PRODUCT STRUCTURINO ANO RECREATTONAI. NEEDS Thesis for the Degree Of M. S. ' MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY THOMAS RICHMOND MAYHALL 1975 . IIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII mm, 0100 5950 Mensa Uni-uni: " ALE #1726310 I ‘\_'_,/ “v ( 4.; “ \'—\ ‘4‘ ABSTRACT PRODUCT STRUCTURING AND RECREATIONAL NEEDS BY Thomas Richmond Mayhall There is little substantive theory on the nature of recreation. What is available has evolved from the practices and procedures used by those who have responsibility for recreation as a public service or private enterprise and is therefore based largely on their changing experiences during the past 100 years when recreation began to emerge as a public service. Quite naturally, in the absence of a definitive theory, the practice of recreation is fragmented into wide-ranging differences in goals which often not only overlap but are in serious conflict in both use of physical or natural resources and in manners of policy. This thesis pursued a functional definition of the nature and value of recreation. It sought to identify the significance that pleasure-producing activities and products have in relation to human needs and the quality of individual's lives. It was observed that pleasurable (recreational) products and activities create an automatic behavioral attraction that becomes the basis for all conscious human decision making. Because of this, the measurement of this attraction can be used in the develop- ment of demand functions for various recreational goods and services. Thomas Richmond Mayhall Recreation takes on the role of restoring peoples' needs (thus producing pleasure) to healthy levels. Therefore, the types of products and activities that benefit peoples' needs the most become viewed as the most recreational and attractive behavioral alternatives. Recreation thus becomes viewed as a science that examines product and activity compositions for the type of inter- action they have with particular and changing individual needs. 1Charles E. Doell and Louis F. Twardzick, Elements of Park and Recreation Administration, (Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company, 1973}, pp. 19-20. PRODUCT STRUCTURING AND RECREATIONAL NEEDS BY Thomas Richmond Mayhall A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Park and Recreation Resources 1976 Approved 0 Chairman of the ommittee To my parents, Anne and Millard L. Mayhall ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O C O C C O O O O O O 0 Chapter I. II. III. IV. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . Behavioral Theory . . . . . . . . . . . Experimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Illustrative Research Instrument for Part I of the Experiment. . . . . . Illustrative Research Instrument for Part II of the Experiment . . . . . Experiment Results. . . . . . . . . . Laboratory Experimentation. . . . . . Experiment Test Results . . . . . . . . Sample Population . . . . . . . . . . Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . General Principles Developed. . . . . . LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . PLEASURE O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 There Exist A Variety of Needs. . . . . Consciousness Depends on Change (Pleasure is Produced by Positive Change) . . . Pleasure as a Singular Component. . . . Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DEFINITION OF THE HUMAN ORGANISM. . . . . Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction Summary. . . . . . . . . Needs and Motives . . . . . . . . . . . The Human System. . . . . . . . . . . . Organic Motives . . . . . . . . . . . Social Motives. . . . . . . . . . . . iii Page gout:- |-‘ \D 10 13 16 17 17 21 22 27 28 29 30 30 31 31 33 37 40 43 Chapter Biological and Social Need Input Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . Madsen's Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . Operationalized Need Classification . . Ordering of Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . Social System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Role of Indirect Need Gratification. Social Definition of Needs . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. BENEFIT MAXIMIZATION PLEASURE PRINCIPLE. . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Basic Motive . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two Conscious Evaluation Possibilities . . Benefit Maximization Pleasure Principle. . Further Considerations . . . . . . . . . . VI. PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS. . . . . . . . . . . COnC 1USion O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O VII. CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Maslow Instinct Criteria . . . . . . . . . . B. Sherif and Asch Experiments. . . . . . . . . C. Perception of the Self . . . . . . . . . . D. Position Statements. . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv .102 .105 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Chi Square Analysis of Observed and Expected Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2. Calculated Chi Square Values. . . . .~. . . . . . 20 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW The purpose of this thesis is to detail and examine a new form of recreational demand analysis and marketing strategy, based upon product attractiveness, developed out of a behavioral theory constructed here. It consists in an examination of recreational behavior, depicting the motivation for and describing the utility of such actions. It is asserted that this method, when properly employed, can: (1) prove to be a highly accurate method of recreational demand analysis, (2) provide quantitative data on the value of recreational activities and products, (3) point out areas where improvements in total product attractivity for marketing purposes can be made, and (4) provide a dynamic view of recreational behavior and needs by answering why it occurs. This can result in the greater fulfillment of recreational needs through more reSponsive resource provision and improved knowledge of how to manipulate the attractivity of the recreational product for purposes of increasing consumption. This text is designed to present a technical foundation from which practical field applications may be derived. For this reason, much of the thesis consists of detailed analysis not easily understood by individuals unfamiliar with the subject matter contained within this work. For such individuals, or those seeking a more concise, less technical presentation, it is suggested they read Chapter I, the chapter introductions, and Chapter VII. This paper is organized into seven chapters and appendices. The following outline provides the thought flow of the paper, which is detailed in the succeeding chapters. I. Recreation results when pleasure is produced. Recreation is the result of the pleasure-producing (re-creating) qualities of a product or activity. II. Pleasure is the result of perceived gain to a person's life. Pleasure results from the reduction of negative motivational pleasures, and is produced when a conscious evaluation of benefit to the human system is made. Pleasure is synonomous with conscious recreating of an organism. III. People are made up of needs. The effect of any- thing upon these needs defines a gain or loss to that person. Universal motivational needs exist in human beings. (Their expression can only be defined when basic behavioral goals are viewed through the perspective of their cultural expression, derived from selected portions of the potentiality of satisfiers.) Any element's effect upon these needs determines its benefit. IV. Products and activities are made up of parts, each of thEh can influence various needs. All products are composed of characteristics. The utility of a product is defined by the utility of the characteristics and the whole or total product they produce. V. The utility of products and activities is the result of their total'effect upon need conditions of individuals. Product utility or benefit is the result of the total product's interaction with current individual motivational conditions, which are composed of various needs. VI. The greater the need gain a product or activity produces for a person, the stronger the attraction it possesses. The stronger a contribution anything can make to a motivational system, the greater the automatic demand for that resource by that system. VII. The value of recreation is measured by the changes it produceslin need conditions of individuals. The benefit of recreation is measured positively or negatively by the changes it produces in the motiva- tional system's condition, evaluated by social definition of desirable behavior (behavioral acts are a function of the condition of the motivational system states). VIII. Product demand can be predicted by viewing the manner in whicH products relate to need states. The demand for any recreational product can be determined by viewing the interaction between population need status and the perceived utility of a product as its structuring relates to those needs. Improvements are made by manipulating product structures to encourage the perception of greater benefit, or the creation of needs that seek gratification of the product being offered. Below is a condensed overview of the behavioral theory developed and used in this thesis. Behavioral Theory Behavior is goal oriented. All behavior consists of response elements understood in relation to certain stimulus factors. It is composed of reactions to par- ticular motivational states. The goals are determined by the acquisition of the resources and changes necessary for the organism to preserve its existence and enhance its growth. The various goals or motivational states taken as a collective unit constitute a system. The individual goals or needs exist to facilitate the overall objective of the organism. Different subsystem goals have different weights or strength of influence upon behavior under different conditions. There exist two categories of goals or motivational states. The first one is organic goals, those necessary to the purely biological functioning of the system. The second category is social goals or needs, those necessary for the development of individual identities and perception of the self. Conscious processes provide an explanation of the general course of major behavioral acts in "normal" human systems, because consciousness is made possible by differ- ences in the perceptual field. It exists as a method of evaluating change. The greatest difference in the per- ceptual field attracts the highest degree of awareness. The changes may be produced from both internal and exter- nal stimuli. All stimuli must be taken in relation to the needs of the system and responded to. Pleasure is the result of conscious evaluation of difference (perceptual field stimuli) that is contributing to a system's behavioral goals. Painful occurrences represent a conscious evaluation of difference that is detracting from a human system's behavioral goals. All consciousness is dependent upon change in the perceptual field. All change either contributes to or detracts from a system; therefore, all consciousness contains various degrees of pleasure and pain. Behavior is manipulated to maximize benefits (system contributions or pleasure) as defined by its systenn Behavior is composed of logical reactions, J rm governed by natural law, seeking to maximize positive system inputs. It is these feelings, pleasures and pains, that constitute the evaluative criteria for the encourage- ment or discouragement of the change being dealt with. What constitutes a positive input can only be understood tum through knowledge of both the biological and social state of an organism. This is a key point for product demand analysis. For example, water is a biological require- "‘w';.;_ I ment, but more water to a drowning man (drowning here is an example of the state of the organism) is not a positive input to this organism in its current state. All products are composed of characteristics that impact one or more subsystem levels to produce various emotional effects in an individual. The utility of any good or service is derived from the interaction of the product characteristics, and the total product they produce, and the current state of a system. Manipulation of product components produces new effects. EDemand for particular goods or services is derived from the perceived strength of those products' total system impacty cumula- tive for the entire population, in competition with other Jbehavioral opportunities. Experimentation The following experiment is designed to illustrate several of the concepts presented in the theory. It is intended to convey simplistically the notions of behavioral motivation, the function of conscious responses, and the synonymity of pleasure and perceived gain to a person's need system. Following this illustrative experiment is the suggested procedure for a more comprehensive labora- tory approach to testing the necessary principles to verify the applicability of this method to the recreational field. J Each of the matches used in this illustration shows only the relationship of that particular hypothe- sized motive and the behavioral response engaged in.‘ However, these are randomly selected representations of organic and social needs, as defined in Chapter IV. Procedure Part I. A. 1. Present a variety of potential actions a person can engage in. These action possi- bilities are composed of characteristics which contain elements that can benefit various needs. 2. Present a variety of need conditions. These conditions are hypothesized as motivating a specific action. 3. Ask the respondent to visualize the need condition and select the action he would engage in when in that condition. B. The respondent is given a situation and asked how he would respond and why. Part II. A. 1. Present potential action possibilities from Part I. 2. Present need condition from Part I. 3. Ask the respondent to select the action he would find the most pleasurable when in the presence of the need condition presented. B. Present the same situation from Part I. Ask the respondent to describe the most pleasurable action possible in the presence of the situation presented. Part I.--The expected response to each condition presented would be the selection of the behavioral oppor- tunity that best contributes to the condition consciously being dealt with. A person who is thirsty will consciously be aware of that thirst because, when visualized, it represents the greatest system difference that conscious- ness detects and responds to with actions intended to relieve the condition. Behavioral responses are indicated as motivated and purposeful. Part II.--It is expected the most pleasurable opportunity will be the one that can make the strongest contribution to the negative aspects of the condition presented. The answers should be identical to Part I. This serves as an indication of the function of pleasure as reward and encouragement for things that contribute to motivating needs. Pleasure, it is asserted, consists of perceived positive inputs into a person's life. If this is so, the amount of pleasure derived from any product can be analyzed by identifying the impact of that product upon a person's need structure. (Impact must always be assessed in a total system perspective). The most pleasurable action and the one engaged in are synonomous. Illustrative Research Instru- ment for Part I of the Experiment Visualize the numbered statements, one at a time, in the column on the right. Proceeding, one at a time, picture the condition presented by the statement, and then match it with (given an equal opportunity for each to occur) whatyyou would do when in that condition, given the choices on the left. 1. Go where you could be with 1. You are hungry some people 2. You feel stupid 2. Find something to make you warm 3. You are thirgty 3. Get food to eat 4. You are lonely 4. Go to sleep J 5. You are cold 5. Get a drink of water 6. You are tired 6. Do something that makes you feel intelligent Situation: You are caught out in a snow storm, two miles from the nearest house. You have very light <:lothing on. The temperature is 0°F. Very briefly, what would you do and why? Illustrative Research Instru- ment for Part II of the Experiment Visualize the numbered statements, one at a time, le the column on the right. Proceeding one at a time, 10 picture the condition presented by the statement, and then match it with (given an equal opportunity for each to occur) what would be the most pleasurable thing you could do when in that condition, given the choices on the left. fiafi ,sz 1. Going to sleep 1. You are cold '1 2. Getting something to eat 2. You are lonely 3. Getting a drink of water 3. You are tired J~ 4. Finding something to make 4. You are hungry It? you warm 5. You feel stupid 5. Going where you could be with some people 6. You are thirsty 6. Doing something that makes you feel intelligent Situation: You are caught out in a snow storm, two miles from the nearest house. You have very light clothing on. The temperature is 0 F. Very briefly, what would be the most pleasurable thing you could do in this situation and why? Experiment Results The experiment began with the presentation of a variety of behavioral opportunities. If behavior was composed of random responses, not motivated or goal oriented, each of the behavioral actions would be as likedy to occur in the presence of every condition or sitniation presented. 