126 227 RACE AND BELIEF AS DETERMINANTS OF DESCRIMENATION Thesis for {‘59 Degree of M. A. MECLCw S’E‘HE UEE‘E’ERSETY Patricia Welnick Smith 3957 ’ 5W 3 RACE AND BELIEF AS DETERMINANTS OF DISCRIMINATION BY PATRICIA WELNICK SMITH A THESIS Submitted to the College of Science and Arts Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Psychology 1957 \\‘\ ‘ I 57/J§//v / J n. .1 v" I l')' ‘ .J 1' “- - V . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express her appreciation to Dr. Milton Rokeach under whose guidance this study was undertaken. Acknowledgment is also due to Dr. Earl Carlson, Dr. Alfred Dietze, and Dr. Eugene Jacobson who read and criticized this manuscript. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESES....... ........ ..... ..... ... 1 DESIGN AND PROCEDURE....... ............ ................ 9 RESULTS.............. ........... ....................... 19 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. ............ . .......... ..... 38 SUMMARY......... ......... ........... ....... ............ 46 LIST OF TABLES TABLE A PAGE 1. Reliability Coefficients for Difference Scores and Absolute Scores on Segregation and Neutral Beliefs... ........ . ..... . ............. .. l7 2. Correlations Between the Ethnocentrism Scale, Opinionation Scale, and the Dogmatism Scale..... 20 3. Correlation Coefficients of Direct and Indirect Difference Scores for Neutral and Segregation Beliefs......OOOOOIOOOOOOO..OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO... 21 4. A. Comparisons Between Acceptance of Negroes and of Whites. B. Comparisons Between Acceptance of People With Similar Beliefs and People With Dissimilar Beliefs......................................... 22 5. High and Low Ethnocentrism Groups Differential Responses When the Negro Agrees, and the White Disagrees With the Subject 3 Beliefs............ 25 6. Correlations of the Ewhnocentrism Scale, Opin- ionation Scale, and Dogmatism Scale With a Score Showing the Extent Whites are Preferred t0 Negroes...................................... 27 7. Correlations of Ratings Given Negroes (Nn) and Whites (WW), Respectively, With the Ethno- centrism Scale, Opinionation Scale, and Domatism seal-8.0.0.000.........OOOIOOOOOIOOOOOO 28 8. Correlations of the Extent One Belief is Preferred to Another Belief With the EUhnocentrism Scale, Opinionation Scale, and Dogmatism Scale......... 30 9. Correlations of the Ethnocentrism Scale, Opin- ionation Scale, and Dogmatism Scale With Ratings Given People Whose Beliefs Agree (NW) and People Whose Beliefs Disagree (nw) With the Subject's Beliefs......................................... 31 10. Correlations Between Scores Given People Who Agree With the Subjects Beliefs and People With ContraryBali-81.8.0000.........OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCO 33 TABLE PAGE 11. Correlations of the Ethnocentrism Scale, Opin- ionation Scale, and Dogmatism Scale With Social Stimuli Having Both Race and Belief Characteristics................................. 35 12. Correlations of the Ethnocentrism Scale, Opin- ionation Scale, and Dogmatism Scale With the Rejection of People-~White and Negro--Those Who Agree and Those Who Disagree With the Subjects Beliefs................................ 36 13. Obtained Distributions of Ethnocentrism Scores, Segregation and Neutral Scores Showing the Extent Whites are Preferred to Negroes.......... 39 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESES The study of prejudice or intolerance reactions may be seen as but one facet of the larger problem of the invest- igation of beliefs or attitudes. It has been proposed that ..."there is a general factor of prejudice or tolerance which tends to unify the reactions of an individual toward members of all minority groups." (4, p 1030) Adorno gt §l_support this hypothesis in reporting high (.69 to .83) interrcorrel- ations between subscales of the Ethnocentrism (E) Scale. The E Scale was devised to measure anti-ethnic attitudes toward several outgroups, including Negroes. These authors postulated an “authoritarian personality" structure based upon psychoanalytic personality theory. In contrast to this type of analysis which dealt primar- ily with hostility toward ethnic groups, the Belief-thought model designed by Rokeach (7,8,9) represents an attempt to formulate a theory of personality in purely structural terms rather than in functional terms, through the study of the role of belief and belief-systems in general intolerance. According to this vieWpoint the manifestation of ethnic prejudice, as in any other intolerance reaction, is essenti- ally the subject's response to perceived threat to his or- ganized belief-systems. Since the present study was part of the series of studies investigating aspects of the belief- thought model, a brief description of the structure and characteristics of the belief-disbelief systems is given. More complete treatment is available in publications by Rokeach. (7,8,9) Dogmatism has been defined as "(a) a relatively closed cognitive organization of beliefs and disbeliefs about reality, (b) organized around a central set of beliefs about absolute authority which, in turn, (c) provides for a frame- work for patterns of intolerance and qualified tolerance toward others. A cognitive organization is considered to be closed to the extent that there is (a) isolation of parts within the belief system and between belief and disbelief systems, (b) a discrepancy in the degree of differentiation between belief and disbelief systems, (c) dedifferentiation within the disbelief system, (d) a high degree of inter- dependence between central and peripheral beliefs, (e) a low degree of interdependence among peripheral beliefs, and (f) a narrowing of the time perspective.“ (7, p 195) There are conceived to be two interdependent parts in the cognitive system. (1) The belief system which contains "all_the sets, or expectancies or hypotheses which a person may have at any given time which he accepts as true, to one degree or another. The disbelief system is conceived to be composed of a series of disbelief subsystems rather than just a single one within which are represented all the sets, expectancies, or hypoth— eses which a person at any given time accepts as false, to one degree or another." (9. p 229) Each of the disbelief subsystems is thought to lie along a continuum of similarity to the corresponding belief subsystem.' The relationship be— tween "the extent of a person's rejection of each disbelief subsystem and the adherents thereof" and the similarity-dis- similarity continuum is referred to as the disbelief gradient. (9, p 230) "Persons adhering to disbelief subsystems most similar to one's own belief system...are likely to be in greater conflictful contact with each other and hence are most likely to be perceived as threatening to the validity of the belief system." (8, p 7) On the basis of this theoretical system, he Dogmatism Scale (8) was designed to differentiate persons in terms of degree of closed cognitive structure independent of the ideological camp one belongs to. The Opinionation Scale (8) evolved from the desire to measure the tolerance-intolerance aspect of closed systems. However, it should be noted that intolerance as defined by the Opinionation Scale refers to the rejection, or qualified acceptance of other persons who disagree and agree, respectively, with one's views. This broad conception of intolerance should be differentiated from the concept as used in the Ethnocentrism Scale where it refers to acceptance or rejection of ethnic groups. A sociological eXperiment by Westie (10) gave results which are related to Rokeach's theoretical approach. Westie's questionnaire technique took into account the class and occupational status of the prejudice-object, the Negro, as well as the class and status of the white respondents. The subjects were asked to respond on five social distance scales to "a Negro doctor", “a Negro ditch digger", and so forth rather than to general conceptions of "Negroes". The find- ings revealed that the higher the status of the Negro the less the social distance expressed by white respondents from three socioeconomic levels. It was also reported that social dis- tance is least when both Negro and white have high socioecon- omic status. The study seemed to point out that reaction to the Negro may be relative to more factors than race, per se. It might be said that the respondent's expectations or beliefs about occupation or class combined with beliefs about race to determine the perception of desirability of the object. The present study was designed to investigate the broad hypothesis that a subject's intolerance reactions generally are made more in terms of belief rather than ethnic criteria. One's intolerance reaction to a Negro, for example, may be influenced by (a) the subject's beliefs about Negroes, and (b) the extent to which the subject perceives the beliefs of the Negro as disagreeing with his own beliefs. Consider, for example, the following remark by a white southerner who ex- plained why he had to kill a Negro boy who persisted in say- ing, among other things, that he was "as good as a white man". ..."Well, what else could we do? He was hopeless. I'm no bully, I never hurt a nigger in my life. I like ni gers--in their place--I know how to work 'em." 6, p 50) If this statement may be accepted as face value, it may be hypothesized that the man's beliefs were extremely threatened by the verbalized attitudes of the Negro boy. In effect the boy was not killed simply because he was a Negro, but because he_g§§ g Negro who held and expressed the "wrong" beliefs. The present study of belief-intolerance is