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Michigan State University
ifijfi SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORK

S.W} 899

EARLY SCHOOL ENTRY AGE AND SUBSEQUENT SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT PROBLEMS:

AN EXAMINATION OF REFERRALS MADE TO A CHILD GUIDANCE CLINIC

presented by
Joseph w; Holmes

Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan

g J .W. Heffernan MaYQS, 1961:
Assistant Professor

'H

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L‘. -blsj

 

 

‘Early School Entry Age and subsequent School Achievement Problems:

Organization Outline of Report

An Examination

of Referrals made to a Child Guidance Clinic

CHAPTER I

I. Study concerned with relationships between age at initial school entry and
subsequent school achievement problems.

A. Clinic staff observed school achievement referral problem pattern.
less mature referred more often.

1.
more mature referred less often.

2.
Study justification.

possible negative impact on less mature.
a need for more professional knowledge.

B.

l.
2.

Background of Prdblem.

consultation with clinic staff.
consultation with outside "experts".

C.

1.
2.

Survey of Literature

II.
Footnotes number 1 through 18.

A.
B. Conclusion of survey.

CHAPTER II

I. Hypothesis - Immature group referred more often for school achievement
' problems than is mature group.

Operationally defined terms.

1. define normal intelligence.

2. define good health.
3. define physical infirmities.

A.

h. define school careers.
5. define school achievement problems.

B. Logical steps of hypothesis formulation.

1. observation of Specific problems.

2. discussions with staff.

3. selection of school referral area.

b. selection of school entry age area.

S. identification of RMskegon school entry age policy.
6. examination of clinic's closed files.

7. preliminary survey of literature.

8. examination of variables.

9. formulation of hypothesis.

II. Methods of Securing Data

A. Description of clinic record content.
1. initial application for service.
2. clinic psychological report.
3. summary recordings.
h. school report.
5. medical certification.

B. Extraction of data.

1. chronological age

2. sex
3. health evaluation
he IOQ.

5. grade placement.
6. referral problem.

G. Control of Sample
1. the six factors under II B. above.
2. explaination of wechsler Scale.
IIL Data Analysis.
A. Definition of immature group vs. mature group.

1. sub-division of each group on basis of seX.
2. comparisons and contrast between each of seven sub-categories.

EL Submission of data to chi-square statistical techniques.

c. Interpretation of data within the limitations of a 0.05 level of statis-
tical significance.

CHAPTER III

I. Following list is result of comparing and contrasting the mature and
immature categories.

II.

I.

II.

I.

II.

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.

G

Overall mature group vs. Overall immature group.
Immature boys vs. mature boys.

Immature girls vs. mature girls.

Immature boys vs. mature girls.

Immature girls vs. mature boys.

Mature boys vs. mature girls.

Immature boys vs. immature girls.

Analyzed data lends limited weight to hypothesis.

CHAPTER IV

majority of findings not within accepted statistical limits.

Two items of Special interest.

A.

B.

Immature boys significantly referred more often than mature girls
for achievement problem.

Achievement problem referrals outnumber'other problems in frequency
of mention.

CHAPTER V

Closeness of data's statistical significance together with trend of data
suggests hypothesis has merit.

Scheralizations based on project's findings.

A.

Chronologically immature children more apt to have school achievement
problems than chronologically mature children.

B. Immature boys more apt to have these problems than mature girls.

C. Extreme caution must be used in generalizing on the basis of this
project's findings.

APPENDIX

Tables I through VII

BIBLIOGRAPHY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Purpose mid BaCkgI'OU-Ud 000.000.000.000...0.0000000.0.00.0000000 1
II. MathOdS Of the Stqu 0000000ooooooooooocoo00.000000000000000... ls

T"‘kDI‘lC-ing mOtheSj-S 0000000000000000000000000000000000.0000. ls
operationally Defined Tami-1,1010%? coco...00000000000000.00- 15
Data COlleCtion 000.000000000000000000.00000000000000000000 17
Sampling 000.000000000coo00000000000ooooooooooooooooooooooo l9
contml Of SWIe 00000000900000ooooooooooo0000.00.00.00... 20
Analysis of Data .......................................... 21
Interpretation Of Data 00000000000oooooocc0.000000000000000 22

QWWPOw>

IIIO Results Of the StUdy oooooooooooocooooooooo00000000000000.0000. 25
VI. 1318011881011 Of Findings 00000000000000.00000000000000000.0000... 28
V0 COHCluSionS 0000000.00.0.0.00000QOQOOOOOOOOOOOOO000000000900000 31

Append-ix GOO-00000000000000.0000.00.00000000000000000000coco... 33

Bibliography 0.000000000000000o.000.000.0.000000000000000000000 37

CHAPTER I

PURPOSE AND BACKGROUND

The Study Problem

 

This study is concerned with one asoect of the general area of inquiry
into possible relationships between the age of children at the time of initial
school enrollment and subsequent school achievement.