11 Next, a variety of need conditions was presented. These conditions were selected to represent deviations from the biological and social needs of a human being. If these conditions develop drives or motivate behavior, the resultant behavior will be the selection of the action that best relieves the negative aspects of a con- dition. What does occur is the selection of the behavior that adds the most to the preservation and growth of that being. This suggests behavior is purposeful, goal oriented, and a function of response to various motiva- tional states. The null hypothesis, i.e. there is no relationship between a need condition and the behavioral response emitted, was rejected on each trial. This con- firmed the expected results; i.e. there is a relationship between need conditions and behavioral responses as presented here. Next, a written situation was presented, which represented a deviation from the survival requirements of a person. This motivated a predictable behavioral response by each respondent. All stated they would seek relief from this condition immediately and in the most effective manner known to them. Out of the infinite number of behavioral actions possible, each of these people responded in the same manner, seeking relief of the negative situation in which they existed. They all sought the common goal of relief from the cold, the most 12 significant difference in their perceptual field. Behavior responses are indicated as predictable, given the situation from which they are generated. Part II.--Six behavioral opportunities were presented. This time the respondent was asked to match the condition with the behavioral response he would find most pleasurable. The answers were identical to those in Part I, except for two respondents who omitted answers. The most pleasurable behavioral response is the one that does the most to add to the needs a particular condition presents. The most pleasurable action is the same as the action that would be engaged in, in these cases. The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between the pleasure an action produces, and the amount of need gratification that action produces, was rejected on each tiral. Therefore, the relationship was significant at the .01 confidence level in these illustrative cases. How- ever, this must always be conceived in a total system perspective, in order to examine various costs and benefits upon the totality of behavioral goals, to determine just what constitutes an addition to needs. This indicates pleasure is working as a reinforcer to encourage the attainment of organism needs. Pleasure is produced upon the accomplishment of or mental link with a person's behavioral goals. 13 The written situation presented in Part I was presented again. This time the respondent was asked what would be the most pleasurable thing he could do in this situation. Once again, that which best accomplished the behavioral goals of the person was deemed the most pleasurable. The answers were characteristically the same as those given in Part I, which asked what the person would do if he were in the same condition. Many people answered, "same as Part I." E This demonstration is very simplistic, and is for illustrative purposes only. Technical considerations have been dealt with in this paper to justify the preceding statements. However, the same result could be sought on a more sophisticated level in the laboratory. Laboratory Experimentation A laboratory subject would have his environment manipulated or be confronted with situations that present certain needs of which the experimenter is aware. (It 'would be very important to know the subjects' needs well to ensure that they aren't carrying other dominating needs into the laboratory, before the experiment starts, so a determination of how much a particular need or grouping of needs has to be influenced to create dominance of those needs.) Dominant needs will acquire conscious fixations, as discussed in Chapter III. Negative deviations from 14 needs will manifest themselves as pain or ill feelings, which will motivate responses to relieve them. When the person's needs have been manipulated in the desired manner, they can be given a free behavioral response period. The laboratory would be structured to provide a certain number of definable behavioral alterna- tives. This free period is "leisure time." The term "leisure time" will later be eliminated, but is used here for clarity. The restrictions upon the subject by the experimenter have now been removed. The subject will now be making use of his leisure time. Use of this period could be viewed as the subject's recreational behavior, as conventionally defined. Any significant deviation, within nervous system detection, in the need structure of that person will acquire conscious representation, creating a condition and evoking a response. Any goal not totally fulfilled can benefit from behavior which adds to that goal. What will occur during this period (or any other) is that the behavioral alternative perceived as contributing the most to the condition in which the person finds himself will be engaged in. This will also be the most pleasurable activity. The most pleasurable or recreating activity is the one that makes the greatest addition to the person's motivational condition. Thus, the recreational activity .. ram .17. 15 demanded is the one perceived as making the greatest overall additions to a person's goals or needs. What is the most pleasurable activity (synonomous with what the person would do) is assessed by determining the most beneficial behavioral response available dictated by the present condition of a person.in both a biological and sociological context (this topic is dealt with in Chap- ter IV). Thus, the demand for any activity is assessed by examining the interaction of products and activities 'with human conditions. By breaking products and activities into characteristics and wholes produced (as will be more fully explained in Chapter VI) and examining positive and negative impacts upon a person's goals, the emotional. effect produced, which results in the appropriate behavioral reaction as discussed in Chapter V, can be analyzed. Manip- ulation of the characteristics will produce new effects. The ordinal quantitative value placed upon each behavioral alternative, from positive to negative, establishes the priority of that alternative mechanistically adhered to, as discussed in Chapter V. All this has to be viewed in a systematic manner, since to produce a quantitative, positive or negative, value for any particular action involves assessment of impact on the totality of motivating needs of any activity or product. Individuals' goals are not to be viewed in isolation, but rather as pieces of a larger system. It is the system condition that produces emotional effects. 16 Therefore, to conceptualize the total demand picture and method of marketing various activities and products, impact upon all needs has to be defined. This requires knowledge of all motivating aspects, as is done in Chapter IV. It requires analysis of product -13 utility, as defined by the interaction of product charac- ;_ teristics and wholes produced, which is discussed in Chapter VI. Chapter III defines pleasure more precisely, and -Jfi operationalizes its usage. Chapter V produces a benefit maximization pleasure principle that can be demonstrated as a behaviOral law when viewed in total system context. Chapter VII provides recreational applications from the principles developed. Experiment Test Results Each condition presented was analyzed using a Chi-square test under the null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between the condition pre— sented and the behavioral response selected as that which would be engaged in and that which would be most pleasur- able. 17 HO' p1:92:93”ps = 1/6 n=12 observed frequences n1: n2= n3: n4: n5: n6=' Ex (ni) npi = 12 (1/6) = 2 @ = .01 (K-l) = 5 ,3 RV. 9‘51 'V. Observed Frequency Expected Frequency - Talia" "i.’ n 7.1 - A.. Values greater than 15.083 reject null hypothesis. fig Sample Population The sample population consisted of 12 Michigan State University students who were residents of McDonald dormitory. The six male and six female students respond- ing to the experiment were presented the questions in their rooms and requested to complete the research instru- ment introduced in this chapter. The student respondents were randomly selected from the first through fifth floors of that dormitory. Data Analysis Each condition (represented by the number to the left of each table) is analyzed for the response it evokes (represented by the number across the top of each table). Each condition, such as hunger, is 18 further analyzed to see if what a person would do in that condition is the same as what is the most pleasur- able action. Example Table (x) Recreational Response # 0 l 2 (3) 4 5 6 Response # Condition # 1. E 2 2 2 2 2 2 l9 n TABLE 1.--Chi Square Analysis of Observed and Expected Responses. Part I: What You Would Do Part II: Most Pleasurable Hunger l (3) 4 S 6 l (2) 3 4 6 O 0 12 O 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 l. 4. E 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Stupid (6) (6) O 0 0 0 0 ll 0 0 0 0 12 2. 5. E 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Thirst (S) (3) O 0 0 0 12 O 0 0 12 0 0 3. 6. E 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Lonely (l) (5) O 12 0 0 O O 0 0 0 0 11 0 4. 2. E 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Cold (2) (4) 0 0110010 0011100 5. l. E 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Tired (4) (l) O 0 001200 120 000 6. 3. E 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 {TE-Ki a- a 20 Table 2.-—Calculated Chi Square Values. PART . . PART II Condition (What You . Would Do) (Most Pleasurable Action) Hunger 60.0** 60.0** Chi-Square Critical Stupid 50.5** 60.0** Value at 0.01 Thirst 60.0** 60.0** 2 Lonely 60.0** 50.5** x :>15.0863 Cold 49.0** 49.0** rejects the null Tired 60.0** 60.0** hypothesis 2 2 _ (fo-fe) x — £-———————— fe **denotes significance at 0.01 confidence level 21 General Principles Developed The motivation of conscious human behavior is benefit maximization in a system concept. Benefits are produced by contributing to needs. Needs seek promotion of system goals. Anything that contributes to needs is reinforced by the conscious positive evaluation of pleasure. Any change the perceivably detracts from the current state of the system needs produces the conscious avoidance feeling of pain. To create behavioral demand, behavioral opportunities must be presented, which contain the greatest utility (utility defined by perceived potential to con- tribute to the need structure) of potential actions. The need structure for demand determination must be understood in universal psychological construction as well as its specific sociological definitions. When the product exceeds the perceived utility of all other behavioral opportunities, creating proper emotional effect, it will be engaged in. Thus, demand can be manipulated by product structuring to achieve the desired levels. This is done by structuring products for the inclusion of characteristics and wholes produced to match or interact with various motivational conditions. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW Early Greek philosophy provides the first known discussion of the roles of pleasure and reinforcement operating as guiding mechanisms of behavior. Hedonism developed as a perspective for human action. "The ancients were chiefly concerned with which pleasures were 1 moral and which immoral; and why." This analysis con- cerned itself with "good" and "bad" pleasures, giving little insight into what pleasure actually is. In contrast with contemporary views, pleasure determined behavior in a teleological sense; that is, pleasure was the goal toward which rational men strived. Thus, man's reason was the determinant of his behavior, if we subscribe to the modern view that causes must be prior to their effects. But since no account was given of how prior events brought about changes in the choices made by reason, man's behavior was, in the last analysis indeterminate. This kind of "determination" of man's behavior by some inde- terminate entity such as reason or "free will" was characteristic of prescientific philosophy and is the reason it contains little, if anything, of direct relevance to the modern problem of reinforcement.2 1James K. Fiebleman, "A Philosophic Analysis of Pleasure," Role of Pleasure in Behavior, ed. Robert G. Heath (Evanston: Harper and Row Publishers, 1964), p. 251. 2Hardy C. Wilcoxen, "Historial Introduction to the Problem of Reinforcement," in Reinforcement and Behavior, ed. Jack T. Tapp (New York: Academic Press, 19697, P. 2. 22 23 When scientists began to View behavior in the con— text of the natural sciences, the role of reinforcement became a more critical issue. "Darwin was the first to give a nonteleological explanation of how species could evolve through increasingly complex stages."3 Darwin had placed man in a similar category with animals: capabili- ties possessed by man are not so unique as to be totally lacking in other animals, such as the "unguided guide" of reason. "Herbert Spencer's theory of learning embodies the first really systematic attempt to give scientifically plausible explanations of the differential strengthening of the actions of organisms."4 Spencer asserted that the principles of natural selection produce a correlation between feelings of pleasure and actions beneficial to survival on the one hand, and feelings of pain with actions that are injurious on the other hand. Those organisms that didn't possess this ability wouldn't be able to survive, because of damaged or unfulfilled needs. Reinforcement and its connection with the feeling pleasure had now evolved into being. Edward L. Thorndike carried the issue a bit further in commenting that: — 31bid., p. 3. 4Ibid., p. 5. 51bid. fl 24 The nervous system is so constructed as to lead to the survival and strengthening of those connections which have been active just prior to a satisfying event and the weakening and eventual disappearance of those connections which have been active prior to annoying events. Thus the nature of the nervous system makes us do more things that bring satisfac- tion and fewer that bring annoyance. Later Thorndike revised this famous Law of Effect to state that the cessation of the consequences of puniShment con- stituted a reward, downplaying the weakening of connec- tions argument and placing greater emphasis on a more positive strengthening of the satisfying connections. B.F. Skinner stated: It is a fact, not a theory, that some events which follow responses have the effect of increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated. Such events will be defined as reinforcers, not in terms of any effect they might have upon the internal mechanisms of the organism, but strictly in terms of the effect that they have in increasing the probability of response. Of these events found through observa- tion to be reinforcers, some are called positive and some negative. Positive reinforcers are those events whose presentation strengthens the response, while negative reinforcers are those whose removal strength- ens the response.7 Skinner's perspective is quite deterministic. "The automatic effect of reinforcement is illustrated in Skinner's effective technique of shaping behavior."8 Further drive-reduction theories by such men as Clark Hull and Neal Miller have continued the tradition 61bid., p. 11. 7Ibid., p. 30. 81bid., p. 32. I Inn-in.h , in ‘1 <. ~ “aw—v 25 of stressing the importance of the role of reinforcing techniques in understanding behavior. Freud proceeded along similar lines in stating: In the theory of psychoanalysis we have no hesita- tion in assuming that the course taken by mental events is automatically regulated by the pleasure principle. We believe, that is to say, that the course of those events is invariably set in motion by an unpleasurable tension, and that it takes a direction such that its final outcome coincides with a lowering of that tension--that is, with an avoid— ance of unpleasure or a production of pleasure.9 Freud found it somewhat difficult to move beyond this position for lack of an adequate definition of just what created pleasure or what it consisted of. During the past several decades, a renewed interest in the function of pleasure has evolved. Because of some rather extensive research being conducted in the field, Tulane University organized a symposium to co- ordinate research in the area. The preface of the pub- lication resulting from that symposium stated: Pleasure and pain are the basic regulators of behavior, both in man and lower animals. Pain moves man to seek shelter from the turbulent elements, sends him to the physician for treatment, and impels him to escape from harassment. Pleasure attracts man to the warmth of the fireside, to the music, to good food, to high accomplishment, and to companionship. From earliest experiences the child is guided by rewards and punishments to keep his behavior within acceptable limits and to help him find fulfillment and happiness. The rewards--whether a pat on the back, an affectionate hug, money, privileges, or special favors--are designed to provide pleasure 9Sigmund Freud, Beyond the Pleasure Principle, James Strachey (trans.), (New York: Random House, 1938), P- l. . 