designed to test the following hypotheses which were derived from the Belief-thought model. Hypothesis I. In situations wherein it is possible to respond in a discriminatory manner to social stimuli both on the basis of race and belief, the discriminatory response will be based more on the belief than on the race charact- eristics of the stimuli. That is, if belief is a more impor- tant factor in reaction to individuals than is race, a white subject will be more favorable to a Negro who agrees with his beliefs than to another white person who holds contrary beliefs. Hypothesis II. If belief is a more immortant factor than race in intolerance reactions, subjects scoring high on measures of ethnic prejudice as well as subjects scoring low in ethnic prejudice should respond primarily in terms of belief rather than race. Hypothesis III. Extent of preference of whites over Negroes is expected to correlate more highly with the E Scale than with either the Opinionation Scale or the Dogmatism Scale. This is expected since the E Scale is designed to estimate ethnic prejudice, the Dogmatism and Opinionation Scales are designed to estimate intolerance toward others depending on whether they agree or disagree with one's views. Hypothesis IE. The absolute degree of rejection for Negroes should correlate more highly with the E Scale than with the Opinionation or the Dogmatism Scales. That is, the higher the E Score, the lower the "acceptance" ratings that will be given to Negroes. Hypothesis 1. The extent to which persons holding to one belief are preferred to persons who hold an opposed belief should correlate more highly with the Opinionation Scale and the Dogmatism Scale than with the E Scale. According to the Belief—thought model, the higher the degree of dogmatism, the greater the degree of isolation between belief and disbelief systems. "Cognitive manifestations of isolation would be... the degree to which one emphasized the differences rather than the similarities between belief and disbelief systems..." (9, p 230-231) (Italics mine) Hypothesis XI. (a) Degree of acceptance of persons who agree with one's beliefs should correlate more highly with Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales than with the E Scale. (b) Degree of rejection of persons who disagree with one's beliefs should correlate more highly with Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales than with the E Scale. "With an increase in dOgmatism we assume an increase in the absoluteness of beliefs in positive and negative authority, and an increasing rejection or acceptance of people depending upon whether they agree 9; disagpee with one'g belief-disbelief system." (8, p 8) (Italics mine) As was stated earlier, the Opinion- ation Scale was designed specifically to deal with that sort of belief-intolerance which is a part of the larger structure of closed systems. Hypothesis VII. Response: to social stimuli which have both race and belief characteristics are eXpected to be pri- marily in terms of belief rather than race (Hypothesis I). Therefore, such responses should correlate more highly with the Opinionation and Dow'atism Scales than with the E Scale. Theoretically, this trend is expected since the Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales represent measures of intolerance on the basis of beliefs agreed with and disagreed with. On the other hand, the Ethnocentrism Scale represents a measure of intol- erance based upon ethnic rather than belief criteria. Hypothesis VIII. The greater the rejection of people—— white and Negro, those who agree and those who disagree with one's views--the greater will be the degree of Opinionation and Dogmatism. Since it is posited that persons high in Dogmatism and Opinionation emphasize differences between issues, people, et cetera, (as a function of degree of isolation be- tween the belief-disbelief systems); it is expected that as the degree of Opinionation and Dogmatism increases, there would be an increasing tendency-to rate more highly people who agree with the subject's beliefs and to reject more strongly those people who disaggee with the subject’s beliefs. A low opinionated person, on the other hand, is eXpected to be highly accepting of people who agree and people who die- agree. That is, the low opinionated person will be, theoreti- cally, relatively highly accepting of other people regardless 9: their beliefs. Hypotheses III and IV are both essentially concerned with attitudes toward Negroes. Instead of one statement, these two separate hypotheses were formulated to maintain clar- ity in reporting results since different types of scores were used in the analysis of results for the two hypotheses. For the same reason, Hypotheses V and VI, and Hypotheses VII and VIII, respectively, were stated as four separate hypotheses rather than as two more general ones. CHAPTER II. DESIGN AND PROCEDURE Sixty fivel native, white subjects in Introductory Psychology at Michigan State University were given a battery of Likert-type personality tests among which were included (a) the Dogmatism Scale (8)2, (b) the Opinionation Scale (8), (c) the six item anti-Negro section of the Ethnocentrism Scale (1, p 142). Tests were administered ananymously under group conditions. Three degrees of agreement and three degrees of disagreement were employed. The absence of a zero point made neutral responses impossible. Responses to a Race- Belief Questionnaire, which is described below, were also obtained . 3 ' The Race-Belief Qgestionnaire Eight social issues were used in the questionnaire; four issues pertaining to segregation and four "neutral"4 issues. A pair of different statements was made for each of the eight issues. On the first page of the Race-Belief Questionnaire the l Seventy four subjects were originally tested. The tests of nine subjects were discarded since they were either members of a minority group, or did not complete the question- naire. 2 Dogmatism scores were available for only 54 subjects. 3 The full questionnaire is presented in the Appendix. 4 "Neutral" as defined for this study means four issues not directly concerned with segregation or the race question; 1.9. God, communism, labor, socialized medicine. 10 subject was asked to check the one statement that he most agreed with for each pair of the eight beliefs. For example, the subject could check either (a. I am for socialized med- icine.), or (b. I am against socialized medicine.). This initial check list was used later in the analysis as an in- dependent measure of the stand each subject took on each of the eight issues. The subjects then responded to the Race-Belief Question- naire which carried these instructions. The following is a study of what the general public thinks and feels about a number of important social and personal questions. In the questionnaire below are a number of paired statements. Your task is to express the degree to which you can or cannot see yourself being friends with each of the two persons described in each pair. Make your judgments on a scale from 1 to 9 by circling the number which best expresses your degree of preference. Use the following scale as your guide. I can‘t see I can very easily myself being see myself being friends with friends with such such a person a person 1 2 3 ‘E* 5 6 7 ’8 9 Let us take an example: Circle the number which best ex- presses your degree of preference for la and lb. la A person who likes classical music. 123456789 lb A person who likes popular music. 123456789 Your task is simply to circle the number which best expresses how much you can see yourself being friends with the person described. Remember, encircle one number after "a" and one number after "b” for each pair in the questionnaire. Please assume that the two persons described in each pair are alike in all other respects. 11 The beliefs used in the questionnaire are listed below. Neutral Beliefs l a A who is for socialized medicine. b A who is against socialized medicine. 2 a A who believes in God. b A. who is an.atheist. 5 a A who is a communist. b A who is anti-communist. 4 a A who is pro-labor unions. b A who is anti-labor unions. Segregation Beliefs 5 a A who is for immediate desegregation. b A who is for gradual desegregation. 6 a A who believes that fraternities and sororities should be interracial. b A who believes that each race should have its own fraternities and sororities. 7 a A who believes that, fundamentally, all races are equal. b A who believes that there are fundamental differ- ences between races. 8 a A who believes that Negroes should be allowed to own homes anywhere they want to. b A who believes that Negroes should be allowed to own homes only in certain areas. These statements were varied systematically throughout the form so that the variables--White, Negro, for-belief, against-belief--appeared equally often, and also were placed as the first statement in the pair an equal number of times. Thus for each one of the eight issues, 6 combinations of pairs are possible, as is shown on page 13. Thus, 48 pairs were employed, covering eight issues. 12 For each subject, separate sets of scores were obtained for the four segregation beliefs and the four neutral beliefs. 