonulo focused further attention upon his prob- ity 3f character by renoving unfavorable impressions of the country he represented; and since he symbolized what his country stood for, he also renoved unfavorable in— preseions of himself. it was noted in the second chap- ter that the rhilipgines was considered by same of the countries at tne conference not to have a completely in- dependent foreign policy, but to be tied to the policies of the United States. honulo minimized this adverse feel- ing somewhat by stating that the United States had at times lacked "consistency and vigor in upholding the right of non-self-governing becples to independence." fie re- ferred to the communist satellite countries of North Korea, Poland, nonania and bulgaria and then asked "I wonder if any of the spohcsnan of these countries would ever speak as freely in criticism of the bigger country to which they feel friendly or allied as, say, we in the 165 Ihilippines speak our minds about the United States?" by showing nis own country's freedom to criticize the United states and tnen by actual prior criticism of the U.$., the speaher helped minimize an unfavorable attitude toward the country he represented. neliance upon his personal experience also helged the sneaker enhance his probity of character in the eyes of the audience. when he spoke of democracy in the rhilippines, he was steaking about echetning he himself had exgerienced; and when he spoke about the de- fects of the United Nations, he was also speaking from first hand knowledge. although homulo makes no direct reference to his personal experience with these two sub— Jects, his audience would nevertheless have been well aware of his qualifications. i here mention of them was enough to establish an authoritative relationship. 3. eood will. rhe chief methods used by the sneaker to generate good will toward his audience included an identification with the hearers and their problems, plus an aggroaCh that was both candid and straightforward. the first of tnese methods was used throuéhout the speech but was yarticularly evident in the introduction and con- clusion. in his introduction, for example, the speaker said: 166 we have...taken our stand firmly behind the struggle of every peoyle to become master of its Own fate, to enjoy its own destiny, its own identity, to be resgonsible for its own acts, to join in the immense tasks of building a new structure of human well-beizg and free institutions, the task indeed, of chang— ing the face of the world. fhis personal identification was reiterated in his con— clusion when the sienker said: fhe rhilipgine delegation is here to underscore in this conference that it is the sense of the rilipino peoyle that such right of self-determination includes the right of natiOns to decide eiclusively by themselves their ability to assume the reSyonsibilities inherent in an independent yolitical status. it will be noted that this last sentiment eXpresses one of the forces wnich drew tne conference members together, and that it reflects the ideas contained in the resolu- tion passed by the rhilippine denate in order to strength- en tne position of the rhilippine delegation at the con- ference. The eye Ker's candor and streightforwerdness :0 are indicated in the following passage taken from the body of his sgeech. 1n sneaking of the necessity for each country to safeguard the freedom of its citizens, homulo said: but for my part and for my peeple, may 1 say plainly that we regard the 167 struggle for freedom as an unendind, constant, unremitting demand upon us, that with all our acknowledged failings, faults, and weaknesses, we are seekiné to build in our land a society in which the freedom of our ncxublic sill truly beooue tne freedom of its Citlchs. from the standpoint of clearness nomulo's style in his Opening Address can be best characterized by sin- glicity and directness of exyression. his sentences are straightforward and tend to create a common feeling be- tween himself and his audience chiefly by neans of per— sonalized words and rhetorical questions. 0f the former it is possible to find as many as twelve within the stacs of just a hundred words,28 while the latter Can usually be found at transitiOnal points and at places where the restatement of an earlier idea can be nude. Toward the end of his address, it will be remembered, the Speaker presented two choices to his audience -- totalitarianism or dehocracy. After stating those choiCes directly he restated then interrOQatively a little later by saying: A"'i‘hs results of a readability analysis indi- cate that eight per cent of the sneaker's words were per- sonal. sec Lppendix ll for additional details. 168 Do we fight to regain our manhood from western colonial rulers only to surrender it to rulers among ourselves who seize the power to keep us enslaved? Is it true, can it be true, in this vastly develOped 20th century, that na- tional progress must be paid for with the individual well-being and freedom of mil- lions of peOple? Can we really believe that this price will, in some dim and undefined future time, be redeemed by the well-being and freedom of the as yet unborn? in addition to the functional appropriateness of these questions which enabled the speaker to adapt his material to the audience, their rhythmic quality makes them aes- thetically pleasing as well. Another indication of homulo's clarity of ex- pression is to be found in his frequent use of parallel sentence structure. Ehe fact is that we will need greater world coherence than we have now if we are to thrive. The fact is that the effective mobilization of world capital and resources will be absolutely vital to us in the pro- cess of mobilizing our own capital and our own resources. The fact is that these things will depend in great measure on the further course of the conflicts that now govern all world affairs. With sentences like these beginning the same way, the listener is able to concentrate on thoudht rather than structure. Such can also be the case with internal par- allelism as the following excerpt will testify. "as will 169 serve each other," the speaker said, "if we examine our— selves, if we state the issues and problems plainly as we see them, if we clarify, as far as we can, our needs, our choices, our goals —- and our obstacles." There are noted parallel clauses and phrases. Concreteness and specificity of language give further evidence of the speaker's clarity of style. In discussing the problem of racial discrimination he said: "Here was a stigma that could be applied to rich and poor alike, to prince and slave, boss man and working man, landlord and peasant, scholar and ignoramus.“ Notice should also be paid to the contrasted elements in this passage. This is an example of enantiosis or a figure of speech by which things very different are placed to- gether in order to enhance and set each other off. from the standpoint of impressiveness, nomulo's opening address is characterized by vivid word usage and by emphatic sentence structure. since his purpose was to persuade his language is at times highly connotative. The speaker relied heavily upon concrete sensory impres- sions in picturing the road to communist totalitarianism. he said: Ihis road is Open before many of us. The gateway to it is strewn with sweet- smelling garlands of phrases and promises 170 and high sentiment. But once you march through it, the gate clangs behind you. The policeman becomes master and your duty thereafter is forever to say aye. Even those who enjoy the role of mastery must always know that this system devours its own. The descriptive words used here are all highly evocative, for the audience is made to see, smell, hear, and taste action. This passage also indicates the extent of the speaker's ability to call forth strong verbal images in a rhythmic pattern. A further indication of the speaker's vivid word usage is his conscious use of figurative language in addition to the examples of enantiosis already men- tioned, an examination of his Opening address discloses the following tropes and figures: simile. Drawing upon Coleridge's "The aims of the Ancient mariner" for his raw material, homulo added a literary flavor to his discussion of western racism. after asserting that the day of western racism was van- ishing along with western colonialism, he said that "its survival in any form can only hang like an albatross around the necks of those many peOple in the nest who sincerely seek to build a freer and better world." in addition to crystallizing the force of the Speaker's thought in the minds of his audience, this hepe was also apprOpriate 171 from the standpoint of audience adaptation. Since many of the conference delegates had been educated in the test they would have been familiar with the classics of hng- lish literature. Prolapsis (a figure by which a speaker suggests an objection against what he is advancing, and then re- turns an answer to it). This is the predominant tech- nique which nomulo uses in discussing the United Nations. he says: in one sense this conference suggests that for the peeples of Asia and Africa the United nations has inadequately met the need for establishing common ground for peOples seeking peaceful change and develOpment. but l think we must also say that if the United Nations has been weak and limited in its prOgress toward these goals, it is because the United Nations is still much more a mirror of the world than an effective instrument for changing it. The speaker also employs a metaphor (trope) in the last sentence when he pictures the UN as a "mirror." _§syndeton (a figure occasioned by the omission of conjunctive particles). There are two examples of this 3 be are part, all of us, of a time of great transformation, for each of us and for all the peOple on earth. It is a trying, difficult, dangerous time... There is no magic wand or automatic 172 formula to bring about social and eco- nomic change. It means that we have to assume our own heavy responsibilities. it means great toil, flexibility, adapt— ability, intelligence. lgggy. Although this trope was used in vary- ing degrees throughout the speech, the high point of its use came when homulo was discussing the status of the eastern European 00mmunist satellites. "1 am sure you will forgive my frankness," he said, "but in this land of the ingenious wajang, of the wonderful indonesian sha- dow play and puppet shows, I think we ought to say plainly to each other when we think a puppet is a puppet." This extreme use of irony, which bordered almost on sarcasm, would have been readily familiar to the speaker's audi- ence because it employed material from their immediate surroundings. A second major element contributing to homulo‘s impressiveness of discourse is emphatic sentence struc- ture. Strength and variety are the outstanding character- istics of his sentences. $0 aid in achieving maximum sentence strength both climax and exclamations were used. in obtaining climax the periodic sentence was put to good advantage. "as do not want leadership in our countries subservient to foreign rulers," he said, "be they in Lon- don or raris, rhe hague, or mashington, or, we must add, 173 Moscow." while arguing against counter-racism he ex- claimed: “uhat a triumph this would be for racism if it should come about! How completely we would defeat our- selves and all who have struggled in our countries to be free!" with respect to variety, nomulo does not restrict himself to just one pattern of sentence structure. In two passages with approximately the same number of words each, for example, he first used two and than seven sen“ tences to express his thought. It will be found also that the relatively long construction is at times linked with the short driving variety to provide sentence con- trast. The paragraph from which the exclamatory expres- sions were quoted above can provide a suitable example. It is here quoted in its entirety. No less than this can be said. but there is something more too. It is one of our heaviest reaponeibilities, we of Asia and Africa, not to fall ourselves into the racist trap. we will do this if we let ourselves be drawn insensibly ~- or deliberately ~~ into any kind of coun- ter~racism, if we respond to the white man's prejudice against us as nonwhites with prejudice against whites simply be- cause they are white. shat a triumph this would be for racism if it should come about! How completely we would defeat ourselves and all who have struggled in our countries to be free! There is no more dangerous or immoral or absurd idea than the idea of any kind of policy or grouping based on 174 color or race as such. This would, in the deepest sense, mean giving up all hepe of human freedom in our time. 1 think that over the generations the deep- est source of our own confidence in our- selves had to come from the deeply—rooted knowledge that the white man was wrong, that in proclaiming the superiority of his race, qua race, he stamped himself with his own weakness and confirmed all the rest of us in our dogged conviction that we could and would reassert ourselves as Illeno Note the steady progression of thought in this paragraph. it builds toward a climax. such is typical of the speak- er’s general paragraph development. Closely associated with sentence variety is the broader concept of amplification. nomulo empresses a basic thought pattern in seVeral different ways depend- ing upon the nature of the thought eXpressed and its re- lative importance to the main theme. The Speaker, for example, contrasted totalitarianism with democracy in several different ways. at one point in the speech the question is asked: "is the struggle for national inde- pendence the strugole to substitute a local oligarchy for the foreign oligarchy?” Eurthcr on this same thought is repeated when the Speaker asks again: "has all the sacrifice, struggle, anddevotion, all been, then, for the purpose of replacing foreign tyranny by domestic ty- ranny?" it will be noted also that the speaker uses a 175 moderate word to exPress totalitarian rule in the first example, while in the second, he not only uses a much stronger word, but the original contrasted elements are reversed, i.e., local and foreign become foreign and do~ mestic. Audience hcsgonse nomulo's Lpening Address was played up heavily 29 and reputable sources indicate in the western press; that it was well received. ouch an objectively respon- sible newspaper as the Christian science monitor said that "all delegations applauded General homulo's speech except those from Communist China and North Vietnam."30 A reporter for the st. Louis rost-Dispatch reiterated this same observation with an additional clarifying com- ment. he said: Ihe loudest ovation of the conference was accorded nomulo when he finished speak- ing, but he got no recognition from Chou or Nehru. ......OOOOOOOO0............OOCOCCCCQCCCO The coolness with which Nehru and ohou received nomulo's speech seems to be 29 30 6. hand, loo. cit., p. 62. Christian science honitor, April 20, 1955, p. l. 176 in an agreed pattern. neither has ap- plauded a speaker who is considered a friend of the aest.31 'The g.g. sews g .orld heeort analyzed this ayplause fac- tor still further by saying: "fhe rhilippine delegate, tarlos l. nomulo, got the loudest cheers of the confer- ence when he warned delegates 'not to fall into the ra- cist tray.'"32 bn-the-spot comments of an evaluative nature confirm the above audicnce reactions. a reporter for £92 New York rinse said that nonulo's Openinw conference speech was "widely Icehrdcd as the wisest and host bal- "33 anced of any delivered. ihe Chicago Daily Lews stated that homulo's speech was "considered by many observers “34 to have been the best of the conference. in comyaring his speech with some of the others delivered during the Opening plenary session, the magazine assorter said that after homulo'e "unexpected argument of reverse-screen jlnobert sunson, at. Louis rost-hishatch, Ap- ril 19, 1955. p- 2&- 34"(Jomnunists hiss the scat," g,g. News g world heport, Anthll (April 29, lava». P. 41. ijillman Luruin, fhe hew fork limes, Ayril 24, 195b, sec. 4, p. b. l 24 neyes beech, "Nehru's greetige hives as had Foes outfox him," chicago baily news, syril 22, 1955, p. 2. 