26 and incentive to appropriate behavior and productive- ness. The punishments are contrived to produce pain and thus discourage unacceptable conduct. Further products of this symposium include zeroing in on the sources of pleasure, and identifying its functional role in an organism's system maintenance and growth. The organism's systemic requirements produce psycho- dynamic signals known as tensions, urges and needs, which may appear in aboriginal form or show varying degrees of acculturation. These signals make the organism aware of its requirements and stir it to action, aimed at supplying them the pleasant ones toward securing pleasure and the unpleasant ones toward riddance of pain or the threat of pain. Con- sequently in its encounters with the environment the organism is guided by its responses of pleasure and pain. The former signals "yes" the latter "no." As we have seen, pleasure then becomes the reward for successful performance and the memory of pleasure incites repetition of successful activity. Pain becomes punishment for failure, and the memory of pain deters the organism from repeating the self harming activity.1 This symposium predicted that some very signifi- cant applications can result from work in the area of pleasure research and the techniques already developed. It is contended here that one of the most significant applications of all can be produced in the field of recreation. 10Robert G. Heath, ed., Role of Pleasure in Behavior (Evanston: Harper and Row Publishers, 1964), ———+———— p. iv. 11Ibid. CHAPTER III PLEASURE In order to understand recreation better we must recognize the forces that drive it, springing from the behavioral patterns of the people who engage in it, the social and psychological needs they seek to satisfy, and the established and encouraged form of consumption. The first task is a definition of recreation. Recreation is defined here as "any pleasurable activity or planned inactivity."2 Recreation is defined by its pleasure-producing re-creating qualities.. Pleasure, it will be shown, is synonomous with recreation or positive restructuring of a person's needs. Operationalization of the concept of pleasure is essential to understanding recreation. An operational definition of pleasure is one goal of this chapter, which also carries over into Chapter IV. It is asserted here that pleasure is the result of the reduction of negative motivational pressures. 1National Academy of Sciences, A Program for Out- door Recreation Research (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1969), pp. l-2. 2Statement made by Roger Murray, Instructor of Park and Recreation Resources at Michigan State University. 27 28 Pleasure results when a conscious evaluation of benefit to the human system is made. It is the feeling that accompanies a perceived gain, with the total make up or need structure of that person considered. In this analysis of pleasure, three major points must be considered. Each represents a section heading in this chapter. 1. There exist a variety of needs 2. Consciousness depends on change El; 3. Pleasure as a singular component There Exist A Variety of Needs Chapter IV consists of a definition of the human system. However, it needs to be understood here that‘ there are a variety of sensory impact areas and levels in a human system that exist as needs. A person's inter- action with any part of his environment occurs in terms of his needs relationship to the environment. These needs can be viewed as hunger, thirst, temperature regulation, etc. Each need represents a component of the total human system which, when fulfilled, represents a benefit to the system as a whole, if fulfillment doesn't introduce other costs to the system, greater than the benefits it provides. The human organism as a whole constitutes an entity at the integrative level containing many sublevels; physical, chemical, biologic, psychologic, and even cultural. Justification for recognizing the divisions between the integrative levels, as we do, is found in the organizational breaks and 29 qualitative emergents. The organism interaction with its immediate environment occurs in terms of these same levels, which exist also of course, in the environment, for the world external to the organism is the one containing physical objects, chemical elements, biologic organisms, other minds, and collections of artifacts.3 Consciousness Depends on Change (Pleasure is Produced by Positive Change) Difference, or change in the perceptual field attracts, or makes consciousness possible. Any change in the perceptual field either contributes to or detracts from a person's behavioral goals or needs. Additions to these needs that are of sufficient strength to attract conscious evaluation produce pleasure. Pleasure is a feeling. One can only feel what he is aware of, which is the definition of consciousness. Pleasure is a conscious evaluation of benefit. Consciousness, upon which pleasure depends, relies upon change. Thus, pleasure depends upon and can only be produced by change. The attraction of consciousness is change. The greater the change or differ- ence, the greater the attraction. All consciousness is of difference. Conscious- ness, it has been shown by experiment, would not be possible without differences in the objective field of consciousness. We owe to Walter and others knowledge that consciousness breaks down with monotony of input. 3James K. Fiebleman, p. 253. 41bid., pp. 253-254. 30 Pleasure as a Singular Component Pleasure is pleasure. It is a singular component, varying only in intensity, never in composition. It is the feeling that accompanies perceived positive change. One characteristic of pleasure is that it is always the same. It does not change in feeling, varying only in intensity, never in pervasiveness. There are of course relative degrees of intensity of the feeling pleasure, reaching say from the sharpness of an orgasm to the vagueness of the* reception of good news. Pleasure is always all pervasive. However, the cause of it or the occasion for it may differ; i.e., the environing events which trigger it may be various. A man may experience pleasure at the sound of music, or in the act of eating candy; one form of pleasure may persist longer, the other seem more intense, but pleasure is pleasure in every instance.5 Pleasure is a conscious evaluation of system benefit, however defined by that being. Any conscious information processing, (perceptual discrimination, memory, thinking, learning), that provides a conscious link with system benefit produces pleasure. Conclusion Pleasure results when a person becomes aware of something good or needed, as defined by that person, happening to him. This requires positive change, in relation to system needs at a given state. The greater the benefit, the greater the pleasure. This can be thought of in terms of the conscious feeling that accompanies progress toward meeting behavioral objectives. 51bid., pp. 252-253. CHAPTER IV DEFINITION OF THE HUMAN ORGANISM It has been asserted that pleasure is the eval- uative feeling that accompanies a perceived gain to a person's system of needs. The purpose of this section is to identify needs or areas to which positive inputs can be made. Introduction It was stated that pleasure results when there is a conscious evaluation of benefit made to a person's needs. The next task is to define needs to which additions can be made, so pleasure can be produced. The first need category is organic needs. These are the needs that relate to a person's purely biological functioning. These needs can be broken into as many separate categories as a person feels comfortable working with. However, one basic law can be stated as the organic :motive law: Anything that contributes to the biological operation of a person, within nervous system detection and «of sufficient strength to generate a positive awareness of 31 32 difference, produces pleasure if it doesn't impose other equal or greater costs to other needs, (system concept). Any significant deficit in biological needs becomes noticeable to a person, it represents a signifi- cant difference from the norm. Differences acquire con- sciousness. This negative difference creates the aware- ness of pain. Relief of any negative influences produces pleasure, if awareness of difference is created. Below is a list of organic need categories that should make biological requirements easier to visualize. These are simply arbitrarily selected categories to aid in the viewing of biological requirements. 1. Hunger 6. Excretion of waste 2. Thirst 7. Rest 3. Oxygen 8. Activity 4. Sex 9. Avoidance of 5. Temperature noxious stimuli regulation The second classification of needs or motivating factors is social needs. Such needs (except in part the sub-category of communal associations, which can be dis- persed to other categories but should be mentioned here because of its significance, all relate to the perception of self. This can be viewed as a single component—- development of a positive self—identity or perception of the self. Anything defined as positive accomplishment can be viewed as contributing to social needs. Identity is composed of perceived status positions, as discussed in this chapter under identity formation. Additions to 33 the perception of the self are defined by accomplishments that result in the obtaining of resources defined by organic needs, through direct inputs to one's self or facilitation of the social structures that are defined as positive. Positive image formation concerning one's self results when one accomplishes the organic or socially defined desirable, resulting in the formation of an identity. The needs mentioned above constitute universal human needs. To establish universal human needs is not enough. The appropriate satisfier for any person's needs can often come from a wide range of possibilities, as long as a product contains a utility characteristic that can satisfy the need creating a demand. What will be pursued to satisfy universal needs depends upon cultural standards. It must also be recognized that social order can impose costs upon behavior, which may result in the rejection of otherwise desirable actions. Products must be broken into their product characteristics, and viewed through cultural definitions, to examine true impact upon universal human need structure in a total system impact perspective. Introduction Summary There exist universal human needs which, when sufficiently satisfied, will result in the production of pleasure. However, the behavior these needs evoke can 34 vary widely with different cultural influences and defin- itions. Therefore, products need to be viewed through the cultural perspective of the consumer in determining the utility of the product characteristics of any good or service. Once this has been done, the impact of product and relationship to needs can be determined. Most people should be able to make reasonably good assess- ments of their needs both as biological organisms and as members of social systems. They are able to do this because when a deficit in a need occurs it is evaluated consciously and is painful. Anything one perceives as beneficial to his system and consciously acquires is pleasurable. Differences in biological requirements, social definitions, and behavioral opportunities confront- ing different age groups, sexes, and races develOping different needs accounts for differentiation among actions of different groups and individuals. Needs and Motives Numerous theories have been developed to account for the motivational factors of the human system. The modern motivational concepts and theories have their origins in two fields of psychology which were developing in the beginning of this century: psycho- analysis and learning theory.1 1K.B. Madsen, "Theories of Motivation," in Human Motivation; A Symposium, ed. Marshall R. Jones (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1965), p. 50. TIT—H“- 35 It is generally assumed that there is a relation- ship between needs and drives. This seems to be a very credible argument, since consciousness, it has been noted, fixes on or is made possible by differences in the perceptual field. Any great need within a system would cause a conscious fixation because it represents a significant difference, felt as a pain, which promotes the feeling that creates an avoidance response if that organism is to survive. Otherwise, the organism would pursue fatal activities. This would represent a pleasure- seeking, pain-avoidance response. '(This could further be broken down into just a pleasure-seeking response, since the difference between the painful state and its avoidance is of system benefit and thus pleasurable.) It would be these basic needs that constitute the parts of the human system. Freud made one of the first important attempts at defining the system parts. The essential characteristics of Freud's theory of motivation are these: (1) Freud's concept of motivation, the 'instinc- tual drive,‘ is very much like McDougall's broad instinct concept, but perhaps not so broad and all-inclusive. (2) Freud's theory assumes only very few funda- mental drives--in the latest form mainly two: 'libido' and 'agression.‘ I think that the modern theories of motivation con- structed in the field of personality-theory are developed from Freud's theory.2 21bid. 36 In 1954 Maslow made a presentation entitled "The Instinctoid Nature of Basic Needs," which related to an evolving development of a systems concept of the human. In this presentation he stated: (1) The human organism has a nature of its own and , is more trustworthy and more self—governing than Pm T it has been given credit for. (2) There are good reasons for postulating an intrin- sic or innate tendency to growth toward self- actualization. (3) Most psychotherapists are forced to some version of instinctlike needs whose frustration results in psychopathology. I (4) These needs supply him with a ready-made founda- 1“; tion framework of biological ends, goals, or values.3 Others have since made attemts to define the characteristics of the human system. Madsen stated: There are, first, the different number of needs varying from sixteen in Cattel's theory to more than double that number in Murray's. Second, there is the different conception of the origin of these needs, varying from a theory like Cattell's, which assumes that all needs are constitutional, to a theory like McClelland's, which assumes all need are acquired.4 K.B. Madsen's behavioral theory uses motives, which represent the same thing as a need to label basic requirements. According to this a 'motive' is a special category of central dynamic processes which can be distinguished from others by effects on behavior and by cause (motivating impulses and stimuli).5 3Abraham H. Maslow, "Criteria for Judging Needs to be Instinctoid," in Human Motivation; A Symposium, ed. Marshall R. Jones (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1965), p. 34. 4Madsen, op. cit., p. 51. 51bid., p. 61. 37 Various theories assume differing numbers of needs or motives. It is important to get the root motive, to avoid labeling something as a motive that is really a combination of other motives. On the other hand, too many motives can be both confusing and potentially divisive of one real subsystem component. It is thus clear to everyone that if we freely assume a special motive behind every action, then it is an ad hoc explanation. But I think we are approximating this point, if we, for example, postulate about fifty motives. A motive must explain several dif- ferent behavior-acts to have scientific validity. On the other hand, the extreme of assuming too few motives has the danger that the gained simplicity only is provisional and that we have to further assume a lot of assisting hypotheses in order to explain the actual daily human behavior-acts.6 The Human System Certain basic needs have developed to constitute the human system. These needs must be maintained to preserve the "normal" operation of the system. Maslow developed a set of criteria to aid in the identification of these needs. Selected portions of this list are included in Appendix A, along with a brief discussion of the fit between the needs of man and the existing social character. These needs constitute a functionally related group of elements that exist to promote organism survival and development, thus defining that orgamism's behavioral goals. (See Appendix A for further information.) 