For a number of years it has been the policy of all school districts
within the locale served by the Muskegon Area Child Guidance Clinic to allow
children to began their school careers in September of the new school year
provided that they will have attained the chronological age of five years
tW'Iecember l of that same year. Consequently, a number of children are
entered in kindergarten each year who are between the ages of h.9 (four years-
nine months) and 5.0 (five years). These children who attain age 5.0 on or
after December 1 must wait until the following September school Opening and
are then entered in school between the ages of 5.0 and 5.9. It is readily
aDparent therefore that this entrance policy has the effect of placing less
chronologically mature children (as young as h.9) in a standard classroom
situation together with more chronologically mature children (as old as 5.9)
where both categories are treated and eXpected to perform as equals. In the
course of accepting and processing requests tendered on behalf of the community's
Children for psychological services, conferences, and counseling the Muskegon

Area<hdld Guidance Clinic routinely deals with a substantial number of school

agevpungsters together with their parents and representatives of their schools.

mmrthe'years it has often seemed to the staff of the Clinic that school

«mmhwement problems are more frequently mentioned in the referrals of those

duld-clients who have entered school at an early chronological age level as
cumosed to the referrals of those children who have entered school at a relatively
Imus advanced chronological age level. This study is directed, therefore, toward
ascertaining, in a fashion more precise than that afforded by casual observation,
whether or not children who start school at a comparatively early chron010gical
age level are referred more often to the Clinic for school achievement problems
than are children who start school at a chronologically more mature age. The
importance of pursuing research in the general area of possible relationships
between school entry age and school achievement as well as the rationale for

the prOposed study outlined above will be treated upon in the following section.
For purposes of reference school achievement problems are to be defined as
difficulties in any area of scholastic achievement in any subject taught in

the elementary grades provided said difficulties are considered serious enough

to warrant specific referral to the Clinic for psychological evaluation because

of them.

Justification of the Study

 

In general, it may be said that one of the chief reasons for the need
of research in the proposed area stems from the increasing complexity of
life itself. Many people today regard education as a prerequisite to personal,
social, and vocational Opportunity, and they consequently desire to accelerate
the education of their children by entering them as early as possible in the
school setting. Other parents, working outside the home, desire school services
fimrcare and attention of children during working hours, and still other parents
Semitheir relatively young children to school because they feel the children
hahasuperior mentally or because they desire more free time for social and

mnymal pursuits. On occasion, some parents mav send a young child, who is

-2-

xxmrlv adjusted socially, to school in the hope that his experience there will
lave a positive theraputic effect upon him. In any event, the question invar-
iably arises as to what positive or negative effects a relatively early entry
into school has on subsequent school achievement.

This writer, in his capacity as a graduate social work student, working
in a child guidance clinic setting, has often been called upon to interpret
to schools and to parents the results of psychological tests administered
to children referred because of school achievement problems. He has also
been called upon to work, on a guidance and counseling basis, with the parents
of these children as well as with parents comtemplating early school entry
for their youngsters. Occasionally, he is asked to voice his opinions in
school conferences as to what factors enter into school achievement successes
or failures. These duties are, of course, not unique to this writer and are
undertaken by his clinical social worker peers as well. It is readily apparent,
therefore, that the nature of clinical social work function in the Muskegon
Area Child Guidance Clinic demands that social work practioners have Special
knowledge of factors related to school readiness and achievement. It is
for all of these reasons then, that this student researcher would submit that
the proposed area of investigation is pertinent and relevant to social work
research as well as to the staff of the Muskegon Area Child Guidance Clinic
as a whole. Pbre specifically it is honed that this project will give impetus
and direction to projects that follow. It must be noted that this undertaking
can serve only as a beginning. Its purpose is to determine whether referrals

Specifically mentioning school achievement problems occur more frequently than

(muhibe explained by mere chance in the chronologically less mature school
enhy'grOUp as opposed to the chronologically more mature school entry group.

Itisruft‘within the scope of this project to investigate possible relation-

-3...

mups between school entry age and subsequent difficulties with any or all of
thavarious components of school achievement itself. It is hoped, however, that
mw'such relationships, actual or suggested, which may come to light as a result
cu'this project, will provide hypotheses for research of a nature more refined
than is this undertaking. In short, it is felt that the establishment of a
frequency relationship such as that indicated above would justify further and
one sophisticated investigation of direct relationships between school entry

age and the components of overall school achievement.