177 liberalism, most of the following polemics were rather flat."35 The Leonomist of London observed that "General homulo of the rhilippines executed a 3333 fig force by avoiding direct mention of communism while delivering a blistering attack on one-garty rule, control of the press, ..36 and police states. The magazine 00pmonweal stated that "at the first session, General hOMulo syoke criti— cally, honestly and admirably of the American record in 218153....”7 60nbinih5 observation with evaluation, a re- porter for the magazine new Xorker said that honulo's Speech was -— a starnling rourth of July disylay that, I imagine, owed much to his Amer— ican schooling in the rnilipyines. he But his hands over his heart, he spread his arms like an eagle's wings, he SPOZB in senorous cadences, but the words made sense, even so. after the session in anion nsmulo delivered his address, a COITflSyOfldeflt for rhe hanila Times resorted that "most of the chief delegates crowded around him to 35James Uaaeron, loc. cit. 6 T- .‘ ° '\ ‘o " 3 "namboo curtain -- the nahooeng Conference," Loonomist, CLnav (april 23, 1955), p. 273. r 37fibanduné and Formosa," Commonweal, LAll, NO. 5 (may 0, 1955), p. 115. 380. hand, 100. C t., P- 43' 178 extend their congratulations." This same observer also stated that the Chief Delegate of the sudan, who followed Lomulo to the Platform, devoted practically his entire speech to praising nonulo's address. lhe Chief Delegate was quoted as saying: "he heard democracy sysak to us today with an Asian as its eyoLesnan and its message we will carry with us wherever we 50, sure that we can with it counter all blandishments of coma list progaganda." QOthel Gamal abdel Nasser of Lgypt was likewise quoted as saying that nomulo's speech should be we100med by all who believe in democracy as the best defense and most _ Q. -. ‘ f. effective offense of the iorces 01 the iree worlo.3) IN homulo's second principal speech was delivered before the lolitical Committee. immediate setting -- the Lrift 2f the hebate Ioward the end of the Lolitical Committee de- liberations, the question of promoting "world peace and 39v1cente J. Guzman, "Clh Zalh hell Taken," The hanila iimes, April 20, 1353. P. 9. 179 cooperation" arose. The Prime Minister of Burma, hr. U Nu, began the discussion by "calling upon the uncommit- ted nations to bridge the widening gulf between the world's two power blocs." he suggested that in striving to do this the uncommitted nations should strengthen the United ha- tions and compensate for any Uh deficiencies by adopting the Hive lrinciples of reaceful Go-existence.4O The representative of Cambodia, rrince horodom, then followed by observing that even those who had given support to the principle of co-existence, in general mis- trusted the Communist states. Therefore, he concluded that the vitality of the concept of co-existence was up to the communists, i.e., it was up to the communists to reassure the rest of the world of their peaceful inten- tions.41 Folloaing Prince Norodom, hohammed Ali of rak- istan introduced his "seven killers of leace" in which he stressed the right of collective self—defense. The Turkish delegate, Eatin hustu Larlu, thereupon strongly supported lakistan's principle of collective security by arguing that to co-exist, a country must be prepared 40hahin, 22, cit., p. 21. 411b1d., p. 22. 180 to defend itself; and for shall countries like turkey a _ .f¢,, -, H , _ 42 n . n this meant collective oeiense alrahbenents. uOtfl lur- key and resistan, therefore, in quick succession defended their deiense alliances with the Host. rhey held that they had been forced to take defensive action because . .,. ..t .... . 43 Ol the JOVlUL onicat. ihis rapid shift from a neutralist to a aestern point of View was halted temporarily by the representa- tive of indie, Jawaharlal Nehru, who took the general position that all balances of panr should be denOunced as relics of the past. in an angry outburst, which was generally conceded to be rather sharp and intenperate, hehru cried, ”Io hell with those two blocs! Cur ideology 44 is handhiisnl” fie thereupon deliVered his first hajor 45 Speech since the conference Opened. rhe Speech was made on hriday, april 22, "the day of the stormiest de— biite o "46 nenru's Speech immediately brought forth rejoin- ders from certain friends of the Nest including rakistan, 42ibid., p. 25. 4'5 ihe manila fines, April 23, 1J3), p. l. 44handman, ipc. cit. “’ehe Lanila Times, April 23, 1955, p. 1. 6. . . 4 sandman, loc. oit. 181 Turkey, lraq, Lebanon, and the Philippines. The delegate from Iraq, Fadhil Jamali, asked whether as an alternative to the smaller nations' joining one of the two great blocs India was not prepared to bind them tcgether as a kind of third force so that they could obtain the protection they needed. halik of lebanon reportedly called upon Nehru to note that more than half of the countries at the conference were related to each other through the connections each had with one or the other of the two great power blocs. he then asked Nehru if the assembled delegates were to conclude that he (hehru) knew more about the security of their respective countries than they did.47 Into this arena of heated discussion stepped nomulo of the i-‘hilipgines.4d he Spoke on saturday morn- ing in the committee in answer to the speech made by Nehru on the preceeding day. his speech was delivered before Chou nn-lai's dramatic aygeal, during a debate over a resolution syonsored by rakistan which would have put the conference on record as favoring collective security 47hahin, £3. cit., p. 24. 4°lt is significant to note that homulo was reborted to have turned down a move to mane him chairman of the rolitical Committee. his reason for rejecting the move was that he did not want to be 'ihflObilith.‘ ln terms of what he finally did, his reason appears to have been justified. see Vicente d. shaman, £§g manila Times, April 18, 1955, p. 6. 162 pacts at the same tine it appealed for peace.49 It is reported that the speech was delivered extenporaneously - , .., . . . V0 and that nouulo reserved tne rlgnt to Speak again.) Textual Authentication Eor purposes of analysis the writer was able to locate tnree cOpies or nomulo's reply to “shon All were found to be basically similar, tne majority of the internal uiscrepancies being in tne nature of capitali- zation and punctuation. rhe tnree tents were located in the following places: (1} fflg senile rinse, April 26 and 29, 1995, pp. 13 and ll respectively. (2) 0.6., Congressional secord, 84tn Con5., lst sees., 13)), vi, rert 6, 7512. (3} nomulo, Carlos r., rhe meaning 3; Bandung, unapel sill: ine university or mortn Caroline rress, 1956, p. 79. From an inspection of these tnrse texts the writer con- cludes that text (1), fine nanile Times version, corres- ponds most closely to what the speaker might have said. Support for tnis assertion is derived from certain internal 43enristian science nonitor, April 23, 1955, p. l, and st. Louis rest-niepatcn, April 25, 1935, p. 8A. 5ozne manila Limes, spril 24, 1995, p. 14. 183 deviations. Text (1) contains essential marks of punctua- tion that the other two do not. Eor example, a number of passages have been set off by quotation harks. ihese quotation marks are necessary in view of the fact that what appears between them is directly quoted material. an illustrative excerpt from The hanila lines follows: rhe purely defensive and strictly non-aggressive character of the treaty is written into article i, under which the parties 'undertahe to settle any international diaputes in which they may be involved bJ peaceful means...and to refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United nations.' Article ll refers to methods of develOpin5 'capa- city to resist armed attacn.‘ in order to make doubly certain that the treaty is in absolute harnond with the charter of the United nations article Vi provides that th.t treat; 'dOes not effect and shall not be interpreted as affecting the rights and ObliéfitiOflfi of any of the parties under the charter of the united nations or the responsibility of the United nations for the maintenance of international peace and scourity.' speech texts (a) and (5) do not contain the above euoteticn naris. one eculd expect them, however, since tne olipsis inuiCates a direct quotation. the speak- er here was referring directly to the Charter of the South- east nsia rrenty trQanizstion. Locause of the inclusion of quotation harks, therefore, text (1) represents the 184 true nature of the Speaker's thouéht. This is no simple case of revision, but of including what was essential. Further reasoning in support of the validity of the text from 233 manila Times can be derived from the nature of what is missing in this text which appears in the other two. honulo clashes with Nehru directly in all three versions, but his clash spacers to be a little more "spirited" in texts (2) and (3), a circumstance which would indicate an attempt to make the speeches read as well as possible. in the last two texts nomulo says: "neferences have also been made here a while ago by the irime “inister of india against the mflflila iact." big- nificantly, the aGVerbial phrase "a while ago" does not apgear in She hanila limes version. rhis omission is important in view of the fact that nonulo was making di— rect reference here to statements that had been made by hehru on the preceding day. he therefore could not pro- perly say "a while ago," since this would give the false ingression that he was referring to something that had just been said or that had at least been said on the same day. rhe phrase was no doubt used in texts (2) and (3) to hive tne sneaker's reply more currency, to give the reader the ihpression that the sheaker was making an im- mediate reyly. bucn, however, was not the case. 185 Additional evidence or "doctoring" occurs near the end of homulo's speech as reported in texts (2) and (3). in these two versions the speaker allegedly says: ihe manila fact has also been criticized by iremier Lehru on the Srounds that; i. it diminished the 'climate of peace’ that Waa tenerated by the Geneva settlement on lndochina; 2. it is contrary to the skirit of the agreements and uncerstanding on non—abgression and noninterierence which had been reacned between indie, china, and nurma; and j. rhat it is contrary to the charter of the United Nations. Let me answer the irime minister of indie pOint for point. in fine manila limes VcISiOu, however, the direct mention of nehru'e name in the first sentence is omitted while the entire last sentence does not appear. here is even stronger evidence of maxing the speaker's rele sound as impressive as possible, for a thorough reaoing of hehru's syeech does not disclose the above assertions haviné been mace at all. ihe manila fines version is correct then in not attributing these three points to hehru; he is not given credit here for saying something that he didn't say. it was stateu earlier in this section that all three coPies of nomulo's reply to Nehru were basically similar. fihile this statement is still true, there is yet one noteworthy exception -- the speaker's concluding paragraph. a conparison of the three different versions discloses this exception. Text (3) -- Let me say to Premier Nehru in conclusion: rhe empires of yesterday on which it used to be said the sun never set are departing one by one from nsia. what we fear now is tne new engire of communism on which we Know tne sun never rises. may your indie, dir, never be catht by the encircling 5100a! lent {2) -- Let me say to irenier nehru in conclusion: Jhe engires of yesterday on which it used to be said the sun never set, are desertind one by one from Asia. what we iear now are the new empires on waich we know, the sun never rises. may his india not be caught by the en- circling gloom! text (l) ~- rhe emyires of yesterday on which it used to be said the sun never set are departing one by one from A313. “hat we fear now are the new ensires on which we know, the sun never rises. A quick glance at these diVerdent passages will indicate that those from texts (2) and (l) have become more abbreviated and less impressive. Through three 187 successive stages the syeaker's thoughts have diminished in both vigor and directness. significantly, this occur— rence also coincides uith the relative dates of publica- tion. Jhe least adorned was printed first while the most ekborate was grinted last. rhis would tend to indicate fairly strOnbly that the oassages from texts (2) and (3) were reworked by someone yrior to yubliCation to nake them read better and appear more striking. is can he eryectcd the reworking her also correSgonds with the general tyye of revision already noted; i.e., the direct reference to nehru in (2) and (3) &;TGG with earlier re- ferences made to him in these same texts. This fact again points to test (1) as being the most reliable text. As was the case with n0mulo's opening address so also with his reply to nehru the texts found in the Congressional necord and in the weaning of nandun‘ are spurious. “a“ Iuroose The major puryose of nomulo's speech in the Political COnnittee was to answer the Charges made by Nehru on the yrevious day. his primary object was to get his audienCe to believe that what hehru had said was either wholly false, or at least only conditionally true. 188 In his introduction homulo stated his purpose in the fol— lowing terms: hr. Nehru spoke about the danger of coalitions. i do not quarrel with his concern. But I hOpe 1 can make him see today the side of small nations so that he may realise that it is not fair for him to say that 'it is humiliating for them to Join regional organizations.‘ By answering Nehru homulo also achieved an additional purpose of justifyina the anti—communist orientation of his country's foreign policy as manifested in its partici- pation in regional defense alliances.51 Nehru's syeeoh which homulo attempted to answer questioned the general wisdom of defense alliances for 52 The burden of the the nations of Asia and Africa. Pandit's remarks rested upon a threefold thesis; he con- tended that both communist and anti-communist teachings 51Said homulo a week after his reply to Hshru: We had a most noteworthy antagonist; no less than the Prime Minister of lndia led the attack in a brilliant, scholarly and convincing speech. it was our duty to defend it, when Mr. Nehru attacked re- gional alliances in general and pinpointed the manila Treaty specifically. May I say that the rhllippine defense was the only one made of the Manila treaty in the con- ference.‘ See Carlos P. homulo, "footnote to Bandung," The manila Times, April 30, 1955, p. 12. 