1 Both absolute scores and difference scores2 were obtained from the data. A letter notational system was adopted to refer to the different kinds of scores. R difference score: A race score composed of the total ”differences" in rating between whites and Negroes when belief is held constant. The larger the score, the greater the favorableness toward whites as compared to Negroes. B difference score: A belief score composed of the total "differences" in rating between those agreed with and those disagreed with when race is held constant. The larger the score, he greater the favorableness toward those agreed with as compared with those disagreed with. R—B difference score: A race—belief score composed of the total "differences" in ratings to a pair of stimuli where- in race and belief are both varied simultaneously. N: The total absolute score given Negroes with the same belief—preferences as the subject. n: The total absolute score given Negroes with beliefs contrary to those professed by the subject. U: The total absolute score given whites with the same belief-preferences as the subject. w: The total absolute score given whites with beliefs contrary to those professed by the subject. 1 For any one belief-statement the absolute score con- sists of the numerical rating (from 1 to 9) circled by the respondent. Absolute score will hereafter refer to the total (by each individual) of sucn ratings for the variable in question. An illustration of the derivation of an absolute score is given on page 13. 2 A difference score refers to a numerical value ob- tained by subtraction between a pair of statements. Diff- erence score will hereafter refer to the total (for each individual) of such differences for the variable in question. An illustration of the derivation of a difference score is given on page 13. l3 WwNn: A race-belief score composed of the total absol- ute ratings given to whites and Negroes regardless of agree- ment or disagreement. ~ In every case the assigning of capital letters or lower case letters indicates that the subject was "for" or "against" the belief, respectively. This judgment was possible by noting each subject's responses to the inital belief-prefer- ence sheet. The derivation of the various scores is illustrated below. Assume first, for the sake of illustration, that on the init- ial preference sheet, the subject had checked the response, "I am for immediate desegregation", as one belief he agreed with. Assume next that he encircled the following in each of the six pairs given below. Section l; Race Scores A Negro who is for immediate desegregation. 123A65789 A white person who is for immediate desegregation. 123453389 The R difference score is white - Negro. 7-5 a 2 The absolute scores are: W a 7, N = 5 A white person who is for gradual desegregation. 126W56789 A Negro who is for gradual desegregation. lQB456789 The R difference score is white - Negro. 3-2 : l The absolute scores are: w = 3, n s 2 Section g: Belief Scores A white person who is for immediate desegregation. 12345d389 A white person who is for gradual desegregation. lqfifi56789 The B difference score is white minus white. 7-3 = 4 The absolute scores are: W = 7, w = 3 14 A Qegro who is for gradual desegregation. 12 6789 A Negro who is for immediate desegregation. 123 56789 The B difference score is Negro minus Negro. 6-4 = 2 The absolute scores are: N : 6, n z 4 Section 1: Race-Belief Scores A.white person who is for immediate desegregation. 123456fl®9 A Negro who is for gradual desegregation. 123456W89 The R-B score is "immed." minus "grad.". 8-6 = 2 The absolute scores are: W : 8, n = 6 A Negro who is for immediate desegregation. 123456flg9 A white person who is for gradual desegregation. 123456W89 The R-B score is "immed." minus "grad.". 8-6 = 2 The absolute scores are: N = 8, w : 6 The absolute race-belief score used in the analysis of results was obtained by adding the four absolute scores (N,n,W,w) from Section 3; that is, from the pairs set up to vary race and belief. This represents the extent to which the subject would like to be friends with all persons, regard- less of race and belief. From the preceding three sets of examples it should be clear that absolute scores-—W,w,N,n--oould be obtained from pairs set up for Race (Section 1), or Belief (Section 2), or Race-Belief (Section 3). The subscripts "r, b, rb" will be used to designate which section the absolute scores were obtained from. The following combinations of the absolute scores were made for the purposes of analysis. 15 wnb The total absolute score given people who disagree with the subjects beliefs. The greater the score, the greater the degree of liking of whites and Negroes who disagree with one's beliefs; the smaller the score the less the degree of liking of whites and Negroes who disagree with one's beliefs. The subscribt "b" means that the score was obtained from pairs wherein belief is varied, race held constant. WNb The total absolute score given people who agree with the subjects beliefs. The greater the score the greater the degree of liking of whites and Negroes who agree with one's beliefs. Again, the subscript "b" means that the score was obtained from pairs wherein belief is varied, race held constant. ww The total absolute score given to whites who agree and whites who disagree with one's beliefs. The subscript "r" means that the scores are obtained from pairs wherein race is varied, belief held constant. Nn The total absolute score given to Negroes who agree and Negroes who disagree with one's beliefs. The subscript "r means that the scores are obtained from pairs wherein race is varied, belief held constant. As illustrated below, it is also possible to obtain race scores and belief scores in an indirect fashion; that is, from pairs not specifically set up for this purpose. This involves comparing the ratings across pairs of statements, rather than staying within the original pair. Consider, for example, the following four pairs: (l) (3)w Subtracting across: W for immed. N for immed. deseg. 9 deseg. 8 9—8 : Rb score of l w for grad. n for grad. deseg. 7 deseg. 6 7-6 : Rb score of l (2) (4) W for immed. w for grad. deseg. 9 deseg. 5 9-5 : Br score of 4 N for immed. n for grad. deseg. 9 deseg. 5 9-5 : B score of 4 16 As explained earlier, the origin of the indirect scores can be identified by the subscripts, "r" referring to the difference scores between two paired items set up ts measure race; "b" referring to the difference scores between two paired items set up to measure belief. The difference scores used in the analysis of data were, in each case, the "direct" scores derived from the pairs set up to measure the variable in question. (examples given on page 13) The indirect scores, illustrated above, were corr- elated with the direct scores for the sole purpose of obtain- ing reliability coefficients. These correlations for the difference scores and for the absolute scores are shown in Table 1. It was seen that the direct and indirect difference scores are fairly highly related (.73 to .83). Thus, we may conclude that the race and belief scores have satisfactory reliability. Furthermore, it does not seem necessary to also ompute correlations between the indirect scores and other variables since it would give us essentially the same results as those obtained with the direct scores. The relationships between the direct and indirect absol- ute scores (Table l) are also of such a degree (.89 to .95) to indicate satisfactory reliability and, further, that sep- arate correlations between the indirect absolute scores and other variables would be redundant. The_Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was 17 TABLE 1 Reliability Coefficients for Difference Scores and Absolute Scores on Segregation and Neutral Beliefs A. Difference Scores N = 65 Correlating: Segregation Neutral Bb and Br .89 .86 B. Absolute Scores N - 65, Correlating: Segregation Neutral Nnr and Nnrb .93 .93 wwr and erb .95 .91 NWb and Nwrb .89 .92 nwb and nwrb .92 .94 18 used in the analysis of results for all hypotheses. For Hypothesis I, the t test for correlated means was used in the analysis of some data. 19 CHAPTER III. RESULTS First shown, in Table 2, are the correlations between: the Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales (.47); the Opinionation Scale and the Ethnocentrism Scale (.23); the Dogmatism Scale and the Ethnocentrism Scale (.22). The correlations among these variables are in the same general range as those re- ported elsewhere by Rokeach. (8) Hypothesis 1. If belief is'a more important factor in reaction to individuals han is race, then in situations wherein it is possible to respond in a discriminatory manner to social stimuli both on the basis of race and belief, the discriminatory response will be based more on the belief than on the race characteristics of the stimuli. These correl- ations are given in Table 3. The correlation of the belief (B) and race-belief (R-B) scores for both neutral and seg- regation beliefs are quite high, .74 and .91, respectively, and both are significant beyond the 1% level of confidence. Notice that neither the race (R) and race-belief (R-B) correl- ations (.00 and -.l9), for the R and B scores correlations (-.10 and -.22), respectively, reached statistical signif- icance. A trend toward negative correlations between the R scores and the R-B scores was apparent; however, this was not statistically significant. Table 4 shows, for the whole group, the mean acceptance score of Negroes (Nn), the mean acceptance score of whites 20 TABLE 2 Correlations Between the Ethnocentrism Scale, Opinionation Scale, and the Dogmatism Scale N Opinionation Ethnocen. E Scale 65 .23 '- Dogmatism 54 .47 .22 Scale Correlation Coefficients Scores for Neutral and Segregation Beliefs TABLE 3 of Direct and Indirect 21 Corr5fations‘35tween Race-Belief (RFB) Scores and: N Segregation Beliefs Neutral Beliefs R Rb B Br R Rb B Br Total Group_ 65. .oo .06 ,24* .76” -,i9 -.17 .91* .89* Low E ' Groups 33 -.24 -.24 .79* .82* -.13 -.1o .89* .90“ High E Group 32 ~08 .01 .69* .69 -.19 -.18 .88* .78* * P.