6Ibid. 38 In short, basic needs (system sublevels) may be identified by their universal (pan human) requirements for gratification. They are something the system must have, or behavior may be twisted or logically react out- side the social definition of normalcy. My conclusion was speaking very generally, that neurososes, as well as other psychic illnesses, were due primarily to absence of certain gratifi- cations (of objectively and subjectively perceivable demands or wishes). These I called basic need and called them instinctoid because they had to be gratified or else illness (or dimmution of human- ness, i.e., loss of some of the characteristics that define humanness) would result. It was implied that neuroses were closer to being deficiency diseases than had been thought. And it was further hypothe- sized that health is impossible unless these needs are gratified.7 K.B. Madsen performed a synthesis of more than 20 modern theories, which are based themselves upon empirical research. He drew the following conclusions from his analysis of this research. Behavior is the direct function of some hypothet- ical intervening variables, which can be called 'central processes.‘ These central processes can be divided into two classes: 'dynamic processes' and 'cognitive processes.’ They can be defined by their functions or effects on behavior: cognitive processes have a directing or organizing function, while dynamic processes have an energizing or activating function. The interaction of these two processes in combination determines behavior. In accordance with this all behavior is more or less 'motivated' (i.e. driven by some energy), and all behavior is 8 more or less organized and directed toward some goal. 7Maslow, op. cit., p. 33. 8Madsen, op. cit., pp. 55-57. 39 It is the task of the subsystem needs to facil- itate the overall objective of the system, to guide the system toward the acquisition of necessary and desired resources to meet the objective. The overall objective is discussed in Chapter V. E“— 1 Human system reaction can be viewed as being 3 motivated or determined by three things: 5 (l) Impulses from the internal organs of the organism ; (2) Stimuli from the outside world , (3) Central dispositions, hypothetical variables which determine the individual differences in behavior. They can exist from birth and so be called consitutional, or they can be acquired later in the life of the individual by learning processes.9 Using the above considerations, Madsen developed a method to calssify motives in accordance with known actual functional relationship and their determining causes. His analysis uses two classifications of motives: organic and nonorganic. The "organic motives" are the motives which involve organic processes outside the Central Nervous System. For most of the organic motives a specific motivational center is known. The "nonorganic motives" involve and are deter— mined by stimuli external to the organism. We, of course, have to assume that there are processes inside the CNS as a basis for these otherwise hypo- thetical processes. To characterize them more posi- tively we could call them 'situational motives' or 91bid., p. 57. 40 perhaps better 'social motives,‘ as their determin— ing causes are motivating stimuli from the external situation, which often is of social character.10 The following classification system is thus established. Organic Motives l. Hunger is the motive (central dynamic processes) which is determined by impulses from the metabolic processes (empty, contracting stomach and/or blood lacking nutritional elements) or perhaps by stimuli such as smell, sight, or taste of preferred food. 2. Thirst is the motive which is determined by impulses from a dry throat and/or from an organ- ism lacking water. 3. The sexual motive is the motive which is deter- mined by sexual hormones in the blood and/or by sex appealing stimuli. 4. The maternal motive is the motive which is deter- mined by hormones and/or impulses from milk- producing glands, and perhaps from help-appealing stimuli from young children. 5. The temperature motives are the motives which are determined by warm or cold stimuli. 6. The pain-avoidance motive is the motive which is determined by certain noxious stimuli. 7. The excretory motives are the motives which are determined by impulses from a filled bladder or rectum. 8. The rest motive is the motive which is determined by fatigue-substances in the muscles. 9. The activity motives are the motives which are determified by (hypothetical) spontaneous, cen- trally produced nervous impulses and/or by impulses from the reticular system of the brain stem. a. The 'leerlauf' reactions found by K. Lorenz. b. The facts about the reticular system's activating function especially elaborated for psychologists by Lindsley. c. The facts of 'exploratory behavior' integrated by Berlyne's theory (2). loIbid., p. 62. . m7:- “ ‘31:; .n 41 d. The facts concerning the pathological effects of extreme frustration of these activity motives found in Hebb's and others' experiments with isolated individ- uals.11 At this point it should be kept in mind that motivation may be the result of images, the reproduction of sensoric impressions. This can occur in the event of absence of adequate stimulus from the perceptual field to attract conscious fixation (awareness). Strong demand from the system itself to organize or direct behavior L toward some goal, or need, to provide some link with a potential system benefit, can result in the awareness of images not in the immediate external perceptual field. This is the case because in certain cases other internally generated needs creating differences represent greater change than stimulus from the external environment. It will later be asserted that the image developed will be an appropriate response to the current system state and reaction to environmental stimuli. Also, in the presence of an unfamiliar environment, potential danger or benefits would likely direct the organism to make an evaluation of the surroundings for potential system impact. The emotional motives are motives which are determined exclusiVer by external stimuli (in opposition to the other organic motives). These stimuli cause extra energy mobilization via hypothalamic centers and the automatic nervous system in cooperation with the adrenal gland. The two most important emotional motives are aggression and fear (or the "security 11Ibid., pp. 62-64. ,7 3n .3 42 motive"). They are determined by frustration and danger signals (primary or secondary). The emotional motives differ from the other organic motives in not being determined by organic processes' but as they involve organic processes outside the CNS. I think it is convenient to classify them together with organic motives. It is just the fact that the emotional motives are‘ determined exclusively by external stimuli that makes them so modifiable by learning and perhaps the basis for many non-organic or social motives.l Madsen cited aggression and fear as the two most important emotional motives. Emotion, mental agitation, can be viewed as resulting from the fulfillment or unful- fillment of the need levels as developed on a pleasure (gratification)/pain continuum. Aggression, a rational system reaction, will result when it is perceived as the most desirable behavioral opportunity, as developed in the next section. In many cases it results as reaction to frustration, where additional force is needed to accomplish the desirable. Fear will be the result of threat to the system. Threat conjures the image of damage or pain. Emotions, as listed here, would really be the result of various impacts or assessments of potential impacts upon system needs. Emotions are, therefore, not subsystem components themselves, but rather the evaluation of impact upon other subsystem components. If emotions were to be classified, they should be classified as an evaluatory component. They shouldn't be classified as a motive in themselves, 121bid., p. 64. 43 but rather the product of other need variations, which doesn't identify the real source of the motive, but only gives an indication of its presence. Social Motives The common characteristics of these motives are that they are determined exclusively by external stimuli often of a social character, and that they possibly do not involve organic processes outside the CNS, except in the strong intensities, where they imply emotional motives. l. The social contact motive is a motive deter- mined by external stimuli of a non-sexual character from other human beings, and causing contact-seeking and contact-holding behavior. 2. The power motive is the motive determined by external stimuli from situations character- ized as competition for leadership, dominance or influence. 3. The achievement motive is the motive deter- mined by external stimuli from situations characterized as competition with a standard of performance. 4. The acquisition motive is the motive deter- mined by external stimuli from object of property or collection. This is probably a secondary motive based upon fear, the power motive, and the achievement motive. Another listing of needs suggests the following components: 1. A number of existence needs, including sex, hunger, thirst, and oxygen A security need A social need A need for esteem and reputation A A need for autonomy and independence need for competence, achievement, and self actualization. 4 ONU'IOBWN 13Ibid. 14L.W. Porter, E.E. Lawler and J.R. Hackman, Behavior in Organizations (New York: McGraw-Hill Company, 1975Y77pp. 42-43. 44 This suggests a list very similar to that developed by Maslow. These listings contain very similar elements. Basically, they consist of a set of organic needs plus some form of successful social existence, however defined. Some of these motive listings may deservedly come under attack. However, they serve as useful cate- gories to help identify various impact levels within the human system, which combine to produce a total system emotional effect. What is important is to identify what the system values. This gives an indication of its objective. Biological and Social Need Input Considerations The organic motives are oriented toward the main- tenance of the biological functioning of the organism. Organic benefits are composed of items that contribute to the individual's biological goals. These needs have an optimum gratification level. There is a limit to the addition that may be made to a particular need at any one time. During the normal operation of the human system, these biological needs require attention at fairly regular intervals--a glass of water, a night's sleep, a mean, etc. Social needs, however, are somewhat different. The equilibrium position these needs seek is one that is 45 met by constant growth. Although the need for contribu— tions to these areas may be a regular occurrence, the satisfier in a particular category may have to be of even greater magnitude to constitute a benefit. There is no real upper limit on their gratification. Madsen's Conclusions According to Madsen's motivational concepts, it is possible to explain human behavior with the use of his motive descriptions and a few more distinctly human trends. These trends include: motivating stimuli (can be replaced by cognitive processes like images), and the role of sets (processes of longer duration than other cognitive processes like expectations and decisions).15 The role of sets could quite likely be dismissed as cognitive dispositions specific to the human system. Madsen cited a third trend that is an important organiza- tional factor for living systems but not at all specific to human systems. This cites motivational systems in 1which cooperation between motives leads toward a common goal of developing sentiments or interests.16 Operationalized Need Classification To put all needs in a working perspective, the following classification system can be used. The term 15Madsen, op. cit., p. 67. 161bid. 46 needs is used here in the place of motives. It is needs that initiate action. The behavioral motive is the fulfillment of needs, as dealt with in the next chapter. There has to be a category that relates to bio- logical needs. These needs can be broken into as many separate categories as a person feels comfortable working with. However, there is one basic rule that can be viewed as an organic need law. Anything that is necessary to one's biological functioning, within nervous system detection, will make itself known to a person through the development of pain, when that need becomes sufficiently deprived. Thus organic needs resulting in a behavioral motive are anything necessary to enhance the biological status of a person, thereby relieving pain and producing pleasure. The next classification of needs is the social one. All these needs are defined by a perception of the self. A View of one's perceived status position, in relation to the perceived desirable characteristics attributable to a person, constitute the evaluative technique. This can be viewed as the single component perception of the self or identity. Additions to the perception of the self are defined by accomplishments that result in the obtaining of resources defined by the organic needs, through direct inputs to one's self or facilitation of the social structures that are defined as -. t— _ r) 1", 47 positive. Positive identity formation results when one accomplishes the organic or socially defined desirable. Anything defined as a positive accomplishment by oneself can be viewed as contributing to the social needs of that person. A further, more detailed discussion of identity is located in Appendix D of this thesis. Thus, we have the establishment of a need classi- fication system that accounts for the biological require- ments of a person, and the human as a being that has {J.p.h',. developed social needs that push toward a positive view of one's self. Most other need classifications list a communal or social need. This can be done if it makes a more comfortable working method for the person involved. However, group-forming tendencies can be viewed as being the means of accomplishing other, more basic needs. Societies owe high standards of living to division of labor. People may specialize in production of certain goods and services and rely on others for necessary items to fulfill other needs. The comfort of a friend can make one's perception of the self more gratifying. Association with certain groups can provide new status positions. PeOple often learn things from others. Learning provides new methods of gratifying other basic needs. People can also gain security, the protection of basic needs, when they are grouped under the protection of a mass of people 48 rather than existing as individuals. Sexual fulfillment, of course, requires interpersonal contact. All of these things represent methods of achieving other, more basic goals--not a communal need in itself. Social contact is only capable of producing an emotional reaction by the consequential effects upon other needs, not by the i act itself. However, it is such a significant method of fulfilling other needs that it must constantly be kept in mind. What is important is to identify what a person values. That which is valued and obtained will introduce a system benefit; that which is valued and lost will introduce a system cost. In most cases, a technical psychological explanation is not needed to identify where system benefits and costs can be introduced. Most people will be able to make reasonably good assessments of their needs as both biological organisms and members of social systems. They are able to do this because when a deficit in a need occurs it is evaluated consciously and is painful. The restoration of that need that is pro- ductive of pleasures. It is these feelings which regulate systems and point out needs. Ordering of Needs Maslow implies that needs are arranged like a ladder that must he climbed one rung at a time. In general, this means that at any particular stage of a person's development one need will be most 49 important for the individual. If, however, the satisfaction of a lower-order need is threatened, that need will again become important and the person will reduce his efforts to satisfy all higher-order needs. For example, when a person's sense of security is endangered, he ignores esteem, self actualization, and other higher-order needs.17 It seems safe to conclude that, in general, humans attend to organic needs when deprived, if they are operating under "normal" circumstances. Failure to meet organic needs--needs essential for biological maintenance --would eliminate even the opportunity to satisfy any form of social need. Exceptions to this rule exist where the strength of a "higher order" need overshelms a more basic need. A protester on a hunger strike could serve as an example. When organic needs are adequately met, as in many modern societies, social needs take on added value. To identify needs of the greatest strength, one should examine which needs, at any given state of the organism, are most essential to meeting the system objective. This concept is dealt with in more depth in the following chapter. Social System Many psychological explanations of the human system fail to take into account the significance of the human as a complex social being who doesn't always approach drive gratification in an easily perceivable, 17Porter, et al., p. 67. 