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ABSTRACT

AN ANALYSIS OF THE FEASIBILITY OF THE UTILIZATION
OF TELEVISION IN A SPECIFIC INDUSTRIAL
TECHNICAL TRAINING APPLICATION

by William M. Keely

Two basic factors are pertinent in assessing the
applicability of instructional television to the technical
training courses presented to Ford Motor Company engineers
located in the Company's Research and Engineering Center.

In general, it is necessary to establish the academic
suitability of the medium to Ford's needs and the cost of
implementing such a system. The matter of academic suit-
ability may be approached through an examination of existing
instructional television applications in schools and in
industry (including the military). The considerations of
cost are dependent upon the nature of the existing conven-
tionally-taught courses at Ford and the equipment and staff—
ing expenditures involved in establishing a Specific instruc-
tional television system.

Several school applications of instructional television
are noteworthy. The suitability of using television in
teaching is verified in the experiences of Michigan State

University, the University of Michigan, the Milwaukee

William M. Keely

Vocational and Adult Schools, and the South Carolina schools.
An extensive examination of the Hagerstown, Maryland, closed-
circuit system reveals many facts of importance in the design
and development of a total instructional television program.
Hagerstown further illustrates the form and extent of tele-
vision's abilities to aid in the instructional process.
Military applications confirm that television is ex-
tensively and successfully used in the teaching of technical
subjects and that it may be useful in saving time and money.
The military experience, particularly as illustrated with
the Lowry Technical Training Center in Denver, has been that
suitable courses may be adapted to television with a decrease
in instructional time and an increase in student performance.
The uses found for television in private business have been
mostly in extending mankssenses to guard gates, watch
remotely-located gauges, monitor furnace interiors, etc.
Few companies have the money or need to make a company-owned
system justifiable. Some companies have met this obstacle by
banding together to divide the costs of presenting courses
of mutual interest transmitted over an existing distribution
system. North American Aviation, however, found it advan-
tageous to establish their own extensive system. This was
done upon receipt of a large government contract which
caused a sudden and large increase in the Company's work-
force and a need for fast and efficient employe orientation

and information programs.

William M. Keely

The forementioned experiences have established the
academic framework for the use of instructional television.
The requirements of the Ford Motor Company, as shown in
the structure of its Technical Education Program and the
statements of its management, are in fact consistent with
the medium's abilities. A cost analysis, pursued in the
framework of a Specific instructional television system
proposal, indicates that television will provide a 55%
saving on a cost-per-student basis and a 27% saving on a

cost—per-student—hour basis in a continuing program.

AN ANALYSIS OF THE FEASIBILITY OF THE UTILIZATION
OF TELEVISION IN A SPECIFIC INDUSTRIAL

TECHNICAL TRAINING APPLICATION

BY

William M. Keely

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Television and Radio

1966

I ,.~
/

( (5,? ‘ ,. ' /, .I , ‘1 ../
Approved ,&7/;¢{56 fi/(épgp/

4'

/Major Professor (/

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer is most grateful to Professor
Gordon Gray and Professor Arthur Weld for their
understanding and advice in preparing this
thesis.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER Page
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

II. SURVEY OF EXISTING STATUS OF TELEVISION IN
RELEVANT APPLICATIONS IN PUBLIC EDUCATION. 8

III. SURVEY OF EXISTING STATUS OF TELEVISION IN
RELEVANT APPLICATIONS IN INDUSTRY AND

OTHER AREAS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

IV. ADAPTATION TO THE FORD MOTOR COMPANY TECHNI-
CAL TRAINING PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . 58
V. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
APPENDIX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

iii

.LIST OF TABLES

TABLE

10.

Areas of Closed—Circuit Television Project
1956—1960 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Initial Presentations 1966—1957 . . . . . .

Average Growth, and Achievement Status of
Comparable Groups of Pupils in Sixth Grade
Arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Average Growth of Pupils Retarded in Arith-
metiC (Grades 5-8) 0 o o o o o o o o o o o 0

Growth of Pupils of Average and Superior
Ability Who Were Not Retarded in Arithmetic
(Grades 5—8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Growth of 268 Students During Two
Consecutive Years of Televised Arithmetic
(Average I.Q. 101). . . . . . . . . . . . .

Average Achievement of Comparable Groups of
Students in Plane Geometry. . . . . . . . .

System Equipment Costs. . . . . . . . . . .
Total Cost Comparisons: Pilot Program-—
First Year—-Subsequent Years (Dollars in
Thousands). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Course Preparation and Presentation Costs——

Television vs. Direct Teaching (Dollars in
Thousands) . C O C O O . . O C O O O C O . .

iv

Page

26

27

53

54

55

36

37

71

73

74

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE Page
1. Initial Distribution System (1956-1957) . . . 28

2. Research and Engineering Center Television
Distribution Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘65

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Purpose

This thesis provides a thorough investigation of the
potential value of utilizing some form of the television
medium.in an industrial technical education program.
Specifically, this paper analyzes an application which
could be made to a current program offered by the Ford
Motor Company to its product engineers. While the need for
the present and future use of televion in the Ford training
activity is explored more thoroughly in the following pages,
some background factors should be mentioned here.

Virtually all of Ford's major styling, engineering
and research operations are centered in a several square
mile area adjacent to Greenfield Village in Dearborn,
Michigan.1 This area, known as the Research and Engineering
Center, is under the administrative control of the Ford

Engineering Staff. This Staff, in effect, leases facilities

 

1Unless otherwise noted, information pertaining to the
Ford Motor Company and/or its interest in utilizing tele-
vision in technical training is based on the writer‘s
familiarity with these matters as gained through employment
with the Company in the Industrial Relations Office of the
Engineering Staff.

to the various Product Engineering Offices (PEOs) who do
the.actual engineering of the vehicles. In addition,
Engineering Staff provides various services to the PEO
residents of the Research and Engineering Center. Such
services include, for example, administration of the test
track facilities, building and grounds maintenance and
industrial relations services. Engineering Staff also has
the.responsibility for providing proper direction to the
Company's engineering efforts as a whole and ensuring that
the PEOs operate in an effective and efficient manner.

As part of its Industrial Relations services, Engineer—
ing Staff provides various education and training programs
for its own employes and those of the various Product
Engineering Offices. These programs are initiated and
implemented through the Personnel Planning Department and
are designed to take advantage of the significant impact
such programs are capable of having upon the growth and
progress of the Company. These programs fall into three
general areas: academic programs, work indoctrination
programs and programs for the application of knowledge and
updating. Academic programs involve various means through
which the employee may pursue additional degrees or enroll
in individual courses at local colleges and universities.
Work indoctrination programs are aimed at ensuring that
newly hired or prOSpective employes gain the most advan-

tageous sequence of assignments in their early years of

employment. Of the remaining programs, one is presented
regularly enough, and to large enough numbers of people,

to warrant the consideration of its adaptation to tele-
vision. This is the Engineering Technical Education series,
a series of courses designed to present engineers with the
opportunity to remain up-to-date in their field and to fill
in gaps in their knowledge as their assignments change.
These courses are made available to employees holding engi-
neering degrees, are automotive oriented, are taught by
university professors, and make use of college texts and
lectures. Each of the eleven courses currently offered
consists of thirty-two hours of instruction given in a
Company classroom.

The feeling of Ford management is that the Engineer-
ing Technical Education series has been very successful in
meeting its aim to refresh, update and expand technical
knowledge and skills. Problems which are currently being
felt are not in the realm of academic objectives but in
the areas of cost per student and time lost from the job.
Under the current method of presentation, for example,
enrollment is limited by small classrooms. The cost per
student is therefore necessarily high although often there
will be twice as many applicants as there are seats avail-
able. In addition, as much as thirty minutes may be lost
from the job merely in transit to and from the classroom

location. Management concern with expense is, however,

mixed with concern over the possibility of increasing the
effectiveness.of the classroom presentation and enhancing
.student attention and.sustaining interest. In other words,
financial.concérns do not overshadow academic concerns. In
examining possible answers to both financial and academic
concerns, television teaching has come to be considered as
worthy.of some further investigation by the Company.

The mere fact that educational uses of television have
so obviously expanded gives reason to consider its possible
application at Ford or in other similar applications. Even
a cursory appraisal of both trade and general publications
forces one to notice the trend to educational television.
The point to be made is simply that individuals responsible
for the existence and continuation of a highly trained and
skilled industrial technical organization, it is presumed,
must keep a tight rein on both present and future needs and
plan to meet them with the most advanced systems possible;
educational television is one such possible system.

In assessing the Company's educational goals, it is
clear that the need is for large scale quality education
and training economically achieved, not cheaper education
and training. Here it is necessary to isolate and identify
the potential functions of an educational television instal-
lation within an industrial organization. Television can
be supplementary to the existing instruction given by Engi-

neering Staff. Television might, for example, provide the

additional teacher-contact needed with programmed-learning
courses or eliminate the excessive time involved for a
temporarily available expert to visit several classes.
In some cases, television might do the total teaching job
with one teacher reaching a large student body at one time
with the same information. Videotape recordings would allow
the same presentations to be conveniently repeated. Tele-
vision might also be utilized for administrative (manage-
ment) announcements or meetings with selected groups of
individuals, or to convey employe-relations information.
This thesis examines educational television's feasi-
bility in a given environment of industrial technical train—
ing. This analysis may be characterized as part of a larger
concern with the need to bring together the academician's
knowledge and the industrialist's needs in the most ex-
peditious use of all available teaching and learning re-

sources .

Plan and Organization of the Study

The conclusions reached in this paper are more than
the result of an academic exercise. The writer, working
with Engineering Staff management, is responsible for pro-
viding a sound basis for management decisions involving
technical training within the Company. Because the conclu-
sions reached here will have such extensive and tangible
effects, there exists a very real need to ensure maximum
accuracy. This need has had a significant effect upon the

structure of the study.

The form of this study is partially that of the library
survey. It is hoped that in this manner the maximum benefit
may be derived from the experiences of others. The form of
the study has been tailored to ensure that the writer not
only delineate the existing status of the field, but fully
utilize the prerogative to emphasize interpretation, judgment-

1 To borrow from William M. Sattler's

making and application.
pattern for utilizing the library survey as the theme for

the complete research form, this study is organized to show:

(1) problem formulation, (2) review of knowledge, (5) prelimi-
nary observation, (4) implementation recommendations if
relevant.2 It should be understood that certain elements

more commonly associated with the case study and the "selective
study" (historical) approach are utilized in that ". . .
historical methods require the student to seek out and
critically evaluate the reports of observers of past events

in order to describe accurately what happened and to clarify

as best he can the relationships among those events,"3 and

then "[choose] from several alternative courses of action those

that appear to be appropriate to the immediate situation.”4

 

lClyde W. Dow, An Introduction to Graduate Study in
Speech and Theater (E. Lansing: Michigan State University
Press, 1961), p. 53.

 

 

21bid., p. 45
31bid., p. 53.

41bid., p. 266.

The table of contents indicates more precisely how the
writer has attempted to correlate the pattern of research
with the Specific objectives implied in the requirements of
a large industrial corporation. It is felt that such an
eclectic approach to the research pattern will facilitate
accuracy and orderliness to a greater degree than would per-
haps a more traditional procedure wherein the researcher has
no specific application in mind.

.It is obvious that the entire study could be devoted
simply to a survey of television in education or in industry.
Nevertheless, the inclusion of the specific (Ford) appli-
cation is needed to ensure the future utility of the paper
to any who may examine it. This paper may be somewhat unique
in that it is concerned with an area of television utilization
which is relatively rare and about which rather little has
been written. What has been written is found primarily in
industrial and technical trade journals, rather than in tele-
vision or educational journals. Because of this unique
aspect of the analysis, the writer feels an added responsi—
bility to his counterparts in other industries and to the
student who may be in search of a practical example of a
relatively early investigation of television in industrial

training.

CHAPTER II

SURVEY OF THE EXISTING STATUS OF TELEVISION
IN RELEVANT APPLICATIONS IN
PUBLIC EDUCATION

The Stimulus for Television in Education

 

The use of television in education is, by this time,
certainly nothing new. In a report such as this it is
immediately apparent, however, that the bulk of the exist-
ing experience has been gained in the field of formal edu-
cation among our public grade and high-schools, colleges
and universities. This pattern may be somewhat unusual
today in that so many new techniques and ideas are tested
and developed by suppliers of classroom materials and
come to the academic world on a ‘ready-to-serve' basis.
Still other new approaches seem to be products of capital—
istic serendipity; ‘Side-effects' of commercial operations
quite aside from any academic concerns. This has not
occurred with the deve10pment of television in education as
there are few industrial organizations with either the need
or ability to initiate original research in this area.