52For a text of Nehru's Speech see hahin, _2. Cite 9 pp. 64‘720 189 were based on wrong principles, that lndia was prepared to stand alone in the world power struggle if forced to, and that all ideologies should be forgotten in favor of the five principles of peaceful coexistence.S3 quoting from a resolution presented earlier by U Nu of Burma, Nehru summarized these five principles as follows: The nations assembled at the Asian- African Conference declare that their relations between themselves, and their approach to the other nations of the world, shall be governed by complete respect for the national sovereignty and integrity of other nations. They will not intervene or interfere in the territory or the internal affairs of each other or of other nations, and will totally refrain from acts or threats of aggression. They recognize the equality of races and of nations, large and small. They will be governed by the desire to promote mutual interest and cOOperation, by respect for the fundamental Human nights and the principles of the Charter of the United Nations. The Prime minister of lndia further contended that "a realistic appreciation of the world situation" would indicate that the world is being led into a war of total destruction. he maintained that military strength was a false standard and that if war was to be avoided, Asia and Africa had to make their views clear about 53These five principles made their first appear- ance in the Tibetan agreement signed by lndia and China in May, 1954. aasre he as look. to be world the m concll ial a‘ remar] implie also i to any sign 0 rice c the t W develo; an intJ 0f the Plied 190 aggression and subversion. The unaligned area of peace, he said, should be maintained for preper balance and cut— look. in general, Nehru considered military pacts to have produced .insecurity instead of security in the world. In particular, he singled out NATO as "one of the most powerful protectors of colonialism,” and he concluded that supporting it while having an anti-colon- ial attitude was contradictory. Although confining his remarks largely to NATO, the lndian Prime hinister clearly implied that the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization had also inherited most of NATO's chief defects. To belong to any of these treaties, he therefore asserted, was a sign of weakness. A participating nation in Asia or Af- rica could only be considered a camp follower of one of the two power blocs. Arrangement homulo's speech before the Tolitical Committee develOps along fairly strict classical lines. it contains an introduction which enlisted the attention and interest of the listeners; a statement of the case with proof sup- plied through logical inference; and a conclusion which inspired I'm only in the at case all chose to speech. to the i: to reply emulated j Tm, int: 3“. or . the gate “Other . EB g man nOtg to I 191 inspired the audience to accept the speaker's ideas. The only departure from the classical pattern occurred in the statement and proof, for rather than state his case all at once and then provide the proof, the speaker chose to alternate statement and proof throughout his speech. homulo's introduction served to adjust his speech to the immediate speaking situation. Since he was about to reply to his adversary, his Opening remarks were for- mulated in terms of that adversary. he just had fresh evidence, if evi- dence were needed, why he [flehrék is re- garded not only in India but throughout the world as a man of peace. Though he referred often to his own nation, 1 do not doubt that his concern is extended to all peoples everywhere. Underlying everything that he said is a sensitivity to the human situation. He is eminent as an lndian, distinguished as an Asian and as a member of the human family. For this I salute him. This introduction effected both respect and a certain de- gree of conciliation. The speaker was keenly aware of the esteem in which his Opponent was held.5‘ Looked at another way, however, it could also be properly interpreted 54After the conference Romulo referred to Nehru as a man of ’great experience, mighty convictions, foren- sic skill, and wealth of moral power.‘ See homulo, "Foot- note to Bandung,” lgg.‘g;1. ' 88 I 51361 ist. only and fit the 192 as a clever attempt to perpetuate the image that the speaker was pitting himself against a seasoned antagon- ist. If this image were successfully conveyed, then the speaker's own ethical stature would increase by compari- son. Through the implication of his words he could only be considered as a man equal to the occasion. homulo's conclusion is brief, for he devotes only eight sentences to it. A combination of summary and appeal serves to enforce his purpose. without bene- fit of transition the speaker began his conclusion in the following manner. To sum up: The Manila knot is a treaty of collective defense. No aggres- sive purpose is written into it. As for the racific Charter, we con- sider this to be a document worthy of the best traditions of any civilized stats in the world today, whether Asian or non- Asian. This is the moral basis and Jus- tification of the manila fact, and we stand on its principles, proud and un- flinching, in the sight of our friends and neighbors in free Asia. is all free Asians we say: 'Ihis is a treaty on which we all can stand tOgether, without vanity or invidious- ness, but united in the determination to preserve the peace and freedom of 38130 To any potential aggressor or any power that intends aggression we say through this treaty: 'se desire to live in peace with you, but if you attack us, we shall fight back with all our strength.‘ In these f¢ n10: ides misstat his audits the Eacifi are and of In this re the needs alternates has been i the {0110‘s aioniet m M 31161211 01 coexist that the ideas 00v finding 1] Pattern 1 ”Make”! the red ”leech a: 6189:4888 before a 193 In these four short paragraphs the speaker reviews the major idea in the last third of his speech. Through a manifestation of his own natural self-confidence he leaves his auditors with the impression that the manila fact and the Pacific Charter are Justified in terms of what they are and of what they can do for the pecples of free Asia. In this reSpect his concluding words were adapted to both the needs and interests of his audience. is stated earlier, the body of Romulo's speech alternates statement with proof until his general thesis has been presented. This general thesis was contained in the following three ideas; 1) that the aggressive expan- sionist nature of international communism is the source of existing world tensions; 2) that the five principles of coexistence cannot cope with this situation; and 3) that the Manila Pact can cepe with this situation. These ideas covered the totality of the speaker's thought, in- cluding his specific rebuttal of Nehru's arguments. The pattern in which these ideas emerged suggests that the speaker's materials were divided according to the "refuta- tive requirements inherent" in his subject. Looking at the organizational framework of the speech as a whole, it can be seen that the speaker first discusses the inherent weakness of his Opponent's case before answering the objections advanced against his own. By in; or re. or of eitheJ dafen: ‘ehru latte: alter: five 3 collec the p1 half a ful so a. 01 his a'C‘Wc‘J‘s The :1 1113 ts lag he “tees ruited frames factol‘ 194 By implication the debate revolved around the acceptance or rejection of alternate solutions to a common problem or of two features of the status quo. Lisjunctively, either the five principles of coexistence or regional defense arrangements could best promote peace in the world. “ehru favored the former idea while honulo favored the latter. in order for nomulo's thesis to stand, therefore, it was necessary for him first to discard his Opponent's alternative. rsycholoeically the rejection of Nehru's five principles had to precede the establishment of the collective defense principle as the only valid answer to the problem. acnulo was correct then in devoting nearly half of his speech to an attack upon the concept of peace- ful coexistence and the other half to arguments in favor of his own thesis. organizationallj, there are two factors which adversely affected the speaker's continuity of thought. The first of the factors is the lack of a central unify- ing theme. instant intellegibility of the speaker's case was hampered by a failure to designate specifically the steps to be taken in establishing that case. Romulo dis- rupted his Speech unity by failing to disclose the basic framework which his arguments were to assume. rhe second factor was the absence of adequate transitions. while transi1 speech, is a 1‘4 any pr: pre par does c found [segu' 195 transitional elements do exist in the first half of the speech, they are noticeably absent from the second half. As a result the speaker changes thought patterns without any prior warning, and his audience is not adequately prepared for what is to follow. fhe first half of nomulo's speech, however, does contain suitable transitional elements. these were found on two occasions in the form of rhetorical questions and on one occasion in the form of a tOpic sentenCe. After stating the general position of his country with re- spect to the five principles, the speaker posed the fol- lowing question: "uhy cannot the Communist nations par- ticipate in this area of peaceful coexistence -- or more specifically, why is it that only the Communists are un- able to participate?" Before actually presenting the five principles as a tOpic for discussion, he asked: "What are the principles embodied in the five principles?" Ihen turning to a second aspect of the five principles, after having discussed the first, he stated: "Another of these principles calls for 'mutual non-interference in each other‘s internal affairs.'" In adapting his speech plan to the audience nomulo used the general form of argument and appeal. Both were alternated throughout the speech, but since round ions tefor WK! 4 as. was ‘i'vl work C to be develo £89301! 196 the speaker's purpose could best be attained argumentative- ly, greater emphasis was given to this facet. while most of the appeals were implied rather than stated directly, those which were directly stated stood out noticeably from the surrounding material. This was particularly true after the speaker finished discussing the facts sur- rounding the aggressive expansionist nature of interna~ tional communism. in marked contrast to what had gone before, he said: These are the basic facts that must necessarily influence all the free world thinking at this time. Let not Asia repeat Europe's tragic error in refusing to believe the brazen program of conquest openly revealed by Hitler in his book 'mein hampf.‘ By and large the adaptive technique used by the speaker was well suited to the audience he faced, for it aided him to convince those who might have been indifferent (most of the audience) and to move those who were other- wise convinced. in looking at the total organizational frame- work of the Speech once again, a final observation needs to be made. Ihe smaller units of nomulo's speech are develOped haphazardly. It will be noted that this is especially true toward the last of the speech where the 197 speaker answers the objections raised by Nehru against the Manila Pact. here for no apparent organizational reason the speaker chose to divide his refutation into two distinct parts, one containing two points and the other containing three. In fact, the first point in each section could have been preperly considered under a single heading. lnvention -- Legioal rroof It was noted in the preceding section on arrange- ment that the organizational framework of homulo's reply to Nehru was divided into two parts; i.e., the speaker spent half of his time attacking his Opponent‘s position and the other half defending his own. An analysis of the logic used by the speaker, therefore, can best be made in terms of its offensive and defensive character- istics. new, in other words, did homulo logically attack his Opponent's case and logically defend his own? in attempt will be made to answer these two questions. 1. Offensive characteristics. ihe first ex- tensive argument hemulo developed dealt with the merits of peaceful coexistence had to be accepted in order to prevent the outbreak of another world war. nomulo replied to tnis as a ct: benefits within t tical an out res: bittout these 69 aideruti ciples. Principl '1th 80: ior the: '&l the diam, l 1'3 was 198 to this line of reasoning by stating that coexistence as a concept was nothing new to the free world, that the benefits of coexistence had been long enjoyed, and that within the free world community diverse economic, poli- tical and social systems had practiced cOOperation with- out resorting "to force as an instrument of policy." tithcut mentioning any direct evidence in support of these generalizations, the speaker moved on to a con— sideration of two inherent weaknesses of the five prin- ciples. Before launching this attack upon the five principles, however, nomulo first provided his audience with some argumentative exposition in support of his ma- Jor thesis that the source of eiisting world tensions was the aggressive expansionism of international commu- nism. his argument was that this aggressive eXpansion~ ism was a basic communist policy doctrine and that the non-communist world COuld only look upon a communist neigh- bor as "an active and continuing aggressor." Anyone as personally familiar with the world communist movement and with the classics of communist literature as nonulo was, would have immediately realized the significance of his proof. he asserted that the doctrine "which Com- munists proclaim as the wellspring of its (£12) overall prob: 199 program, is based upon the premise that communist states cannot exist indefinitely alongside non-Communist states. Ihat there must be ultimate decision culminating in world revolution and world—hide communism." he supported this assertion by referring to it as both a philOBOphical and working principle of international communism. rhe valid- ity of these claims was left up to the practical knowledge of the audience. having established this 10¢ical groundwork, homulo once again took up the question of the five prin- ciples. he first stated in accordance with a governmental directive previously noted that to insure the establish— ment and application of sucn principles, the League of Nations and the bnited Nations had been formed. He then discussed the inherent weaknesses of two of these prin- ciples by subsuming what he had just said about the nature of international communism. the two principles he dis- cussed were the provisions covering mutual non-aggression and mutual non-interference in a country's internal af- fairs. ln general, he contended that these two principles failed to appreciate what international communism really was. In considering the principle of mutual non-ag- gression, homulo referred to the communist aggression 200 in Korea. he declared through implication that if the principle of non-aggression sanctioned the aggression against Korea that it would therefore sanction aggression against any other country. he reminded his audience that the invading communist forces were actually guilty of aggression. hecollecting first that a five-power United Nations commission found that the initial attack was launched from the north instead of the south, he reasoned from effect to cause that this finding was also "indicated by the fact that the attack immediately carried deep into the hepublic of horse on the strength of the surprise achieved." he further recollected that fifty nations subsequently judged who was guilty of aggression in Korea. These two statements of fact served as the indirect sup- port for his implied declaration. After substantiating his first objection to the five principles, homuio turned immediately to his second objection —— that dealing with mutual non-inter— ference in a country's internal affairs or with cases of subversion. fhe burden of the speaker's proof revolved around his general argument that revolutionary bands could be "directed and provisioned from the outside under the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs 201 of other nations." He stated in reply to Chou nn-lai's assertion that revolution could not be eXported that "it is not enough to be told that Communist conspiracies di- rected against the represented asian governments are all purely indigenous movements with no outside connections." The reasonin5 leading up to these inductive conclusions is noteworthy. Starting again with argumentative exposition, nomulo attempted to show the main subversive features of the international cemmunist conspiracy. he pointed to the Cominform and Comintern; and, arguing from the single example of Yugoslavia, he concluded that "the re- sistance of a small state to intervention in its internal affairs cannot be tolerated, if it is the soviet Union or Communist China that is doing the intervening." Once this conclusion had been made, the speaker directed his attention to Asia, and sketched in the picture of commu- nist subversion in this continent. his reasoning here assumed a variety of inductive forms including specific instance, argument from authority, and causal relation. ln considering the strategy used by communists in subverting asian governments, nomulo referred speci- fically to the liaison bureau of the world Federation of Trade Unions. he quoted from Louis saillant, the 202 secretary of the HE”U, and from liu Shae-chi, who was at that time the leading theoretician of Communist China. an inspection of the testimony quoted from the first of these two authorities, however, revealed an important weakness, since it aytarently didn't help prove what it was intended to prove. ihe speaker quoted Saillant as saying: in lndia, in Burma, in Ceylon, in i'ahistan, in lran, and in Japan, the democratic trade unions communist ele- ments may well have to face a worse situation even than now; their leaders and active members may have to suffer from an intensification of the terrorist measures taken against them. They should find in their very develOPment of their fight for the worker's claims efficient means enabling tnem to maintain their links with the working masses communist elements . From the particular wording of this passage the sneaker concluded that the general statement was "purely an in- citement to Asian communists to Join forces in a revolt against the representative governments of Asian states." ihe important factor of intellegibility would apnear to militate strongly against such a conclusion, however. if the wording of the first quotation was ob- scure, the wording of the second was not. nomulo quoted Liu bhao-cni as saying: "armed struggle can, and must, be the main form in the yeOple's liberation struggles 203 in many colonial and semioolonial countries." This quo- tation provided the speaker with a factual basis for draw- ing two cause to effect relationships. he pointed to insurrections in India and Indonesia as manifestations of the communist subversive design. Liu's statement, therefore, represented an axiom of cemmunist theory which had produced the stipulated uprisings. whe lines of the speaker's causal relationship were clearly drawn. 