Emckground of the Study Problem

Since this project is in effect concerning itself with one aSpect of the
general area of inquiry into possible relationships between age at time of
school entry and subsequent school achievement it must necessarily consider
first the synthesis of the thinking of others aware of and/or concerned with
the general problem. As has been.indicated above it has been assumed by the
lhmkegon Area Child Guidance Clinic staff members that chronological age is
likely to be an important factor in school readiness. However, it would be
the consensus of opinion of the staff as a whole that chronological age
alone is not the only factor involved. Prominently mentioned as other factors
of school readiness, and which consequently are considered as numbering among
determinates of school achievement are mental age as measured by individual
intelligence tests, physical maturity, social and emotional adjustment, sex
(because it is held that boys more frequently than girls have difficulties
in school achievement), motivation, richness of and extent of pre-school
experiences, attitudes of parents, creativity, reading readiness, and socio-
economic status.

Although none of the people interviewed professed.to be nor are held
to be exoerts in this general field of inquiry it Should be noted that among

-h-

1fleir number was a school psychologist'and a school principal, both employed
tw'the Muskegon area school system. They, like the Clinic staff, have the
hmnession that there is a relationship between school entry age and successful
<n'umsuccessful school achievement. As is indicated this is an impression
onlv. They are likewise in agreement with the Clinic staff that chronological
age cannot stand alone as the prime determinate of school achievement. They,
too, see the other factors already mentioned as being of significant importance.

It should be noted that although this general problem of school entry age
and subsequent school achievement has been one of long standing neither the
(flinic staff nor the school personnel interviewed have submitted any aSpect of
it to a formalized research procedure.

The apparent universal nature of this problem suggests that a discussion
of its history together with a more complete synthesis of thinking concerned

with it be presented in the following section.

muwey'of Literature

In his treatment of the essential features of the American public school
svstem, Cubberly1 points out that the problem of "underage beginners" arose
out of a multiplicity of developments. Historically, children entered school
when they were sufficiently mature to walk the required distance to school
and to be away from home. Common experience dictated that six, seven, or
eight were the acceptable ages for entering school. These ages were consequently
incorporated into the compulsory school attendance laws. Over the years some
states began to encourage the provision of formal schooling for children

under six by permitting children four to six or five to six to attend when

 

lcuhberly, Elwood P., Public Education in the United States., Boston: Boughton
Mifflin Company, I93h.

 

-g-

awnege dailv attendance was calculated as a basis for state aid. The accept-
mme of the kindergarten and the nursery school as integral phases of the
eflementary-school program can be considered a contributing factor to such a
Inevision. In short, it can be said that within the framework of popular opinion
amilegislation it has become almost standard practice to admit children to

fbrmal schooling at age six or younger.

Although the difficulties of Cubberly's "underage beginners" date back
mathe Colonial period this writer's resources were not that all inclusive
amiin.the material available to him.he was able to find first mention of
studies reasonably relevant to the problem at hand in manuscripts dated
from the 1930's on.

As one peruses the literature of the early 1930's one gets the impress-
ion that this was the era when it was first felt that a child's academic
undevement, or lack of it, was in part determined by his having attained a
certain mental age which in turn would facilitate reading readiness. In
1931, a study2 was done on the question of when children should.begin to read.
Conclusions reached which are relevant to the project at hand were:

1. Correlations between mental age and ability to learn to read, as

measured by reading progress and sight-word scores, showed a fairly
high degree of relationship. The correlations ranged from .50
to .65.

2. mental age alone showed a better degree of correlation with reading

progress than did the intelligence quotient or the average of mental

and chronological ages.

3. Children who had a mental age of six years and six months made far
better progress than did the less mature children.

This report was widely applauded in educator circles. The matter might have

been settled right there with all children being admitted to school soley

 

22Morphett, Mabel V., and Carleton washburn, "When Should Children Begin to Read",

Elementary School Journal, XXII (March, 1931), pp. h96-503.
-6-

 

WI. _

on the basis of mental age and reading readiness. Practical considerations
inevented this however. In his analysis of the implications for administration
and curriculum that grew out of the large numbers of pupil failures in first
grade, Otto3 noted that school entrance on the basis of mental age alone
mnfld.present numerous complications, since some children would be seven,
eight, or nine chronologically before reaching a mental age of six and a

half. He come to the conclusion that the only defensible policy would be to
admit on the basis of chronological age and to provide such flexibility in
organization, curriculum, and teaching procedures that the educational needs

of various types of first grade pupils would be cared for adquately.