Whatever its cause, the eventual result of this de-
velopmental pattern has been that industrial organizations
may now avail themselves of the body of knowledge developed

by the school systems. An industrial educator may now take

8

the role of the cautious analyst in making an informed recom-
mendation as to possible adaptations of television teaching
to industrial technical training. This section condenses and
clarifies the applicable experiences found in non-lindustrial‘
television—teaching. While several distinct cases are cited
to gain the value inherent in variety, the single case of
Hagerstown is stressed in that it is the most comprehensive and
best—documented Single example of its type. The Hagerstown
Situation has the additional value of providing a delineation
unobtainable through the exclusive use of individual facts
removed from their original context.

AS may be seen in the case of the Hagerstown closed circuit
television system, part of the motivation preceding such an
installation is often the very real concern over providing ever-
increasing numbers of students with a good education in the face
of staff and facilities shortages. The other major factor
involved in the consideration of television is illustrated in
this comment by Benjamin C. Willis, general superintendent of
the Chicago public schools:

It is only fitting that education which creates
technological advance, which makes it possible for our
engineers, scientists and scholars to invest and create
new media-~should take advantage of some of its products
and attempt to use these new advances in the instruc-
tional process.1

In short, not only may we view the utilization of the medium

simply as a device to meet the physical demands to provide an

 

1Philip L. Lewis, Educational Television Guidebook
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961), p. 3.

10

education.of any sort, but we may also hope for the possibility
of raising the quality of educations In the latter regard,
Thomas C. Pollock.of New York University has said: "It now
seems clear that television offers the greatest opportunity for

the advancement of education since the introduction of movable

type- . n l

Literally dozens of lists have been printed attempting to
delineate the reasons why there exists such a demand for in-
creased efficiency in teaching today. While the point has
been discussed beyond the point of useful repetition in edu-
cational journals, a succinct version of the basic reasons would
include the following considerations:

1. There is more to learn today--both in school and on
the job

2. Educational and training COStS have risen——con-
sequently, training has to be more effective

5. Teachers and good training people are scarce--they
must be spread around more.

It would appear that the potential ability of television
to contribute significantly to the quality of education is not
in doubt. Michigan State University's position in this respect,
for example, is that the medium is not an end in itself, or a
device to replace other media and methods, but a new resource

to be used for the purpose of gaining a greater realization of

 

llbid., p. 4.

2"Machines That Teach: Graduating Into Profits." Steel.
October 28, 1965.

11

the-Universityfis educational.values and objectives.1

From.Michigan State University's major emphasis on the
resident student to the University of Michigan's emphasis on
the general population, it is obvious that the same theme of
quality remains common. .At the University of Michigan, from
the time it created The Television Center in 1950, television
has been considered a "unique tool for enriching and broaden-
ing its educational offerings to the people of the State of
Michigan, as well as containing great potential for supple-

mentary classroom instruction."2

With these points in mind,
5
we may proceed to considerations of actual applications in a

variety of Situations.

Survey of Current Applications

_One project which contains a rather unique audience and
application has been what is commonly termed The Chelsea Project,
financed originally by the Ford Foundation and operated by the
New York City Board of Education, Hudson Guild Neighborhood
House and Language Research Institute, Incorporated, of Harvard
University. This operation was designed to serve a small area
of New York City comprised largely of low-income foreign-speak-
ing groups. Three objectives were held in mind by the system
designers: (1) to develop techniques of instructional tele—

vision with minimal equipment and personnel for direct teaching.

 

1Closed Circuit Television (E. Lansing: Michigan State
University Press, n.d.), p. 2.

2Building The Program (Ann Arbor: The University of
Michigan Television Center, n.d.), p. 4.

12

school.enrichment and teacher training, (2) to explore the
effectiveness of language teaching films over television as
an efficient means of teaching an adopted second language,
and (5) to experiment with a community-rooted television
system as a means of improving integration and participation
in school and community activities.1
The system links a 607-apartment housing projectf the
city health center, a settlement house, and forty-two rooms
of an elementary school. The first objective was met
through the use of single-lens industrial vidicon cameras
mounted on monorails or fixed tripods and operated by only
two people: the technician who set up the cameras and lights,
and the teacher who presents the class material and switches
any of the several 'pre-aimed' cameras.2 With this system,
there have been presentations of elementary school lessons,
political discussions, teenage dance programs, and language
instruction in Spanish and English. According to the sys—
tem‘s backers, results have substantiated their notions
that: (1) a low-cost closed-circuit television system is
feasible, (2) it is possible for television to serve as a
community communication medium after the fashion of the

local weekly newspaper, (5) it is possible to have greater

 

lLawrence Creshkoff, "Closed-Circuit Television in
School and Community: The Chelsea Project," Society of
Motion Picture and Television Engineers' Journal (November.
1959). pp. 764-68.

21bid.

15

sharing.of Special teaching skills within a school or area,
(4) and television can be effectiVe in breaking through
.communications barriers where there is a high concentration
in a small area of people with a hard—core educational or
cultural problem.1
The well—known case of the.South Carolina state-wide
instructional television system should be mentioned briefly
to indicate the extent to which many educators have been
willing to go, based on their knowledge of and faith in
television as an effective medium of instructional distribu-
tion. The South Carolina system has developed to the point
of serving 140 public schools, three denominational schools,
three State colleges, three private colleges and five
hOSpitals.2 Dr. Alvin C. Eurich, director of the Ford
Foundation Fund for the Advancement of Education has said
of this system: "South Carolina, in our opinion, has the
basis and blueprint for what educational TV needs to bring
about a healthy revolution in American educational systems."3
In Milwaukee, The Milwaukee Institute of Technology
of the Milwaukee Vocational and adult Schools is using tele—

vision in teaching several of its core courses. To the

Milwaukee Staff, the primary benefits of television have

 

lIbid.

2"Educational TV in Action," Radio—Electronics.
January 1965. p. 54-

31bid.

14

been: (1) economy of classroom Space, allowing a single
instructor to meet with more students, (2) savings in the
number of teachers required to teach core courses, freeing
others to develop and teach new courses, (5) unity in
teaching for all of the members of the student body taking
core courses (using television for basic lectures, then
small groups meeting with instructors for follow-up and
discussions), (4) and improvement in the quality of teaching,
primarily through team-teaching and the increased use of
visuals.1

In all of the cases mentioned, television for instruc-
tion has been accepted by educators as no more inherently
good or bad than is conventional classroom presentation.
The question, then, is not one of potential ability but
proper utilization. In one example of television used in
the teaching of physics, this philosophy is expressed in
the statement that: "because of TV‘S mass capabilities it
becomes economically sound to Spend more money and time on
every lesson, and employ this medium of communication.
Such lessons, planned in greater detail, employing many
forms of visual aids, and presented by better than average

teachers, can achieve the goals we so earnestly seek."2

 

1"Milwaukee ETV System Uses Both VHF and UHF Channels,”
Broadcast News, CXVI (February, 1965), po 2.

2"More Effective Teaching of Physics Through Tele-
vision," American Journal of Physics, XXVIII (April, 1960).
p. 574.

 

15

The author.of this statement taught a highschool intro-
ductory physics course on WQED in 1956-1957, and served
as.a science teacher on NBC's Continental Classroom series
in 1958-1959. It is his belief that his experience with
.the.medium-has.shown.that television allows more time for
the teacher to polish his presentation, provides the best
equipment to help make graphic presentations, and provides
technical.abilities (such as close-ups, Split—screens, etc.)
not.available to the teacher or student in the conventional

Situation.t

This instructor, a member of the Physics Depart-
ment of the University of California at Berkeley, concludes
that television Fcan do a superior job in the lecture room
teaching and demonstrating phase of instruction."2

The Joint Council on Educational Television seems to
substantiate the feeling that it is not the medium itself
which limits successful presentation, but rather the limited
numbers of teachers trained in television utilization.
The Council felt, in fact, that limiting television science
instruction only to supplemental or enrichment areas is
necessary presently due to this deficiency. The need to
train classroom teachers in the use of television, the

Council said, is the "greatest problem educational television

faces."3

 

lIbid.. p. 569.
21bid.

3"TV Science Turns Up Some Problems,” Chemical and
Engineering News, XXXVIII (February 15, 1960L pp. 62-65.

16

An Analysis of a Single Large-scale Application

From.what has been said of the general development of
in—school television and the needs which it attempted to
meet, it is logical to proceed to a more thorough examination
of a Single large-scale example. It should be noted that
every effort has been made to profit from a variety of
sources and reporters in examining the case of Hagerstown.
This is done in an effort to avoid the inaccuracies possible
when using only a limited number of sources.

Even to the casual observer, it would appear that the
undisputed leader of public-school closed—circuit educational
television experiments is that found in the school system of
Washington County, Maryland. To those interested in this
use of the medium, Hagerstown (the County seat) has come to
symbolize the case of the wide-spread practical application.
Great benefit may be had from this illustration of the
applied situation.

With an eye toward the eventual absorption of the
Hagerstown data into an industrial application of training
via television, it must be assumed that the major concern
in the latter case is not with the examination of the device
after its installation, but with the assurance of its success
before its acceptance. To this question of applied value,
the case of the actual example appears to be the most
efficient and effective answer. In the case of Hagerstown,

as well as in the cases of the previously presented instances,

17

it is expected that answers will be apparent through an
examination of actual experiences. This same form of
substantiation is followed again in later examinations of
the existing industrial applications of television. A final
preliminary note to the Hagerstown case is simply to empha-
size that, regardless of the generalities applicable to

all television instruction, the context of primary education
is.far.removed from that of post—graduate technical education.
Appropriate precautions Should be taken against prematurely
projecting the results from the one to the analysis of the
other.

The Hagerstown closed-circuit instructional television
project was not the product of someone's attempt to sell the
Washington County Board of Education on a pet idea, nor did
it materialize as a spur-of-the-moment movement. Hagerstown
officials did not, however, originate the idea; they did
take advantage of an opportune offering. Several years
prior to the opening of the Hagerstown instructional tele-
vision facilities in the Fall of 1956, the Ford Foundation
(through one of its organizations, The Fund for the Advance-
ment of Education) made known its desire to accept appli—
cations for a large scale experiment involving the extensive
usage of instructional television in elementary and secon_

dary schools.1 The experiment would involve focusing

 

1U. S., Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
Office of Education, Television in Our Schools (Bulletin
1952, No. 16, Revised 1956) (Washington: U. 8. Government
Printing Office, 1956), pp. 25-24.

18

instructional television efforts on a particular system
rather than-in.numerous widely separated and unrelated
schools, although The Fund undertook such a project at a
-later time...1 The Ford Foundation was not alone in its
generosity but had teamed up with RETMA (Radio-Electronics-
Television Manufacturers Association) which had agreed,
through its member companies, to supply the needed equipment
for such an undertaking. RETMA, incidentally, officially
changed its title to EIA (Electronics Industries Associ-
ation) sometime later and there is often seen the confusing
reference to both "RETMA" and "EIA" in various publications
regarding Hagerstown.2

Communities vary greatly in their propensity to accept
change of any sort and their degree of community interest
and involvement. Naturally, this characteristic would affect
such a radical development as the introduction of televised
instruction in public education. Hagerstown appears to
have had a history indicating official desire to ensure both
the common and individual good, and to provide for future
expansion where feasible. An early and extensive modifi-
cation in the city's sanitation facilities, for example,

provided not just a short-term improvement but provided a

 

1Alexander J. Stoddard, Schools For Tomorrow: An
Educator's Blueprint. A Report by the Fund for the Advance-
ment of Education (New York: The Ford Foundation, 1957).

2U. S., Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
pp, cit.