2. nefenslve characteristics. The bitterest and most devastating attack Nehru made against the manila defense alliance was by implication. he stated that it was "humiliating" for any self—reapectind nation in asia or nfrloa to belong to regional groupings. homulo's re- ply occurred at two points in his speech. his strongest and most Spirited reply was presented Just after his in- troduction. heasoning analogically he brought up the question of hashmir, a sore spot in the relations between lndia and iakistan. fhe correlation he attempted to draw here was between the purpose of the manila treaty and the purpose of the armaments race over this disputed terri— tory. He contended that similar principles were involved that the desirability if not necessity to defend oneself against possible armed attack existed in both cases. The tacit function of each was not aggression but national defense. 204 homulo obtained added strength for this anal- oay by reasoning‘a fortiori. he advanced the example of nahatma Gandhi who "didn't hesitate a moaent," he asserted, in supporting hr. Nehru's decision to send lndian trOOps to the hashnir. 3y implication he con- cluded that if such a saintly man should adept the prin- ciple of collective security, then all the more reason for the members of share to do so. rhe Asian countries which belonged to this collective security arrangement were not as large or as powerful as lndia, and yet they faced a more determined enemy in the form of international communism. fly subtly turning the tables on his Opponent nonulo's 10610 was inexorable. if lndia was correct in defending herself against rakistan, then the nations of share were also correct in defending themselves against 0 ommuni s m . rhe second reply homulo made to Hehru's attack occurred immediately after the aforementioned discourse on the five principles. fnis time, however, the speaker used straight refutation to accomplish his purpose. he stated the point at issue and then presented a brief sun- nary of the main features of the charter and treaty. By emphasizing the positive features of these documents the speaker implied, rather than stated directly, that 205 it was not "humiliating" to belong to the manila Pact. rhe erticles of the charter nonulo quoted stressed those things in which his audience would be mainly inter- ested. rhe article receiving the most extended and em- phatic treatment was that dealin3 with cases of aggres- sion and subversion; it was considered to be "the crucial provision of the treaty.” ihe unique feature of the ar— ticle was stated in the following terns: ihis is probably the first treaty of its Kind to refer speCiIicully to the danger posed by subversion. Lut it is an innovation wnich has been directly called for by the new techniques which Conmunist imyeriulism has increasingly fiMlede in many parts or the world. to attempt was made to contrast this advantage of the Speaker's case with the corresponding disadvantage of his onyonent's Case. since the association was asparently left up to the audienCe, this wee a major weakness in the sgenher's ieiutative technique. Having answered the most persistent issue raised by Nehru it was nomulo's next task to regly to certain implied arguments advanced by his Opponent. Ihe first of these was that the manila rect had made more difficult the relaXution of international tension. since nehru had not made this argument perfectly clear in his speech, it was a recast versicn to which honulo was forced to m C) (7‘ 55 reply. hefuting his cgponent's argument directly, the I] sneaker said that on the contrary the treaty was intended to halt the build up of tension in southeas asia result- inb from the Communist moves in the lndc-Chinese states." his argument was that had not the treaty been formed when it was, the communists would have been certain to heighten the atmosyhere of danger in the area. although this ar- 5uhent was couched in terms of probability, it neverthe- less appeared to be justified in terns of the background material about communism which the speaker had earlier provided. rho assumption underlying the validity of the argument was that a hesitanc" to defend one's territor- ial integrity in southeast nsia would be interpreted by the communists as a siyn of weakness, while a determina- tion on the other hand would be interpreted as a sign of strength. ihc second implied argument which homulo an— swered was recast to indicate that his 0pyonent considered the nanila ract to be "a plan for perpetuating colonial- ism and suppressing the national liberation novenent in DDRehru's origins argument regarding the re- laxation of international tensions was stated as follows. '... hvery bact has broudht insecurity and not security to the countries which have entered into them. Ihey have brought the danger of atomic bombs and the rest of it nearer to them han would have been the case 0tnerwise.‘ bee hahin,.gg.‘git., p. 68. 207 southeast Asia.”6 homulo‘s refutation to this charge amounted to a straight denial. He contented himself with merely saying that the charter and treaty could "éive no comfort” to those who believed that colonialism could be maintained in the modern world. since the speaker failed to give erper cause for his denial, denial 22£.§2! contained little if any probative value. ihe only idea working at all to his advantage here was his parting com— ment that “both the hanila rect and tne racific Charter rule out the doctrine tflat the dying colonial imperialism in neia would be reeleced by the newer and even more dan— gerous species of Communist imgerialism." nut in view of the iact that this idea aas tangential to the main issue, the ongonent's arJunent uent essentially unanswered. rurning now to the last Lortion of nomulo's defense, it will be first necessary to point out that two of the three arguments presented for refutation were L: ’6ln reality honuio gave his Opponent credit for a more clearly stated argument. nehru in his speech had only referred to mule as a protector of colonialism. The only statement he made in associating NATO with SnATO, and therefore with all its alleged defects, was when he said immediately before his attack upon NATO that it hire has gone far away from the ntlantic and has reached other Uceans and seas...’ This reference could only mean ennid. see hanin, ibid. N C (L 57 definitely not mentioned by fiehru in his Speech. These two arcunents as subsequently stated by nomulo were that the senile fact was "contrary to tne skirit of tne agree- ments and understanding on nonaggression and noninterfer— ence wnicn had been reached between lndia, china, and " and that it was "contrary to tne Charter of tne Burma United Nations." rhere is some evidence to indicate, however, that tne third of these arguments was mentioned in a roundabout way by his Oygonéflto this evidence rests upon the close similarity in thought between it and an argument previously analysed. rhe doubtful argument in question was that the nenile inst had "diminished the 'climute of peace' that was genergted by the Geneva set— tlement on indocnina.” it W111 be noted tnet it is quite similar to the accusation nehru had made earlier concern- ing the manila rect and tne relaxation of international tension. in fact, it might even be considered as a 1051- cal extension of tnat accusation. Eor purposes of analy— sis, however, tnis duplicated argument will be considered as a separate entity. 57331113 is true of course only in terms of dehru's speech. Ine points could very well have been made by kenru in an imprOmptu manner any time prior to nomulo's speech. A free exchange of points of view took place tnrougnout tne deliberations of the ioliticsl Gemmittee. 209 Taking up homulo's reglies in the order of their presentation, the first to be analyzed in the doubtful one just mentioned. Lne sneaker, in answering uehru's Objection here used the 1‘znne tape of logic noted earlier ‘idcr the similar ar¢unent of international tension. he said by way of inplicetion that an sllinnce like diAIU, wnicn threatened instant retaliation in the event of an armed attack upon a member state, would make a potential comnunist aggressor tnink twice before risking inevitable counter-mcesures. ne concluded, therefore, that such an ullinnce would "serve to reinforce rather than weaken the Climate of fence engnsting from dencvs.” :no second reply nonulo nude was in answer to the emerge that the ...nniln rect was contrary to the syirit of the eureencnts on nonngéression end noninterference reached between lndia, China, and surnn. in inklied de- mand for more proof constituted the syeukcr's cnief form f refutation. he stated that he failed to see in what way the manila rect could be said to be inconsistent with such GDTGUMGUtBo n secondary netnod of refutation included the reasoning Cflut sincc the agreements under discussion would not prevent a nation iron deiending itself in the event that it were attacked, this very lack of prevention would be consistent with function of the nanile rect which 210 was self-defense. In answering his Opponent, therefore, Romulo merely reversed the point of view. He did not refute Nehru's argument directly. Erom the standpoint of conclusiveness of proof fiomulo's third reply to Nehru showed the best piece of refutation. In answer to the charge that the Manila Pact was contrary to the Charter of the United Nations, the Speaker reduced the contested issue to its lowest 1051- cal denominators. He said that "by a somewhat involved series of arguments" the manila fact was believed to be a defensive system which was "neither collective nor re- gional." This clarification provided the listeners with only the essentials of the issue. Then drawing upon his knowledge of the U.N. Charter and the hanila Treaty he compared article 103 of the former with article VI of the latter to show that there was no contradiction. His rea- soning therefore had the weight of documentary evidence. heturning now to the questions posed at the beginning of this section concerning the offensive and defensive characteristics of Acmulo's IOgio, the analysis Just completed has supplied the following brief answers. First, the logic used by the speaker in his attack upon his Opponent's case was largely inductive. Specific in- stance, causal relation, and argument from authority were 211 his chief forms or support. Furthermore, in showing that Nehru'a constructive thesis was unworkable, homulo relied upon a strong eXpositional framework. Large sections of his speech were devoted to the establishment of a logical substructure for his argument rather than to the argument itself. Under the circumstances. however, this was seen to have been wholly necessary. Second, the fa- vorite technique used by the speaker to defend his own case was straight refutation. Except for the direct clash in the last argument refuted, homulo either denied the validity of his Opponent's accusations or attacked them only indirectly. The major weaknesses of his defense were twofold. Although refuting what he considered to be the most dangerous features of Rehru's attack, he di- vided his strongest argument and failed to compare and contrast the advantages of the Manila fact with the dis- advantages of the five principles of coexistence. fihile the second of these weaknesses might not have detracted as much from the losical nature of the speech as did the first, its remedy would have added greatly to the total effectiveness of the speaker's refutation. Invention -- Lnotional Proof Although homulo's chief mode of proof in this 212 speech is logical, underlying the structure of his reason- ing are numerous emotional appeals. The fundamental ap- peal made is directed to the need for national security. Very few members of the rolitical Committee could quarrel with this concern, except perhaps the neutralist and com- munist minorities. nomuio was fully aware of the emotion- al composition of his audience when he said: i speak, bir, for a small country, like many other countries around this table, that cannot boast of the size of indie. 1 cannot say, as did the rrime minister of indie, conscious of his country's power, that 'even if the whole world went to war, lndia would stand alone and refuse to fight.‘ i cannot defy the wnole world, sir, con- scious of my country's limitations. how few, indeed, are the nations here who can be like India! with this three sentence paragraph the speaker showed the leaders of the small countries why it was necessary for them to be concerned absut the problem of national security. their size dictated their concern and compelled them to listen to what the speaker had to say. homulo's appeal, therefore, was linked to an important audience interest. woven tightly within the fabric of nomulo's emotional appeals were numerous strands of logical proof. in fact, so closely are legic and emotion related that 213 it is difficult at times to distinguish between them.. Anger and indignation were both present in the following examples the speaker gave of communist subversion. After quoting a prediction of subversion made by the communist theoretitian, Liu Shae—chi, homulo provided his audience with two emotionally charged examples of how this predic- tion had been put into practice. He said: it was about us, about most of us here, that iiu ehao-chi was talking. And when he Spoke of 'liberation strug- gles' he meant struggles not against hurOpean colonial regimes, but nation- alist Asian governments. For Liu Shac- chi spoke only two months after the Indonesian communists under the direc- tion of the soviet-trained agent, muse, violently and treacherously attacked the hepublic of indonesia which was then, with resources already unequal to the task, standing up to the forces of Dutch imperialism. when Liu shao-chi spoke‘ of the 'liberation struggle' it was little more than a year after the Com- munists in nyderabad rose against the Government of india and the national leadership that had won the country its independence. rhese examples were well chosen in terms of the emotions they aroused. knowing that homulo fought Openly for lndo- nesian independence within the United nations, the sig- nificance of the first example is better appreciated. he was in a position to gather the facts first hand. knowing also that his opponent represented the country 214 designated in the second example, it is likewise better appreciated. in both instances the speaker associated his material with the emotional make—up of his audience. Hatred and resentment on the part of those immediately concerned were the natural by-products of such associa- tions 0 rrom an appeal to the powerfully motivating passions just mentioned, the speaker turned immediately to an appeal for sympathy and understanding. By way of emotional contrast he said: Liu shes-chi was, in fact, taking note that under the cover and through the agency of local Communist forces, the societ Union and communist China were waging war against free Asia. many of my fellow countrymen have fallen in that war, shot to death by raiding communist gangs, ambushed in the wooded hills. rhousands of true nationals of lndonesia, lndia, nurma, and malaya have also died. whey well merit our sorrowful remembrance. hemulo was touching here upon equally powerful sources of human emotion; and, as in the previous passage, he is aided in his pathetic appeal by vivid imagery, descrip- tive adjectives, and rhythmic sentence patterns. Addi— tionally, the emotionally toned facts he related were well adapted to his own experiences and to the audience he faced. N H U: invention —- Ethical Proof An analysis of homulo's reply to Nehru from the standpoint of ethical proof discloses abundant evi— dence of the speaker’s ”sagacity, nigh character, and good will." He will now look at some of this evidence in detail. 