A major experimental study dealing specifically with underage children
was made by Bigelowh in 193h. She catagorized her subjects according to
chronological age and mental age and then studied academic achievement in
each category. Conclusions reached which are relevant to the project at
hand were:

1. If a child is chronologically between six years old and six years
and four months old and has an intelligence quotient of 110 or over,
he is practically certain.to succeed in school.

2. A child less than six years old chronologically with an intelligence
quotient of 120 or over will probably succeed, but personality

factors should also be considered.

3. If a child is below six years old chronologically and has an intelli-
gence quotient below 110, his chance of success is small.

h. Children below six years old chronologically with intelligence
quotients of 110 - 19, inclusive, and children chronologically between
six years old and six years and four months old with intelligence
quotients of 110 - 19, inclusive, have a fair chance of success.

 

3Otto, Henry J., "Implications for Administration and Teaching Growing Out of
Pupil Failures in First Grade", Elementary School Journal, XXXIII
(September, 1932), pp. 25-32.

l‘Bigelow, Elizabeth, "School Progress of Under-Age Children", Elementary School
JOurnal, XXXV (September, l93h), pp. 186-92.

 

-7-

S. If a child is below six years old chronologically and has a mental
age of six years and ten months or above, he is practically certain
to succeed in school. If his mental age is between six years and
eight months and six years and nine months, inclusive, he has a
good chance of success.

6. A child chronologically between six years and six.years and four
months of age has a good chance of success if his mental age is '
Six years and four months or above.

7. A child who is chronologically below six years and four months of
age and whose mental age is below six years has practically no chance
of success.

Thus Bigelow was enabled to establish rather definite limits for mental age
requirements for certain levels of expected achievement among young children.
Mbving out of the 1930's and into the 19h0's there comes to light an
investigations concerning the value of kindergarten classes and the factors
invo1ved in first grade entrance age. Findings relevant to the project at

hand'were:

1. Although state law usually sets up five years as the minimum chrono-
logical age requirement for grade one, there is a tendency to raise
it to six years, or at least to a few months before six years.

2. Factors which play an important part in school entrance, besides
chronological age, are reading readiness; results as shown.by
mental tests; and physical, social, and emotional maturity.

3. Many school systems would recommend stronger emphasis on mental and
reading-readiness testing before admission to school and a subsequent
raising of the age requirement.

Few research findings or expressions of opinion concerning the problem

of early school entry were found to have been published during the world War
II years, l9hl-h5. However, in 19h6, a studv6 particularly relevant to the

project at hand was published. In its summary its authors note:

"that some authorities state that the mental age of a child should be
six and one half years to permit successful achievement in the average

 

SHausman, Estelle J., "Ready for First Grade", School Executive, LIX (February,
19h0), pp. 25-26.

6Edmeston, R.W., and C.E. Hbllahan, "Measures Predictive of First-Grade
Achievement", School and Society, “LXII (April 12, 19146), pp. 268-9.

-8-

 

first grade. If one considers normal IQ's to extend from 70 upward,
normal children of six years chronological age would vary from approxp
imately four years and three months to seven years and nine months in
mental age. These considerations indicate that mental age is a better
criterion for entrance to school than is chronological age. However,
readiness, social adjustment, health, socio-economic background, and
motor coordination may be effective factors in the success of the first
grader. The non-ready first-grader soon feels that school is the place
where he is asked to do what he cannot do. Certainly the possible re-
sults of this situation justify the expenditure of both time and money
for its eradication."

In summary of the survey of literature to this point it can be said that
many of the early studies strongly suggested that a child needed to have a
mental age of about six and half years as the minimum for success in school.
This was based on the premise that such a mental age was a prerequisite for
learning to read. A study by Gates7 seems to question the validity of such a
hypothesis:

"... it has by no means been proved that a mental age of six and a

half years is a proper minimum to prescribe for learning to read by

all school methods, or organizations, or by all types of teaching skill
aid procedures. It is quite conceivable - inaeeo the evidence in general
tends now definitely to show - that the crucial mental age will vary

with materials; the type of teaching; the skill of the teacher; the

size of the class; the amount of preceding preparatory work; the thorough-
ness of the examination; the frequency and the treatment of special
difficulties, such as visual defects of the pupil and other factors."

Gates' conclusions would seem to suggest, then, that a variety of factors
other than mental age alone contributes to total reading readiness and that
any attempts to set school admission requirements on the basis of mental age
alone would not be satisfactory.

Before going on to consider some of the more recent studies concerned
with the general problem under consideration it is interesting to note the

8

results of a study comparing the differences in achievement between boys

7Gates, Arthur I., "The Necessary mental Age for Beginning Reading", Elementary
School Journal, XXXVII (March, 1937), pp. h97-98.