50 apparently direct manner. There also exists a social system that exists to regulate and coordinate individual activities in a manner generally supported on its basis to further the collective human condition. Standards internalized from the social system can be just as import- ant regulatory components of the human system as innate dispositions. All human beings in social settings become socialized.18 Individual gratification may often be rejected or postponed so as not to violate norms whose violation may produce even more severe costs in the form of punishment, which may be administered by others or self-imposed like guilt or shame. The Role of Indirect Need GratifiEation Humans possess an ability to perceive the benefits of operating indirectly to obtain drive reduction. Humans show up day after day at jobs they do not enjoy. IOften they do this to receive a paycheck, which may be used to obtain the things they desire. This indirect method of achieving need satisfaction in many cases can introduce more costs than the number of benefits obtained, if examined always in a direct manner. Many times this indirect method is engaged in only because the human can ¥ 18Joseph Bensman and Bernard Rosenberg, "Social- ization: Fitting Man to His Society," in The Study of Societ , ed. Peter I. Rose (New York: Random House Inc., 1970), pp. 148-150. III-v- “m: I; ” 51 perceive the relationship between the present activity and its future benefits. This indirect method of need gratification can be called work. The goal of behavior is to receive gratification of needs. When needs are directly met, the result is pleasure. Pleasure can be considered synonomous with this paper's working definition of recreation, or posi- tive re-creating. Therefore, the human system possesses a dual capability to achieve fulfillment of its needs; one method is indirect (work), the other direct (recreation). Both have the same goal: fulfillment of human needs. When a decision is required about which is the most desirable undertaking, one must ask which alternative optimizes the attainment of system objectives. (This topic is dealt with more extensively in Chapter V.) Social Definition of Needs What constitutes power, sexual attractiveness, achievement, etc.? To establish innate universal needs is not enough. The appropriate satisfier for subsystem components can often come from a wide range of possibil- ities. For many levels, especially the social ones, what constitutes a need satisfier is a socially determined dictate. What will be pursued to satisfy universal needs may well vary from one culture to another, or from one time to the next. 52 Societies are a system themselves. "In its most general usage, society refers to the basic fact of human 19 Human behavior is oriented in-innumerable associations." ways to other persons. Some regulatory process will exist in human groupings. Not everyone can lay claim to every resource. Social relationships will develop. A social relationship may be said to exist when individuals or groups possess reciprocal expecta— tions concerning the other's behavior so that they tend to act in relatively patterned ways. To phrase the point differently, a social relationship consists of a pattern of human interaction. The society will act as a regulatory component of human behavior. Man is not an animal whose behavior is always a direct pursuit of the most pressing biological needs. The effect of any action produces a change in the environment which can be evaluated by the initiator or other societal members who may react accordingly, depending upon the effect upon their needs. Social and cultural influences can have a dramatic effect upon behavior viewed as a response to need. The understanding of the significance and role of the social and cultural patterns in human physi- ology is necessary to clarify those aspects of human experience which remain puzzling if htudied only within the psysiological frame of reference. Moreover, the role of the cultural and social patterns in human physiological activities is so great that they may in specific situations act against the direct biological needs of the individual, 19Ely Chiney, "Society and Culture," in The Study of Societ , ed. Peter I. Rose (New York: Random House Inc., 0), p. 78. 2°1bid., p. 79. _ ”34.117 ,4 -ATI 53 even to the point of endangering his survival. Only a human being may prefer starvation to the breaking of a religious dietary law or may abstain from sexual intercourse because of specific incest regulations. Voluntary fasting and celibacy exist only where food and sex fulfill more than strictly physiological functions.21 Harry Bredemier and Richard Stephenson made the til following observations concerning the role of the social é system and the potentiality of human response to situations. 2 The authors identified three aspects inherent in all social J situations, which serve as tools in identifying the role a e Egg of the social system as a behavioral regulator. The first, and in a sense the most elementary, classification is one that distinguishes between cultural definitions telling people what to perceive and those that tell people how to respond to what they perceive. The first kind we call 'cognitive' mean- ings. They tell people what is (or was, or will be, or might be). They include ideas of cause and effect relationships. There is no necessary implication that cognitive ideas are 'correct,‘ or even that it is possible to ascertain whether or not they are correct. They tell people what is or 'what the chances are' that something will happen. They might, to be sure, tell them incorrectly, but we are not at the moment concerned with correctness or incorrect- ness. Our point is that if people's cognitive ideas tell them that something is so, they will act as if it were so. Our basic proposition is that human beings respond to their definitions of situations.22 Bredemier and Stephenson's next classification is the one that decides what is desirable by cultural 21Mark Zberewski, "Cultural Components in Response to Pain," in The Study of Society, ed. Peter I. Rose (New York: Random House Incorporated, 1970), p. 161. 22Harry C. Bredemier and Richard M. Stephenson, "The Analysis of Culture," in The Study of Society, ed. Peter I. Rose (New York: Random House Incorporated, 1970), p. 120. 54 definition and defines what constitutes a real satisfier to any need category. There are basic pan human cate- gories, but the manner in which each may be satisfied comes from a variety of opportunities. Different societies develop different social characteristics, in which they select a portion of the possible behavioral opportunities as the desirable ones, called cathectic ideas. This is a classification aid in determining cog- nitively defined situational responses. Cathectic ideas consist of cultural definitions that define what is pleasurable and what is painful. It is one thing, for example, to cognize cater- pillars as possibly nutritious and a very different thing to define them as tasty. A moment's thought will tell you that we could find hundreds of illus- trations of this point in the realm of food alone. It is enough merely to mention such expressions as cannibalism, dog steaks, fried cat liver, and rat soup to make the point. We could also find hundreds of illustrations in the realm of sex, beauty, music, fashion, or housing. For example, the difference between even white teeth and filed pointed teeth, between the attractive feminine figure of the 1920's and the Bridgitte Bardot, between the music of Brahms and rock 'n roll-~these will do to illustrate the point. So thoroughly do cathetic ideas intervene between men and the environment that they can deter- mine such basic physiological reSponses as glandular secretions, sexual appetites, the pulse rate, and so on. The final defining characteristic of social response as determined by Bredemier and Stephenson is that of "moral or normative" ideas: 231bid., p. 120. .- un'l'V5- These ideas that, other 55 are different from cognitive and cathectic in that they add a dimension to human responses so far as we know, is completely absent from animals. All animals, after all, perceive some aspects of reality and have tastes--although their perceptions and tastes, are, to be sure, largely biologically dictated. But human beings also respond to the 'goodness' or 'badness' of things, the 'virtuousness' or 'wickedness,‘ the 'properness' ; or 'impropriety' of things. Evaluative ideas often take precedence over both cognitions and cathexes in determining action. Some things that are positively cathected may be morally tabooed, as in the case of many sexual pleasures' and some things that are negatively cathected may be morally required, as in the case of firemen entering burning buildings or men allowing women and children pi to leave a sinking ship first. Furthermore, actions that are cognized as being efficient ways to achieve some gratification may be morally prohibited, such as cheating on an examination or poisoning one's rival horse in a love affair. All Americans cognize the and buggy as a means of transportation, but only Mennonites feel morally obligated to use it.24 The use of these concepts provides the type of view necessary to understand the cultural influence upon behavior. process. It can adequately reflect the socialization "It is the process by which humans are changed from nonsocial to social beings."25 The type of social being one becomes is a function of that person's con- frontation with social situations. The compelling nature of social 'definitions of situations' has been dramatically demonstrated in laboratory experiments. Sherif has shown how group definitions affect individual perception in unstructured situations, while at the same time suggesting how such definitions become a property of the group. Solomon Asch demonstrated that the effect of group definitions on individual judgement 24 25 Ibid. Ibid., pp. 120. 56 operates even in situations where objective differ- ences could be readily perceived. [Experiment in Appendix C.]26 Conclusion Using the above view of the socialized being, the following can be understood. First, it is shown what im“ the individual actually perceives. This relates to Bredemier and Stephenson's discussion on cognitive con- siderations and the experiments of Sherif and Asch. A i _ j person acts upon his definition of a particular event or stimulus. Aspects of the social function of what the individual may define as pleasurable or painful are also considered. This relates back to the basic biological structuring of the organism. However, different need categories lend themselves to an often wide range of potential satisfiers. This notion also relates to the cognitive aspect of what meets the need when screened through what could be viewed as a biological and social filter. Finally, the moral or normative aspect is accounted for. This considers what is right and wrong and acts as a regulator of social action. It can suppress the drive for gratification of the system onia purely biological basis. These norm or moral factors set standards for group interaction and impose various sanctions for deviations. 26Ibid., pp. 120-121. 57 Using this perspective, it can be seen how people view perceptual stimulus, how they relate it to their functioning, and how they interpret the consequential effects of their reactions upon the standard of the social structure. What happens here is an interpretation of the n, stimulus meaning, an assessment of its positive or nega- tive value to a system, and a determination of whether the various forms of behavior it may evoke meet certain social criteria. CHAPTER V BENEFIT MAXIMIZATION PLEASURE PRINCIPLE Introduction When a behavioral goal is deprived, contributing to that goal or need is pleasurable. The greater the addition that can be made, the greater the pleasure pro- duced. Since recreation is defined by its pleasure- producing (re—creating) qualities, the areas where it can be of the greatest benefit are determined by analyzing which population needs are the most deprived and can best be contributed to. Since a total system pursuit of benefit (pleasure) can be demonstrated as a behavioral law, the demand for recreational activities is derived from an assessment of the recreational product's interaction with the need status of the population. The most total system per- ceived beneficial behavioral opportunity is the one engaged in. Recreational benefits are thus assessed by viewing of new motivating need states produced, which initiate new forms of behavior that are predictable when the new motive structure is analyzed. 58 59 The Basic Motive Pleasure is the only reinforcer for human behavior and thus constitutes the lone motive for conscious response. Herbert Spencer considered it to be obvious that an organism would tend to repeat actions that brought pleasure and desist from those that brought pain. "A reinforcing event is one that strengthens the behavior that precedes it."1 Pain is defined as a state of physical or mental lack of well-being or physical uneasiness that ranges from mild discomfort, or dull distress, to acute often unbearable agony, may be generalized or localized, and is the consequence of being injured or hurt physically or mentally or of some derangement or lack of equilibrium in the physical or mental functions (as through disease), and that usually produces a reaction of wanting to avoid, or escape, or destroy the causative factor and its effects.2 As discussed in Chapter III, pain results from the conscious evaluation of stimuli detracting from a person's behavioral goals. If pain were to act as a reinforcer, strengthening the responses that produced it instead of producing an avoidance reaction, the organism would eventually be destroyed, for it would pursue destructive activities. The only other evaluative feeling a person possesses is the evaluation of beneficial stimuli, used synonomously with pleasure. 1Hardy C. Wilcoxon, "Historical Introduction to the Problem of Reinforcement, in Reinforcement and Behavior, ed. Jack T. Tapp: (New York: Academic Press, 1969), p. 4. 2Websters Third New International Dictionary. (Springfield, Mass.: G and C Merriman Co., 1971), p. 1621. 60 "Pleasure is a state of or condition of gratifi- 3 It is the conscious cation of the senses or mind." technique that constitutes the evaluative criteria for encouragement of the change being dealt with. Pleasure represents the desirable condition, the reward of the action that produces it. It is the positive quality, evaluation of additions to the human system's survival and growth. It is the feeling produced within the sen- sitivity capabilities of the nervous system's detection that something is a desirable or contributory occurrence, initiating for survival and growth functions a reward to encourage such actions producing these rewards. If this didn't occur, the organism would lack the motivation to fulfill its needs, thus destroying itself. When a person is hungry and eats a meal he is not actually eating that food as an end in itself, but rather for the pleasure-producing, pain-avoidance quality it produces. Needs producing drives lead to the acquisition of the necessary items to fulfill those needs, consciously creating pleasure reinforcing the action. Two Conscious Evaluation Possibilities There are two possible conscious evaluation alternatives, good and bad. If needs are to be promoted and fulfilled, one evaluation has to reward and encourage g 31bid., p. 1738. 61 actions that promote goals, and the other produce avoid- ance responses. These two evaluation possibilities, of various strengths, are pleasure and pain. It has been stated that consciousness is made possible by changes in the perceptual field. All change p71. has either a positive or negative impact of various strengths upon the human system. Sensitivity to positive and negative impacts is the origin of pleasures and pains. The greatest difference relative to hyman system needs-- .L_,; subject to perceptual abilities--creates the greatest contrast in the human perceptual field, causing conscious fixation. Hunger can again serve as an example. The person who is hungry has a need that produces a strong desire for satisfaction. The greater the need becomes, the greater the difference from a normal gratification level, and the greater the system awareness of it. It would take an increasingly greater distraction to take one's mind off that need as it grows. It would increas- ingly acquire a higher level of consciousness. The organism has generated a conscious fixation, using its conscious capabilities to resolve the problem. When a fixation or awareness develops toward a need or group of needs, motivated responses result and opportunities for gratification are assessed. There may be a variety of opportunities for problem solving with various costs and degrees of gratification. It would be illogical for a system to pursue pain (total system impact). 