1. nagacity. nomulo conveys an impression of sagacity largely through common sense, a broad familiarity with the interests of the day, and general intellectual tone. his knowledge of the international communist move- ment is both intimate and discerning. he refers to the Asian Irade Union conference of November, 1949, and to the communist declaration of purpose which that confer- ence inspired. he evinces knowledge of the Comintern and Uominform as well as the "manuals of organization and procedure issued by ranking oommunist Iarty members through- out the world." fhe effect of communism in the seVeral countries of south and southeast also comes within his intellectual purview. nomulo's common sense becomes evident whenever he wishes to express a thought beyond the pale of strict 105ical develOpment. in connection with his treatment of the five principles of coexistence and their apparent failure to stop communist aggression he asked: if it is persisted that the attack launched without warning and without pro- vocation upon the hepublic of horse and its subsequent invasion were consistent sith the principle of non-aggression, then what does the principle mean? if the prin— ciple or non-aggression will sanction the agdression against horea, then will it not sanction aggression against any other country? Ihe answer to these and to related questions was left up to common sense. rhrothout his reply to hehru there is trans- mitted a general intellectual tone by the speaker. hom- ulo's speech contains language wnich subtly projects in- tellectual integrity and wisdom. his language is both accurate and objective. harely will one find a statement couched in the terms of an absolute. uualifying adjec- tives like "fairly" or "probably" are used in place of "completely" or "unmistakably". in short, there is a sig- nificant absence of exaggeration in what the Speaker says. if he is not entirely sure of what he is about to say he will select words which will take him only so far as the truth will allow. 2. high character. nomulo emphasises his pros— ity‘ of character by making his audience look with dis- dain and disfavor upon his Opponent and what he advocates 217 By associating his own case with what is virtuous and elevated the speaker, however, does Just the Opposite with himself. in addition, he also attempts to remove those unfavorable reflections upon his case which had been previously made by his Opponent. In the beginning of his speech homulo made a conscious attempt to diminish his Opponent's ethical eta~ ture. After praising Nehru for his outstanding personal qualities, the speaker quickly reversed ground by saying: "however, 1 would have wished he Spoke with the same se- renity that he spoke in New Delhi in 1947. and 1 would have much preferred to have heard him here with less heat, less passion, and less doama." immediately, the speaker established an ethical contrast between himself and his Opponent. he left his audience with the impression that even thouah Eehru had failed to display a sense of good taste and proceed with test and moderation, he was never— theless prepared to do so. homulo cast further reflections upon his Oppo— nent's integrity by charging him with being unfair and prejudiced in dealing with the hanila ract and with those who belonged to regional defense alliances. he was per— fectly justified in doing so since Nehru had employed some rather harsh language in his speech. Those who belonged 218 to military pacts were called "hanéers-On" and "camp-fol- lowers“ who had degraded themseles and lost their indivi— duality. By comparison nonulo's remarks were administered with more tact and consideration. ihe strongest method the speaker used to belittle his Opponent was through a sarcastic attack upon what his Opponent advocated for adOption, namely the five prin- ciples Of peaceful coexistence. After proving that the communists had been the actual aggressors in horse, nom- ulo concluded by saying: if the invaders nevertheless continue to take the position they have in the past, that they were guiltless in horse, that it was the nepublic of acres that initiated tne war and that those defending the hepublic were the aggressors, then we are forced to conclude that in such lexicon 'non-aggressicn' means calculated assault upon a free nation by aggressive military forces while ‘aggression' describes the action of those coming to the assistance of the victim. as shall then have a clearer idea Of what to expect under the five prin- CiplGSO This example of mild sarcasm, while minimizing the inte- grity of his Opponent's case, also clothed the speaker's own thought in a certain degree of rationality, which in turn enhanced his impression Of sagaoity. This is part of the "intellectual tone" previously described. other examples included the use of intellectually dis— paraging words like "so-called." On two occasions homulo 219 used this disdainful pejorative in referring to the ob- jections Rehru had raised against the manila lact. But if homulo made his audience look with dis- favor upon his Opponent, he also made them look with favor upon what he himself was advocating. he does this by attempting to remove any damaging impressions left by his Opponent. unile hehru diaparaecd the aanila Iact, homulo bestowed tehpered praise upon it. he reviewed the terms of the Charter and the treaty and stressed their positive character. Of the preamble he said: among the principles heavily under- scored are those referring to equal rights and self-determination of peeples, indi- vidual liberty and the rule of law, the promotion of economic well~being, collec- tive defense for the preservation of peace and security, and united action against aggression. These were features with which homulo was associating himself worthy of reapect. The mere mention of them served not only to refute his Opponent's prior claim but also to increase his own ethical stature. 3. Good will. homulo'e Opening sentence car- ried with it an important ethical stroke. "Mr. Chairman:" he said, "I did not intend to speak on this subject to preserve the concord and harmony of this conference that has so far prevailed until the Prime Minister of lndia 220 spoke, as he always speaks, with great impact on all those who are privileged to hear him." here the audience was given an indication of the speaker's good will, for he states that he had refused to speak earlier in order to preserve the concord and harmony of the conference. This benevolent attitude was in keeping with the original in- tention of the conference sponsors which was to avoid disputes over controversial matters which would tend to lead to fundamental differences of Opinion. In one re- spect, therefore, homulo's entry into the debate was made to appear as the Judicious action of a reluctant gladi- ator who had restrained himself until finally provoked to battle. Throughout his speech homulo reveals his good will by proceeding with candor and straightforwardness. This is especially noticeable in the first part of his speech when he took up the analOgy of Kashmir to show why countries were naturally prone to eXpend vast ener- gies in protecting themselves against possible enemy ag- greesion. why has my country Joined a regional grouping? The answer is exactly the same as the answer each one of you would give me if i asked you, why are you put- ting so much of your wealth and your ener- gies into preparing for wari Let us be realistic and not starryeyed visionaries dreaming Utopian dreams. 221 What the speaker is urging here is that the members of his audience should be honest with themselves. Such an attitude by its very nature calls for a candid and straight- forward approach. lt was a token of the speaker's good Will 0 Style homulo's style is functionally adequate for the type of Speaking involved. The committee meetings presented an atmosphere of modified informality which was in keeping with the intentions of the conference spon- sore. As a result the speaker's language becomes less formal. his sentences are lonber and more loosely con- structed. some of then, in fact, contain extemporaneous after-thoughts. in example of this informality can be seen in the following sentence euloéiaihg nahatma Gandhi: hven mahatma Gandhi, that great Indian leader to whose memory I ask you to join me in turning our reverential thouéhte today, in the early days of partition, didn't hesitate a moment in supporting the Brine minister's decision to send trOOps to the hashmir not for 58‘i‘he results of a readability analysis indi~ cate that, on the average, nomulo's speech contains twenty- five words per sentence. For a preper understanding of what this signifies, see Appendix Ii. 222 the purpose of waging war -- he was a saintly man - but for the purpose of preVenting one by making the presence of those troops as vivid as possible. Attention should be directed to the contraction "didn't" which is used. such colloquial hnglish was not out of place in terms of the informal nature of the speaking situation. Ihe speaker's language is not only consistent with the occasion, it is also consistent with himself. homulo's background undoubtedly prompted him to use such words as "dogma," "imprimatur," and "schism." These words have a special sibnificance in terms of his religious background. The literature of Catholicism places an al- most individual claim upon them. This does not mean, however, that they would not be understood by the other cnief delegates. being well educated men, they would be reasonably acquainted with themajor religbus institu- tions of the world. if homulo's lanbuage is appropriate there are many indications that it is also clear and direct. hven though he deals with an abstract subject, his language is nonetheless concrete and Specific. than he refers to the tactics used by the communists to overthrow help- less Asian governments he mentions the "very specifics of subversion, infiltration," and "sabatoge." when he 223 refers to the Soviet Union's instruments of interfering with the internal affairs of other nations, he speaks of them as the "Comintern" and "Cominform." then he re- fers to the Geneva settlement on Indochina, he mentions it in terms of "free Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia." when he refers to the person who directed the violent and treacherous attack against the nepublic of indonesia, he speaks of him as the "Soviet-trained agent, huso." Another indication of the Speaker's desire to communiCate his thoughts distinctly, is to be found in the brief exylanaticns he sometimes gives of those organ- izations and ideas which might not have been immediately understood by his audience. Ihis attempt at clarifica- tion is especially true of these parts of the speech deal- ing specifically with the "FIU and the nanila fact. when- ever there is the yossibility or likelihood that a con- cept mibht not be proyerly understood, the speaker will, as a rule, provide some suitable statement of exylanation. nomulo achieves directness largely through the frequent use of rhetorical questions. Although these interrogatives are commonly employed throughout the speech, over half of them are concentrated in one particular sec- tion. nesetitive audience questions were liberally used to advance the sneaker's thesis that the communists 224 couldn't be trusted to live up to the intentions of the five principles of coexistence. he asks: Are we entirely sure in crzr own minds what is intended by those who declaie ad— herence to these principles. Are we as- sured that there will be no further cases of aggression such as that of which the hepublic of acres was the victim? This seems to 32 to be the all-important ques— tion. ‘ng is willing to give this assur- ance? is it too much to ask that some restitution be made for the invasion and present occupation of North norea by bring- ing home invs ading forces and letting the Korean peo>1e choose their own government under United nations observation, free at last of interference in their internal affairs? rhese, it seems to us, are im- portant tests of the five principles' in- tentions. From the standpoint of both style and invention these questions serVed a dual function; they enhanced the speak- er's directness while at the same time furthering the analysis of his Opponent's case. it will be noted also in the above passafie that there are numerous personalized words. in fact, nearly ten per cent of the total number of words can be classi— fied as personal. unile this is twice the average per- centage for the speech as a whole,59 it nevertheless helps to indicate another of the factors involved in the speak- er's directness. By using words which apply directly to 59i‘his conclusion is the result of a readability analySis. See Appendix ll for additional information. 225 his audience homulo is able to communicate his thoughts more effectively. rersonal identification with his thoughts gives the listeners a feeling of shared responsibility. Turning now to the matter of impressivcness, the stylistic embellishments of hOwulo's steech are few but significant. in keeping with the aura of rationality which pervaded the sneaking situation, his sentences con— tain strength but only in a subdued QEéICB. ”hat encha- sis that is attained is in the form of balanced antithesis, asseveration, exclamatory and hortatory ezpression, and the repetition of key words and phrases. antithesis. in pointiné out the similarity between the objective of the United Nations in repelling aggression and the defensive features of the manila Pact, homulo stated antithetically: "The manila iact would be void if it went beyond this objective, and it would be useless if it fell short of it." rhis deft turn of phrase helped crystallize the speaker's thoudht by reducing it to the limits of a single sentence. isseveration. An important article in the man— ila Treaty was introduced in the following positive man- ner: "article iv is the crucial provision of the treaty." Iwo paragraphs later the syeaher said: "rnis is probably the first treaty of its kind to refer specifically to 226 the danger posed by subversion." By means of this em- phatic device nomulo was better able to enlist the atten— tion of his audience. isolanetory and hortatory_exgressions. The following examples are lnuicative: how few, indeed, are the nations here who C;fl be like lndia! let not Asia reheat EurOye's tragic error in requiflé to believe the brazen program of conquest Openly revealed by uitler in his book "Loin Lanyf.” by them the eyeaxer emghasized the urgency of his thought. legetition 2; key words and phrases. having praised Rehru of lndia, homulo referred to mohammed Ali of lakistan by saying: "i believe that hr. Ali is no less a great statesman, no less devoted to peace -- peace between lndia ani lekistan, peace in our continent, and peace in the world." having exyressed symyathy for the victims of raiding communist gangs, homulo advocated equal symyathy for those wno killed them by saying: but we should also not withhold our sympathy from those who killed them, for their misled brothers who had been per- suaded to believe that the way to peace is through bloodshed, that the way to jus- tice is throufih murder, that the way to freedoa is through tyranny, that the say to glenty for the peOple is through the confiscation of all they can by the state. 