8Pauly, Frank R., "Sex Differences and Legal School Entrance Age", Journal of
Educational Research, XLV (September, 1951), pp. l-9.

 

 

 

 

-9-

and girls. The conclusions and implications of the study are as follows:

"Boys usually develop in nearlv all respects more slowly than girls.
Much of the research in sex differences indicates that girls should

be admitted at least three or four months younger than boys; or better,
that the entering age for boys should be raised three or more months.
The implications are a) that if this lower maturation rate for boys

is accepted, all educational and mental age norms published should be
revised to provide norms for each sex. b) In all likelihood the mental
hygiene of many immature boys would be improved if a later entering

age can be established for boys than for girls."

As one reads through the relevant literature one senses that the major
hmmnsistenqy in the problem area arises from the fact that while many schools
tmye lowered the entrance age requirements for school entry, they have at the
amp time done little to revise the program of expectations for beginning
lmrk and continue to attempt to impose the traditional curricular requirements
of the entry grade upon all children, whether underage or normal age. Hamalainen9
lms concerned with this inconsistency when he attempted to determine by quest-
ionnaire the opinions of 31 school principals, concerning the adjustment of
both underage and overage children as they progressed through grade school.

He reports that:

l. Twenty-four percent of the children entering kindergarten under a
September age of four years and nine months have had a difficulty
in adjusting to school as compared with six percent of the normal
age children who had difficulty.

2. Both under-age and over-age children face more school problems than
children of normal age. Their problems are principally in the area
of social and emotional adjustment.

Dealing even more Specifically with this inconsistency Altmann10 warns

teachers of young children to:

"remember to take the child where he is. If he hasn't reached maturation

for different stages of development, you might just as well realize that
he just can't develop past a certain point. The immature child hasn't

any place in kindergarten or first grade but some school systems and

 

9Hamalainen, Arthur E., "Kindergarten-Primary Entrance Age in Relation to Later
School Adjustment", Elementary School Journal, LII (March, 1952), pp. h06-ll.

10r‘tl‘tmann, Yvonne M., "Readiness for First Grade", American Childhood, MIX
(January, 195M, pp. 18-23.

 

-10-

parents eXpect children to be accepted in kindergarten and first grade

at a certain chronological age. The immature child will become very

unhappy if he is pushed beyond his capacity. He needs much understand-
ing and love. A pre-first grade or transitional first grade is the
answer to the problem of the immature first grader."

In 1955, a study11 was done which seems to indicate that having attained

a few additional months of chronological age at time of school entry is an
important factor in the child's ability to meet imposed restrictions and
tensions that the school setting necessarily presents. The study concludes
that:

l. YOunger entrants will have difficulty attaining up to grade level
in academic skills, and a large portion of them will fall far below
grade level standards. Older entrants are more likely to achieve
up to and beyond grade level standards.

2. A larger number of the younger entrants will repeat a grade.

3. fibre boys than girls will repeat a grade.

h. Average daily attendance will be lower among younger entrants.

5 Younger entrants are likely to show some indications of poor
personal and social adjustment in school.

Before giving some necessary consideration to the social and personal
.mfiustment of the underage school entrant, which together with school achieve-
ment make up the bulk of scholastic attainment for him, a brief presentation
of some of the reasons causing acceleration of children in school is now
made. Typical of the several reports on this phenomenon is the treatment
given it by Strickland and Plichta12 who point out a number of reasons
accounting for it. Some of these reasons are:

l. The complexity of American life causes people to look upon education

as a prerequisite to personal, social, vocational opportunity and
they wish to speed up the formal education of their children.

 

1IKing, Indez B. "Effect of Age of Entrance into Grade 1 upon Achievement in
Elementary School", Elementary School Journal, LIII (February, 1955), pp. 331-36-

IZStrickland, Ruth 0., and thllis Plichta, "Age of Entrance into First Grade",
fygletin of School of Education, Indiana University, XXV (January, l9h9),
pp. 7-12. '

-11-

2. Families living in crowded residential areas with no play space
want to send children to school as early as possible to provide
playground opportunities.

3. Some mothers wish to send their children to school as early as
possible to give the mother more free time for her social, recreat-
ional, and domestic activities.

h. Some school systems use acceleration as a means of challenging the
bright pupils because it is an easy "mechanical" method.

The question now arises as to what effects early or late school entry
may have not only on the children's school achievement but on the children
themselves. In short, where does the child's social and personal needs enter
into the scheme of things here. In discussing this particular aSpect of the
general problemJennings13 states that

"all learning in school takes place within the setting of pupil-pupil

relationships. Academic learnings in the school cannot be separated

from the social atmosphere in which it takes place. Mbst teachers real-
ize that the individual's personal and academic growth can be affected
adversely or favorably by his position in the group, and that all pupils
stimulate or thwart each other in.many ways."