62 Pain creates an avoidance response in systems with survival and growth goals. What must happen is a pursuit of system benefits, which is reinforced by the quality or feeling of pleasure. The greater the need reduction produced, the greater the pleasure produced. The more pleasurable the occurrence, the stronger the reinforcement for engaging in that activity. From the above discussion, the follow- ing principle logically follows. Benefit Maximization Pleasure Principle The human, given individual capabilities, always pursues the most advantageous opportunities for benefit to its system within its knowledge and definition of opportunities. To pursue a perceived less pleasurable activity is painful in relation to the more pleasurable state and is thus avoided. Further Considerations The economic concept of marginal utility is useful in determining what will be pleasurable in relation to the current state of a particular human system. It should be kept in mind that the greater a system depriva- tion is, the stronger the motivation for solving the problem. This is so because the stronger the need, the greater the pain-producing avoidance responses and the greater the difference between the current state of that 63 system and the state when attainment of the pleasurable product is accomplished. The law of diminishing marginal utility--As you consume more of the same good, your total (psychological) utility increases. However, let us use the term marginal utility to refer to "the extra utility added by one extra last unit of a good." Then, with successive new units of the good your total utility will grow at a slower and slower rate because of a fundamental tendency for your psycho- logical ability to appreciate more of the good becomes less keen. This fact, that the increments in total utility fall off, economists describe as follows. As the amount consumed of a good increases, the marginal utility of the good (or extra utility added by its last unit) tends to decrease.4 The reason for this is that a gratified motive is no longer motivating. Pleasure can no longer be produced if additions to needs can't be made. Consciousness now directs itself to the greatest feeling of difference in the system. Pleasure relies on positive inputs. These inputs create a difference in the system. When such con— tributions of sufficient magnitude can no longer be made, greater system difference will acquire awareness. This new awareness has greater potential and need for gratifi- cation. This shift, when it is ready to occur, can be visualized in the law of equal marginal utility. Law of equal marginal utility--Each good, such as sugar, is demanded up to the point where the marginal utility per dollar (or penny) spent on it is exactly the same as the marginal utility of a dollar (or penny) spent on any other good--such as salt. 4Paul A. Samuelson, Economics (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1973), p. 431. 51bid., p. 433. m: 64 The system tries to maximize the utility of its behavior, acting within its understanding and limitation of the opportunities available. The product with the greatest utility makes the greatest system contribution and is thus the most pleasurable. "Our marginal equilib- rium condition is not merely a law of economics; it is a 6 Even what may appear an illogical law of logic itself." human response will be a rational reaction to unusual motivational conditions when viewed in a total system con- text. The economist visualizes behavioral decisions based upon the perceived utility of products in relation to peOple's needs. The behavioral theory here agrees with that notion. To define utility, there must be a determination of the need structure, both biological and social, of the human system. Pleasure can be substituted for the notion of utility. Utility implies system con- tribution, which is the definition of pleasure when of sufficient magnitude to generate an awareness of difference. What is develOped is a pleasure orientation of human behavior. Pleasure constitutes the basic motive of con- scious action. Behavior will be directed toward a maxi- mization of system benefit. Every perceivable action of the individual or change in his environment produces certain costs, benefits, 61bid., p. 434. 65 or various combinations of both to the human system. Changes of sufficient strength to attract conscious fix- ations are evaluated through the combination of pleasures and pains, screened through evaluation by consciously developed capabilities and talents. The behavioral response is an expression of system determination of pleasure maximization. The concept of an adaptive psychosocial pattern as an evolved compromise implies that such pattern are overdetermined, that these observable forms represent the final common pathway for multiple 11$ pressures seeking expression. The human system's perception is organized to evaluate change through its conscious processes. Any system change that is of sufficient strength to generate an awareness, generates pleasure or pain. Something is only perceivable in relation to its effect or potential effect in relation to a need. It only generates con- sciousness if it possesses perceivable system influence. Human perception is basically limited to an assessment of system and potential system impact. Anything that cannot at least potentially impact the system need not be influenced, for it can neither help nor hurt that system and no adaptive response is required. Adaptive organizations monitor and regulate responses to stimuli coming from the external environ- ment and from internal needs. These include basic perceptual organization, (e.g. self-other 7Robert Alen Levine, Culture Personality and Behavior (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., l973i77p. 164. 66 differentiation, reality testing), a drive organiza- tion (e.g., capacities for stable affective responses to human object including the self), and the function of information processing (perceptual discrimination, memory thinking, and learning), control (e.g., delay of gratification, moral restraints), and syn- thesis (ability to mediate between drives, controls, and environmental demands).8 The strength of certain costs and benefits of a reSponse or impact can be valued for the individual system by the feeling it produces. When all potential impacts are assessed with respect to the above consider- ations, the appropriate behavioral response will be emitted. It should also be remembered that not all behavioral responses are conscious; stimulus response actions, such as reflex actions, also occur. They, too, will have an impact on the new conscious state to be assessed by the individual after the behavioral action occurs. Behavioral responses are compensatory or adaptive reactions to stimuli, mainly contrived through conscious processes . As psychosocial adaptations they are selective accommodations to the environment reflecting oppor- tunistic exploration of its available possibilities for personal satisfactions. 81bid. 91bid. CHAPTER VI PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS l. The good per se does not give utility to the consumer; it possesses characteristics, and these characteristics give rise to utility. 2. In general, a good will posses more than one characteristic, and many characteristics will be shared by more than one good. 3. Goods in combination may possess character- istics different from those pertaining to goods separately.1 This is now an obvious conclusion of the princi- ples developed by the preceding chapters of this thesis. (Any good derives its utility [its system impact] from its characteristics, the whole produced, and its inter- action with the need motivational components it can influence.) For instance, water can be matched with the thirst component or temperature-regulation component. Thus a total product is structured by the characteristics of that product. These characteristics then interact with the various system components that can be influenced by those characteristics. Manipulation of the character- istics produces a new system effect, and value for the total product. lKelvin J. Lancaster, Consumer Demand: A New Approach (New York: Columbia Univer§ity Press, 1971), p. 13 . 67 !T' .3 , - - 68 It must also be kept in mind that product charac- teristics in various combinations create a whole or identity for those products. The whole is not necessarily the sum of its parts. In America the structuring of product characteristics that result in a baseball game certainly produce a different whole and utility value I than the same product characteristic combination in Africa. The whole or product identity created by the character- istics in these two cases gives a completely different identity to the product. In America the characteristics possess the further characteristics of a high-status popular sport that provides a channel for fame and fortune or at least the dream of such rewards. These two examples are structured by the same basic characteristics but produce different wholes, different product identities, and different utility values. Thus the whole of the product is not always the sum of its base characteristics' interaction with motivational condition alone. The added characteristics that the whole possesses must also be considered in identifying a total product value. Conclusion Any product derives its utility from the impact it has on the current state of an organism's needs. A product can impact more than one component of an organism's motivational system. Any part of a good that interacts 69 with a separate need is defined as a characteristic. The cumulative interaction of the characteristics, and the whole produced, with the need structure determines the emotional effect produced and the system encouragement or discouragement to consume. c. . ‘1’.“7 ‘__‘ ’.'.' U Iii -I i L- -_ CHAPTER VII CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS Pleasure is derived from beneficial additions to i needs that make up a person. This is the positive restruc- turing of these needs organized into a system. Thus, intuitively, the term recreation (re-creation) has been IL_1 correlated and applied to pleasurable activities. Recreation thus becomes the science of identifying deficits in the need structure and contributing to them to produce pleasure. This, in the perception of the participants, positively restructures their needs, pro- ducing a new, more fulfilled status for their system of needs. The greater the perceivable addition to needs made, the more pleasure produced, and the greater the automatic attraction of that product. It is this value that is measured and quantified to produce the demand data desired. The uses of these principles in the field of recreation are nearly infinite. They can provide a new perspective on demand analysis as well as a method for determining how to structure products best to interact 70 71 with consumer requirements. These concepts can also help place a value on recreation, aiding in the justification of providing such service where desirable. Their value to a society is always the cumulative individual total of the effects on behavior of the relatively deprived state of the human system and its striving for fulfill- ment, under the influence of more severe needs, and the behavioral patterns of the re-created individuals with less demanding needs, resulting in automatic, predictable change. The demand for an activity is determined by the interaction of product characteristics, organized into a whole, and the present state of an individual. In other words, a product has various utility values depending upon individuals' different motivational or need con- ditions. The greater a product can be perceivably shaped to contribute to a current need state, the greater the demand for that product. Thus product demand is a func- 'tion of the perceived influence of the totality of a :product to interact with various behavioral conditions, ciealt with through emotional conditions produced, gener- eating a predictable automatic response. In establishing recreation programs, what can be dxlne, is to analyze how best to "re-create" the target EKqulation. Those actions that best "re-create" people Produce the most pleasure and automatic behavioral 72 attractivity, thus manipulating the levels of consumption. Examples of this can range from the simple to the very complex, with massed product characteristics interacting with system needs to produce Optimal effects. A very basic illustration follows. 'F“* On a hot summer day there is a much greater tendency for people to jump into a cool lake than there is to jump into the same lake at the same temperature on a cold summer day. This is so because on a hot summer ‘flJ day the cool lake relieves the heat. This re—creates a person's need structure in a positive manner, thus generating pleasure. An important point to keep in mind, even in such simple examples, is the total system impact. If fulfill- ment of one need imposes equal or greater perceivable costs upon other needs, the acitivity fails to be pleasur- able when all the Characteristics are considered. A steak may have a strong appeal to a hungry person, but may well be rejected by that individual if, for instance, religious sanctions forbid its consumption. Another reason may be that the steak costs too much money, requiring too severe an allotment of cash that could be used to acquire other c0ntributing products. A slightly more complex application of these principles follows. Lotteries have become fairly common activities in many states in the 1970's. What leads to the purchase or 73 consumption of these tickets? To answer that question, the product characteristics of the ticket have to be analyzed. The ticket represents a potential link with wealth, a certain amount of fame this wealth can produce, and the development of a new image of the self that accompanies people with large sums of money. This game also provides equal access to the winnings, which is desirable to those who perceive themselves as less likely to win in competition in which they have control over the outcome. To people in need of financial aid, it repre- sents the relief of the burden, such as work, such debts impose. The ticket, in essence, develops the perceived access to the opportunities and perceived identities wealth provides. Since, as earlier stated, image forma- tion can provide a certain amount of substitution for reality, these thoughts alone have a certain amount of utility or ability to provide need reduction. The product also imposes the purchase price, requiring the purchaser to allocate that amount of money to the ticket which could have been used to acquire other goods and services. Social restrictions or attitudes toward gambling may be a factor in considering whether or not to participate in the game. The ticket also contains a risk factor. The less the probability or value of a payoff, the less the likelihood of purchase due to a lowered perception of access to the significant winnings, m-II luv_"." " 74 hence lower total product benefit value. These consider- ations can be viewed as the major general characteristics. The more accurately product characteristics are iden- tified, the more accurate will be the analysis. The greater the difference between the individual system states and the beneficial characteristics of the product, the greater the desire to consume those character- istics. To produce the total attractivity, the negative aspects of the product must be accounted for. This can be viewed quantitatively by establishing ordinal values of ‘44 the product's impact upon needs, ranging from positive "re-creational" values to negative harmful values. The greater the positive total, the greater the attractivity of the product. For less precise measurement, simple observation of relative utility of a product in relation to certain people's needs should suffice. This should be very beneficial in analyzing what components of a product encourage consumption and which aspects discourage con- sumption. This will point out methods of improving total_ product attractivity, resulting in increased consumption. One of the best examples of the use of this method lies in the analysis of purchasing tickets to athletic events. A college football game can serve as an example. In what way does the purchase of a ticket to 75 such an event attract a person deciding how to allocate his time, money, and energy? As has been noted, all behavior is motivated and goal oriented. The games people participate in and watch have significance. They are not meaningless, haphazard F”? occurrences. They seek fulfillment of human needs, as does all other behavior. The first step of the process requires analysis of the product's characteristics and the whole produced, ; - I '4 1.5-1 i.e., a college football game. The game itself is a competitive event that produces evaluation of performance in the form of winner