< .01 TABLE 4 A Comparisons Between Acceptance of Negroes and of Whites B Comparisons Between Acceptance of People With Similar Beliefs and People With Dissimilar Beliefs Segregation Beliefs _N a 65 A. Nn ww B. wn WN Egan 51.48 54.00 41.75 61.77, S.D. 11.45 10.22 -_ _14.69 9.18 _t** 3.00* 13.71* * P‘<.01 Neutral Beliefs N = 65 A. Nn Ww B. wn WN Mean 41. 66 50.14 33. 35 62.24 S.D. ,9.54 ,9.12 13.32 8.18 _§** 3.31‘ __ 19.47? *P<.Ol *“The standard error of the difference formula which takes into account the correlation between obser- vations was used in this analysis. 23 (WW), and the t ratio between the mean acceptance of whites and Negroes. Also shown are the mean acceptance scores of people who agree with one's beliefs (WN), people who disagree with one's beliefs (wn), and the t ratio between these two means. While both sets of differences are statistically significant, it is to be noticedhowever, that differences obtained in the comparisons between people who "agree" and "disagree" are much larger. In contrast, the differences between acceptance of Negroes and acceptance of whites is relatively small. These data may be regarded as supporting Hypothesis I, which is to the effect that the discriminatory response is based more on the belief than on the race char- acteristics of the stimuli. Hypothesis 1;. If belief is a more important factor than.race in intolerance reactions, subjects high in ethnic prejudice as well as subjects low in ethnic prejudice Should respond primarily in terms of belief rather than race. Sep- arate correlations for high E and low E groups (scoring above or below the median Ethnocentrism score) were computed between direct and indirect difference scores. This was a necessary dieck to see if the trend of relationship for either high or low E groups was different from the correlations for the total group. As shown in Table 3, the correlations between the neutral race-belief (R-B) score and the race (R) and belief (B) scores was not generally changed from the correl- ations on the total group. On the segregation beliefs, for 24 both direct and indirect scores, there were inverse correl- ations (not significant) between the race-belief scores and the race scores for the low E group. This trend was not seen in the correlation for the total group. The relationship for the high E group between the race-belief and race scores was not appreciably different from the correlations for the total group. The results for Hypothesis II were also analyzed in a different way. Table 5 shows the distribution of responses for the high and low E groups on each of the eight beliefs for the race-belief pair wherein the Negro holds to the same belief as the subject and the white holds to the opposing belief. If the respondent gave the "Negro who agreed" a higher rating than the rating given to the "white person who disagreed", it was assumed he was responding in terms of be- lief. If the subject gave the "Negro who agreed" a 193g; rating than the “white person who disagreed", it was assumed that the subject was responding in terms of race. It is not clear what meaning one can ascribe to instances in which gagngratings were given to the "Negro who agreed" and the "white who disagreed". From inspection of these data it would seem to indicate that high and low E scorers both gen- erally respond in terms of belief rather than race when both variables are present. Hypothesis L12, EXtent of preference of whites over Negroes should correlate more highly with the E Scale than 25 TABLE 5 High and Low Ethnocentrism Groups Differential Responses When the Negro Agrees, and the White Disagrees With the Subject's Beliefs Low E Group N : 33 Neutral Segregation §311ef* 1 2 ‘3_ ‘4 5‘:;6”' 7 *”8 Negro rated higher 23 26 33 21 20 22 29 21 than white Negro rated equal 10 7 0 ll 9 10 4 9 to white Negro rated lower 0 O O l 4 l O 3 than white High E Group Ng5:32 1:_ Neutral Segregation Beliefz l 2 3 4 5 6 #7 8 Negro rated higher 16 29 30 21 22 25 18 20 than white Negro rated equal 10 2 l 6 9 2 4 4 to "th Negro rated lower 6 l l 5 l 5 lO 8 than white “Belief key 1. Socialized medicine 5. Segregation 2. Atheism 6. Fraternities and Soror. 3. Communism 7. Races Differ 4. Unions 8. Housing 26 with either the Opinionation Scale or the Dogmatism Scale. As indicated in Table 6, correlations between the race scores and the E Scale were significant beyond the 1% level of con- fidence for both neutral and segregation beliefs. The correl- ations between R scores and Dogmatism and between R scores and Opinionation are not significantly different from zero; therefore the results may be regarded as supporting this hypothesis.1 Hypothesis IE. Degree of rejection for Negroes should correlate more highly with the E Scale than with the Opinion- ation or Dogmatism Scales. As shown in Table 7, for both neutral and segregation beliefs the correlations between "attitudes toward Negroes" (Nn) and the E Scale was signif- icant beyond the 1% level of confidence and higher than the comparable correlations with Opinionation and Dogmatism. The consistently negative correlations between the Opinionation Scale and the absolute R score for Negroes was in accord with theoretical expectancy, although no specific hypothesis was made concerning this point. No hypotheses were made con- cerning the relationship between the absolute R score for whites (WW) and the E Scale, Opinionation Scale and Dogmatism Scale. Implications of the negative correlations between these variables will be considered later in the Discussion l The reader is asked to ignore for the present the re- sults found regarding belief or lack of belief in God shown in Table 6 and the subsequent tables. We will discuss these particular correlations and their significance in a later chapter. (p 43) 27 TABLE 6 Correlations of the Ethnocentrism Scale, Opinionation Scale, and Dogmatism Scale With a Score Showing the Extent Whites are Preferred to Negroes Correlating Segreg. Neutral God-Atheist R Score &: N Beliefs Beliefs Belief E Scale 65 .41* .41* . 39* Opinionation 65 -.03 -.O2 .04 Scale ‘* Dogmatism 65 .09 .02 .21 Scale * P<.01 for a one-tailed test TABLE 7 Correlations of Ratings Given Negroes (Nn) and Whites (Ww), Respectively, With the Emhnocentrism Scale, Opinionation Scale and Dogmatism Scale (Nfijr (WW)r N Seg. Neut. G-Ath. Seg. Neut. G-Ath. Beliefs Beliefs Belief Beliefs Beliefs Belief E 65 -036“, -033* ’023“ ’012 -005 -006 Scale 0pm. 65 -017 -0 29" -0 30* -018 -0 26" -029” Scale D080 54 -013 -010 -031" .00 -002 -024" Scale * P< .01 for a one-tailed test ** P< .05 for a one-tailed test 29 chapter. In view of the results obtained, Hypothesis IV may be generally regarded as supported. Hypothesis X, The belief intolerance scores, represent- ing the extent to which persons holding to one belief are preferred to persons who hold an opposed belief, should corr- elate more highly with the Opinionation Scale and the Dog- matism Scale than with the Ethnocentrism Scale. For both neutral and segregation beliefs the correlations were in the predicted direction, as can be seen from Table 8. However, the correlation between the neutral beliefs B score and the Opinionation Scale was the only one to reach the 5% level. The trend was in the predicted direction, but if evaluated in terms of statistical criteria, the hypothesis does not seem to be supported. Hypothesis 1;. (a) Degree of acceptance of persons who agree with one's beliefs should correlate more highly with Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales than with the E Scale. (b) Degree of rejection of persons who disagree with one's beliefs should correlate more highly with Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales than with the E Scale. The results are shown in Table 9. With respect to (a), the negative correlf ations, for both neutral and segregation beliefs, between the (NW) scores and the Opinionation Scale and the Dogmatism Scale are not significant. Moreover, they are not consistent With theoretical expectancy. According to theory, the higher the degree of Opinionation, the more Should be the acceptance TABLE 8 Correlations of the EKtent One Belief is Preferred to Another Belief With the Ethnocentrism Scale, Opinionation Scale, and Dogmatism Scale Correlating Segreg. Neutral God-Atheist B Score &: N Beliefs Beliefs Belief E Scale 65 .03 -.03 -.11 Opinionation 65 .13 .26** .29** Scale Dogmatism 54 .17 .17 .30** Scale ‘5 P< .05 for a one-tailed test 31 TABLE 9 Correlations of the Ehhnocentrism Scale, Opinionation Scale, and Do atism Scale With Ratings Given People Whose Beliefs Agree NW) and People Whose Beliefs Disagree (nw) With the Subjects' Beliefs (NW)b (aw)b N 598. N81“? 0 G—Ath 0 398 o Reut o G-Atho Beliefs Beliefs Belief Beliefs ,Beliefs Belief E 65 '028 -021 -020 -022 -013 .01 Scale 013111.65 -025 -010 -004 -012 -034. "o29fl Scale D08. 54 -001 .06 .10 -004 -011 -025“ Scale “ P<.Ol for a one-tailed test ** P< .05 for a one-tailed test 32 of people who agree with one's views. With respect to (b), the negative correlations between Opinionation and the accept— ance of people who disagree with one's views is in accord with our hypothesis. The obtained correlations shown in Table 59 indicate that the higher the degree of Opinionation, the less the acceptance of people regardless of whether they agree or disagree with one's beliefs. To further investigate implications of the above find- =_: ...