19

capacity for any eventuality in population increase for
many years.1

More notable in this regard, perhaps, is the example
of civic concern and involvement evidenced in Hagerstown's
public housing. This project was in full swing several
,years prior to the Hagerstown closed-circuit television
project and is worthy of some consideration because of its
exemplification of the values and attitudes of Hagerstown's
citizenry-. Hagerstown had a history of housing shortage
accentuated by a rapid growth of the locally-based aircraft
industry and a resultant crowding of low-wage groups.
Whole families, for example, were occupying ggpp of the rooms
in what had formally been a one-family dwelling. In 1950
city officials, with the assistance of aircraft industry
executives, began implementing corrective plans. These
plans were the result of official concern and study and
brought the establishment of a local housing authority.
This was done because of the realization that private owners
of slum dwellings would not sacrifice their tremendous fi-
nancial gains for the public good. Typical of the results
were larger, better and less expensive living quarters for
the great majority of those in need and an increase in city
and county income due to utilities and tax money. A character-

istic expression in Hagerstown became "Public Housing is a

 

1"Hagerstown Doubles Primary Settling Capacity,"
American City, LXIV (October, 1949), p. 115.

20

Public Benefit."1

To this atmosphere, then, came The Fund's open invi-
tation. Here was an opportunity for a very specific test—
case for extensive instructional television utilization.
It might be noted for the clarification of the over-all
developmental picture, that The Fund initiated a national
program the year after Hagerstown's program began. This
latter project involved about 250 school systems and 250,000
students, although Hagerstown remained the largest single
example.2

Because of the generally low economic situation but
generally high public Spirit, Hagerstown eagerly submitted
its bid for the test-case experiment. With relation to
psychological readiness, it is interesting to note that,
in this city of 40,000, teacher involvement had been rather
the rule than the exception in the past; future planning
was a primary goal.3 This is evidenced by the eight year
curriculum re-evaluation which was well underway and which
involved all county teachers and polled, among other things,
their ideas and attitudes regarding both the good and the

4

bad parts of the instructional program. In addition,

 

1"Public Housing Comes to Hagerstown, Maryland,"
American City, LXIX.(July, 1954). PP. 126—27.

2National Parent-Teacher (November, 1960).

 

3Teachinggby Television, A Report by the Fund for the
Advancement of Education (New York: The Ford Foundation,
n.d.), p. 41.

 

4Ibid.

21

summer workshops and between-semesters workshops had been
conducted for six years prior to the arrival of television

1 Instructional television arrived

on the Hagerstown scene.
in a context and environment conducive to its ready accept-
ance and smooth implementation.

With this background, Hagerstown was chosen from
among the forty applicants to The Fund and RETMA.2 The
position of the washington County Board of Education officials
was additionally enhanced by the offer of the local telephone
company to supply and install the necessary coaxial cable
without cost to the school system.3

The general feeling in Hagerstown included a realization
that the increases in school population had turned at least
their larger schools from small, informal and personal types
of organizations, into large institutions. In this environ—
ment, ‘administration' could readily mean management of plant
and staff rather than guidance of boys and girls.4 This,
then, was another factor motivating the search for a richer

yet less costly method of instruction than that character-

ized by the conventional Situation.5

 

lIbid., p. 42.

2SaturdayflReview, XL (August 24, 1957), pp. 9-11.

 

3Organization for European Economic Cooperation, Office
for Scientific and Technical Personnel, Television for School
Science. A Report on an’OEEC Seminar, Ashridge, England
(Paris: July, 1960). '

4National Education Association Journal, XLVII
(January, 1958), pp. 26-28.

5Fund for the Advancement of Education, Teaching by
Television, p. 59.

22

Implementation activities really got under way in
the summer preceding the beginning of the 1956—1957 school
year. This was the beginning of a project which, by 1960,
would include 48 schools with 18,000 students over 460
square miles of Washington County.1 The initial season,
however, was planned only for the inclusion of the schools
within Hagerstown itself. In fact, in the Fall of 1956,
the closed-circuit system opened with ten subjects presented
to 4,941 students in eight Hagerstown schools.2

Superintendent William M. Brish, in opening the special

summer-1956 workshop, indicated the over—all purpose of the
experiment by saying that it was to:

1. . . . discover ways in which CCTV may be used to
improve the program of public education at the
elementary and secondary level.

2. . . . test ways of dealing with problems like
the shortage of qualified teachers, rapidly in—
creasing enrollments, [and] lack of adequate
facilities. . . .3

While much of the planning was done with the assistance and

cooperation of the U. S. Office of Education, the National

Education Association and other educational leaders,4

 

1Organization for European Economic Cooperation,
op. cit.

2Fund for the Advancement of Education, Teaching by
Television, p. 41.

 

 

3"The Hagerstown Story,” The A.E.R.T. Journal, XVI
(October, 1956), pp. 20-25.

4Ibid.

25

the great bulk of actual matters of application fell to
Hagerstown's teachers and administrators during the July 9—
August 17 workshop in the summer of 1956.1 Here again it
was noted that Hagerstown Showed great suitability for
such an experiment through the curriculum study and building
construction programs then in progress in Washington County.2
The workshop was attended by some forty teachers and super—
visors and staffed by guest specialists from existing edu-
cational television projects. The meetings themselves took
place at the actual television origination facility (a con—
verted Board of Education building) in order to enhance
first-hand knowledge and familiarity.3

From the outset the keynote of planning was the emphasis
on effectively integrating the instructional television with
the classroom situation and making an effective team of the
television teacher and the classroom teacher. The overriding
objective of the planners was, of course, how best instruc—
tional television could serve a system involving more lessons,
a broader range of subjects, and more schools, pupils and
teachers than there was precedent for; in brief, to establish

the best precedent.4

 

lIbid.
21bid.

3U. S., Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
pp. cit.

4Fund for the Advancement of Education, Teaching by
Television, p. 59,

 

 

24

Throughout the planning, Brish emphasized that tele—
vision was not a gadget but an important development such
as was the textbook; it would give everyone a front—row
seat, make normal audio-visual material more usable and
economical and allow more time for better preparation.1
The feeling of the teachers and other planners was that
Hagerstown would be ". . . one of the most Significant
experimental studies in the educational television field . . .”
and that every care would be taken to see that no human error
consciously adulterated the degree or direction of the Sig-
nificance.2
Besides establishing procedural channels for a constant
supply of 'feedback' from the classrooms to the television
personnel, the workshoppers laid out and 'scripted' the basic
presentations for the coming season. At the same time, a
list was established to indicate the abilities and inabilities
associated with the new medium:
It probably could--
Motivate and stimulate
Inform
Demonstrate
Develop ideas
Show application
Enrich backgrounds

Raise questions
Provide common experiences

 

lSaturdayReview, loc. cit.

 

2Fund for the Advancement of Education, Schools For
Tomorrow: An Educator's Blueprint, pp, cit.

 

 

25

Suggest activities
Challenge pupils to assume more responsibility
for their own study
It probably could not--
Handle classroom discussion
Clear up misunderstandings
Provide for follow-up of lessons
Help pupils apply what has been learned
Direct and supervise the activities growing
out of the lesson.1
Instructional classroom presentations, while the primary
area of initial concern, were only a part of the anticipated
uses for the closed-circuit system. The over-all areas for
utilization are noted in Table 1. The basic courses presented
and the initial signal distribution are Shown in Table 2 and
Figure 1 respectively (as of September 1956). These facts
indicate something of the status of the initial planning.
The system soon grew until it bore little resemblance to that
of the early times. By 1960, 125 lessons per week went out
from five studies to reach ninety—two per-cent of the students
in the County.2
The project grew quickly from the first lessons tele-

3 The

vised with mobile equipment from makeshift studios.
initial equipment lack caused the reduction of the original

schedule to include only the four high-school subject areas

 

1Closed-Circuit Television Project Notes (Hagerstown:
Washington County Board of Education, January 16, 1957).

2"Tape Recorded Teaching at Hagerstown," Educational
Screen and Audiovisual Guide, XXXIX (May, 1960), pp. 226—28.

 

3"Dateline: Hagerstown," The A.E.R.T. Journal, XVI
(March, 1957). pp. 8-10.

26

TABLE 1

AREAS OF CLOSED-CIRCUIT TELEVISION

PROJECT 1956-19GOa

 

 

 

Direct Supplementary In-Service Special
Instruction Instruction Teacher Groups
Training
Grade
Science 9 Science Presentation Parent—
Demonstrations of Teacher
Professional Association
Geometry 10 Films Material
to
Faculty Local
History 11 Service
General Clubs
Orientation Annual
English 12 Curriculum
Workshop Community
Coordination Organiza—
Science 6 AS Needed tions
Arithmetic 5 Special
Displays
Social Stud. 4
Dramatics
Reading 1-2-5
Student
Council
Art 1-2-5
4-5-6
Citizenship
Activities
Music 4-5-6
Current
News
Use of
Special
Network
Programs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

aClosed—Circuit Television Project Notes (Hagerstown:

 

Washington County Board of Education,

1957).

 

27

TABLE 2

INITIAL PRESENTATIONS
1956—1957a

 

Studio A

Grade

Studio B

Grade

 

9:05-9:55
Eng. (Part 1) 12

10:05-10:55
Science 1 9

11:15-11:55

Mon - Music 4
Tues — Music 5
Wed - Art 4-5-6
Thur - Music 4
Fri - Music 5

1:10-1:50
*Soc. Studies 4

1:45-2:05

Mon - Arith. 1
Tues - Arith. 2
Wed - Arith. 5
Thur - Arith. 1-2-5
Fri - Film 1-2-5
2:50-5:00

Mon - Science 6
Tues — Science 6
Wed - Music 6
Thur - Science 6
Fri - Music 6

 

9:05-9:55

Eng. (Part 2) 12
10:05-10:25

Mon - Reading 5
Wed - Reading 2
Thur - Reading 1
Fri - Reading 1-2—5

11:10-11:55
Geometry 10

12:00-12:40
Thur - Guidance --

1:10-1:40

Arithmetic 5
2:55-5:05
History 11

 

 

aIbid.

 

28

FIGURE 1

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
(1956—1957)a

North High

   
  
 
   

Broadway Elementary
Washington SchoolCJLibrary
Pangborn Elementary

Antietam Elementary
Museum

Surrey E lementary U

Board of Education

Howard Elementary

South High

- Originating stations .

 

aL. L. Lewis, "Equipping the Hagerstown ETV Project," The
American School Board Journal, (January, 1958), pp. 59—41.

 

29

for the first several months.1 This problem, in fact,
prompted at least a small amount of friction between

Sponsors of the project. On this occasion, John Weiss, Fund
treasurer, noted that RETMA had Shown ". . . [an] appalling
failure to deliver first—class equipment" and cited such
examples as "sixty kids watching on one twenty-one inch
receiver" as illustrative of inadequate supplies.2 Even such
comments as these, however, were mixed with bouquets for
RETMA and, perhaps, appear more severe in retrospect than at
the time.

The emphasis upon classroom and television teacher
interaction was continued. Soon it was apparent that
Hagerstown would be able to serve more students with the able
teachers already on the staff and to get along with fewer
new teachers than would otherwise have been possible.3 One
important factor in this respect was the fact that consolida—
tion was possible; some classes were made much larger than
usual, up to four times the County average of thirty—two.4
It became apparent, too, that the original question regarding

the relative merits of closed— versus Open-circuit

 

lIbid.

2Television Digest, March 16, 1957.

 

3"Classroom TV Enters a New Era," Saturday Review,
XLIV (May 20, 1961).

4Fund for the Advancement of Education, Teaching by
Television, loc. cit.

 

 

50

distribution was answered in favor of the closed—circuit
system.1
Throughout the planning and subsequent development,
the point of qualitative reference was not television but
education. To quote Brish: "we began by talking about
television, and we find ourselves constantly talking about

2 The project stimulated an intensive re—

education."
examination of educational needs and processes in the staff
and a general enthusiasm among educators and other community
members over the "quality of education and the quality of

3 Again to

learning that television lessons make possible."
quote Mr. Brish, "everyone found himself re—evaluating his
set ideas about education for the first time in a long

time."4

Beside the specific case of the television experiment,

Hagerstown evidenced its approach to education in the design
of two new high Schools. Designers, working closely with

teachers and administrators, produced two schools rather than

the single but larger central facility which had been contem—

plated. The new buildings were fashioned around a central

 

lIbid.

2"Nearly 6,000 Hagerstown Students View Closed-Circuit
TV Lessons," The School Executive, LXXVI (March, 1957), p.
78.

 

3"Teaching by Television in Hagerstown," The School
Review, LXV (December, 1957), pp. 466-75.

4Saturday Review, XL (August 25, 1957). pp. 9-11.