In.this same vein, Stendler and Young111 see social adjustment as a very
real problem for the early school entrant.

"The underage entrants to school appear to be at a distinct disadvantage

from the standpoint of personal and social adjustment. The younger

entrants are likely to show more indicators of poor personal adjust-
ment and social adjustment in school. The lack of overall maturity
seems to be noticeable in the first three grades and to a lesser extent,
in all subsequent grades."

The few remarks above which comment on the social and emotional adjust-
ment of school children are illustrative of the opinions offered in other
literature to the effect that the underage school entrant is in unfair

competition if he tries to keep abreast with other children of similar mental

abilities who have other maturities exceeding those of the younger child.

 

13Jennings, Helen H., Sociometry In Group Relations, washington: American
Council on EducatiOn, l9h8.

1hStendler, Celia B., and Norman Ybung, "The Impact of Beginning First Grade

 

Upon Socialization as Reported by Mothers", Child Development, XXI (December,

 

1950), pp. 2hl-260.
-12-

Fbr the most part the literature seems to reflect the viewpoint that many

of the underage school entrants never realize their optimal leadership capac-
ities and other indicators of healthy social growth which they very likely
tmuld have done in their'own normal age group.

Turning once again to the area of academic achievement one finds a
pertinent and relatively recent study dealing with the importance of age
on school performance. In this study, Buhler15 divided pupils in each elemen-
tary school grade (in one elementary school) into three groups - oldest, middle,
and youngest. She found that reports on school performance as well as marks
in individual subjects bore a clear relationship to the respective age levels
of the pupils. In each of the seven grades, the oldest children of a grade
showed consistently higher academic achievement than the middle group which
in turn was superior to the youngest.

Finally, and in conclusion of this section on the survey of literature,
this writer would like to refer to Hiidreth16 who feels that the real problem
of school entrance age is to determine a minimum age standard for school
entrants that will exclude children who are too young to progress satisfactorily.
She points out that:

"...the only research findings that have much bearing on the problem

are those that tend to show that in the conventional first grade,

children tend to fail unless they have a mental age of about six years

and four months at the time of entrance. Only brighter children and
those who are nearing six and a half by the opening of school in

September make good progress with the traditional first grade program."

In view of all of the literature surveyed to this point then, it would

seem that there is good cause to believe that there is a relationship of sign-

ificance between chronological age at time of school entry and subsequent

 

15Buhler, Charlotte, From Birth to maturity, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,
Ltd., 1951.

16Hildreth, Gertrude, "Age Standards for First Grade Entrance", Childhood
Education, XXIII (September, l9h6), pp. 22-27.

-13-

school adjustment. It would therefore not be surprising to find that children

starting school at a comparatively early chronological age are referred more
often to the Huskegon Area Child Guidance Clinic because of school achievement

problems than are children who start school at a chronologically more mature age.

-1h-

CHAPTER II

METHODS OF THE STUDY

The Hypothesis

 

The working hypothesis of this study is:

Children of normal intelligence, in good health, and without phySical
infirmities, who begin their school careers within a chronological age
range of h.9 (four years-nine months) to 5.0 (five years) are referred
more often to the Muskegon Area Child Guidance Clinic because of school
achievement problems than are children of normal intelligence, in good
health, and without physical infirmities, who begin their school careers
within a chronological age range of 5.6 (five years-six months) to 5.9
(five years-nine months).

The terms used in the hypothesis are defined operationally as follows:

Normal Intelligence

 

For the purpose of this study wechsler's definition)“7 of intelligence

is adhered to ..."Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effect-
ively with his environment." Intelligence considered "normal" within
this defipétion would fall within the intelligence quotient range of

90 - 110. In this study, all of the children in the sample will have
been previously been tested for intelligence quotient by the same clinical
psychologist using the same recognized and uniform intelligence test

(to be described in another section). It is to be understood that hold-
ing I.Q. constant when selecting the sample is done only for the purpose
of ruling out of the sample mental defectives. No claim is made for the
validity or reliability of the I.Q. test other than to say that it is
used in all Michigan Child Guidance Clinics as an accepted indicator of
intellectual functioning.

Good Health

 

For the purpoSe of this study the term "good health" is applied
only to those children certified by a state-licensed medical physician
to be free of all known physical illnesses and/or diseases.

 

T 1.
7Jechsler, David, The Measurement of Adult Intelligence, Baltimore: williams
ti dilkins, 19hh, p. 3.
18 Ibid. , p.110.