or loser. The game is a rugged athletic event that requires strength, speed, agility, and organized, coordinated, intelligent efforts, to produce high-quality performances. The more the Skillful performance of the activities is valued by potential obn- sumers and those who identify with a particular team, the more significant the evaluation of winner and loser becomes to one's identity. Also, the stronger the association with a team, the more important the performance is for the greater the significance to the perception of the self. Team sports consist in the formation of primary groups. A closeness or comradeship develops among team members because of necessity to unite, encouraged by the perception of a threat by the opponent. This necessitates 76 ) a coordination of activities under hierarchical leadership to successfully fend off the opposition's threat to one's self-esteem and physical well being. These communal type organizations, perceived and identified with by the spectator, are very rare in mobile independent societies and are very re-creational to those who are deprived and in need of associations with such organiza- tions. When Michigan State meets Ohio State in football, more than 75,000 people jam into a football stadium to view the competition. Many people associate themselves (aspects of their identity--refer to Appendix C) with these institutions. Winning a valued game, a victory on the football field, can reflect favorably on the entire institution as perceived by others. It provides a generalized collective identity accomplishment, which, through asociation with the winner, can be generalized to the fan. The greater the familiarity or attachment with a particular team's struggles, the easier it is to relate those struggles with one's own life situations. Iden- tities are composed of need status evaluations. Similar representations can be viewed or identified with the self. A person who is the same as one's self can easily be viewed as one's own self. It is easy to evaluate and feel the impact of change upon that person because the 77 changes can easily be related to one's own states, pro- moting the same feelings in one's own system. One doesn't necessarily have to have a title or location association with a school to identify with its cause. However, the greater the association or identifi- cation, the more significant the evaluations produced. The more significant the evaluations produced, the greater the system impact these differences will have. Significant differences attract conscious fixation, because they require evaluation of the differences they create and are evaluated for impact. These system evaluations of differ- ences are the benefits or system costs that, as described earlier, regulate conscious behavior. Differences of sufficient strength require evaluation, thus creating an attraction. This evaluation of any difference is defined as the most beneficial behavioral alternative because failure to evaluate difference that can be related to the self could be harmful. Where the benefits of any change are perceived to be of sufficient strength, they create a draw. This constitutes the attraction of an activity. Association with the team, identification with its efforts, sensitivity to situations--as the developing of knowledge of or sensitivity to (as dealt with in inter- pretative applications) more minor changes or differences, and effect of the significant evaluations. Heightening of 78 any of these aspects for the spectator can increase the attraction of the game itself. However, from a marketing standpoint, to attract more people other components of the product's attraction are important too. This football game can be a massive gathering of people. People can watch all these other people and think as they like, satisfying personal desires. It's a good opportunity to do things with friends, and a chance to get outdoors in whatever a par- ticular day has to offer. A very important consideration for the promoter of such an event is just who is coming, who isn't coming, and why? What product characteristics can be added to the total product to attract new people and maintain present clients, or attract enough new people to justify losing the old consumer? Perhaps adding various styles of music, new color schemes, or shaping a new team image more compatible with the interests of a larger clientele should be considered? Many people may choose to drink and enjoy themselves in this manner. Each of these subproduct characteristics as well as many others should be broken down and analyzed for their draw— ing power. Properly done, this will provide the answer to what types of behavior should be promoted to maximize draws or product attraction in various localities. Any benefit to the system that can be made without instituting even greater costs will increase the attraction 79 to the event. Attraction must always be determined in relation to its competition. For instance, big city professional Sports teams may often be competing with numerous other pleasurable marketed behavioral oppor- tunities. This can reduce the significance of any par- ticular evaluation. However, in places where the iden- tification with such teams is stronger due to less diffused evaluation (big city in comparison to smaller town), the evaluations produced are more significant and the attraction stronger.J Also, the more desirable the assoication is felt to be, such as a winner, the greater the desire to associate one's self with the contributing element. In many cases, despite smaller populations, the increased identification with a team, in part due to smaller size and hence more identity association, as well as less behavioral opportunities to obtain similar contri- butions, smaller towns could provide greater draws for professional sports franchises. This can be determined by weighing the draws of the product characteristics, examining for conflicts, comparing to population motive status, and multiplying by population densities. The characteristics of a pleasurable activity are structured so they contribute to the need status of an individual. The more they contribute, the more they will be demanded. Any sport or game derives its utility from the system contributions it makes, taken in relation to 80 the costs it creates. The structure of a game is highly significant in determining the demand for it. Also, the costs it creates to the viewer or participant are rela- tive to what engaging in that activity actually represents in an allocation of resources. To a poor man, a seven dollar ticket is a highly significant allocation of money; to a rich man it is not. To a busy woman an afternoon off may cost her valuable time that could have been used for some other activity. Another important notion that is dominant in recreation thought and clouds the importance of recre- ational behavior is the concept of leisure time. In essence, there is no such thing; it does not exist. Behavior is always goal oriented and seeking to maximize system benefit. Behavior is oriented toward this goal at all times. Leisure time is generally considered the time left over after all essential functions have been taken care of. Essential functions have never been taken care of, due to the system's behavioral orientation. The system is not oriented just to preservation, but to growth as well. Growth produces pleasure, for it consists of contributions to needs. To forego the benefits (total system impact at a particular conscious state) is both illogical and painful (avoidance response promoted) in relation to the pleasurable action. All behavior is composed of attempts at need gratification, even 81 "nonleisure" time. The system has but one orientation in its behavior: to contribute to its goal of obtaining pleasure (maximizing benefit), which is the evaluation of its success in or progress toward meeting its needs. Recreation then results as a compensation for unsatisfied needs. It is structured so it can produce the inputs the system seeks--the ones left ungratified by the rest of a person's life. It is these needs that seek gratification and often find their expression in play or recreation. When a football player catches a winning touch- down pass in an important game, catching the pass itself means little. The act achieves its significance from the contributory evaluation it produces about those associated or identified with the team. The fans go wild, the players mob the receiver, and those assoicated even very indirectly with the act have just attained, possibly in startling fashion, a social, positive self-esteem evaluation from a game that is structured to have meaning, producing evaluations that are considered important. A bunch of people out-perform the others in a tough, com- petitive, activity that reflects the cultural values of the society, and come out on top. The demand for this type of activity fluctuates with changes in social values, economic conditions, and competition from other need- 82 contributing activities. The evaluation of the winning team position relative to its competitor is pleasurable. Children may structure games to imitate their heroes. People who work in noisy, busy places may enjoy a serene place after work if such conditions bother them. PeOple sunning on a hot beach will be attracted by the cooling effect of the water when they get too hot. All these activities are pleasurable and demanded because they re-create needs in desirable manners. They compensate the organism in a direction of survival and growth. Working from the above principle, it can be seen that through analysis of motivational states, activities that provide product characteristics contributing to system maintenance and development can be structured to the needs of special groups. However, anything new suffers from a lack of tradition and can't provide the high-status illusions associated with more traditional games. For instance, it's hard to provide the same imagery as a little league baseball player visualizing himself as Mickey Mantle in a newly developed game. However, this technique may be very beneficial for groups of people such as handicapped individuals, senior citizens, teenagers, or those with any other special needs due to particular life situations. It is really a method of giving the peOple what they want and being able to tell what it is they will find enjoyable and fulfilling by examining their 83 particular need situations. People sharing particular situations have various needs, depending upon costs those situations may impose. The most pleasurable activity for people, subject to the cost of a particular situation, will be activities structured by product characteristics that relieve those costs-~those that negate the effects of bad situations. In cases of people with Special mental problems induced by a loss, such as depression, escapism (distract- ing consciousness) may provide needed relief while inputs are being made to restore deprived systems. This could also be used as a tactic in athletic training or educa- tion. If consciousness can be diverted from the negative evaluation inherent in a situation, the pain will not exist. The drudgery of an athlete's conditioning can be made more tolerable if during that process consciousness can be divereted to pleasurable images and situations. Pain or depression can be viewed as a conscious evaluation of the negative effects upon one's life, induced by evaluation of the present state in relation to a more desirable state. However, where there is no conscious evaluation there is no pain. Diversions of sufficient strength to attract conscious fixations to pleasurable (contributing) activities can provide needed relief to those dwelling on negative evaluations. However, it should be realized the stronger these negative influences 84 the more difficult it will be to divert consciousness to other stimuli, because it will require even greater change to match or exceed the differences being dealt with. This diversion tactic, taking one's mind off his problems, is an important part of many recreational experiences. Interpretation can also make use of the principles developed here. One of its chief aims is to develop more sensitivity to the interpretive area or objects. The benefit this provides is to increase the awareness of differences and chances for conscious fixations from the interpretive feature. For example, when a person looks at a forest he may see only the trees. These may appear beautiful, and beauty is a form of pleasure.' The beauty intrinsic in any item is a reflection of that item's interaction with the need structure of the human being. The more that need structure is deprived of a item, due to conscious processes, the more sensitive the system is to that item. Beauty is pleasure and pleasure is com- posed of benefit to needs. The greater the addition something perceivably may make, the more beautiful it is. The beauty of something may be increased by positively widening the gap between the need structure and the satis- fying component. This can be done by increasing the value of the item itself or negatively influencing the need 85 structure of an individual so as to make the perception of a constant value or item more significant. The characteristics of the beautiful item possess desirability. They offer the system something through the images they develop. However, if in the example used only the forest as a whole is seen, it soon loses its novelty and can become dull. However, if more contrasts can be develOped, the opportunity for the new pleasurable fixations occurs. The observer may now see much more than just the singular component forest. That person may now see different types of trees, wildlife, history, etc. Each one of these perceptions can make a contribution. This maintains contributing novelty for a much longer time. Hence, more pleasure may be obtained from the same area due to the new sensitivity to differ- ences develOped in the observer. The benefits of interpretation are assessed by examining the weights of the contributions and costs to subsystem goals, producing a different motivational state. A comparison of the predictable actions, determined by the motivational states that exist before and after the' interpretive effort, with consideration to other behavioral opportunities that could have occurred during this time span, constitutes the value of such a program. The positive value can be increased by contributing more 86 heavily to states defined as undesirable, thus producing more desirable states, however defined. Another important potential use of these methods is in trend forecasting for recreational services. What is pleasurable is compensatory for the needs lifestyles imposed upon people. If one can cite lifestyle trends, then he can identify the costs such styles will impose, thus pointing out recreational activities to restore people to the desired conditions. The ultimate attainment of pleasure lies in the biological discovery and control of the release mechanism that emits the reinforcer humans know as the positive feeling of pleasure. Since all behavior is an attempt to achieve maximum generation of this feeling, people will continue to seek the ultimate form of gratification of the senses. This entire method basically states: provide what people need. That is what will be recreational or pleasurable. The perceived opportunity with the greatest benefit to a person creates an automatic demand for the opportunity. APPENDICES 87 APPENDIX A MASLOW INSTINCT CRITERIA 88 MASLOW INSTINCT CRITERIA The chronic lack of the satisfier produces pathology: especially if this lack occurs early in life. (But it must not be overlooked that the transient lack of the satisfier can also produce desirable effect, e.g., appetite, frustration- 1 tolerance, healthy ability to delay, self control.) Restoration of the missing satisfier, if it is not too late, restores health (more or less), and cures illness (more or less), to the extent that the pathology is not irreversible.2 Suitable availability of the 'real' satigfier throughout the life span avoids pathologies. The chronically need satisfied person (the healthy person) shows no craving; his need is at optimal level; he is able to control or postpone satisfaction or do without for a period of time; he is better able to do without for a long period of time than are other people; the need is accepted and enjoyed Openly; there are no defenses against the need. The need is satisfiable, as a neurotic need is not. It is cross-cultural, cross-class, cross-caste. The closer it comes toward universality throughout the species the greater the likelihood that it is instinctoid. (This is not an absolute proof because all human cultures present certain experiences to every infant; or it must be demonstrated that the needs have been killed permanently or repressed temporarily.) All those cultures or subcultures or work situa- tions called secure, healthy, or synergic satisfy the basic needs more sufficiently and threaten them less. All insecure, or sick, or low-synergy cul- tures, subcultures, or work situations fail to gratify some basic needs, threat them, exert too lAbraham H. Maslow, "Criteria for Judging Needs to be Instinctoid," in Human Motivation: A Symposium, ed. Marshall R. Jones, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1965), p. 36. 