 

51

general—education laboratory which is equipped for many
kinds of work. The curriculum is planned to bind the
separate subject areas into a cohesive whole; the teachers
(as in the television project) work as a team and emphasize
the individual student.1

No trained television personnel were utilized as TV
teachers; the existing teachers served this role.2 While
some teachers who were offered positions as television
teachers preferred to remain in the more personal atmosphere
of the classroom, others found the new function both stimu-
lating and challenging.3 "The important thing, too,'l said
geometry teacher James Davis, "is that we can now give better
lessons because of the greater time and thought we can devote
to them. With the new challenge of TV, we continually look
for new ways, as in the case of the magnetic board and peg-
board, to improve the quality of each lesson as we become
more aware of the factors that make for effective teaching.”4

Measurable results were seen available to indicate that
improved teaching had indeed materialized as hoped. The art

and music programs would not have been financially feasible

without television. Fifth grade arithmetic with television

 

1National Education Association Journal, loc. cit.

 

2The School Review, pp, cit.

 

3Saturdpy Review, XL (August 25, 1957), pp. 9-11.

 

4Ibid.

52

indicated the TV-Students above the national norms with
"striking progress."1 In the school year 1957—1958, third
through eighth grade matchedmpair tests Showed TV—Students
significantly better in five of the Six grades. In this
case, students matched in ability and initial status were
Split between TV and non-TV classes.’ Classroom teachers
indicated that the television courses (or segments of a
course) were interesting, well received by students and
helpful in up-grading classroom-teacher quality through
example.2 Students sometimes found, especially on the
secondary level, that they would like to ask a question
when they couldn't, but admitted that this increased the
necessity of paying close attention to the material and
created livelier discussions in the ensuing classroom follow-
up. In the elementary grades, children often reacted to the
TV teacher much as if She were physically in the room.3
The reader is encouraged to spend a few moments con—
sidering Tables three through seven. These Tables, while by
no means a complete survey of the total body of data, are
typical of the experimental results obtained and serve to

indicate the theoretical basis of television's utility in

Hagerstown.

 

1Fund for the Advancement of Education, Teaching by
Television, p. 45.

 

 

21bid.

3Saturday Review, XL (August 25, 1957), pp. 9—11.

 

55

9.0.T TABLE 5

AVERAGE GROWTH. AND ACHIEVEMENT
STATUS OF COMPARABLE GROUPS OF PUPILS IN
SIXTH GRADE ARITHMETICa

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A N TV
.i No TV 8.1“
s 525
8 .o .... \Pupilg
A GRADE 7.8 95 <§$§S
EQUIVALENTS Pupi 1 \
~r 7'2 \\\\\\\
.0343 T§.
Tupils\ '
7.0 -~ \\§ 6L9
V 6.4 - \
6.5 256 \\\\\\
‘\\\ Pupils §§§b\
db ‘\ 204
\Pupils , 64\\\
6.0 - \\
4 \\ 5.9
(r
5.7
242 \
1 Pupils \
4 5k
5.0 J. 5.2) p
/’ I.Q.: 92 I.Q.: 99 I.Q.: 111
4’ —
0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

aClosed-Circuit Television (Teaching in washington County 1958;

1959) (Hagerstown: Washington County Board of Education, 1959),
p. 26.

 

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \4\\\\
U \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ S\\

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m m; mmm
WNom O O
OIHN MO_R
R CO NG
G SM 9 _

 

 

 

iii

 

 

P

.Q
0
O

 

 

N
o
M.

 

 

 

 

2
1
2
1

w

\

 

_
.\ Ax
P
44.

 

a

 

 

A

V
\

 

 

8 T

56

TABLE 6

MEDIAN GROWTH OF 268 STUDENTS
DURING TWO CONSECUTIVE YEARS
OF TELEVISED ARITHMETIC
(AVERAGE I.Q. 101)a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grade 6
GRADE 7 5 1957-1958
EQUIVALENTS ° 6 MONTHS
ABOVE
7 NORM GROWTH OF
6.9 A, 11 MONTHS
773$
Grade 5
5.4 1956-1957 6.4\\\_ _flfi
5 MONTHS 7K ‘
ABOVE
6 NORM
5.9 \§§§
\\\\\ GROWTH OF
19 MONTHS
5 5.0%
5 MONTHS
BELOW
4.5 NORM _JL
0

 

aIbid., p. 29.

57
TABLE 7

AVERAGE ACHIEVEMENT OF COMPARABLE

GROUPS OF STUDENTS IN PLANE GEOMETRYa

55

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

l & TV Matched
Groups
| | No TV ‘
52
\\\\\x\
1) >‘5 PupilE;
504—
49
\\ ‘ \\\
‘291 Pupils
SCALED Aviggge
w
SCORES , I°Q"QS 46
\QSSS 65 Pupil.
115
45 Average
98 Pupils I.Q.
107
Average
V40 ._ I.Q. \
\\\
Average .\Average Average
Class ~\ Class Class
Size Size \. Size
20 :Qbffa {it 20
so _\\\

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

aIbid., p. 50.

58

As Hagerstown has settled into the less hectic routine
derived from experience, more of the secondary uses for its
CCTV system are beginning to Show. Recording now with Video—
tape, for example, the television teacher may evaluate his
performance in privacy and come to get a better idea of how
others see him. AS one television teacher put it after seeing
herself presenting a lesson, "I make me Sick." In addition,
tape allows for more convenient scheduling, less time pres-
sure, the capture of fleeting material for later presentation,
and the ability to present sample lessons to visitors, PTA
groups, etc. The self-evaluation aspect is summed up by the
television teachers' phrase adapted from poet Robert Burns:
"now some Power the gift has given uS-—to see ourselves as
others see usl"l

Co-sponsored by the Small Business Administration, the
Hagerstown Chamber of Commerce and the Washington County
Board of Education was a recent eight—week Special evening
program for businessmen, demonstrating one of the peripheral
uses of the television system.2 In this case, while only
100 persons were expected, 225 arrived and were easily
accommodated in several viewing points throughout the sys-
tem. The cost of this program was fully covered by the

fifteen dollar per—person charge.3

 

lEducational Screen and Audiovisual Guide, loc. cit.

 

2"Businessmen Learn via Hagerstown CCTV," The N.A.E.B.
Journal, XXI (November—December, 1962), pp. 44-46.

 

8RCA Educational TV News, Issue No. 54 (Camden: Radio
Corporation of America, November, 1961).

 

59

Summary

The foregoing examples on in-school television utili-
zation are representative of the total experience with the
medium. It may be concluded that the general experience
with televised instruction has been as follows:

1. The quality of televised presentations may easily
surpass that found in the conventional presen—
tation. This is due largely to the possibility of
using the best teacher available, refining the
delivery, and making greater use of effective
visual-aids.

2. Students taught by television almost invariably
demonstrate learning equal to or better than that
Shown by students given the same material under
conventional circumstances.

5. Television is most readily adaptable to cases
where the subject material is presented largely
or entirely in lecture fashion.

A great deal more could be said about both the strong
and weak points of televised presentations as learned from
the experiences of our nation's schools. For the present
investigation, suffice it to say that the medium is in fairly
wide-spread use, growing, and has been successful in meeting
certain needs as noted. What has preceded strongly hints
of the following general capabilities of television in

teaching:

1. Each student has direct eye-contact with the
instructor and a "front—row-center" seat.

2. Each student's attention is forced to only what
the instructor wishes him to see and he may see
close—ups of small items difficult to see in a
normal classroom presentation.

5. Videotapes allow for convenient scheduling and
the presentation of exactly the same material to
later classes.

4O

4. Costly duplication of effort may be avoided by
a central facility coordinating the use of
visual materials and structuring course content.

5. Large numbers of students and last-minute increases
in enrollments may easily be accommodated.‘

These points vary in their importance and validity according
to the particular context. Nonetheless, their general
validity seems strongly supported by the experiences found

in these installations under study here.2

 

1The reader interested in other sources of analytical
information will find a helpful bibliography in: Lewis,
pp, pip. While more recent publications are available, much
of the information published in the mid-1960's, for example,
seems to be oriented more toward gaining publicity for bigger
and better installations and less toward analysis and experi-
mentation. It may well be that instructional television
passed through most of its developmental stages in the 1950's
and that today's reports reflect that the medium is in a
stage of expansion based on these previously established
principles.

2This contention is supported, and the listed points
noted as applicable to such diverse fields as medicine,
engineering, education, nursing, law and pharmacy in a letter
to the writer from Dr. James B. Tintera, Professor and
Director, Mass Communications Center, Wayne State University,
Detroit, Michigan, June 14, 1965.

CHAPTER III

SURVEY OF THE EXISTING STATUS OF TELEVISION
IN RELEVANT APPLICATIONS IN INDUSTRY
AND OTHER AREAS
The Pattern of Development

Because so much of the development of instructional
television has occurred in schools, it seems most beneficial
to combine all non-school applications into one group. The
following Chapter examines the applications and experiences
found in non—school useS-—that is, to use the term broadly,
in 'industry.‘

The general pattern of development in industry has
been in other than instructional uses. In order to better
understand the position in which industry finds itself at
the present time, it is well to consider its current out-
look on television as shaped by these non-academic uses.
Such uses have come to be generally classified as ”Industrial
Television" and the medium has definitely gained acceptance
in such functions as monitoring bank operations, viewing
hotel lobbies (or railroad yards or factory gates) and even

1

'baby Sitting.' Several varying kinds of applications

 

l"Closed—Circuit TV Advances," Radio-Electronics,
XXXIII (May, 1962), p. 51.

 

41

42

might be mentioned in order to briefly describe the experi—
ences not immediately related to the present concern but
certainly helpful to total understanding. The following
examplesmare illustrative of the applications in which tele-
vision is being used:

1. Between wide-Spread branches of a bank for
document viewing and Signature verification.l

2. On U. S. aircraft carriers to record landings
for immediate play-back to pilots-in training.2

5. On ships to aid the helmsman in 'seeing' the
extremities of his vessel in manuevering in and
out of berth.3

4. In target-towing aircraft as a 'rear-view mirror'
to avoid fouling winched—in targets in the plane's
tail assembly.4

5. By power-generation engineers for remote viewing
of water levels, gauges, and furnace combustion
chamber.5

6. In commercial photography to provide an immediate
preview of portrait poses, and in Side-stepping
the need to process proof-prints by Viewing nega-
tives directly.6

 

l"Closed-Circuit TV for Bank Branches," Engineer,
CCVIII (December 11, 1959), p. 791.

 

2"Closed—Circuit Television," Industrial Electronics,
I (March, 1965), p. 515.

 

3Ibid.

4"A Unique Use of Closed-Circuit Television,"
Engineering, CXCIV (September 14, 1962), p. 561.

5"Closed-Circuit Television," Power. CVIII (JUer
1964) I p. 1550

6"New Uses For Closed-Circuit TV," Radio—Electronics,
XXXIII (March, 1962), p. 41.

 

45

AS mentioned, these illustrations are far afield from the
present concerns insofar as actual applications are con-
cerned. What is important to the characterization of the
current context is that such installations.are most typical
of today's industrial applications; there are, in fact,
very few exceptions to this trend. This tendency is illus-
trated by one company's survey of industrial uses which
listed production control, material handling, dangerous
viewing, silent paging, security monitoring, announcements,
_a__r_1d_.training.l

Television's obvious technical abilities have been the
forces behind many of the uses mentioned. Television has
the ability to communicate immediately (as illustrated by
the use of televised arrival-departure boards in rail and
air terminalsa), and the ability to perform where man cannot
(as illustrated in its use where something is too hot, too
inconvenient or too dangerous for mans). But more than
doing jobs which man alone Simply could not, the medium
allows man to perform more efficiently. The Hughes Aircraft
Company's El Segundo California factory, for example, has

installed a plant-wide television system which it claims has

been instrumental in drastically reducing paper work.

 

1"Closed—Circuit TV Grows with its Uses," Engineering,
CXCI (May 12, 1961). p. 650.

 

2"Television in Industry," Industrial Electronics, I
(October, 1965). p. 5.

 

3"Closed—Circuit Television For Industrial Application,"
Iron and Steel Engineer, XXXVII (July, 1960), pp. 78-81.