-unaffiliw ings, other related correlations were computed. Table 10 shows the relationship between ratings given people who agree with one's beliefs (NW) and ratings given people who disagree with one's beliefs (nw). These correlations, for both neutral and segregation beliefs, were significant beyond the 1% level of confidence. These findings seem to indicate that people tend to be accepted regardless of whether they agree or dis- agree with one's beliefs, or rejected regardless of whether they agree or disagree with one's views. Table 10 also shows the correlations between acceptance of Negroes (Nn) and acceptance of whites (Ww). These correl- ations, for both neutral and segregation beliefs are highly significant. These results seem to indicate that eXpressed acceptance or rejection of people tends to be made regardless of race. The more the acceptance gleegroes, the more thg acceptance 9; whites; conversely, the more the rejection 9; Negroes, the more the rejectiqg g; whites. Part (a) of the hypothesis was not confirmed by the data. 33 TABLE 10 A. Correlations Between Scores Given People Who Agree With the Subjects' Beliefs and People With Contrary Beliefs N : 65 Correlating: Segregation Neutral (NW)b & (nW)b 060* 043* * P< .01 B. Correlations Between Absolute Scores EXpressing the Degree of Acceptance of Negroes and of Whites N : 55 Efifrelating‘ Segreggtion Neutral * (Nn)r & (WWI. .81" .79 *P<.Ol Part (D) was confirmed only by the Opinionation results. The correlations between (nw) and the Dogmatism Scale were not significantly different from zero and thus did not confirm the hypothesis. Hypothesis XII. Responses to social stimuli which have both race and belief characteristics should correlate more highly with the Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales than with the E Scale. As can be seen from Table 11, the results for neutral and segregation beliefs differ from each other. The segregation R-B score showed no significant relationship to any of the three tests. However, for neutral beliefs the correlations between the R-B score and the Opinionation Scale was significant beyond the 1% level of confidence. The correl- ation between the R-B score and the Dogmatism Scale was in the predicted direction, but did not reach significance. Thus the results for the segregation R-B scores did ngt'up- hold the hypothesis; whereas the results from the neutral beliefs R-B score tend to uphold the hypothesis with respect to Opinionation but not with respect to Dogmatism. Hypothesis ELII. The greater the rejection of people-- White and Negro, those who agree and those who disagree with one's v1ews--the greater will be the degree of Opinionation and Dogmatism. As shown in Table 12, the correlations were all in the predicted direction. Since the value necessary for significance (one-tailed test) at the 5% level was .21 and the correlations between the E Scale, Opinionation TABLE 11 35 Correlations of the Eihnocentrism Scale, Opinionation Scale, and Dogmatism Scale With Social Stimuli Having Both Race and Belief Characteristics ‘Eorrelating Race- Segreg. Neutral God-Atheist Belief Score and: N Beliefs Beliéfs Belief E 'Scale 65 .01 .OO .01 Opinionation 65 -.O7 .32* .30** Scale Dogmatism 54 .00 .17 .34“ Scale ‘“‘ P(.Ol for a one-tailed test ** P<.O5 for a one-tailed test TABLE 12 Correlations of the Emhnocentrism Scale, Opinionation Scale, and Dogmatism Scale With the Rejection of People--White and Negro--Those Who Agree and Those Who Disagree With the Subjects' Beliefs Correlating Segreg. Neutral God-Atheist (unaw)rb &: N Beliefs Beliefs Belief E Scale 65 -.25** -.2O -.19 Opinionation 65 -.20 -.28** -.27** 503.16 Dogmatism 54 -.03 -.O6 -.23** Scale *‘A value of .21 is significant at the .05 level on a one-tailed test where N is 60. Scale, respectively, and the absolute race-belief scores ranged from -.20 to -.28, it may be said that these correl- ations were significant. however, the results were not en- tirely as predicted since the E Scale, for both neutral and segregation beliefs, correlated more highly with the absolute race-belief scores than did the Dogmatism Scale. The correl- ations between Dogmatism and the absolute race-belief scores were not significantly different from zero. 38 CHAPTER IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Before consideration of the conclusions, some limit- ations of the present study should be indicated. The avail- able northern college sample represents a rather selective range of intellectual and age levels. Thus, strictly speaking, the results should not be generalized carelessly to other dissimilar groups. Table 13 shows the obtained distribution of Ethnocen— trism scores, segregation race difference scores and neutral race difference scores. The range of scores in each section is adequate. However, interpretation of the correlations from these scores should take into consideration the fact that all these distributions appear positively skewed. Most of the subjects express relatively low anti-ethnic attitudes. The apparent absence of ethnic prejudice may be genuine; however such responses may also be at least partially the result of the subject's awareness of, and verbal compliance with the college social norms stressing tolerance. If the study were undertaken in a somewhat different social climate, the results might be different. The six-item, anti-Negro section of the Ethnocentrism Scale»was used instead of the full twenty item scale. More reliable results may be expected when the longer form of this test is used. Names of the subjects were not requested in the hope 39 TABLE 13 Obtained Distributions of Ethnocentrism Scores, Segregation and Neutral Scores Showing the Extent Whites are Preferred to Negroes N=65 Ethnocentrism Scores Score N Score N .Score N Score N 6 5 12 5 18 2 24 3 7 8 13 3 19 l 25 l 8 7 l4 3 2O 1 26 O 9 9 15 l 21 2 27 l 10 1 l6 2 22 1 28-32 0 11 3 l7 3 23 2 33 l Segregation Race Scores Score* N Score N Score N Score N 2** 1 ll 7 18 2 33 l 4 l 12 4 19 l 39 l 6 2 13 4 22 1 8 ' 2 14 2 23 l 9 l 15 3 24 2 10 26 16 2 25 1 Neutral Race Scores _Qore* N Score _N Score N 2** 1 l4 4 2O 2 8 l 15 1 22 l 10 34 l6 1 33 1 11 3 17 1 34 1 l2 5 18 2 l3 5 19 2 *To avoid minus numbers, a constant of 10 was added to each subject's Segregation and Neutral score. “*When a number does not appear under "score", there were no frequencies for that score number. 40 that anonymity made possible more "truthful" responses to the items. There was no way to estimate this source of error. One other regrettable drawback in paper and pencil attitude studies is the inability to determine or control the sal- iency of the attitudes to the person in question. With the highly structured, impersonal situation the assumption was necessarily made that the beliefs used did have some degree of meaning to the individuals tested, or that the subjects did have some already existing opinions on the issues. The validity of such an assumption may be open to question. The results (Hypothesis I and II) suggest that intol- erance reactions may involve belief as well as race criteria; that is, that reaction to the Negro may be based upon more than just attitudes toward race, per se. In fact, it was found that quantitatively larger discriminations were made on the basis of belief criteria than on the basis of race criteria. Other related data showed that for this sample, regardless of the degree of ethnocentrism, the majority of subjects tended to respond primarily in terms of belief when both race and belief criteria were present. The extent to whiCh whites are preferred to Negroes (Hypothesis III) and also the degree of anti-Negro attitude (Hypothesis IV) were both significantly related to the Ethnocentrism Scale. The consistently negative-~and approx- imately gaggle-correlations between the degree of Opinion- ation and degree of acceptance of Negroes, and acceptance 41 of whites, respectively, suggests that the Opinionation Scale is not primarily an anti-ethnic attitude measure. The relationship of these ethnic attitude variables with the Dogmatism Scale was too low to be meaningful. As mentioned above, there were consistently negative correlations between the Opinionation Scale and the absolute race scores. This was according to theoretical eXpectancy, since, as the degree of opinionation increases, the tendency to emphasize the differences between beliefs about people, issues, and so forth increases. It would be expected that ‘the more highly opinionated person would tend to answer in extremes; that is, to rate "high" those persons with iden- tical beliefs and rate low those persons with dissimilar beliefs. The low opinionated person is more accepting of peoples‘ beliefs and thus tends to give favorable ratings to the person who agrees with his beliefs, while Egg strongly rejecting the person with contrary views. Since this score involved the addition of ratings given to those Who "agreed" and "disagreed", the highly opinionated person would end up with a lower total score than the low opinionated person. There were high and significant correlations between acceptance of Negroes and acceptance of whites. High correl- ations were also found in degree of acceptance of people who agree with the subjects belief as compared to people who disagree with the subjects beliefs. These results lend sup- port to the current hypothesis that reaction to ethnic 42 groups may be part of a generalized hostility toward people. It has been found (4) that subjects who tend to reject one ethnic group tend to reject 93h g ethnic groups as well. This is especially interesting since Hypothesis VI (a), which is somewhat related to this question, was not confirmed. The results showed no apparent relationship between the degree of Opinionation and Dogmatism and the acceptance of persons with similar beliefs. Hypothesis VI (b) was confirmed in that the higher the degree of Opinionation and Dogmatism, the less the acceptance of people whose beliefs are contrary to those of the subject. It becomes apparent from an examination of the