-15-

Physical Infirmities

 

For the purpose of this study the term "without physical infirmities"
is applied only to those children certified by a state-licensed medical
physician to have full possession and full use of all body extremities
E.G. arms, legs, fingers, toes, and who is also certified to have full
control over all body functions E.G. walking, running, sitting, standing.

School Careers

 

For the purpose of this study the term "begin school careers" is used
in conjunction with those children who began school at the kindergarten
grade level within the indicated chronological age ranges.

School Achievement Problems

 

For the purpose of this study the term "school achievement problems"
is defined to mean any hint or trace of an inability to gain required know-
ledge or understanding of, or skill in, by study, instruction, or invest-
igation, any required subject taught in the elementary grades (kinder-
garten through grade 7) of all schools within the locale served the
Muskegon Area Child Guidance Clinic; provided, that said inability is
considered serious enough to warrant specific referral to the Clinic
because of it. It is to be understood that said referral can be made
by any interested party.

The reader will note that the two age groups h.9 to 5.0 (four years,
rune months to five years) and 5.6 to 5.9 (five years, six months to five
Years, nine months) referred to in the hypothesis are separated by a chrono-
logical age span of 0.6 (six months). This arbitrary separation was made so
that subsequent comparisons and contrasts between the two groups would stand
forth more sharply.

logical steps leading to the final formulation of the working hypothesis
were:

a) casual observation of specific problems presented during clinic intake.

b) discussion with clinic staff members re: personal opinions about
causes of said Specific problems.

c) selection of the general area of school referrals.
d) selection of the specific area of school entry age-school achievement.

e) identification of the permissable school entry age in the Muskegon
school district.

-16-

f) cursory check through the Clinic‘s closed case files for the purpose

of looking at school entry ages together with Specific reasons for
referral.

g) preliminary survey of literature re: school entry age - school
achievement.

h) an examination of variables entering into successful or unsuccessful
school achievement.

i) formulation of the specific hypothesis.

In the process of analyzing the problem initially posed for the study a
number of other hypotheses suggested themselves. Some of these such as a
relationship between mental age and school achievement, sex (male or female)
and school achievement, physical maturity and school achievement, etc., have
been discussed in the survey of literature. The present hypothesis was selected
from these because the Clinic records which have been utilized are extremely
limited in terms of providing reliable and valid measurements of mental age,
physical maturity, and other such complex variables. On the other hand the
records prOVide quite adquate and factual imformation re: chronological age
at time of school entry, sex, medical evaluations, school grade reports, and
Specific referral problem. Verification of the hypothesis chosen for this

study was not eXpected to show that the other hypothesis are irrelevant.

The Data: Method of Securing Them

 

The data collected has been drawn entirely from information entered
in the case records of the Muskegon Area Child Guidance Clinic. The content
of these records includes:
1) The initial application for service which is filled out by the referral
source E.G. Parent, Teacher, Physician, etc. A completed application
includes:

a) name, age, sex, race, school and school grade, religion,
address and phone number (if any) of the referred client.

-17-

b) names, ages, sexes, race, occupations, addresses and phone
numbers of the client's parents and brothers and sisters
(if any).

0) a description of the referral problem and how the problem
is displayed.

2) The Muskegon Area Child Guidance Clinic Psychological Report. A
completed psychological report includes:
a) name, birthdate, and referral problem of the client.

b) the examining psychologist's subjective impression of the
Client.

c) the results of the psychological examination which include:
(1) Intelligence quotient.
(2) Oral reading grade level.
(3) Evaluation of emotional and physical development.
d) discussion of findings.
3) Summary recordings of interviews held by the staff with the client
and interested parties.
b) School report which includes:
a) the client's age at time of school entry.

b) report of academic achievement to date.

c) estimation of the client's social and emotional growth to
date.

5) Medical certification of the client's state of physical well-being.

With the exception of the always ongoing summary recording the contents

of the case records are completely assembled within a week of the initial

application. In their entirety the case records are used for the diagnosis

of the problem.and for the formulation of the treatment plan (if any).

The data, which has been personally extracted by this writer, is speci-

fically as follows:

1) chronological age at time of school entry.

-18-

2) sex of client.

3) medical evaluation of client's overall physical health.
h) intelligence quotient.

5) grade placement at time of referral.

6) specific referral problem.

This writer did not anticipate any factors related to the case records

and their reading which will impair, limit, or otherwise affect the data.