44

The Company states that more than $50,000 was saved in the

1 Convair engineers have

first sixteen months of operation.
reported.that when they installed television for the in-
spection of large missile and aircraft parts they cut
inspection time of various parts from 40% to 7070.2 Perhaps
the nature of television as a potential efficiency-booster
is best typified by an operation of the Ford Motor Company
stamping plant in Buffalo where a Single operator, using
television, is now able to collect large quantities of scrap,

bale it, transport it, and load it on gondola-cars.3

General Survey of Military Applications

 

Industrial applications have not, however, been com-
pletely on the non-instructional side. Two primary sources
of experience exist in the broad category of 'industry'
applicationS--the military, and private business. Again,
while great quantities of information could be gained from
the many past experiments (especially in the military), it
seems most advantageous to consolidate much of the informa—
tion and concentrate on a single experience or two which
typify the military experience. In the case of private

business, several situations will be touched upon in brief

 

1"New Roles for Industrial TV," Supervision (May, 1964).
pp. 20-22.

 

2Ibid.

3Ibid.

45

inasmuch as no single suitable documented case presently
exists.

Perhaps the largest Single installation of instructional
television in the military is at the Lowry Technical Training
Center, Denver, Colorado. The initial impetus for the use of
instructional television came from considerations of staff
efficiency in conventional Classroom presentations. Studies
conducted at Lowry indicated that, at any given moment, some
20% of the instructors were fully qualified by military
standards, while the remaining 80% were somewhere between the
extremes of being newly-assigned and nearly-qualified.

Because of the continuous turnover of military instructors,
this ratio held relatively constant in Spite of continuous

and extensive instructor cross-training programs. The obvious
problem, then, was how to best utilize the available highly
qualified 20% of the faculty. Instructional television

seemed to offer possible solutions.1

Anyone fairly familiar with the dilemmas of modern edu-
cation might easily imagine what occurred to the Lowry
planners at this point. It was presumed that if the fully
qualified 20% of the teaching staff could be placed in a tele-
vision studio, there would be virtually no limit to the
numbers of students that they could then reach; in effect they

could do 100% of the teaching job while freeing the remaining

 

1United States Air Force Air Training Command,
Technical Training by Televised Instruction (Denver: Lowry
Technical Training Center, October, 1964), p. 2.

46

80% to work with students in the classrooms and carry out the
normal and relatively routine duties of administration. It
was hypothesized.at this time that such an action would have
the effect of stabilizing training quality and raising it to
the highest level. It had been the practice to accept the
conventional variance in quality and the resultant lower
norm.1

As Lowry approached its initial stage of controlled
experimentation, planners noted that there existttwo.im-

portant aspects of communication in technical training: the

transmission and inculcation of knowledge and of skills.

 

It was found that television presentations were primarily
efficient in the presentation of knowledge, while the labor—
atory work was primarily skill-oriented and best left to
.methods where the student is actively doing the work.

A further premise in development had been that the demon-
stration aSpects of technical training would greatly benefit
from the use of television. This was proven to indeed be
the case, and to this end Lowry's approach to television was
to use a full 'production' set-up in which full use could be
made of close-ups, fades, superimpositions, etc.2 Television
at Lowry was not used Simply to enlarge or supplement by

placing a single camera in front of a rigidly-placed

 

lIbid.

21bid., p. 5.

47

instructor, but to replace a portion of the instruction with
what was felt to be a more effective method. Certain results
became apparent:

1. TV students learned more and learned more
thoroughly.

2. TV students were better prepared to begin their
laboratory periods, and made more effective use
of them.
5. TV produced savings in the total training time
required; the TV students learned faster and the
TV method saved time.1
In one example of Lowry's operation, the Department of
Bomber Training televised all of a complex technical course
in their curriculum. Test results indicated that the average
television-trained student retained about 8% more of the
course materials than the conventionally-trained student.
In obtaining these results the best possible instructors
available were used in the conventional classes (a situation
which does not normally exist). Lowry authorities concluded
that, with television, teaching is made easier and the learn—
ing process Speeded. Colonel J. W. Hughes, Center Operations
Officer, has said: "The fact that television can be effective-
ly used for teaching has already been proven many times.
Our purpose is to measure how much better it is than conven-

tional methods, and to use it to improve the quality of our

graduates."2

 

lIbid., p. 4.

2"How Lowry Air Force Base Uses Closed—Circuit Television
To Improve Its Technical Training," Broadcast News, CV
(September, 1959).

 

48

Before moving on to consider applications in private
enterprise, some other pertinent military applications should
be mentioned. For example, closed-circuit television is the
nucleus of a comprehensive management plan conceived by the
Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) to establish a 'real-time'
communications link between AFSC Headquarters near Washington,
D. C., and the Command's thirteen divisions and centers
throughout the Country. The purpose of the link is to ex-
pedite the decision—making process by presenting current
information with modern television techniques and equipment.
This is virtually 'Conference television' and incorporates
means to ensure security. To quote General Schriever, AFSC
Commander: "This real-time system will provide us with much
better management control throughout the Command. And I
think it will produce one other thing as far as the individuals
in the Command are concerned, and that is a sense of partici-
pation in what goes on in our wide-spread organization.

I think we will go a long way toward cementing the Command
as an entity rather than a group of separate empires."l
Basically, the AFSC uses their television system in the
following functions:

1. As a management aid in presenting current infor-
mation and data to the decision—making staff level.

2. As part of a video tape network between major air
commands and Headquarters, USAF.

 

1"Management TV at Air Force Systems Command,"
Broadcast News, CXIX (February, 1964).

 

49
5. As an aid to administrative and training activi—
ties.

4. As-a production source and library for current
and past briefings on TV tape.

5. AS a means of enhancing briefings.
6. AS a method of extending the audience.

I. As a centralized briefing facility using live and
taped presentations.l

In.another Operation, the Omaha headquarters of the
Strategic Air Command uses Six program Channels in briefing
the staff on weather conditions, deployment of aircraft and
other information vital to making necessary decisions.2
One operational briefing is scheduled early each morning
giving deployment of aircraft, weather information, training
mission details and other information. Air intelligence
briefings on enemy aircraft movement and other classified
material are given once daily. The system also rebroadcasts
some commercial programs of relevance such as "Today" (NBC).
received from an Omaha commercial station.3

A common touchstone to both the military and private
enterprise is that of financial economies. The military view-
point was expressed by Major J. F. Sublette, Chief of the

Tele—presentations Branch of the Air Force Systems Command,

who said: "Where TV is used in education and training,

 

1Ibid., p. 10.

astrategic Air Command Uses RCA Color TV for Vital
Briefings (Camden: Radio Corporation of America, undated
pamphlet).

 

31bid.

50

economies brought about by mass communications alone are
real, even measurable. Undoubtedly, TV achieves savings in
.personnel time, in travel, in the number of trips, and in

1 Major Sublette goes on

the costs of repeated briefings."
to mention that these factors apply quite apart from the
additional advantages possible in educational quality alone.
Several experiments, including one at Lowry, indicate that
one form of savings may be realized through a reduction in
teaching time. Lowry, for example, shortened their course
length by 20% while actually producing students demonstrat—

ing a level of knowledge superior to that of the students

conventionally taught for the full period.2

Non-military Applications

 

Training programs in business, as in the military, are
concerned with economies of operation. Business training
may be said to itself be big business. Estimates indicate
that the cost of corporate training programs in the U. S. will
be $4.5 billion in 1965, and rising 5% to 6% per year.3
Although most business training consists of informal on—the-
job teaching, trends indicate that more and more is going

into formal programs. Overall, surveys by the Labor

 

1"Management TV at Air Force Systems Command,"
Broadcast News, p. 9.

 

2U. 8., United States Air Force Air Training Command,
pp, cit., p. 4.

3The Wall Street Journal (New York), February 26, 1965,

 

p. 1.

51

Department and Princeton University indicate that corporate
expenditures for formal training alone have risen some 80%
in the past.nine years.l

Corporate.training needs have been summarized as being
a reduction in the requirements for instructors, classrooms
and time off the job. This need is partly illustrated by
the fact that the cost of training a corporation student can
easily outrun the cost of educating a non-corporation pupil
when salary costs are considered. A six-week course given
to engineering managers at General Electric, for example,
cost roughly the same per individual ($6,000) as the cost to
the taxpayers of a youngster's twelve years of public school-
ing.2

It would seem obvious that television has the potential
to reduce training expenditures and that this would make the
medium popular in the face of rising industrial training
costs. The growth which might therefore be expected, however,
has not occurred to any great extent. To be sure, some
companies are making use of the medium in training; their
number, however, is small. Perhaps this fact is best illus—
trated or implied in a recent article expounding the virtues
and growth of television (in general) in the business appli-

cation. While the article mentioned several kinds of

 

lIbid.

21bid.

52

applications, it cited no specific examples in the area of
training and stated only that: "A few companies, like
schools, have begun using television for instructional pur—
poses.“1

AS noted earlier, much of the justification for the
utilization of television rests in its ability to achieve
appreciable savings by reaching.a large number of people at
one time. This simple economic fact may explain why only
the very large.companies, or associations of smaller companies,
have even come to consider instructional television instal—
lations of their own. In South Carolina, for example,
businessmen found themselves intrigued by the advantages of
televised training but, individually, without the justifi—
cation for its use. From this dilemma there grew an associ—
ation of businessmen utilizing the existing state—wide tele-
vision distribution network to present courses of common
interest.2 At present, a company's employes gather at exist-
ing receiving points established for regular public-school
use. Several of the participating companies (including
Chemstrand Corporation and Du Pont) are considering the
installation of receiving equipment in their own plants.

The system depends upon a paying attendance of between 5,000

 

1"Can Your Company Use Closed-Circuit Television?"
Business Management (September, 1964), p. 54.

 

2"TV Teachers: Training Plant Bosses Statewide,"
Business Week, August 29, 1964, pp. 64—65.

 

55

and 5,0004.an early presentation, "The Role of the Super-
visorp" drew some-5,500. Future subjects include cost control,
creativity, trends in research and development, and merchandis-
ing.. Costs are said to run between $12,000 and $18,000 per
course, with production costs alone (including necessary art
work) being about $1,000 for each half-hour tape.l

Of the relatively few companies presently involved at
all in the use of television in technical training, most have
chosen the path of relying on the facilities of existing pro—
duction and distribution organizations rather than becoming
involved in this area themselves. Seven southern California
companies have taken this approach by utilizing a professor
from the University of California at Los Angeles to teach
engineering subjects which are transmitted over a local com-
mercial station three times a week and viewed in plant class—
rooms.2 The companies bear the costs of the half-hour
lectures which precede the final examination and lead to
University credit for the 500 participating engineers. Both
the companies and the University are said to be enthusiastic
about the program and believe that the televised courses will
prove far superior to regular company classes because:

1. One top—flight teacher can reach a large audience.

 

lIbid.

2"Engineers Learn by Viewing," Iron Age, CLXXXV
(February 25, 1960). p. 45.

54
'2. TV effects help students get more out of experi—
ments and complex blackboard diagrams.

5. Busy engineers won't waste time driving to campus
and will save energy and gas.1

Another approach which has recently been taken involves
an idea originated by Thomas L. Martin, Jr., dean of engineer-
ing at the University of Florida. A $1.5 million closed-
circuit.network linking the University with Cape Kennedy,
Melbourne, Daytona Beach, Orlando and Gainesville has been
designed to present classes to keep scientists and engineers
up—to-date with technological advances while leading to
masters and doctoral degrees with as much as 50% of the in-
struction given via television.2

North American Aviation, Incorporated, has its own tele-
vision network. This network is probably the most elaborate
privately-owned, company-financed operation in existence
at this time. The operation had its birth when two large
Apollo Spacecraft contracts in November of 1961 created a
work-force growth from 8,000 to 51,000 in two years. The
work-force was scattered through several southern California
plants, and in three out—of-state locations. The problem
facing the Company's management then became one of indoctrinat—
ing the swollen work-force in the problems and techniques of

the Space age; the Space and Information Systems Division

 

lIbid.

2"Closed-Circuit Ph.D.S." Electronics, XXXVII (AUQUSt:
24, 1964). p. 50.

 

55

decided on an extensive closed-circuit television system to
handle this training program. Only three years later, the
Space and Information Systems Division had a network which
covered the Downey, California plant, connected by microwave
with their other plants in California, and communicated
audio to Cape Kennedy, White Sands, New Mexico, and Tulsa,
Oklahoma. Downey itself has some Sixty miles of cable and
600 combination viewing and originating rooms, and originates
most of its own programming with seventy-three men in three
departments: technical operations, programming, and systems
design.1
In North American's operation, viewing rooms are located
so as to place all workers within a minute of a television
lecture. While some of the presentations are on film (e.g.,
"How to Deal with Labor Unions," "How to Procure Tools,” and
"How to Recruit Personnel"), most are live or video-taped.
Examples of these include, "High Pressure Systems and Safety,"
"Accounting for Labor Cost," and various briefings on systems
and organizational control for upper management. Quite often,
on-site viewing of laboratory tests for the engineering staff
will run throughout the night and is scheduled as the need
arises. Most of the presentations revolve about the technical
arts including subjects like cryogenics, the use of high-

pressure equipment and configuration management. Workers,

 

l"TV Teachers: Leading a Company Into Space,"
Business Week, August 29, 1964, p. 60.