results that the Dogmatism Scale--and to a lesser extent the Opin- ionation Scale--was in general not highly supportive of the hypotheses relating to belief intolerance. More specifically, there were no statistically significant correlations between Dogmatism and either the ethnic or belief intolerance measures derived from the race-belief questionnaire. The Opinionation Scale correlations were in some comparisons significantly as predicted; however, the results were not entirely consistent With Belief-thought model analysis as explained earlier. One possible explanation for these uneXpected findings may be traced to the experimental design. Dogmatism and Opinionation are concerned primarily with qualified tolerance and general intolerance, which may be thought of as a kind of readiness for hostile rejection. The present questionnaire 43 design, strictly speaking, does not specifically deal with rejection of people, rather it deals only with expressed readiness to "be friends". A lack of desire for friendship does not necessarily suggest hostility or intolerance. Thus, this may result in a dilution of the effect of Dogmatism and Opinionation. ' One way to (tentatively) investigate the plausability of such reasoning as an explanation for the generally un- impressive correlations with Opinionation and Dogmatism would be to compute the same correlations on a belief which has considerable emotional salience--ideally a belief which was so "emotionally loaded" that disagreement with the sub- ject's view would be threatening to him and would thus max- imally arouse his hostility toward dissenters. Belief in God versus atheism was chosen as the one pair of beliefs among the eight that might be expected on a priori grounds to be highly loaded emotionally.1 In each table in the Re- sults chapter the correlations titled "God-atheist" are given in relation to the Ethnocentrism Scale, Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales. The following results were obtained. l The same might be said for the communism issue. The God-atheism issue rather than the communism issue was select- ed for separate analysis because it was eXpected that in the case of the former there would still be wide individual diff- erences in degree of hostility toward atheists; in the case of the latter it was anticipated that hostility toward com- munists is widespread and institutionalized. Hence, there is not enough room for individual differences to play a significant role. 44 The race difference score correlated significantly at the 1% level with the E Scale but was not significantly re- lated to either Opinionation or Dogmatism. The absolute race score for Negroes (Nn) was significantly related to all three tests and, contrary to prediction, was more highly related to Dogmatism and Opinionation than to his E Scale. The absolute race score for whites (ww) was significantly related to Opinionation and Dogmatism, but not to the E Scale. This trend was essentially the same as noted in the correlations for all eight beliefs. Some substantiation for the proposed hypothesis was seen in the results of the belief difference scores correl- ations as shown in Table 8. Belief difference correlations relationship to Dogmatism was approximately doubled; while the correlation between the belief difference score and Opinionation remained about the same. SomeWhat less encouraging are the results from the ab- solute belief scores. (a) Correlations between "acceptance of people who agree with one's beliefs" was 322 significantly related to either Opinionation or Dogmatism. The same trend toward inverse correlations of (NW) with the Ethnocentrism Scale was present. The predicted negative correlations be- tween Opinionation and Dogmatism and the "acceptance of people who disagree with one's beliefs" were significant at the 5% level of confidence. Correlations between Opinionation and Dogmatism and the 45 race-belief difference scores were significantly in the predicted (positive) direction. Correlations between Opin— ionation and Dogmatism and the absolute race-belief scores were significantly (5%) in the predicted positive direction. In comparing the results of the correlations for the total eight beliefs in relation to correlations for only the God-atheist belief, it becomes apparent hat these new correl- ations are still relatively low and unimpressive. However, some changes from the total group correlations were noted. The Dogmatism Scale was significantly related to ethnic intolerance and belief intolerance and to discriminations made to social stimuli having both race and belief charact- eristics. Relationships between the Opinionation Scale and the scores for the God-atheist issue were essentially the same as those noted for all eight beliefs. It seemed that increasing the possible salience of the issue affected only the correlations concerning Dogmatism, but not the correl- ations concerning Opinionation. Considering the total resilts it seems that the only area that has not been at least tentatively confirmed was in relation to the absolute belief scores. The belief-thought model analysis prediction that persons high in Opinionation and Dogmatism would be more accepting of persons who agreed with their beliefs was not upheld. 46 CHAPTER V. SUMMARY The purpose of this eXperiment was to explore the rel- ative influence of race and belief as determinants of dis- crimination and to relate belief and race discrimination to three different measures of intolerance-~the Ethnocentrism Scale, the Opinionation Scale, and the Dogmatism Scale. The following hypotheses were tested: Hypothesis I Hypothesis II In situations wherein it is possible to res- pond in a discriminatory manner to social stimuli both on the basis of race and belief, the discriminatory response will be based more on the belief than on the race characteristics of the stimuli. If belief is a more important factor than race in intolerance reactions, subjects high in ethnic prejudice as well as subjects low in ethnic prejudice should respond primarily in terms of belief rather than race. Hypothesis IIIExtent of preference of whites over Negroes Hypothesis IV Hypothesis V Hypothe si s VI should correlate more highly with the Ethno- centrism Scale than with either the Opinion- ation Scale or the Dogmatism Scale. The degree of rejection for Negroes should correlate more highly with the Eihnocentrism Scale than with the Opinionation Scale or the Dogmatism Scale. The extent to which persons holding to one belief are preferred to persons who hold an opposed belief should correlate more highly with the Opinionation Scale and the Dogmatism Scale than with the Ethnocentrism Scale. (a) Degree of acceptance of persons who agree with one's beliefs should correlate more highly with Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales than with the Ethnocentrism Scale. (b) Degree of rejection of persons who disagree with one's beliefs should correlate more highly with Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales than with the Ethnocentrism Scale. 47 Hypothesis VII Responses to social stimuli which have both race and belief characteristics should corr- elate more highly with the Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales than with the Ethnocentrism Scale. Hypothesis VIII The greater the rejection of people--white and Negro, those who agree and those who disagree with one's views-~the greater will be the degree of Opinionation and Dogmatism. A questionnaire, including the Opinionation Scale, the six-item version of the California Ethnocentrism Scale, as well as a race, belief, race—belief paired questions form concerning eight current social issues, was administered to 65 Elementary Psychology students at Michigan State University. The Dogmatism Scale was administered to 54 of these students at a separate class session. Hypothesis I was upheld as the results indicated that subjects' discriminatory responses seemed to be based more on the belief than on the race characteristics of the stimuli. The results for Hypothesis II indicated that, regardless of anti-ethnic attitude, subjects' generally expressed more acceptance of those persons-~whether Negro or white-~who agreed with their beliefs. These subjects tended to rate lower those persons-~Negro or white-—with contrary beliefs. Hypotheses III and IV were confirmed in that the extent of preference of whites over Negroes, and the degree of re- jection of Negroes, respectively, were both significantly re- lated to the Ethnocentrism Scale, but not to the Dogmatism and Opinionation Scales. 48 Dogmatism and ethnocentrism are not significantly re- lated to degree of acceptance of persons holding contrary beliefs. Opinionation is significantly related to degree of acceptance of persons holding one kind of contrary beliefs but not another. Thus, Hypothesis V is only weakly upheld by the data. Hypothesis VI.