227 In the first of these examples it is significant to note that the speaker achieves climax by advancing through three successive geographic stages, the country, the con- tinent, the world. in the second example added emphasis is gained through placing contrasted elements tOgether so that they mutually set each other off. Viewing honulo's style from the standpoint of figurative embellishment, it is clearly evident that he relies very little upon connotative language. Since the Speaker's primary aim is to engage successfully in intel- lectual combat with his Opponent, he is compelled to rely primarily upon denotative language. Four times, however, he does embellish hiatxyle with alliteration and/or as- sonance. he Speaks of the "candid and continuing“ defi- nition of Communist foreign policy, of the communist "schism with socialism," of the "dramatic disavowal" of the manila fact and the iacific Charter, and of standing together with the other alliance members without"vanity or invidiousness." These examples of alliteration were spaced throuyhout the speech and helped to break up the denotative monotony of the Speaker's language. The only other examples of stylistic embellishment occurred when the speaker described his countryman as being "ambushed in the wooded hills" and the communist military success 228 in Southeast Asia as "feeding upon itself." Audience nesgonse lhe iniornation filtering from the closed meet— inus of the rolitlcal connittee concerning the effective- ness of nomulo's reply to Nehru was sparse but revealing. A United tress dissatch of April 23, for exangle, stated that after nomulo delivered his speech, the irime minis- ter of lndia ayolobiaed for the "strong words he used... in attacking the rhilippines and other Asian and African L: \ . - o . . nations with military alliances.”U xhe dispatcn said in part: fiehru's apology came after Gen. Uarlos I. ncmulc, unofficial spokesman for the west at the Za-nation nsian- hfriCau conference, delivered a scath- ing sgeecn against communism which he described as a 20th century version of ldth century engires.°l In addition, another (Ur) disyatcn of a later date quoted tomulo himself as saying that the Asian-African confer- ence was a "big success" in Which he silenced all opposi— tion to the shard pact. "After I had defended the snAEO pact and explained its implications," he said, "there 6”we manila Times, April 24, 1955. p. 14- bllbid. 229 was no more attack on the treaty from any quarter."62 Generally speaking, what seemed to have affected the conference delegates most in nomulo's season was the sxylanation he gave of the subversion and infiltration provisions of the hanila Treaty, and also his direct re- buttal of the main points of sehru's speech.63 bf this direct rebuttal The Times of Karachi in its editorial of Atril 26, 1955, said: "he (Hehru) scored little by his attack on defense treaties... hr. homulo of the rhilippines cast hashmir in his teeth and silenced him effectively.”64 The spirited attack upon 00mmunist imperialism, of which homulo was probably the most consistently vocal element, put Uhou hn-lai of China "on the defensive" said an editorial in the uetroit Free rrese. Chou had no chance to make his big Speech before reyresentatives of iraq, lran, rhailand, rahistan, 3. Vietnam and the rnilippines exPlained what imperial— ism actually means in the world today and pointed to whom the free nations have to fear.09 62i‘he aanila Times, April 26, 195), Po 1' 63Vicente J. Guzman, "A—A Confab ands Tonight," The manila Times, April 24, 195$, p. 14. “*6 4This information was supplied in a letter from 3. h. Hag, rress Attacné, ambassy of rahistan, nashington, 3.0., hareh 17, 19390 65Detroit Free frees, April 21, 1955: P. 8. 230 If such can be said about the friends of the nest in gen- eral, it can certainly be said about homulo in particular who spoke just before Chou in the Iolitical Committee and who was the acknowledged spokesman of the test. honulo's third principal speech was delivered before the Closing session. Immediate Setting rhe ceremony accompanying the closing plenary session of the “sian-african conferenCe was said to have been as isyressive as that of the etching plenary session.66 Che correspondent wrote: ”if western families had been watching the finals on sitting room viewing screens, they would have noticed times when the conference somewhat ’. . . . D ... . . resembled a reViValist meeting." 7 £18 observation would 6.. 1 A- . . H Vicente J. huznah, "ri mlSBlOfl hue tomorrow," The manila Times, April 25, 1955, p. l. 6 a. _ a . _ 7nonald stead, "asiah-African Delegates rut Success Label on handung," ghristiag science monitor, 231 tend to indicate that the same color and pageantry of the Opening session must also have attended the closing session. ins final plenary session did not begin until well after dark on sunday, april 24, 19b5, the last day of the conference. rreviously, the remaining daylight hours had been spent in formulating the resolutions which would be incorporated in the final communique.68 Unce these resolutions had been read aloud, the enief delegates from eacn country mounted the podium alphabetically to 69 mass five minute valedictory Speeches. rextual authentication fhe teit used in this analysis was obtained 70 from the rhilippine nubassy. in the absence of any other complete text it will be assumed that it reflects fairly accurately what the speaker actually said. “his assumytion has some corroborating evidence in its favor, however, for in an issue of the manila rinse there are 580. hand, loo. cit., p. 73- eylbid. 7o dee Appendix ill for a reproduced version. 232 quoted several rather extensive excerpts.71 Nearly a fifth of the speech has been reproduced in a United Press release and a careful inspection indicates that with one exception there is word for word agreement with the em- bassy coPy. The one exception is noteworthy. according to the embassy text komulo said to- ward the beginning of his closing address: “we should like history to say that our freedoms were more than merely celebrated at Bandung; they were made solid and given the substance of growth." In a corresponding ex- cerpt from the hanila.2i§3§, however, the word "our" is omitted and the word "celebrated" becomes "half-rate.”72 While both versions make sense, the writer nevertheless believes that a preponderance of intellegibility rests in favor of the embassy version; it appears to fit in more unobtrusively with the ideas conveyed in the sen- tence. A plausible explanation for the divergence is that there was a careless error in transcription. If not heard distinctly, or if spoken rapidly, both words would tend to sound alike. 71 See The manila Times, April 25, 1955, pp. 1 and 2. 721bid., p. 1. 233 Purpose The general purpose of a closing address is that of any farewell speech: it is to express public appreciation for services rendered whether by an indivi- dual or by an organization. Additionally, the purpose is to praise those particular accomplishments of the in- dividual or the organization which are worthy of tribute. in terms of the Asian-African Conference one would also expect a closing statenent to enphaeize the importance of the gathering and to arouse a deeper devotion to the cause it represented. rhe specific purpose of homulo's closing address was indicated in his initial sentence; it was to survey the accomplishments of the conference with pride and hu- mility. A secondary purpose as stated in the middle of the speech was to review the commitments made by the con- ference members in order to ascertain what would be ex- pected of them in the future. Arrangement Although somewhat difficult at first to ascer- tain, homulo's closing speech nevertheless contains the 254 traditional rhetorical structure; i.e., it has an intro- duotion, a body, and a conclusion. The ideas contained in it are threefold: 1) that the achievements made at the conference can only be assessed by history: 2) that the conference had committed itself to a higher allegi- ance and to patience; and 3) that congratulations should be given to the host government, Indonesia, and to the host countries, the Colombo powers. In his introduction, which is quite brief, Rom- ulo refers to the occasion of departure with a simple statement of fact. “to survey our work in Bandung with pride and humility." he thereupon channels his audience into the proper attitude of departure by saying anecdo- tally, "But let us not be like the Bishop who told his friends: 'Have you heard? I am writing a book on humil- ity.'" With these few lines the speaker related his first major idea to his audience and to the central motif of that part of the conference - the occasion of departure. The reference to an ecclesiastical official was appropri- ate because of the religious nature of the audience; and it is better appreciated with the knowledge that the speaker is himself a Christian. After expressing his third major idea, homulo ends his farewell statement with a short salutation in 235 in his native Filipino language: "Paalam N Sa lnyong Lahatl' or "God be with you all!" The speaker adjusts his thought to the spiritual orientation of his audience with an appropriate reference to the Deity. both intro- duction and conclusion, therefore, maintain a unity of spiritual expression. Turning now to the body of the speech, it is difficult to determine where it actually begins or ends because of the absence of transitions. The three parts of the speech appear to be fused together, for they glide into each other without benefit of separating units. This situation is what apparently makes difficult the ascertainment of three discreet elements. structurally, however, the body of the speech is develOped historically. From the time sequence of the ideas presented it can be determined that the speaker progresses from past to fu- ture. He first discusses what the conference had accom- plished from an historical perspective, and he then con- sidered what remained to be done in terms of commitments. In this sense, the speaker advanced his position from what took place in the past to what should take place in the future. He thereupon returned to the present to congratulate his hosts. No generalizations can be drawn from the use 236 of transitional elements within the body of the speech since only one was used. At the point where the speaker endeavored to pass from past accomplishment to future commitments he employed a rhetorical question. Romulo said: we belong to the community of hurt, heartbreak, and deferred hopes. But even in the act of observing our release, it becomes important to say what we ourselves prOpose to do by way of maintaining these freedoms and fulfilling those hOpes. What are the commitments made at Bandung? Invention -- Logical iroof in keeping with the motivational nature of a closing address, homulo's speech before the final plenary session contains few examples of rigid logical develop- ment. In fact, argument from authority is the only logi- cal instrument clearly in evidence. midway in his speech homulo called upon the expert testimony of Mahatma Gandhi as chief support for the assertion that the nations re- presented at the conference must be willing to contribute positive values of sacrifice in order to create a vital peace. The Mahatma was quoted as saying: "How much we put of ourselves into a common purpose will determine 237 whether that purpose will be fulfilled." Testimony such as this would have been well received by the audience because it came from a source which was considered to be both competent and reliable with no disqualifying prejudice. Since homulo voiced common feelings throughout his speech, the three major ideas he expressed would have received ready acceptance. Under his first major idea the speaker appealed to historical Judgment. Although a complete functional appraisal of the logic of this idea would be difficult if not altogether impossible at the present time for obvious reasons, a limited functional appraisal of it might still be Justified. There can be partial agreement, for example, with the statement of the speaker that “men from twenty-nine nations came together at a time when the pulse beat of the world was erratic and dangerously fast." The tensions then and still now existing over the lndochinese peninsula and the Taiwan Straight would help bear this out. Also, there can be partial agreement but only in a very restricted sense, with the speaker's assertion that because of the confer- ence, “the health and vitality of the human community showed marked improvement.” what was learned in Chapter ll about the results of the conference might give this 238 assertion limited functional integrity. Beyond these partial agreements, however, the thought must be held in common with the speaker that "what happens in the months and years ahead will determine whether the mood created at Bandung was momentary and misleading or whether it was strong and clean and vibrant." in terms of the background material provided, ideas two and three are likewise functionally valid. It can be seen in the purpose and results of the conference that, as the speaker said, participating members had com- mitted themselves to the cause of a world seeking both peace and freedom. It can also be seen in the arrange— ments made by the conference host that a depth of plan- ning had gone into the complicated problem of providing for full press facilities. These are the most signifi- cant of the functional observations which can be made. Invention -- Emotional Proof The appeals homulo makes in this speech are consistent with the nature of the occasion. He appeals to a sense of satisfaction and of group accomplishment. do also appeals to a "higher allegiance“ and to the bone- ficial effects of group cohesiveness. "we have recognised, 239 he said, "that our allegiance is not merely to our own nations or to each other as Asians and Africans; our first allegiance is to the human community.“ The strongest appeal he makes, however, is directed to a sense of per- sonal dedication and self-sacrifice. "it is not what we refrain from doing that will create a vital peace. it is what we freely give, how much each of us is willing to sacrifice, and what positive values we contribute that will determine Whether the vision we see here at Bandung can be brought to life." hethcdclcgically, nomulc was aided in his arousal of human emotion by a slight touch of humor and by rhyth— mic sentence patterns and emotionally toned words. In his introduction he takes advantage of the lightened na- ture of the departing occasion with a functionally appro- priate anecdote. Since the delegates had completed their work and had thus been released from the cares of the conference, they would be in a better mood to appreciate such an anecdote. Ihe speaker also garbs his thoughts in the language of the emotions. hhythmic sentence pat- terns and emotionally toned words are both consciously employed. “do belong to the community of hurt, heart- break, and deferred hopes," he said. "But even in the act of obtaining our release, it becomes important to 240 say what we ourselves prOpose to do by way or maintain- ing these freedoms and fulfilling those hepes." Invention - Ethical froof homulo's use of ethical proof is best charac- terized in this speech by the indications he gives of his good will and probity of character. he showers tem- pered praise upon his audience by commending the assem- bled delegates for having committed themselves to pa— inemuaand for being animated by a recognition of high pur- pose. Cf the Commitment to Qatience he said: "as have not been deflated by petty behavior nor have we allowed ourselves to become paralyzed by fatigue." of the recog- nition of high purpose he said: "I have been impressed, deeply impressed, with the sincere attempt of all present to create not a lasting organization but a lasting effect. And when 1 say all 1 mean all. I have never seen a group of men so finely animated by recognition of high purpose." Such tempered praise went beyond the obligations of mere formality. A review of the pertinent background material will indicate that it had meaning in terms of what was actually accomplished at the conference. The speaker’s probity of character is exemplified 241 throughout his speech. A feeling of genuine sincerity is conveyed by the emphatic sentence in the middle of the last quoted passage. here the speaker creates the impression of being completely sincere in what he says. Furthermore, his repeated references to such elevated and respected concepts as "moral strength," "positive values," "hopes," "freedom," and "sacrifice" all served to enhance his high character through the process of as— sociation. The speaker's frequent idealistic utterances contained mucn ethical appeal since he was associating himself with what was virtuous and looked upon with favor. style btylistically, homulo's Closing Address posses- ses characteristics which make it clear, direct, and im- pressive. The clarity of his style is indicated primarily by the use of an admonitory illustration and by parallel sentence structure. In the beginning of his speech the brief anecdote which was employed helped to give the speaker's thought instant intelligibility. This was like- wise true with the parallel sentence pattern which emerged shortly thereafter. niccpt for one slight variation hom- ulo began four consecutive sentences with the statement 242 "as should all like history to say..." These parallel sentences helped facilitate the communication of the thoughts within them. homulo's directness is indicated by the number of times he used personalized words. Fully one quarter of the total number of sentences begin with the personal pronoun "we," while many others contain this same pronoun within the first five words. 