 

56

incidentally, are allowed to View presentations only.with
admission tickets which are distributed by supervisors.
According to the Company, much of their system's value
is as a management tool that is used to keep every top person
in the Apollo program up-to-date. While the Company will not
give out over-all figures on costs, it claims that the system
has paid for itself in less than three years. In one study,
where the Company considered the cost of training 1,000 em—
ployes in a particular subject, the cost came out as $.55
per employe with closed-circuit television and $2.25 by the
conventional teacher-and-classroom method. Costs aside,
the Company feels that its experience has shown television
to be a top technique for training workers and a top manage—
ment communications system, and has expanded the experience

of their engineers.l

Summary

Certain general truths seem to have emerged in the
field of television in its industrial applications:

1. The medium is used most often in applications
other than training. In training situations,
economic feasibility is largely dependent upon
audience size.

2. Training applications are found both more often
and more extensively in the military than in
private commercial operations.

5. The medium has been successful in the communi-
cation of relatively complex technical subjects.

 

lIbid.

4. Very few companies operate their own internal
production and distribution system.

These are most certainly broad and brief summations of
the existing facts. Primary concern here, however, is with
the identification of the.unquestionable truths and the
emission of peripheral points as the necessary and sufficient
grounds for sound management decisions. As was concluded
from the in—school cases, it appears that television can be

utilized effectively in meeting certain needs as noted.

CHAPTER IV

ADAPTATION TO THE FORD MOTOR COMPANY
TECHNICAL TRAINING PROGRAM

Applicability to Existing Technical Programs

As mentioned earlier, virtually all of Ford's technical
training is aimed at employes holding enigneering degrees
and involved in work with one of the Product Engineering
offices or Engineering Staff. Fortunately, this places
practically all of the Company's product-oriented engineers
in rather close geographical proximity. This fact makes
television initially feasible from the standpoint of Signal
distribution. It is this same fact which allows for central—
ized control and presentation of engineering training as it
presently exists. This situation is perhaps unusual, as
many companies, while employing large numbers of engineers,
align their functions so that engineers are scattered geo—
graphically. This makes it practically impossible for a
company to Sponsor regularly scheduled engineering courses
at a central location.

The analysis to follow assumes that there exists a need
to justify any television installation at Ford on a financial
basis. From what has been said, it appears that such a

justification depends heavily upon the quantities involvedm-

58

59

audience size and frequency of course presentations. That
is, it is desirable to have some form or pattern to the
course schedule; there should be something more than an
occasional presentation of a course with varying content.
Finances aside, of course, the medium itself is not incap-
able of delivering information which is part of a non-
structured 'cUrriculum' or program.

Ford, as mentioned, does possess the fortunate combi-
nation of elements which has made it possible to present a
regularly-scheduled series of courses at a central location.
While any television would undoubtedly be put to additional
uses, this analysis considers only the eleven current courses
of the Engineering Technical Education program because of
their 'school-style' structuring and scheduling. Some
future considerations might include, however, the new-employe
orientation program or some of the management seminars which
are presented from time to time. Several additional possi~
bilities are mentioned later in relation to the needs of
System design. Such additional functions, however, will
here be considered as 'extras,‘ with the total cost justifi-
cation made solely on the basis of the Engineering Technical
Education courses.

For purposes of analysis, one sample course has been
chosen. This course, "Instrumentation and Measurements,"
is typical of the remaining ten courses in its general format

and method of presentation. The course is designed to

60

acquaint engineers with the various means by which physical
variables may be accurately measured in an operating device
or-machine- Such measurements as displacement, velocity,
stress, acceleration and pressure may be measured even while
rapidly changing in value. This measurement is accomplished
through the conversion of the variable element to an elece
trical voltage. This voltage may be designed to be directly
proportional to the variable which it measures and thus may
be converted to a measure of the value of the variable ele—
ment.itself. Such values are of obvious utility to the engi-
neer in need of knowing the exact reaction of any given
device or system within an automobile.

The course is structured in a Specially prepared text
of four chapters, the first of which reviews the basic laws
and circuits with which the engineer must be familiar. The
following chapters acquaint the student with the theory and
Operation of the numerous devices and the many techniques
of applying them to various kinds of problems. Copies of
the table of contents pages from the text are presented in
the appendix and may serve to clarify the nature and format
of the course.

The lecture material follows a format quite similar to
that of the very successful Michigan State University tele—
vised accounting course with which the writer is familiar.
That is, certain basic laws are learned initially and applied

to relatively Simple situations. From this point, additional

61

variables are added so that the basic laws become applied
in an_ever-widening variety of ways. In the case of
"Instrumentation and Measurements," the additional variables
come in the form of the various types of transducers.l

To convert such a format to television would appear
to present no major problems, judging by the experiences of
others. Television would, in addition, enable the instructor
to elaborate on certain points. For example, current class-
room arrangements force the instructor to describe actual

applications through Chalk-board drawings and textbook

sketches. With television, it would be feasible to set up
equipment in the studio to Show actual measurements taken
from operating devices. The theory governing the operation
of a differential transformer, for example, is quite readily
explainable by an instructor either in the classroom or on
television. To actually mount the device on an operating
automobile engine, however, iS quite impossible in the class-
room. With television, such a demonstration could be video-
taped from an established engine test cell. Engines, as well
as other components of an automobile, could also be pperated
in the television studio itself.

The experiences of Hagerstown, North American Aviation
and others strongly indicate that courses such aS "Instrumen-

tation and Measurements" could be very successfully converted

 

1Transducers are the devices which actually convert me-
chanical variables to electrical voltage. A phonograph pick-
up, for example, is a transducer which converts the wavy
impressions on the record into electrical Signals which may
then be amplified and made audible.

62

to television. There would appear to be nothing in the for—
mat or subject of such a course to preclude such a conversion.
There are indications that the course would be improved be-
cause of the increased ability to demonstrate. Such tele—
vised presentations would also take advantage of the medium's
abilities to direct the viewer's attention, provide close—up
views, etc. It seems reasonable to say that there is no
technical (educational) impediment to the ready adaptation

of this program to televised presentation, and every reasonable
expectation that the existing qualitative level will, at the

very least, be maintained.

§ystem Requirements

The Single remaining consideration is that of the eco-
nomic feasibility of a television system within the context of
a Specific application. That is, accepting the ability of
the medium to equal or surpass existing methods in qualitative
terms, can it be shown to be economically sound? Only an
analysis of the individual case will supply a suitable answer
to this question.

As noted, the Engineering Technical Education Program
courses are presented entirely by the lecture method.
Experience has been that questions from the students are
almost always anticipatory and would have been answered shortly
in the normal course of the presentation. It appears, there-
fore, that no necessary educational objective is provided or

met by the limited quantity of discussion generated during

65

the actual classroom presentation.1

This point is important
at this juncture in that it immediately removes the need to
provide for two-way communications in the televised adapta-
tion of the courses and supports the possibility of utiliz-
ing recorded presentations.

While the present considerations are limited to a single
Company educational program in the interest of Simplicity and
for the structuring of a sound basis for management decisions
regarding the use of television, it Should be mentioned that
several subsidiary uses for the medium suggest themselves.
These points may be particularly useful in indicating the
direction of possible future growth of a television system,
and are important to a minor extent in later considerations
of equipment costs. Some possible auxiliary uses are:

1. Management briefings.

2. Engineering testing operations where remote or
close-up viewing by a large group is necessary.

5. Visual display of announcements placed in areas
of high employe traffic (cafeterias, etc.).

4. Presentation of all or portions of various
other Company training programs.

While the preceding facts and conclusions would seem
to indicate that an immediate and full—scale implementation
might be justifiable, the following data utilize a dual ap—

proach in which a pilot program is compared with the full

 

1This conclusion is based upon the writer's conversa—
tions with several of the instructors involved in technical
training with Ford.

64

installation. In this fashion, certain advantages become
available to management:

1. The effectiveness of the medium can be analyzed
under the particular conditions of the Ford appli—
cation.

2. The total process of adapting lectures to television
(organization of material, use of visual aids,
instructor adaptability to the medium, recording
techniques, etc.) can be experienced and tested be-
fore commitment to a full schedule of subjects.

5. Experience in the use and maintenance of equipment
can be gained.

Initial considerations for the Company (assuming a
reasonable assurance of the retention of existing quality)
fall into three general areas: (1) distribution system,

(2) studio equipment, (5) operating expenses. This form of
break-down happens to be convenient because of the manner

in which responsibilities are structured within the Company.
There is no reason, however, why other break—downs could not
be used. Since Company requirements are prime factors in
structuring any workable implementation, several such re-
quirements will be noted in relation to the above_three areas.
These factors are derived from the author's familiarity with
the initial criteria set forth by Ford management personnel
and are not presented as being necessarily exemplary.

Figure 2 is a map of the Research and Engineering
Center, indicating those buildings which would have to be
served in order to provide viewing facilities for at least
100 students at any given moment. An analysis of building

placement, as well as of the appropriate electrical and

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66

telephone manhole location blueprint, clearly indicates
that the least complex arrangement of cabling would involve
a radial distribution rather than a circular one. Not only
would this allow for the possible 'feeding-back' of a Signal
from any of the indicated viewing buildings to the central
studio but, according to Plant Facility personnel, would
decrease the number of distribution amplifiers required and
(because of the configuration of the existing tunnel and
cable system) would allow for the least expensive initial
installation cost in cabling and manpower. While this pro-
cedure meets the management requirement calling for a
centrally located studio with the provision for originating
programs in any of the viewing buildings, it would require
some additional manpower and time in reversing amplifiers
in the case of a remote origination, and the possibility of
having to 'black out' viewing stations on the radial being
used for the origination. These considerations are relatively
minor, however, in that all teaching uses of the facility
would originate at the central studio and the majority of
other uses could easily be handled so that remote operations
could be taped at a time when the system would otherwise not
be in use.

It should be noted that the preceding discussion implies
that the Company in fact possesses the ability to successfully
install and maintain its own distribution system. This impli—

cation has been verified by the writer through discussions

 

67

with appropriate.Plant Facility personnel. The one-time
installation costs which would be incurred if the Company
is to install its own system have been compared with the
lease (annual) costs for comparable service from the
Michigan Bell Telephone Company. The cost to the Company
would be approximately $8,000 annually for leased services.1
This yearly cost is the same as the total cost of the cable
installation required for the pilot program. Additions to
bring the pilot system to full operation (comparable to the
Bell installation), however, would add another $12,000 for
a final cable and installation cost to the Company of
$20,000. Obviously, the Company installation would 'pay for
itself' in two and one-half years if compared to the Bell
installation. That is, the total cost of the 'self-installed'
distribution system ($20,000) would equal the cost of leasing
($8,000 annually) in two and one-half years. Bell would not
sell their installed lines at a later time, however, if the
Company Should decide to operate its own system (according
to statements made to the writer by Bell representatives).
It would seem, then, that the initial $8,000 risk is justifi-
able as an investment toward the expected expansion of the
system to serve all of the points indicated in Figure 2.

The remaining distribution possibility is that of an

open-circuit system in which the studio is equipped with a

 

1Letter from Mr. N. C. Youngs, Sales Manager, Marketing
Department, Michigan Bell Telephone Company, Detroit, Michigan,
November 2, 1964.

68

2500 megacycle transmission apparatus and each.receiving
building with appropriate reception facilities. Such a
system was estimated by a representative of the General
Television Network to cost approximately $28,000 and is
therefore more cOstly than a Company-installed system
($20,000) and is roughly equivalent to the cost of three
and one-half years of leasing a wired system (at $8,000 per
year).1 In addition to these considerations, management
requirements for transmission security and the restriction
of 'unsightly' antennae equipment on the buildings in the
Center make such a distribution system impossible.
Management requirements regarding equipment provide
that expenditures be held to the minimum consistent with a
reasonable level of transmission quality and reliability,
and that provision is made for the ability to record all
program material. A further factor affecting equipment is
management's requirement to restrict the number of staff
additions for television operation to three individuals.
Regarding the latter consideration, it has been sug-
gested that such requirements would require the use of
remote-control cameras and that, given the adaptation of
existing lecture courses to television, such cameras would
function adequately under the direction of a competent

educational television producer-director. Further

 

 

1Letter from Mr. R. Randolph Hippler, General Tele-
vision Network, Ferndale, Michigan, August 28, 1964.