(a) was not confirmed since there was not a positive relationship between acceptance of people who agree with one's views and the Opinionation and Dogmatism Scales. Rather, these results, and other related correlations seemed to indicate that the higher the Dogmatism and Opinionation the greater the tendency to reject persons regardless of whether they agree or disagree. Part (b) of Hypothesis VI was partially confirmed as rejection of persons with dis- similar beliefs was significantly related to Opinionation. However, degree of rejection of persons with dissimilar beliefs was not apparently related to Dogmatism. Hypothesis VII was in general not (statistically) con- firmed since response to social stimuli with race-belief characteristics correlated significantly only with the Opin- ionation Scale and then only in relation to neutral beliefs. Dogmatism showed no essential relationship to these scores for either segregation or neutral beliefs. Hypothesis VIII was in general not (statistically) confirmed since rejection of people--white and Negro-~who agree and disagree with one's beliefs was significantly 49 related to Opinionation only in relation to neutral beliefs. The correlations of this variable with Dogmatism were not significant. The suggestion was made that the present experimental design-~which is concerned with readiness to "be friends" may be diluting the full effect of Opinionation and Dogmatism since these latter variables are primarily concerned with qualified tolerance and intolerance toward others. A lack of willingness to be friends is not necessarily indicative of a hostile kind of intolerance. Some substantiation for this explanation was seen in the analysis of correlations for one belief (regarding belief in God versus atheism) chosen as the one most likely to evoke hostility as a concomitant of difference in opinion. In the re-analysis, Hypotheses III, IV, V, VI-b, VII, and VIII were confirmed at a statist- ically significant level. (Hypotheses I and II are not con- cerned in the re-analysis.) Replication of the experiment would be recommended. However, some modification may be desirable. Due attention should be given to the problem of using a scale Which measures rejection as well as acceptance. 10 REFERENCES Adorno, T.W. et al. The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper, _l950. Allport, G. H. The Nature of Prejudice. Mass.: Addison Wesley Company, 1954- Edwards, A.L. Statistical Methods for the Behavioral §ciences. New York: Rinehcrt and Company, 1954. Harding J. et al. "Prejudice and Ethnic Relations" in Handbook of Social Psychology. (Ed. ) G. Lindsey, Mass.: Addison 'wesley Company, 1954, p 1021- 1062. Horowitz, E. L. "Development of Attitudes Toward Negroes". in Readiggs in Social Psychology. (Ed. ) G. Swanson gt El- New York: Henry Holt, 1952, p 49l— —501. Look, 20, January 24, 1956, p 50. Rokeach, M. "The Nature and Meaning of Dogmatism". Psych. Rev. 1954, 61, 194-201. Rokeach, M. "Political and Religious Dogmatism: An Alternative to the Authoritarian Personality." Psych. Monogr. 1956, 70, No. 18 (Whole No. 425). Rokeach, M. "0n the Unity of Thought and Belief". J. Pers., 1956, 25,1)224-2500 Westie, F. R. "Negro-White Status Differentials and Social Distance" . 5g. Soc. Rev., 17, 1952, p 550-558. ht Please fill in the following information. DO NOT SIGN YOUR NAME e Sex Date of Birth hty and State of Birth ace or na. . we 54. tional extraction Listed below are 8 pairs of statements about some current social and arsenal issues. Your task is to place a check (\/) mark in front of QQQ statement in each pair that you most agree with. Please mark fig gtatement of each pair. was: sue F4H H+a H+e Htfi nekw ens believe in God. am an atheist. am for immediate desegregation. am for gradual desegregation. am for socialized medicine. am against socialized medicine. believe that there are fundamental differences between races. believe that, fundamentally, all races are equal. am anti~communist. am a communist. believe that fraternities and sororities should be interracial. believe that each race should have it s own fraternities and sororities. am praélabor unions. as. anti-'labor unions... believe that Negroes should own homes only in certain areas. believe that Negroes should be allowed to own homes anywhere they want to. TURN TO THE NEXT PAGE 'H" ' I The following is a study of what the general public thinks and feels about a , number of important social a nd personal questions. In the questionnaire below are a i mmber of paired statements. Nour task is to express the degree to which you can or mnnot see yourself being friends with each of the two persons described in each pair. iMke your judgments on a scale from l to 9 by circling the number which best expresses jtur degree of preference. Use the following scale as your guide. Y Ican t see I can very ‘mEETffbeing easily see my- self being I friends with friends with mmh a person ~_w such a person 1 2 3 4 5 6 ' 7 8 9 Let us take an example: Circle the number which best expresses your degree of “reference for la and for lb. la. A person who likes classical music. 1 l 5 4 6 7 8 9 lb. A person who likes popular music. 3 4 6 7 8 9 NN 0107 Your task is simply to circle the number which best expresses how much you can %6 yourself being friends with the person described. Remember, encircle one number flier "a" and one number after "b" ibr each pair in the questionnaire, Please assume met the twa—persons described in each pair are alike in all other reSpeets. l A Negro who is for socialized medicine. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7«8 9 A white person who is fer socialized medicine. 1 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 A.white person who is for immediate desegregation. l 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 { A.Negro who is for giadual desegregation. l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 5-liwhite person who is an atheist. l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t A.White person who believes in God. 1 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 A white perscn'who believes that fraternities and sororities should be interracial. A Negro who believes that fraternities and sororities should be interracial. 5 A Negro who is a communist. l 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 A.white person who is anti—communist. l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 5 A Negro who believes that there are fundamental differences between races. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A Negro who believes that, fundamentally, all races are equal. 1 Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 A white person who is pro—labor unions. A Negro who is pro~labor unions. 8 A.Negro who believes that Negroes should own homes only in certain areas. A'white person who believes that Negroes should be allowed to own homes anywhere they want to. i-’ A? 0 #3 0‘1 O) ‘Q (E (O 9 A Negro who is for socialized medicine. 1 z 5 e 5 6 7 8 9 A.White person who is against socialized medicine. 1 d 5 e 5 6 7 8 9 10 A Negro who is for gradual desegregation. 1 2 5 4 5 6 7.8.9 A.Negro who is for immediate desegregation. l 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 ll A.white person who believes in God. 1 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ii 1 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 A.Negro who believes in God. es should be 12—A.Negro who believes that fraternities and sororiti interracial. A'white person who believes that each race should have its own fraternities and sororities. f‘r ~\. I can't see myself being hiends with such a person I can very easily—Eee'my- self being friends with such a person. l 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 ‘ - ‘ - — - ‘ ‘ - .- - u— - .... ~ -— .— .. ... ._ u- _. .- —. ..- - — n. - - I. — — n 13£meite person who is a communist. iiwhite person who is anti-communist. MzA'Negro who believes that there are fundamental differences between races. . f A white person who believes that there are fundamental dif er- ences between races. 15 n'white person who is anti-labor unions. A.Hegro who is pro-labor unions. lBiiNegro who believes that Negroes should be allowed to own homes anywhere they want to. H . :xNegro who believes that Negroes should own homes only in certain areas. 173iwhite person who is for socialized medicine. liNegro who is against socialized medicine. 18£iwhite person who is for gradual desegregation. a.white person who is for immediate desegregation. lgiiwhite person who is an atheist. iiNegro who is an atheist. ZOJLNegro who believes that each race should have its own frat- ernities and sororities. ‘ . . .n ziwhite person who believes that fraternities and sororities should be interracial. 21 A Negro who is anti-communist. A Negro who is a communist. 22 A'white person.who believes that, fUndamentally, all races are equal. . . ’ a . aces are e ual. A.Negro who believes that, fundamentally, all r q 25 A Negro who is anti-labor unions. n'white person who is pro—labor unions. 24 a.white person who believes that Negroes should be allowed to ' a a ' t to own homes anywhere they wan . a A.white person.who believes that Negroes should own homes only in certain areas. 25 A'Negro Who is against socialized medicine. A.Negro who is for socialized mediCine. 26 irwhite person who is for immediate desegregation. .iNegro who is fbr immediate desegregation. 27 A Negro who is an atheist. G A white person who believes in ed. a F 3 'ts own 28 A.white person who believes that each race should haVe l f a ~r ities and sororities. . 1 . .3 r tb n eternities and sororities i‘white person who believes that fr: should be interracial. r4+4 H 1,...) H H NM 0003 e.» C3101 0303 ~q-q CDCD (D (O N 00 .422. Cl CD \l C003 (0 {\N 003 Abe‘— 0'10" 0303 Q-q (DOD (OLD m 0» rh- 0‘! CD \‘1 COCO mm mm C203 h’b 0701 CDC) \i-q CDCO (OQO N 03 gs CD 03 \i Chm to N 0‘1 gs CD 03 \‘x 00 {DCD no on e on G) -q a) to n: o. r; 01 O) \3 a) to MN 00‘ Have mm 0302 ‘Q\'} CDCD <00 4 5 0103 0') \3 CDCD CO NM 00 (O 4 5 6 7 NM (no: ,5 O" 03 \1 (I) (0 [ii I or- g" :- :a 4 -\ v: ‘t a 37 U “ A r—ii I can‘t see myself being friends with such a person I can very easily see my— Egllrtbing friends with such a person l 2 3 4 5 6 7 29 ”-.l- --. -----— -—~-—-- iiNegxo who is anti~communist. A.white person who is anti-communist. 50 white person who believes that there are fundamental differ- ences between races. Negro who believes that, fundamentally, all races are -1. equain "s P 51 A Negro who is pro-labor unions. Negro who is anti~labor unions. 