21bid., p. 38. 3Ibid., p. 39. 4Ibid. 89 9O heavy a price for their satisfaction, throw them into inevitable conflict with other basic need satisfactions.5 Erich Fromm has dealt more extensively with the problem of the fit between the nature of man and the existing social character. He commented on the inter- action between the social structure and basic needs in the following manner. The variable of soical structure can interact with the human organism by defining and establishing modal behavioral patterns from the often vast potentiality of responses and definitions. What are achievement, good food, sexual attractiveness, appropriate communal activities, etc.? These things are defined by the social character. The social character is the nucleus of the charac- ter structure which is shared by the most members of the same culture in contradiction to the individual character in which people belonging to the same cul- ture differ from each other.6 Out of the relationship of the nature of man and the objective conditions of society comes this social charac- ter. To promote healthy human development, Fromm's view requires a meaningful interaction between the social character and the condition of life. 51bid., p. 42. 6Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955), p. 78. 91 Man could now be viewed as a biological organism modified by its social existence. In attempting to visualize the nature of man, Fromm stated the understand- ing of man's psyche must result from the analysis of man's needs stemming from the conditions of his existence. Men learn to act and want as they have to. The social modification of the human organism can spring from a wide variety of behavioral opportunities, which can often result in extreme variations of performance. From the opportunities of modal structures are some "good" and "bad." Fromm pointed out that the statement that man can live under almost any condition is only half true; it must be supplemented by the other statement that if he lives under con- ditions which are contrary to his nature and basic requirements for human growth and sanity he cannot help reacting; he must either deteriorate and perish, or bring about conditions more in accordance with his needs. Maslow's instinct criteria further state: The need shows dynamic persistence throughout life (unless killed off early in life). Neuroses are discovered to be covert, fearful, compromise, timid, roundabout ways of seeking these need gratifications. If everybody enjoys the need and its gratifica- tion, it is apt to be more basic and instinctoid. Neurotic, addictive, and habitual needs are enjoyed only by some individuals.9 7Ibid., p. 19. 8Maslow, op. cit., p. 43. 91bid., p. 44. APPENDIX B SHERIF AND ASCH EXPERIMENTS 92 SHERIF AND ASCH EXPERIMENTS Sherif made use of the "autokinetic effect," in which a stationary point of light in a completely dark room appears to move. First, he made his subjects individually indicate over a period how far they thought the light had moved. He found that each individual tended to establish a range of movement particular to himself. Next he put the individuals into two groups to see how the group would affect the individuals perception. One group was composed of individuals who had previously made judgments as individuals; the other of individuals who had not previously participated in the experiment. In the group situation, he found that each of those who had previously established his own range of movement tended to converge judgement so that a group standard was established. Those who faced the experiment for the first time also developed a group judgement, but their convergence was closer than the initiated group. Furthermore, when an individual faced the experiment alone, after his group experience, he carried over in his individual perception the standard of his group. As the Sherif experiment suggests, the more vague and unstructured a stimulus, the greater the effect of factors not inherent in the stimulus itself. Where no objective standard exists, as in the autokinetic situation, the individual is par- ticularly vulnerable to standards of judgement set by the group. In the case of moral judgements, which have no ultimate objective standards, it would appear that people are especially subject to group values, particularly in childhood, when such values are first established in the individuals. Asch's research suggests that where objective standards do exist, the amount of concerted group consensus and pressure required to affect the judgement of indi— viduals is greater, but nonetheless such group pressure is extraordinarily difficult to withstand. Asch's experiment involved judging the length of lines by matching a given line with one of three others, only one of which was of equal length to the line to be matched. Asch instructed a group of assistants (who pretended to be subjects along with one "naive" subject) to insist that line A matched line B, when in fact line A did not. He found that the "naive" subject in such a case nearly always 93 94 changed his own objective judgements in favor of the group distortion. Such experiments as these, repeated with variation by many researchers, have amply demonstrated that an individuals' "definition of the situation" is affected by that held by the group.10 10Muzafer Sherif and Solomon Asch, The Study of Society, Peter I. Rose, Ed. (New York: Random House Incorporated, 1970), pp. 120-121. E ' APPENDIX C PERCEPTION OF THE SELF 95 PERCEPTION OF THE SELF First, it should be noted that all identity and personality are in part a function of culture. The evolu- tion of culture aids in the establishment of criteria upon which to base judgments of the value of one's self {ii in relation to what is defined as desirable. E An analysis of identity needs to include: self- : identity, social identity, personal identity, and collec- E g.- tive identity. Self-identity refers to who one is at an 45 interpersonal level. Social identity is who one is in relation to other human beings. Personal identity includes both the self and social identity. It is an interactional set between the self and other human beings. Collective identity refers to who a group is as a peOple: it gives the person a sense of mediation between the self and the group, be it reference or membership group.11 The self-identity, who one is at the intrapersonal level, would be a function of one's generic structuring and the evaluatory system used to judge one's action or value of existence. The cultural influence can't be taken out of the definition of the self. One doesn't define himself by universal criteria of good and evil, but rather llJohn Useem, Professor of Sociology at Michigan State University, Lecture notes in Culture and Personality Course, Fall 1975. 96 97 makes assessments of who they are, what they are worth, in relation to selected behavioral opportunities that have become defined as appropriate. One's behavior can initi- ate actions that feed back an assessment, through a cul- tural filter, only to them, which provides an intrapersonal definition of the self in relation to one's competency as a biological organism and member of a social system. Even one's perception of who he is, known only to him, can't be taken in isolation from others, for perceptions mean nothing unless evaluated and those evaluations are in part the result of interaction with the environment, which includes a social existence. Hence one using an evaluation system of the self is able to sort out the value of an action or impact upon the self. The complex of character developed out of a reaction to one's basic needs, selected by cultural definitions and one's response to them out of the potentiality of satisfiers, composes one's personality. One's perception of the value intrinsic in any item is a function of the potential of that item to make a contribution to one's needs. This can lead to differences in individual pursuits or values, pointing out personality differences. Who one is himself is in part determined by the cultural definition one may incorporate or reject in his evaluatory system. Whichever action one takes is the result of a confrontation with these values and a judgment 98 of whether or not they can satisfy one's needs. Person- ality could be viewed as consisting of individual dis- positions toward environmental objects and strength of pursuits of various needs which distinguish every one from one another. The self-identity defines one's self in part through the use of culture. It selects the posi- tive and negative stimuli and makes judgment on every action of sufficient magnitude to be perceived. It is in a sense the connecting link or mediating selective device which defines the desirability and the strength of the pursuit of any aspect of one's life, relating to the self, in relation to the larger environment or human networks. The social identity defines who one is in relation to other human beings. Here is a more obvious link between the role of culture and the formation of identity leading to personality characteristics. How one defines himself in relation to other human beings is a perception of one's own ability to acquire the desirable in relation to another. Is one better than or worse than he is? Better at what, or worse at what? Certain behavioral goals, which can be in part culturally defined, constitute the desired ends of actions. Take, for example, a foot- ball game. The desired outcome is generally to win. Winning conveys a generalized sense of superiority to the 99 winners as long as the game is valued. A businessman may form his social self through the feedback he receives through interaction with competitors. All hold relative status positions in relation to other human beings. This developed identity and the needs it either motivates or satisfies translates itslef into the individual personality or self, determining the appro- priate reaction in relation to cultural standards. The total pattern of human behavior is at least partially a result of these identity formations, and vice versa. Since a person makes judgments relative to other human beings he encounters, the particular identity developed or considered at any time is a function of the presence and status of the people currently in the environment and the awareness or history of previous interaction with other people. Personal identity refers to the interactional set between the self and other human beings. This is a selective mediating device between the established self- identity and the cultural environment. As previously mentioned, one can't be taken away from the other. Culture achieves meaning and expression only when embodied in or conveyed to the human organism. Culture is in part that organism, a vital component of the definition of the self. The self is in part an individual unit, distinct from all others. The interaction or the working of these two concepts upon one another is the personal identity-- 100 a mediation device between the unique state we all possess and the total pattern of human behavior embodied in our cultural objects and symbols. Collective identity refers to who we are as a people. This concept, viewing man as a social being, identifies the notion that one's life takes meaning only through association with collectivities. The feedback received from perception of the collectivity identified is linked with the individual self and in a sense becomes a part of that self. One man may look favorably upon another simply because he is identified or associated with a prestigious organization. Collectivities can convey a generalized set of attributes to the self. This mediation from a collective mass to the individual self is the collective identity. It is the perception of these collectivities with which one becomes identified that in part defines the positive or negative quality of the feed- back relayed to the self. As has been stressed, it has to be remembered that culture and personality are made up of interactional sets mediated by these various identity definitions, The individual person exists in social settings which, in part, become internalized by the self. The expression of self mediated through various identity associations results in the formation of culture. The interaction of 101 the two produces various degrees of satisfaction defined by the self, which initiates the appropriate responses to preserve the existing order or initiate change. APPENDIX D POSITION STATEMENTS 102 POSITION STATEMENTS Associations An unpleasurable experience is one that has a negative impact upon needs viewed as a whole. "I hate Monday." For many that day is associated with numerous r»: negative effects. "If two things are experienced closely I} 12 in time they are likely to be associated." Like per- ceptual stimuli are associated. To distinguish between two objects or events, there has to be sufficient contrast .1; to generate awareness of difference. The associations of various objects depends upon the fixation on various characteristics of a particular object, such as color or time, etc. Monday is a day the same as any other day, but the often unpleasurable association of having to return to work can give it a negative connotation. Mone z Money is only useful in respect to the resources it can acquire to facilitate need reduction. Its utility is derived from its use in making acquisitions that result in system benefit. It has to be allocated. The purchase of one good or service has its cost in the loss 12Melvin Marx and William A. Hillix, Systems and Theories In Psychology (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1973)! p- 90. 103 104 of ability to use that money to acquire other goods and services. Unconscious Behavior There is an immediate response of some sort to every stimulus, yet not all stimuli are significant enough to generate awareness. Use of the conscious processes involves selecting from a variety of behavioral oppor— tunities the one that is determined most appropriate. Unconscious behavior involves a strict stimulus response based upon natural law and conditioning. However, con- sciousness itself relies on the physiochemical function- ing of the organism for its fixations and method of prob- lem resolution, and to that extent conscious behavior is also determined. The difference between the two lies in the more complex identification of the stimulus response .links found in conscious behavior. LIST OF REFERENCES 105 Pta- LIST OF REFERENCES Atkinson, John W. and Birch, David. The Dynamics of Action. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1970. Birch, David and Veroff, Joseph. Motivation: A Study of Action. Belmont, Calif.: Brooks7Cole Publishing Co., 1966. Bolles, Robert C. Theory of Motivation. Evanston: Harper and Row PuBlishers, 1967. Buytendijk, F.J.J. Pain. Edited and translated by Eda Oshiel. London: Hutchinson and Company, 1961. Freud, Sigmund. The Basic Writings of Sigmund Freud. Edited and translated by Dr. A.A. Brill. New York: Random House, Inc., 1938. . Beyond the Pleasure Principle. James Strachey (translator). New York: Liveright, 1950. Gilbert, R.M., and Millenson, J.R. (editors). Reinforce— ment Behavioral Analyses. New York: Academic Press, 1972. Gosling, Justin and Bertrand, Cyril. Pleasure and Desire. Oxford: Clarendon Publishers, 1969. Haber, Ralf Norman. Current Research in Motivation. Chicago: Holt,Rinehart and Winston, 1966. Heath, Robert G. (editor). Role of Pleasure in Behavior. Evanston: Harper and Row Publishers, 1964. Jones, Marshall R. (editor). Human Motivation: A Symposium. New York: University of Nebraska Press, 1965. Lancaster, Kelvin J. Consumer Demand: A New Approach. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971. 106 107 LeVine, Robert Alen. Culture Personality and Behavior. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1973. Madsen, K.B. Modern Theories of Motivation. New York: Wiley, 1974. . Theories of Motivation. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1968. Marx, Melvin H., and Hillix, William A. Systems and Theories in Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973. Maslow, Abraham Harold. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row, 1970. Olds, James. The Growth and Structure of Motives. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1956. Perry, David L. The Concept of Pleasure. The Hague: Meurton Company, 1967. Porter, L.W., Lawler, E.E., and Hackman, J.R. Behavior in Organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill Company, 1975. Rose, Peter I. (editor). The Study of Society. New York: Random House Inc., 1970. Samuelson, Paul A. Economics. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973. Tapp, Jack T., (editor). Reinforcement and Behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1969. Williams, Jon L. Qperant Learning: Procedures For Changing Behavior. Monterey, California: Brooks/ Colé Publishing Company, 1973. "1.1 All All 171111111 15