69

conversations with several television engineers have indi-
cated in addition that, given the extensive and continuing

use of television tape, the use of a quadruplex recording
device1 would be a practical necessity. The latter factor has
a considerable financial effect in that a machine of the type
mentioned will cost approximately twice as much as the least
expensive machines on the market today. It was the stated
feeling of the engineers mentioned that the less expensive

or 'Slant—track' machines would not perform with an acceptable
level of picture quality or reliability in a system where
machine utilization, as proposed, would approach 1,000 hours
annually.

Management requirements for staffing of such an instal-
lation provide for a 'System Administrator' to provide over-
all direction for the operation and, to borrow from a North
American Aviation executive, ". . . to prevent overuse of
the network by ambitious department heads who (might) wish
2

to sell their own pet programs." Given the obvious need for

 

1The term "quadruplex" refers to the recording head
mechanism which, in effect, puts the picture information on
to the tape. The quadruplex system ultimately affects the de-
Sign of the entire recorder including both the mechanical
transport and electronic processing of the Signal. The quad-
ruplex system has reached a state of high quality and reliabil-
ity partially due to the fact that it is the system in which
television tape recording has 'grown up' and is virtually the
sole system used by commercial networks; it is, however, in-
herently much more expensive than the new "Slant-track" system
which is in its infancy by comparison.

2Business Week, loc. cit., p. 61.

 

70

an engineer to operate and maintain equipment, the remain-
ing staff member must be an individual with the ability to
provide the producer-director function in adapting the in—
structor and his material to the medium.1

The proposed pilot operation would utilize a Single
leg of the distribution network connecting the studio with
buildings one, three and five (see Figure 2) providing a
total viewing capacity of approximately 100 individuals.
In the absence of a permanent staff, the production facili—
ties of Wayne State University would be utilized to tape
the several sessions of the course "Engineering Materials,"
one of the courses of the Engineering Technical Education

Program.

Cost Analysis

 

Given the indicated needs and conclusions, then, Tables
8, 9 and 10 show a specific analysis of the total costs to
the Company for both the pilot installation and the full
system. These statistics assume that the first year of
Operation would include the total acquisition of equipment
and facilities and provide for the conversion of pi; of the
courses of the Engineering Technical Education Program.

Equipment designations and charges are for RCA equipment

 

1The feasibility of this staffing arrangement was veri-
fied by at least two sources in conversations between the
writer and administrative personnel of the closed-circuit
television operations of Michigan State University and Wayne
State University.

71

TABLE 8

SYSTEM EQUIPMENT COSTS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Vendor Items Purchase $ Lease $
PK 502 Camera (2) 5700 2850
m 25-150 RC Zoomar (2) 2100 1050
m Zoom control (2) 500 150
3 Auto pan-tilt (2) 900 450
g Pan-tilt control (2) 374 187
O TD-10 tripod (2) 1250 625
Control console 1600 800
TS 5A switcher 620 510
Switcher power supply 866 455
Scope switcher 264 152
TM 9N monitors in racks (2) 596 298
2 Conrac rack mount 54 27
g 527 Tektronics scope 1064 552
a. TM 1 9N 8" monitor 674 557
'3 TG-5 sync generator 4150 2075
3‘ Miscellaneous cabling 500 250
H TA-55 distribution amplifiers (2) 650 525
m Pulse distribution amplifier 550 175
fi Module frame for amplifiers 76 58
E Sync-adding amplifier 594 197
3 RF distribution amplifier 400 200
B 25" receivers with stands (6) 1056 518
Monitran 1012 506
T
E TR-5 24500 12250
8 <1) Spare head 1700 850
5i
p 4 Channel mixer 664 552
g Chest microphones (2) 174 87
g Microphone desk stand 16 8
.3: Turntable 150 75
5 Cabinet 94 47
3‘ Arm 18 9
O Cartridge and stylus 20 10
.H Speaker 60 50
g Audio amplifier 280 140
4 Headset 8 4
u Resolution chart 10 5
5 555A scope 1610 805
a Dual trace amplifier 500 150
u.&' Scope dolly 126 65
g 3, WV 77E VTVM 44 22
Pam WV 58A multimeter 44 22

 

 

72

TABLE 8--Continued

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Vendor Items Purchase $ Lease $
m
s
'5‘
g Miscellaneous 2000 1000
'3
s
O
-H
4.)
5‘, Miscellaneous 1000 500
'8'
4.)
m
C
H ‘
Total Vendor Items 57748 28874
Plant Engineering Items
0
,_| *-
% Installation 5000 5000
o
.9. ..
g Lighting, wiring, backdrape 5000 5000
6
*
Total Plant Engineering Items 8000 8000
TOTAL SYSTEM EQUIPMENT COSTS 65748 56874

 

 

 

 

*
Although Plant Engineering items cannot actually be leased,
the costs are carried as "lease" expenses also inasmuch as
the money would in no case be recoverable.

75

TABLE 9

TOTAL COST COMPARISONS:

PILOT PROGRAM--FIRST YEAR--SUBSEQUENT YEARS

(Dollars in Thousands)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pilot
Purch. Lease lst Yr. Sub. Yrs.
Pilot Program
Studio electronics 57.8 28.9 57.8 —-—
Cable and studio preparation 8.0 8.0 8.0 ——-
m 65.8 56.9 65.8 --—
4.)
8 Second Six Months
0 .Additional cable --— --— 12.0 ---
p Additional RF amplifiers --- --- 1.0 ---
5 Additional receivers (24) --- --— 4.2 --—
54 Additional channel equipment —-— --- 1.0 ---
-H --- --— 18.2 ---
, g, x
m Equipment Sub-Total 65.8 56.9 84.0 --—
Pilot Program
Six month service contract 1.0 1.0 1.0 —--
Tapes (29) 5.5 5.5 5.5 ---
W.S.U. ($125/hour) 4.8 4.8 4.8 —-—-
Course material and art 5.5 5.5 5.5 ---
Special projects 10.0 10.0 10.0 --—
24.8 24.8 24.8
Second Six Months
3 Tapes —-- —-- 49.6 ---
m Art ——- -—— 5.0 ~—-
8 Special projects —-- —-- 6.0 ~—-
0‘ Adapt and record courses --- --— 40.0 ---
s --— --- 100.6 --—
-H
4.!
3 Subsequent Years
0 Additional tapes (10) --- --- --- 1.2
8* Art --- --- --- 6.0
Special projects --- --- --- 6.0
Adapt and record courses -—- —-- -—- 17.5
50.5
Operation Sub-Total 24.8 24.8 125.4 50.5
TOTALS 90.6 61.7 209.4 50.5

 

 

 

COURSE PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION
COSTS--TELEVISION VS.

74

TABLE 10

DIRECT TEACHING
(Dollars in Thousands)

 

 

DIRECT lst TV 2d TV
TEACHING PRESENTATION PRESENTATION
Lecture and notes 5.00 --- --—
Home problems and
exams 0.52 0.15 0.15
Adaptation for TV
(Initially) --- 5.00 ---
W.S.U. charges
(Initially) --- 4.80 ---
Tape cost (Initially) --- 2.95 --—
Revision preparation --- --- 0.57
Revision recording --- --- 0.60
Revision tape --- --- 0.12
Time lost from job 4.00 6.25 6.25
TOTAL 7.52 17.15 7.49
*COST PER STUDENT $150.50 $171.50 $74.90
*COST PER STUDENT-
HOUR $4.70 $6.60 $2.90

 

 

 

 

 

 

*-
Read conventionally in dollars and cents.

75

and based on a conversation between the writer and an RCA
representative. Under the lease arrangement, RCA would
accept the return of all equipment after Six months (the
duration of the pilot program) and return 50% of the original
cost to Ford. The tables do not consider the factors of
personnel costs other than those involved in employing a
studio engineer on a part-time basis for the period of the
pilot program. Specific references to staff salaries are
omitted at the request of the Company, although such costs
may readily be added to the "Operating Costs" and the results
modified accordingly. The subject of staff salaries and
amortization will be mentioned at a later point. The func-
tions of the two administrative employes mentioned earlier
would be served by existing Personnel Planning Department
employes for the duration of the pilot program.

Table 9 indicates that the minimum cost of the pilot
program would be $61,700 even if the entire project were to
be scrapped at that point. Were the project to be accepted
and continued beyond the first six months, the pilot program
would reach a cost of $90,600. The additional equipment and
operating costs (less salaries) of the second six months of
the first year would add $118,800 for a total first year
expenditure of $209,400. AS indicated, each subsequent year
of operation would cost an additional $50,500 in operating

costs (less salaries).

76

Table 10 presents cost figures on the basis of cost—
per-student and cost-per—student-hour. Again, comparisons
utilize the course "Engineering Materials” as an example
and are based upon the following premises:

1. Televised courses would consume 20% less time.1

2. The average hourly rate of the students iS based

on the current average of those salary grades

applicable to the course involved.

5. Televised courses would serve no less than 100
students Simultaneously.

4. Direct teaching costs are based upon current
figures.

5. "lst TV Presentation'I includes recording costs.

6. "2nd TV Presentation" presumes minimum revision
to the original tapes.

In the utilization of such a closed-circuit television
system it is obvious that it becomes quite impossible to
offset the initial expense with savings accrued due to an
increase in efficiency over the present conventional system
of presentation. A major saving, however, iS realized in
serving a much larger student body while incurring the
expenses of production only once and presenting future
sessions of the same course via video tape. This factor
accounts for the sharp drop in annual costs beginning with
the second year of presentations as indicated in Table 10.

The ultimate examination of cost is based not upon a

Single course or upon a specific year but upon the total

 

1This was verified as being a reasonable expectation
in a telephone conversation with Dr. Tintera, June 10, 1965.

77

cost of equipping and operating the system (including
maintenance and staff) as it appears when spread out over

an amortization period. This analysis is based solely upon
the entire Engineering Technical Education Program to the
exclusion of all other applications of the system. This

may appear to be somewhat of a pessimistic view in that

the system would undoubtedly be put to other uses and thereby
cause the costs to Spread over a much greater area. Nonethe-
less, this view will provide a realistic figure which may

be used with confidence. Mention of the exact period of
amortization is not made due to the inclusion of salary
figures in the results. Even so, the results become meaning-
ful in this specific application and serve to illustrate the
process which could be applied to any given application.

Over the entire period of amortization, the analysis
indicates that the cost-per-student would be $150.00 with
direct teaching and $90.91 with television; the cost-per—
student—hour would be $5.00 with direct teaching and $5.64
with television. Television would, however, require an
additional $17,500 annually over the present direct teaching
costs. This would provide for the doubling of the present
number of students taught and result in a total increase of
110,000 student-hours over the period of amortization. To
accomplish the same increase through an expansion of the
present system would require several times this amount or
over half again the total cost of the entire television

operation over the amortization period. It Should be noted

78

that the television system is conservatively noted as
doubling present student capacity whereas it is ultimately
capable of handling as many as ten to twenty times the
current load. This calculation (of doubling capacity) is
used inasmuch as applications for current courses are

approximately double the number of openings available.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

 

It has been attempted here to broadly outline the edu-
cational background and merits of televised instruction in
schools and industry and to place the medium in the context
of a specific industrial training application for a final
consideration of its economic feasibility at the Ford Motor
Company. While any such project Should be cautiously imple—
mented, the facts indicate that there is no technical impedi-
ment to the adaptation of advanced engineering courses—-
particularly when such courses consist entirely of lecture
material and are viewed by students who, having engineering
degrees, may be presumed intellectually capable of the ab—
sorption of the material.

Experiences in the nation's schools run the entire
route from elementary to advanced levels and indicate general
success wherever the medium is used within the limits of its
capabilities. Experience with television in 'industry'
(private enterprise and the military) has largely been in
the area of passive monitoring devices and in other 'other-
than-training' applications. The military has been the

source of much experimental information to substantiate the

79

80

hypothesized abilities of televised training. Private
enterprises, while showing a continuing growth in and con-
cern for training, seldom have training needs in proportion
to the costs incurred in the establishment and Operation of
a company-owned system.