0f the total number of words used approximately lOr of them can be classified as per- 73 sonal. fhe breat majority of these words display the speaker's conscious attempt to share his observations and conclusions with his listeners. Erom the standpoint of impressiveness, homulo's style is enhanced chiefly by the use of figurative langu- age. He employs personification when he refers to the "pulse beat of the world" being erratic and dangerously fast. he uses polysyndeton when he epeahs of the mood created at handung as being either "momentary and mis- leading" or "strong and clean and vibrant." This last figure, preceded by a brief attempt at alliteration also noted, added strength and vigor to the speaker's thought. 73This conclusion is the result of a readability analysis. See Appendix ll for additional data. 243 Audience Response information concerning the effect of homulo's closing speech is both slim and contradictory, in addi- tion to the fact that half of it must be obtained indi- rectly. An article in the Christian Uentury, for exam- ple, states that "in his closing address the spokesman for Liberia won ayylause almost equal to that for Nehru and homulc."74 fnis admission would tend to indicate, in a roundabout way, that nomulc's speech was well re- ceived. A correspondent for the New Yorker casts some doubt upon this observation, however, since it was his Opinion that those who spoke after flehru (this would in- clude homulo because the delegates spoke in alphabetical order) "didn't hold the audience well, and everyone seemed "75 glad when the meeting was over. The effect of nomulo's speech, therefore, is Open to speculatiOn. an attempt will be made in the next few pages 74sinburn f. Thomas, "Bandung: has It Key to Future?“ Christian Century, Liili (may 18, 195b). p. 602. 750. hand, 100. cit. 244 to pick out some of the more common and persistent rhe— torical elements of nomulo's principal speeches. digni- ficant differences will also be considered. Arrangement Generalizing some of the observations made in the preceding sections on arrangement, it can be stated, first of all, that nomulc's speeches show a versatility of structural develcpuent. in his Opening address the distributive method of arrangement was employed, in his address before the rolitical Committee the logical method was used, and in his closing address the historical method. Judging from the nature of the subject matter in the three speeches, the most appropriate form of arrangement was utilized in each case. organizationally, each of nomulo's principal Speeches contains an introduction, a body, and a conclus- ion. Ihe introductions and conclusions were all quite brief, especially those in the closinb address. with his introductions, the speaker created good will between himself and his audience, and adapted his subjects to both the audience and the occasions. with his conclus— ions, he added vigor to his thought. in the conclusions . I L , 1 ' 'Im 245 of both Opening and closing addresses a reference was made to the deity, Which created a sense of syiritual strength. Concerning transitions, it can be said that the rhetorical question was used more than any other device, altnoubh short anticipatory stateients were also employed. in fact, it may eVen be stated that tee rhetorical ques- tion aypeared to be the Speaker's favorite form of tran-- ;ntion, since the only transition used in his OlOSiflé ad- dress was a rhetorical question. Using all three syeecnes as a basis for judg- ment, the greatest weakness of nomulo's arrangement is to be found in the failure of a central unifying theme to emerge except in the opening address. Inis weakness was especially noticeable in the address before the Political Committee because the Speaker shifted his point of focus so many times in refuting his anyonent's arguments. It was not so noticeable, however, in the Closing address because the speech itself was so short. invention from the Btunegoint of invention, nomulo's prin- cipal syeeches show a conscious attempt to utilize all of 246 the classical modes of persuasion -— 10gical, emotional, and ethical proof. Lagical rroof ihe ideas expressed by nomulo fully correspond with the orientation of rhilipyiue foreign policy, and with the position the rhilippine delegation was eXpected to uphold at the conierence. In his opening address the Speaker exposed the evils of communism. in his address before the rolitical committee he refuted the fallacy of coexistence and defended the Southeast Asia Treaty Organ— isation against attack. ln his closing address he reit- erated the desire of the rhilippine government to asso- ciate itself in a constructive way with the problems of Asia and Africa. Throughout his speeches, nomulo relied upon a strong iramework of exgositional argument to establish his major ideas. while in many cases he did not adhere to a riéid logical develoyment, the logic he did use was largely inductive. examples and causal relations were the predominant inductive forms of support, with argument from authority being occasionally used. Of all the induc— tive groof supplied by the speaker it is significant to note that in each speech the example or testimony of 247 Mahatma Gandhi was used. By and large, however, evidence was used sparingly and many of the speaker's generaliza- tions went either unsupyorted or found their factual vali- dity within the minds of the audience. sectional erOf in each of his principal sgeeches homulo adapted his material to the sectional nature of his audience. as appealed to the needs and desires of his listeners. he apnealed to their desire for national self-assertion, their need for national security, and their desire for social justice and haterial well~being. rhe adaytive technique used in nearly every appeal was to be found in sentences that here rhytnnic and language that was vivid and emotionally toned. Ethical Proof nomulo's principal speeches give abundant proof of his sagacity, high character and good will. In his Opening address and his address before the Political Com- mittee he gave his audiences the impression that he was familiar with contemporary problems by discussing the implications of the international communist movement. In his opening and closing addresses he linked himself with what was good and honorable by appealing to such 248 respected concepts as "freedom“ and "moral strength." in all of his Speeches he advanced his ideas candidly and straightforwardly, and showed a benevolent attitude by linking himself aitn his hearers and their problems. Common stylistic elements existed in all three of homulo's speeches. in attemyting to make his ideas clear he used parallel sentence structure. he achieved directness throubn the liberal use of personalized words. dis ideas were ingressed upon his hearers with language that was figurative and highly connotative. rhe speaker enhanced his style by persistently using other stylistic elements as well. A persistent use was made of rhetorical questions, for example, which helped to restate and amplify the speaker‘s thoubhts. hortatory and exclamatory expressions as well as climax and the repetition of key words and shrases were persist- ently used also, in achieving force. hvidence indicates that the speaker's style was well suited to his audience and his subject matter. rhe variation in his sentence structure is an important case in point. it was noted that in his address before 249 the Political Committee, his sentences became longer and less formal than in his other two addresses. The increased length is attested to by the results of a readability analysis, while the informality is seen in the use of contractions and internal extengorized remarks. Both of tnese variations were well suited to the informal na- ture of the occasion and to the abstract nature of the subject matter. CHAPTER V UUHCLUSLUN While the final evaluation of Romulo's speak- ing effectiveness at the Asian~African Conference must await the broader view of historic perspective, certain conclusions can be made at this time. It can be stated, first of all, that homulo's speeches are excellent exam- ples of rhetorical craftsmanship. The technical virtues brought out in the preceding chapter should give strong support to this assertion. Although structural and com- positional imperfections were observed, they were neither serious nor many. homulo'e speeches are, in short, good rhetoric. Also, it can be stated that, within limits, homulo's speaking produced some tangible results. To begin with, the immediate reaction to his speeches was quite favorable. His Opening and closing addresses were accorded some of the loudest applause, while his address before the lolitical Committee drew a significant apology from his opponent. shat certain audience members said of his speeches after they had been delivered is likewise 250 251 indicative of their immediate success. Another tangible result which homulo's speeches might have helped produce concerns a possible change in audience attitudes. it was noted at the end of Chapter ll that the Asian—African Conference showed a strong demo- cratic alignment, and that as a result of secret debates and declarations on "colonialism" and "world peace" the pro—Western group of countries numbered some fifteen mem- bers. This alignment is quite significant in view of the fact that when the conference started only eleven members could be properly associated with the pro-Western group. Since homulo spoke on these issues, since his speeches were capable of influencing this change, from what was Just noted in terms favorable audience response, and since he was looked upon as a leader of the pro-fiest- ern forces at the conference, it is quite possible that his speeches did help to effect this change. Turning now to the final conference communique, it is possible to note another area which might have been influenced by homulo's persuasiveness. An inspection of the final communique at the end of Chapter 11 disclosed that colonialism in all of its manifestations had been condemned by all the conference members and that collec- tive defense alliances had been justified. These two ideas, it will be noted, coincide exactly with the position 252 the Philippine delegation was sworn to uphold at the con- ference, and they were explicitly stated by the head of the Ihilippine delegation in his Opening address and in his address before the rolitical committee. «hile no definite causal relation can be drawn between the appear- ance of those two ideas in the final cemmuniqué and hom- ulo's persuasiveness, the least that can be said is that the speaker's position was vindicated. A further inspection of the final communique. discloses additional manifestations of the Philippine position as eXpressed in homulo's speeches. Frequent and favorable mention was made of the United Nations. homulo extolled and defended the United Nations in both his opening address and his address before the rolitical Cemmittse. Also, no Specific mention was made of the theory of "coexistence" in the final communique. homulo, it will be noted, vigorously attackedthis theory in his reply to Prime minister Nehru. unile the presence and absence of these two concepts might not have been directly influenced by homulo's speaking, it can again be said that his position was vindicated. Apart from the final communique, however, per- haps the greatest single fact attesting to homulo's rhe- torical effectiveness is to be seen in the achievement 253 of his purpose in attending the conference. In homulo‘s own words, as stated at the end of Chapter 11, he wished to orpose the fallacies of communism and neutralism. An indication of his success in echsing these two fal— lacies through his speaking, is evidenced in the clearly observable fact that to this day neither the communist nor the neutralist block in Asia has grown. as the his- torians Crofts and Buchanan have so clearly pointed out, "homuio's eloquence at Bandung helped to offset the per— suasions of Chou hn-lai, and bandit Nehru's neutralism."1 summing up homulc's influence on the foregoing results, the writer feels it would be unwise if not wholly incorrect to say that homulo's Speaking was the determin- ing factor in each instance. Such a conclusion is far removed frOm the writer's intentions. All that can or should be said is that nomulo's speaking was capable of helping to procuce the foregoing results. it should be carefully borne in mind that since the Asian-african Con- ference was a dynamic social situation no one factor by itself can be thought of as completely causative. nom- ulc's speaking was only one of many determinants of change. 1Alfred Crofts and Percy Buchanan, §_histor1 g; the Far hast (New York: Longmans, Green and oc., lnc., 958), p. 514. 254 In final summary then, it can be concluded that homulo's principal speeches at the Asian-African Confer- ence fully reflected the aims of rhilippine foreign pol- icy. ihey were conformable to the speaker's audiences because they elicited an early and favorable response. in terms of designated purposes all that homulo could hope for was a clearer understanding of his ideas and a possible change in audience attitudes. This understand- ing and change he helped to achieve by influencing the alteration of politically oriented alignments, by vindi- cating his position through the wording of the final com- munique, and by offsetting the blandishments of communism and neutralism through an eXposé of their dangerous ten- dencies. he more than this can be said, no more than this should be said. AEi’ENlJ‘Li I February 3, 1959 Division of information hmbassy of Pakistan washington, D.C. Dear sir: My graduate research project here at nichigan state Uni- versity is to analyze the speeches delivered by the Hon— orable Carlos P. nonulo of the lhilippines at the Asian- African Conference which was held in bandung, lndonesia, April ld-24, 1995. Une important nepect of this study concerns homulo as a man and as a public speaker. A second important aspect deals with judgments of his speak- ing effectiveness. in connection with these, I am writing to ask whether or not you can make available to me any representative press connents which might have been made in your country immediately prior to, duriné, and/or after the Conference concerning the role of homulo and his speeches. if these materials can be loaned to me, i would make cer- tain that they were well taken care of and promptly re- turned. lf they cannot be loaned, 1 would appreciate KHOWIHQ what you might have available for typing or mi- crofilming. Thank you for your interest and c00peration. sincerely, David J. mall 256 Embassy of Pakistan uashington, D.C. Inf/830/59 February 12. 