32 Negro who believes that Negroes should be allowed to own homes anywhere they want to. Anwhite person who believes that Negroes should be allowed to own homes anyWhere they want to. 35 l'white A‘white is against socialized medicine. is fbr socialized medicine. person who person who 34 a White A Negro is for gradual desegregation. gradual desegregation. pe rso n who who is fer 55 who believes in God. person who is an atheist. A Negro Jiwhite 56 A.Negro who believes that fraternities and sororities should be interracial. A.Negro who believes that each race should have its own frat- ernities and sororities. 57 A.white person who is a communist. n.Negro who is a communist. 58.A.Negro who believes that there are fundamental differences between races. Jivhite person who believe equal. 8 that, fundamentally, all races are 59 a.white person who is pro—labor unions. A rhite person who is antirlabor unions. 40 l Negro who believes that Negroes should own homes only in certain areas. A white person who believes that Negroes should own homes only in certain areas. 41 A Negro who is against socialized medicine. .xwhite person who is against socialized medicine. 42 u'white person who is for gradual desegregation. n.Negro who is for immediate desegregation. W 43 A.Negro who believes in God. A.Negro who is an atheist. 44 l.Negro who believes that each race should have its own frat- ernities and sororities. iivfiflte person who believes that each race should have its own fraternities and sororitieS. H H H H [...] N N N N N (\‘J 0303 amt—P C51 03 cm eea ow C) 4 7 (N r? 07 03 Ox: Oil 4“ h” Cl 0'1 O3 03 4-4 \j 6 C23. gs Ul C)1 CD \j 00 go. 03 (N m U“ 01 03 til \3 (N 0: #- 41* C‘ 6 7 ()3 p C)“. O) a O z b 6 7 O i 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7 5 ‘r 5 6 7 5 fl 5 6 / 5 4 5 6 7 O 4‘ m 0) Q 03 ,n U" 03 \l \l 63 a) (I) {O 8 (I) 00 9.0 to 9 {O {O (O (O " CCL 2"! SC- fi'i 5‘ such I \ 1.. £1 .‘1 .9 '3 .1 .x ; .1 ' .x' I can‘t see myself being friends with such a persorl I can very easily see myself being friends with such a person A-white person who is a communist. a'Ne ogre who is anti-communist. 9 2 5 r 5 6 7 8 9 23e56789 f" ; white person who believes that there are fundamental diff- erences between races. riwhite person'who believes that, fundamentally, are equal. all races i7 A'white person who is anti-labor unions. A Negro who is anti-labor unions. :8 a Negro who believes that Negroes should be allowed to own homes amwmummtthey'want to. a white person who believes th.t Negroes should own homes only in certain areas. PLEJlSE TURN TO THE NEAT PAGE FOR FURTHER INSTRUCTIONS 01C» r? 01 03 \‘1 co to lIlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlIlIllIIIIIIIllllllllllllllllllllll1l J I FURTHER INSTRUCTIONfi . The following is a sludy of What the general public thinks and feels :mut a number of important social and personal questions. The best rmvor to each statement below is your pgrsonal Opinion. We have tTiCd o Sever many different and Opposing points of View; you may find your~ ’il agreeing strongly with some of the statcmcnts, disagreeing just as rcngly with others, and perhaps uncertain about others; whether you jyec or disagree with any statement, you can be sure that manv other .oplc feel the some as you do. V atonent in the left margin according to how much you with it. Please mark every one. Write :1, —+2, —+3, , ~j, depending on how you feel in each case. 7"." , 1.. . free or (‘1’: go 0v ”S .(D {a (D c+ Cvg) . '3 ”h. .- ..L f‘ L. vi: 1 leans A LITTLE ~1: I DISAGREE A LITTLE -+2: I AQREEIQN THE WHOLE ~2: I DISAGREE ON res WHOLE +3: I AGREE vsar MUCH ~3: 1 DISAGREE VERY MUG: ——~~~—-——.--—“_. __~l. Negroes hav own distric whites. e their rights, but it is best to keep them in their ts and schools and to prevent too much contact with '- 3 - .. :1 J- - ,. 4.3 J. -1- ‘ - - J- " l__ . it s perieetly clear that use deCiSion to execute the Rosenoergs ‘ has done us more harm than good. i. 3. Any intelligent person can plainly see that the real reason America is rearming is to stop aggression. ~ 4. It’s just plain stupid to say that it was Franklin Roosevelt wno got us into the war. l~~5. It‘s simply incredible that anyone should believe that social~ ized medicine will actually help solve our health problems. -_~6. Any person with even a brain in his head knows that it would be dangerous to let our country be run by men like General MacArthur. i_~1. Plain common sense tells you that prejudice can be removed by education, not legislation. “_JJ. A person must be pretty stupid if he still believes in differences between the races. 8 l“_9. A pers n must be pretty ignorant if he thinks that Eisenhower is going to let the ”big boys" run this country. -;O. It would be a mistake ever to have Negroes for foremen and leaders over whites. hill. The truth of the matter is this} It is big business which wants to continue the cold war. ..lQ. Anyone who is really for democracy knows very well that the only J way for America to head off revolution and civil war in backward countries is to send military aid. ._13. There are two kinds of people who fought Truman‘s Fair Deal 5 program: the selfish and the stupid. ..l4. It‘s the fellow travellers or Reds who kCCP yelling all the time about Civil Rights. ..l5. Make no mistake about it} The best way to achieve security is for the government to guarantee jobs for all.- ..Aé. History will clearly show that Sir Anthony Eden's victory over tno Labour Party in 1955 was a step forward for the Britisn peoplC Om CV. ”a Li. ad 9. !!!!lIIlIl!IIIlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII‘ #~l: I AGREE A LITTLE ~1: I DISAGREE A LITTLE +2: I AGi 33 ON THE LIEOLE ~2: I DISAGFEE ON THE WHOLE ~+3: I AGREE VERX MUCH "3 I DISAGRSE VERY MUCH .ll7. a p rson must be pretty short-sighted if he believes that college ess ,filB. it’s the rad‘ i h '7 1T (*9 q -.- ‘ fl . e . _A .- l ‘_ __ J_ u __ A u h W '3 , 1 a 0 ”x9. negio nusiCians may sometimes so as goes as white muSicians, but it 18 a mistake to have mixed Negro-white bands. ’71 J— I . '1 v o . _*cO. It s perfectly clear to all decent Americans that Congressional Committees which investigate communism do more harm than good. ‘_sl. inc American re-armament pregram is clear and positive proof that we are willing to sacrifice to preserve our freedom. 22 It‘s the people who believe everything they read in the papers who are convinced that Russia is pursuing a rutlless policy of imperialist aggression. n.23. It is foolish to think that the Democratic Party is really the party of the common man. -24. Thoughtful persons know that the American Legion is not really interested in democracy. i~25. his much is certainl The only way to defeat tyranny in China a is to support Chiang Kai-Shek. i~26. It is mainly those who believe the propaganda put out by the real— estate interests who are against a federal slum clearance program. t can't help but feel sorry for the person who believes shat the world could exist without a creator. ll28. manual labor and unskilled jobs seem to fit the Negro mentality and ability better than more skilled or responsible work. l_29. It's perfectly clear to any thinking person that the way to solve our financial problems is by a sOak~the~rich tax program. __50. It's already crystal~clear that the United Kations is a failure. .__31. a person must be pretty gullible if he really believes that the communists have actually infiltrated into government or education. )2. It's usually the trouble-makers who talk about government Owner- ship of public utilities. .ll33. It’s all too true that the rich are getting richer and the poor are getting poorer. ._~34. A study of American history clearly shows that it is the Amer~ ican businessman who has contributed most to our society. ..35. It’s mostly those who are itching for a fight who want a universal b military training law. __36. Only a misguided idealist would believe that the United States is an imperialist war-monger. “~37. The people who raise all the talk about putting Negroes on the same level as whites are mostly radical agitators trying to stir up conflict. +1; I AGREE A LITTLE -l: I DISAGIEE A LITTLE +23 I AGREE ON THE I‘MOIE ~2: I DISJ’IGREE ON THE WHOLE +33 I A REE VERE MUCH ~5: I DISAGREE VERY MUCH History clearly shows that it is the private enterprise system which is at the root of depressions and wars. Even a person of average intelligence knows that to defend our- selves against aggression we should welcome all help--including France Spain. It is very foolish to advocate government support of religion. It's mostly the noisy liberals Who try to tell us that we will be better off under socialism. Anyone who's Old enough to remember the Hoover days will tell you that it's a lucky thing Hoover was never re—elected. Anybody Who knows what's going on will tell you that Alger Hiss was a traitor who betrayed his country. Only a simple~minded feel would think that Senator McCarthy is a defender of American democracy. It's the agi J China into t 'tators and left—wingers who are trving to get Red I ‘he United Nations. Most Negroes would become overbearing and disagreeable if not kept in their place. @1153“ USE ONLY Date Due ~““ ‘52.--. Demco-293 ~ . I ,3». . . ...... (n ‘V . *nfl. .0 . U. l . M : ......uc’ J 4 . r . In ...: ... I fl 1 l u o u ; \ ..f u 4 J 3 a. 5‘ ... . t G a \. n‘ll‘lvr. £15.76» 9+! ‘31! but... $.41”. . i! 1...“. 1 g _. l . I . .. 3.! CI «14 I'Iv illki D- l I L . . . . I11 .. 1 I. «A. I In ‘ Int-.1... ..\0| o ‘1 VI i}! .l... I ‘D t .? a. it‘ll! 9‘ II I II I 1‘ ' . 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