The Ford Motor Company situation seems to provide the
type of climate most suitable for the ready use of a tele-
vision system in its training activity. The economic con-
ditions demanded by a television installation seem to be
met by Ford's large numbers of engineers who are located in
a rather consolidated fashion and currently enrolled in
large numbers in existing classroom-taught lecture courses.
Given the sound educational abilities of the television
medium, the question of economic feasibility remains the
only possible block to its utilization. AS indicated, given
the desire to increase student coverage, television will
provide a 55% saving on a cost-per-student basis and a 27%
saving on a cost-per-student—hour basis in a continuing
program, with increasing savings possible as the Size of

the student body surpasses twice the current number.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"A Unique Use of Closed-Circuit Television," Engineering,
CXCIV (September 14, 1962). 561

 

Building The Program (Ann Arbor: The University of
Michigan Television Center, n.d.), 4.

 

"Businessmen Learn via Hagerstown CCTV," The N.A.E.B.
Journal, XXI (November-December, 1962). 44-46.

"Can Your Company Use Closed-Circuit Television?"
Business Management (September, 1964), 54.

"Classroom TV Enters a New Era," Saturday Review, XLIV
(May 20, 1961).

"Closed-Circuit Ph.D.S," Electronics, XXXVII (August 24,
1964), 50.

Closed Circuit Television (East Lansing: Michigan State
University Press, n.d.), 2.

 

"Closed Circuit Television," Industrial Electronics, I
(March. 1965). 515.

"Closed-Circuit Television," Power, CVIII (July, 1964). 155.

"Closed-Circuit TV Advances," Radio-Electronics, XXXIII
(May. 1962). 51.

"Closed-Circuit Television For Industrial Application,”
Iron and Steel Engineer, XXXVII (July, 1960). 78-81.

"Closed-Circuit TV Grows with Its Uses," Engineering, CXCI
(May 12. 1961). 650. .

Closed-Circuit Television Project Notes (Hagerstown:
Washington County Board of Education, January 16, 1957).

Closed—Circuit TV for Bank Branches," Engineer, CCVIII
(December 11, 1959). 791.

81

82

Creshkoff, "Closed—Circuit Television in School and Com-
munity: The Chelsea Project," Society of Motion
Picture and Television Engineers' Journal (November,
1959). 764-68.

 

 

"Dateline: Hagerstown," The A.E.R.T. Journal, XVI
(March, 1957), 8-10.

 

Dow, Clyde W., An Introduction to Graduate Study in Speech
and Theater (East Lansing: Michigan State University
Press, 1961), 55.

 

 

"Educational TV in Action," Radio—Electronics.(January,
1963) I 54.

 

"Engineers Learn By Viewing," Iron Age, CLXXXV (February
25. 1960). 45.

"Hagerstown Doubles Primary Settling Capacity," American
City, LXIV (October, 1949), 115.

Hippler, R. Randolph, General Television Network, Ferndale,
Michigan (Private Communication, August 28, 1964).

How Lowry Air Force Base Uses Closed-Circuit Television
To Improve Its Technical Training," Broadcast News,
CV (September, 1959).

 

Lewis, Philip L., Educational Television Guidebook
(New York: McGraw—Hill, 1961), 5.

 

"Machines That Teach: Grpgpptinq Into Profits." Steel
(October 28, 196571

"Management TV at Air Force Systems Command," Broadcast
News, CXIX (February, 1964).

 

"Milwaukee ETV System Uses Both VHF and UHF Channels,"
Broadcast News, CXVI (February, 1965), 2.

 

"More Effective Teaching of Physics Through Television,"
American Journal of Physics, XXVIII (April, 1960),
574.

 

National Education Association Journal, XLVII (January,
1958). 26-28.

 

National Parent-Teacher (November, 1960).

 

"Nearly 6,000 Hagerstown Students View Closed—Circuit TV
Lessons," The School Executive, LXXVI (March, 1957),
78.

 

85

"New Roles for Industrial TV," Supervision (May, 1964),
20-22.

"New Uses For Closed-Circuit TV," Radio-Electronics,
XXXIII (March, 1962), 41.

 

Organization for European Economic Cooperation, Office
for Scientific and Technical Personnel, Television
for School Science. A Report on an OEEC Seminar,
Ashridge, England (Paris: July, 1960).

 

 

”Public Housing Comes to Hagerstown, Maryland," American
City, LXIX (July, 1954), 126-27.

 

RCA Educational TV News, Issue No. 54 (Camden: Radio
Corporation of America, November, 1961).

 

Saturday Review, XL (August 24, 1957), 9-11.

Stoddard, Alexander J. Schools for Tomorrow: An Educator's
Blueprint, A Report by the Fund for the Advancement
of Education (New York: The Ford Foundation, 1957).

 

Strategic Air Command Uses RCA Color TV for Vital Briefings
(Camden: Radio Corporation of America, undated
pamphlet).

"Tape Recorded Teaching at Hagerstown," Educational Screen
and Audiovisual Guide, XXXIX (May, 1960), 226-28.

 

Teaching by Television, A Report by the Fund for the Advance-

 

ment of Education (New York: The Ford Foundation,
n.d.), 41.
"Teaching by Television in Hagerstown," The School Review,

 

LXV (December, 1957), 466-75.
Television Digest, March 16, 1957.

"Television in Industry," Industrial Electronics, I
(October, 1965). 5.

"The Hagerstown Story," The A.E.R.T. Journal, XVI (October,
1956). 20-25.

The Wall Street Journal (New York), February 26, 1965, 1.
Tintera, James 3., Professor and Director, Mass Communica-
tions Center, Wayne State University, Detroit,

Michigan (Private Communication, June 10, 1965).

Tintera, James B. (Private Communication, June 14, 1965).

84

"TV Science Turns Up Some Problems," Chemical and Engineering
News, XXXVIII (February 15, 1960), 62-65.

"TV Teachers: Leading a Company Into Space," Business Week,
(August 29, 1964). 60.

"TV Teachers: Training Plant Bosses Statewide,"
Business Week (August 29, 1964), 64-65.

U. S., Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office
of Education, Television in Our Schools (Bulletin 1952,
No. 16, Revised 1956) (Washington: U. S. Government
Printing Office, 1956), 25-24.

United States Air Force Air Training Command, Technical Train-
ing by Televised Instruction (Denver: Lowry Technical
Training Center, October, 1964), 2.

Youngs, N. C., Sales Manager, Marketing Department, Michigan
Bell Telephone Company, Detroit, Michigan (Private
Communication, November 2, 1964).

APPENDIX»

85

SECTION

1.1
1.2
1.3

1.1:
1.5
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.5.1.

1.6
1.7

2.1
2.2
2.2.1

2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.h

2.205

INDEX OF SECTIONS

CHAPTER.1
THE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

BASIC MEASURING SYSTEM AND COMPONENTS -------

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BASIC MEASURING SYSTEM

CIRCUITRY ----—-------------------------------
CIRCUITRY ELEMENTS ---------------------------
KIRCHOFF'S LAWS ------------------------------
BRIDGE CIRCUITS ------------------------------
RESISTANCE CAPACITANCE CIRCUIT ---------------

. THE IMPEDANCE LOADING PROBLEM ----------------

CHAPTER 2
TRANSDUCERS

INTRODUCTION -.9--- -- -- ---- --- -0- n ----------
WIRE WOUND POTENTIOMETER ---------- ........ -

PRINCIPLES AND CIRCUITS OF THE WIRE WOUND
POTENTIOMETER --------—-------------------

IMPEDANCE OF THE POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCER---
CALIBRATION OF THE POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCER-

ADVANTAGES -AND DISADVANTAGES 01" 111E POTEN-
TICKETER TRANSDUCER nun-cunnaoncungcancuo-

APPLICATION OF THE POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCER--

86

its

(DO‘VIU'IVKUIU

11
16

27
28

28
32
35

36
38'

INDEX OF SECTIONS

SECTION . Egg
2.3 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER 38
2.3.1 PRINCIPLE AND CIRCUITS OF THE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER ---------------------..-------- 33
2.3.2 IMPEDANCE OF THE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER --- hl
2.3.3 CALIBRATION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER-- . A2
2.3.u ADVANTAGES AND DISADvANTAGES ---------------- h3
2.3.5 APPLICATION OF TBE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER-- h3
2.u SOLAR cELLS --.-..--------------------------- uh
2.u.1 PRINCIPLE AND CIRCUITS OF TBS SOLAR CELL ---. an
2.11.2 IMPEDANCE OF THE SOLAR CELL TRANSDUCERS mm 51.
2.h.3 CALIBRATION OF THE SOLAR CELL TRANSDUCERS --- 55

2.h.h ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE SOLAR CELL

TRANSDUCERS --.-.--------.-..-------------- 56
2.u;5 APPLICATION OF THE SOLAR CELL TRANSDUCERS .-- 57
2.5 REFLECTING PICK-UP ...... ---------------..-- 57
2.5.1 PRINCIPLE AND CIRCUITS ---------------------- 57
2.5.2 IMPEDANCE OF THE REFLECTING PICK-UP --------- 60
2.5.3 CALIBRATION OF THE REFLECTING PICK-UP ------- 6O
2.5.1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE REFLECTING

PICK.UP ----------.----------------------- 61
2.6 RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGES -------.------------- 61
2.6.1 PRINCIPLE OF THE RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGE ----- 61 '
2.6.2 CIRCUITS FOR RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGES -------- 63
2.6.3 IMPEDANCE OF RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGES -------- 73
2.6.11 CALIBRATIO ----..-..--------------..--------- 78
2.6.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADNANTAGES -----.-...--.--- 83

87

SECTION

2.6.6

2.7

2.7.1
2.7.2
2.7.3

2.7.h

2.8
2.8.1

2.3.2
2.8.3
2.3.1.

2.9
2.9.1

2.9.2

2.10

2.10.1
2.10.2
2.10.3

INDEX OF SECTIONS

DIRECT CURRENT GENERATOR --------------------
PRINCIPLE AND CIRCUITS OF THE DC GENERATOR --
IMPEDANCE OF 'HIE DC VELOCITY TRANSNCER -----

CALIBRATION OF THE DC TACEOMETER GENERATOR
AND THE VELOCITY’TRANSDUCER ---------------

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGI W THE DC TACRO-
METER GENERATOR AND THE VELOCITY TRANSWCER

PRINCIPLE AND CIRCUITS OF THE AC TACHOMETER

IMPEDANCE OP TEE AC TACHOHETER GHERATOR a---
CALIBRATION OF THE AC TACHMETER GHERATOR --

' ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGEB OI" NE AC TACK-

PRINCIPLES AND CIRCUITS OF PIEZOELECTRIC

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGB OP PIEZO TRANS-g

ACCELEROMETERS -----------------..-----------
PRINCIPLES OF ACCELEROMETERS ----------------
TEE CRISTAL ACCELEROMETER ----.---.-...--------
DISPLACEMENT SENSING ACCELEROMETERS -..-..---

88

PAGE

8h

88
88

90
9h

9h
9h
9h
96
96
96

96
96

97

98
98
99
100

SECTION.

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.11
3.5
3.6

11.1

11.2

11.3

11.3.1
11.3.2
11.3.3
11.3.11
11.3.5
‘ 11.3.6
11.3.7
11.3.8

INDEX OF SECTIONS

CHAPTER 3
ASSOCIATED INSTRUMENTATION

INTRODUCTION ----- ------- --------------------
CATHODE RAY'OSCILLOSCOPE -------..-.-----.--.
BRIDGE AMPLIFIER ------------..-------------
AUDIO OSCILLATOR ----------------.--..-------
OSCILLOSCOPE RECORDING CAMERA ---------------
STROBOTAC AND>STROBOLUX ---------..---------

CHAPTER _1.
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION -----------------..---.---------
CARE OF EQUIPMENT ---------------------..-..-
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE -------------------.--
INSTRUCTIONS --------------------------------
LABORATORYWMODELS ----------------;-----.----
USE OF PATCH CORDS -----------..-------------
OUTPUT CORDS ---------------.-..------..-----
GROUNDING ----------.-------------.--..-.---
USE OF BATTERIES -------¢-----------..-------
CALIBRATION ------------------------------..-

89

PAGE

103
103
107
111
112
113

116
116
117
117
117
117
118
118
119
119
120

   

"ITIE’TM'LN' MANN