1959 hr. David J. mall College of Communication Arts Department of speech michigan state University Last Lansing, michigan Lear mr. mall: Thank you very much for your letter asking us to make available for you the representative press com- ments which might have been made by the trees in Bakistan on H. n. Carlos 2. nomulo's speeches at the Afro-asian donfsrence held in nandung. us have forwarded your letter to the ministry of information and broadcasting, Uovern~ ment of lakistan, karacni, for favor of help. l am sure they will do their best to help you in this project. if, however, there is anything else that we can do for you, please do not hesitate to call on us again. sincerely yours, 5. h. fiaq rress attache hm/rca. 257 Embassy of Pakistan hashington, D.C. lnf/830/59 Larch 17, 1959 near mr. mall: Further to my letter No. lnf 830/59 dated Feb- ruary 12, 1959, l have been informed by the ministry of information a Broadcasting, Government of Pakistan, kar— achi, that the only comment which appeared in the rakistan press on his excellency Carlos I. nomulo's Speeches de- livered in handung was that in "The Times of karachi." Ihe rimes of karachi in its editorial of April 26, 1955, said: "he (randit Nehru) scored little by his at- tack on defense treaties clash with hr. Mohammad Ali and subsequent apology. hr. homulo of rhilippines cast Kash- mir in his teeth and silenced him effectively." Yours sincerely, s. m. Haq Eress attache Mr. David J. hall college of Communication Arts Department of speech michioan state University Last Lansing, michigan 258 his Excellency, Carlos P. Romulo, the Philippine Ambassador to the United States embassy of the ihilippines fu‘aShingtOD, U 0 U 0 Dear Sir: l have just completed my preliminary library research and am about to begin writing a graduate thesis dealing with your speaking efforts at the Asian-African Conference of april 15-24, 1355. My investigation will be incomplete, however, without some first hand knowledge of your methods of speech preparation and delivery. As a result, i am writing this letter to you personally in hOpes that i can obtain this valuable information. if you could find time in your busy schedule to answer any or all of the following questions, i would be extremely grateful: 1. how do you obtain ideas for your speeches? a. Do you keep a speech materials file or scrapbook? b. what sources have you found best for supplying ideas and materials for your speeches? 2. what steps do you follow in preparing a speech? a. no you prepare an outline or a com— plete manuscript? b. ho you rehearse your Speeches orally? no you have anyone who acts as a critic? no you ever use a speech recorder in your Speech preparationk 3. now do you deliver your speeches? a. Do you prefer to speak from notes? from a complete manuscript? from memory? b. no you extemporize as you go along? Because i am primarily interested in the pre- paration techniques used in your Speeches at the asian— 259 African Conference, if you can answer these questions in terms of these specific occasions, I would be deeply grateful. if this is not possible, answers in general would be very helpful. Thank you for your help and your interest. Sincerely, David J. hall 260 Embassy of the Philippines Washington, U.U. Ray 4. 1959 Dear hr. hall: This is in reply to your letter addressed to Ambassador Carlos r. honulo and he has dictated the fol— lowing in reply to your questions: 1. a. he keeps a speech materials file and also a scrap book. b. best sources for supplying ideas and materials for his speeches are: neWSpapers, magazines, latest books which he chooses from the saturday heview. 2. a. he prepares an outline and sometimes dictates a complete manuscript or types it himself. b. he never rehearses his speeches orally. he has no critic. he does not use a speech recorder. 3. a. de seldom Speaks from notes, never from a complete manuscript, mostly from memory. b. he generally extemporizes as he goes along. sincerely yours, (hiss) lluminada ranlilio Secretary to the Ambassador hr. David J. hall Department of speech michigan state University hast Lansing, hichidan 13.93.51le 11 A hEADABlLITY ANALYSlS OF Tdfi khINCIPAL SEhSCHhS OF CAhLOS E. hcnULO AT The AoIAN-AFhICaN CQhEinnNCL Purpose rhe purpose of this content analysis was to apply, within limits, the Elesch readability formula to the principal Speeches of Carlos 1. homulo at the asian- African Conference.1 the speeches analyzed were three in number: his addresses before the opening and closing sessions and his address before the rolitical Committee. materials The materials used in this analysis include samples of hoaulc's opening address and his address before the iolitical Committee as well as the complete text of his Closing Address.2 l’i‘he readability formula used in this analysis was adapted from the formula contained in: nudolf rlesch, How to Test headability (New York: harper & Brothers, 19;“in the complete text of houulo's closing address has been included in Appendix ill. 261 262 Irocedure A. Cpening Address and Address Before the rolitical Committee Seven samples were selected from each speech in strictly numerical order.3 These samples were exactly 100 words in length. step 1: who average sentence length was deter- mined by counting the number of sentences in each sample,4 then adding the number of sentences in all samples and dividing the number of words in all samples (700) by the total number of sentences. the average word length in syllables per one hundred words was determined by count- ing the total number of syllables in all samples and then dividing by the number of samples. rrom the results of these calculations a read— ing ease score was determined in the following manner: a) the average sentence length was multiplied by 1.015, b) the number of syllables per one hundred words was 5in the Opening Address every sixth paragraph was selected; in the address before the rolitical Cemmit- tee every seventh paragraph was selected. 4..See Elesch,.gp. cit., p. 3, for complete de- tails concerning the selection of sentences. 263 multiplied by .846, and c) the two products were added together and subtracted from 206.835. step 2: The percentage of personal words was determined by counting the personal words in each sample and then dividing the total number of personal words in all samples by the number of samples.5 b. Ulosing address step 1: ihe average sentence length was deter- mined by counting all the words and all the sentences and then dividing the total number of words by the total number of sentences. She average word length in syllables per one hundred words was determined by counting all the syllables and then dividing the total number of syllables by the total number of words and multiplying the quotient by one hundred. from the results of these calculations a read— ing ease score was determined in the same way as in step i above. hesults rhe results are best indicated graphically as 5See lbid., pp. 6-7 for complete details con- cerning the selection of personal words. follows: N ex 4; Opening Address 700 words 34 sentences 21 words per sentence :6 personal words 191 syllables per 8p personal words 100 words Leading Ease Score: 58 Lolitiuul Commitiee Address 700 words 28 sentences 25 words per sentence 39 personal words 178 syllables per 5fip personal words 100 words neuding pass Score: 31 Closing AdQIeBS 836 words 47 sentences 13 words per sentence 81 personal words 190 syllables yer lop Personal words 100 words nending sass doors: 62 nomulo's reading ease scores can be interpreted in the £0110wing table: interpretation Table . ._ .. b needing sass score 265 for ’ needing Description typical syllables Average sass of style nagazine per 100 sentence score words length 90-100 Very nasy Comics 123 8 BO 90 nasy idly fiction 131 ll 70 80 Fairly easy click fiction 139 14 6O 70 standard Digests, Time mass non-fic- tion 147 17 50 6O fairly nif- ficult narper's — Atlantic 155 21 30 50 Difficult nendemic, scholarly 167 25 O 50 Very Liffi— cult scientiiic, irofessicnal 192 29 appearing in rlescn's book. 6” . , . . , inis is a complete reprounction oi tne table bee ibid. AEJQRDIA III CLOSING Athhhs Complete Text "6 survey our work in Bandung with pride and humility. but let us not be like the hishop who told his friends: "have you heard? 1 am writing a book on humility. and let me tell you something - it is the last word on humility." it is not ior us to assess our achievements at handung. only history can make that yronouncement. He should all like history to say that men from twenty-nine nntions cane together at a time when the Rules beat of the world was erratic and dangerously fast, and that as a result of what we did, 'he health and vitality of the human community snowe' harmed improvehent. we should all like history to say that though we did not provide the desibn for a periect world, we did define the basis for hepe. we should all like history to say that we not only observed the newly won freedom of half the world's peeples but that we pooled our moral strength to help those who were not yet free to Join this noble station. as should like history to say that our freedoms 266 267 were more than merely celebrated at Bandung; they were made solid and given the substance of growth. hut we cannot in truth expect history to say all this because the work at Bandung has only begun. rne real work and the real achievements of the Conference are ahead of us. what happens in the months and years ahead will determine whether the mood created at Bandung was momentary and misleading or whether it was strong and clean and vibrant. ”hat we have done here, in effect, was to define our own commitments. as share, generally sneaking, a common historical excerience. we belong to the community of hurt, neartbrean, and deferred hopes. hut even in the act of observing our release, it becomes important to say what we ourselves propose to do by way of maintain- ing these freedoms and fulfilling those hepes. what are the commitments made at Bandung? i believe that we have committed ourselves, first of all, to a higher allegiance. we have recognized that our al- legiance is not merely to our own nations or to each other as Asians and Africans; our first allegiance is to the human community. we have cemmitted ourselves to something more important than to the accident of geobraphy. we have committed ourselves to the cause of a world seeking 268 both peace and freedom, for one is meaningless without the other. And here, let me say that if the peace of the world is going to depend on concessions or mere absten- tions, it will not be real. It is not what we refrain from doing that will create a vital peace. It is what we freely give, how much each of us is willing to sacri- £100, and what positive values we contribute that will determine whether the vision we see here at Bandung can be brought to life. And let me refer once again to the teachings of hahatma Gandhi who belongs not to India alone but to the world: "How much we put of ourselves into a common purpose will determine whether that purpose will be fulfilled." he have also committed ourselves to patience. Here at this Conference we have seen how, time and again, understanding could be reached if full allowance were made for the vagaries of human personality. as have not been defeated by petty behavior nor have we allowed our- selves to become paralyzed by fatigue. And patience is related to the art of persuasion. No one can say that such an art by itself can demolish fundamental differences, but certainly no issue can be settled without it. 269 I have been impressed, deeply impressed, with the sincere attempt of all present to create not a last- ing organization but a lasting effect. And when 1 say ‘all I mean‘gll. l have never seen a group of men so fine- ly animated by recognition of high purpose. Now that we are leaving, let me express first of all the congratulations of the Philippine Delegation to our host, the Government of Indonesia. The arrange— ments made for this conference showed imagination, care, and efficiency of the highest order. I have also been asked by a considerable number of press correspondents to make a public expression of their own gratitude to the Government of Indonesia and to say that they have nothing but the highest admiration for the depth of planning that has gone into the amazingly complicated problem of arrang- ing for full press facilities. To the host countries, the Colombo powers, the Lhilippine Delegation desires to extend its thanks. Their conception of this project is one of the great achieve- ments of our time. Tomorrow the Philippine Delegation returns to the khilippines. he return with strong and important memories. These memories will gain in vitality within the years. 270 May I say farewell to you in our Filipino lang- uage which is also a salutation: PAALAM N SA INYUNG LAHATI God be with you all! BthlOGhArHY Documents United Nations. Cfficial hecords g; the General Assem- bly. seventh session. First Committee. Sum- mary Record of meetings. December 4—17, 1952. United States. Congressional Record. Vol. Cl. Books Appadorai, A. The Bandung Conference. New Delhi: ln- dian Council of World Affairs, 1956. buss, Claude A. The Far East. New York: the Macmillan Company. 1959- COOper, Lane. The hhetoric 2f Aristotle. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofte, lnc., 1932. Crofts, Alfred and Buchanan, Percy. é history 2; the Far hast. New York: Longmans, Green and 00., 1110. g 1958. Flesoh, hudolf. how to Test headability. New York: harper a srothers, 1991. Gilman, nilbur E., Aly, Bower, and acid, Loren D. The Fundamentals 9; Speaking. New York: The mac- millan Company, 1951. Gunther, John. Inside Asia. New York: harper & Brothers, 1939. Jack, homer A. Bandung. Chicago: Toward Freedom, 1956. 271 272 Kahin, George churnan. The Asian-African Conference. Ithaca: Cornell University Bress, 1956. King, John Kerry. Southeast Asia in Perspective. New York. The macmillan Company, 1996. Low, Francis. Struggle for Asia. New York: Frederick A. fraeger, lnc., 1955. Malcolm, George A. First malayan hepublic. Boston: The Christopher rublishing house, 1951. malik, Charles H. The Problem 2; Coexistence. Avanston: Northwestern University frees, 1995. higgs, nobert E. Politics in the United Nations. Urbana: The University of illinois iress, 1998. homulo, Carlos P. 1 Saw the Fall g§_the Thilippines. Garden City: Loubleday, boran a Company, lnc., 1943. , 1 See the ihilippines iise. Garden City: Doub- leday a Company, lnc., 1946. , The seaninr of Bandung Chapel hill: The Uni- versity of North Carolina lress, 1956. , mother America. Garden City: Doubleday, Coran & UOmyany, lnc., 19430 , my Brother Americans. Garden City: Doubleday, Doran & Company, $n30, 19450 nowan, Carl T. T‘he iitiful and the Trend. New York: handom house, 1996. hoyal institute of international Affairs. Collective Defense in South East Asia. London: Chiswick "mm“ Sakamaki, Shunzo, hhite, John A., and hahn, Arvin. Asia. St. Louis: webster rublishing Company, 1993. Spencer, Cornelia. homulo: Voice of Freedom. New York: The John Day Company, 1953. 273 Talbot, Phillips (ed.). South Asia in the world Today. Chicago: The University of Chicago rress, 1950. Thomson, Ian. The kiss of modern Asia. London: John hurray Ltd., 1957. Thonssen, Lester, and Baird, A. Craig. Speech Criticism. New York: nonald Tress Company, 1948. Vandenbosch, Amry, and Butwell, Richard A. Southeast Asia among the torld lowers. Lexington: Uni— vCrsity of nentucky Tress, 1957. van Golder, hobert. writers and firitinv. New York: 0. scribnerTs Sons, 1946. sright, hichard. The Color Curtain. Cleveland: The world kublishihg Company, 1956. Yust, waiter (ed.). Ten eventful Years. Vol. 111. Chi— cage: hncyclOpaedia britannica, lnc., 1947. Articles and Periodicals "Against the Odds," Time, LXI (may 25, 1953). ”asiane meet Africans," New nepublic, CAAAll (April 11, 1955). "bamboo Curtain the handoeng Conference ," economist, CLAAV (April 25, 1955). "Bandung and Hormosa," Commonweal, L111, No. 5 (May 6, 1955)- "Bandung Conference," Aorld Today, Kl (June, 1955). Cameron, James. “Chou hn-lai at the Asian-African heat- ing," heporter, All (may 19, 1955). Chapman, halph. 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Utner Sources Letter from d. 5. Carlos 1. nomulo, ihilippine Ambassador to the United states, ambassy of the ihilippiues, aasnington, D.C., say 4, 1959. Letter from d. m. naq, Brass Attache, nmbassy of Pakistan, Slasnington’ .Uoklo, l'flrCh 17, 19590 michiban state University. rersoual interview with Dr. nrederick siebert, birector of tne ocnool of Journalism, mares, ljba. VITA David J. hall was born in harquette, hichigan, April 22, 1935. After attending parochial schools in uavenport, lowa, he completed his secondary education at st. nary high school in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where he was graduated in June of 1953. Before beginning his graduate training at hichigan State University in the Hall of 1957. he completed his requirements for the Degree of bachelor of Arts at the University of New I‘deXiC 0 o 279 ' -... - .M '49,; L- J ‘ m | we... -- // I Ill"Hull!"IIIHIIHWIHIHHlHlflHlHllllllllllmll!ll 0072 0880