Sampling

For the purpose of this project that procedure known as "stratified
random sampling" has been utilized. The closed case file at the MUSkegon
Area Child Guidance Clinic furnished the case records of the units in the
sample. Out of the last 1000 closed cases were selected 200 case records
for sample. 100 of these case records were those of children whose record

indicates a school entry age of h.9 to 5.0 years. 50 of these 100 case

 

records were those of boys and consequently 50 were those of girls. The
remaining 100 case records were those of children whose record indicates

a school entry age of 5.6 to 5.9. These latter 100 cases were also sub-
divided equally on the basis of sex. All 100 children in the total sample

have been referred to the Clinic at some time during their elementary school
careers (kindergarten through grade 7). All have been found to have intelli-
gence quotients ranging from 90 to 110. The total sample was further restricted
to monoligual, physically healthy children who are not physically disabled or
incapacitated in any discernable fashion E.G. blind, crippled, deaf. There

was no way, except for undesirable subjective judgement, to estimate the socio-
economic status of the sample units from the data available. It must be noted

that the specific referral problem was completely and necessarily ignored in

-19-

selecting the total sample. Because of the restrictions placed on the selection
of the sample this writer did not eXpect to find many more than 200 out of 1000
cases which fit the exacting requirements. In view of this, it is felt that

the sample is highly representative of the specific universe in question.

Control of the Sample

 

As indicated above the factors controlled in this study are: chronological
age ranges at time of school entry; sex of the clients; phVSical well-being of
the clients; school grade at time of referral; intelligence quotient. Age at
time of school entry is controlled because a relationship between it and school
achievement is being sought. Physical well-being (already defined) is controlled
so that physical illness or incapacity will not have interferred with school
achievement. School grade at time of referral was arbitrarily chosen to be
controlled in order to set limits on the sample. Sex of the clients is con-
trolled so that contrasts and comparisons can made between the two study groups
on the basis of sex as well as age. Intelligence quotient is controlled so
that the sample is representative of what is termed children of "normal intelli-
gence" (already defined). This is done to rule out of the sample children who
could be classified as mentally defective or mentally superior when compared
with other children in the sample. The wechsler-Bellevue Scale, Form I is the
instrument used to measure the intelligence quotient of all children seen by the
(Binic. This test is the preferred instrument in Michigan child guidance clinics
for evaluating the intelligence of youngsters. It consists of five verbal sub-
tests (information, comprehension, digit-span, arithmetic, and similarities)
and five performance subtests (picture completion, picture arrangement, object
assembly, block design, and digit symbol substitution). The wechsler scales
aflford much material for qualitative diagnostic evaluation and they are held

to give a highly valid quantitative measure of mental capacity. No claims are

-20...

made in this paper for the validity of the WEChsler's measurements. However,
it is felt that said measurements have provided a reasonably effective means
by which to limit the sample to children of "normal intelligencefl.

Failure to control all of the factors mentioned above (with the exception
of school grade at time of referral) would make possible their influencing
successful or unsuccessful school achievement. Unfortunately there was no
means available to this writer to identify and control mental age. The survey

of literature has indicated that this would be desirable.

Analysis of Data

 

When the sample was selected and catagorized into the two previously
indicated school entry age groups and when each age group was further sub-
divided on the basis of sex, the specifically stated problem for which each
unit of the total sample was referred to the Clinic was read and duly noted.
The number of Specific referrals for school achievement problems (defined
above) for each category (and sub-catagory) was extracted and counted. The
result was a count of the number of Specific school achievement problem
referrals made for each age-sex catagory. Contrasts and comparisions were
then made between the following catagories with respect to the number of specific
school achievement problem referrals within each catagory. (The h.9 to 5.0
school entry age group will be referred to below as "immature" - the 5.6 to
5.9 school entry age group will be referred to as "mature").

1) The overall immature group with the overall mature group.

2) The immature boys with the mature boys.

3) The immature girls with the mature girls.

h) The immature boys with the mature girls.

5) The immature girls with the mature boys.

6) The immature boys with the immature girls.

-21-

7) The mature boys with the mature girls.
Shme this study is concerned with contrasts and comparisons between these
mwen groupings, in terms of the number of school achievement problem referrals
occuring in each, it utilized that statistical technique known as "chi-square"
asiis statistical instrument of analysis. To this end each of the seven
groupings were submitted to a four cell square for the purpose of determining
whether differences in the number of said referrals between the components of
each groupong are statistically significant. USing grouping number 2 from

'U@ seven groupings the following example of the four cell square is presented:

Number of Referrals Number of Referrals
for School for other
Achievement Problem Problems

 

v- TV

immature boys

 

mature boys

 

 

 

 

The chi-squared result and the probability value has been calculated and will
be presented. Separate four cell squares for each grouping, each with its
own chi-square and probability calculation, will be presented in the last
section.of this report and will be termed and numbered "Table I" through

'Wbble VII".

flemretation of Data
Essentially this study is concerned with determining whether referrals

SPeeifically'mentioning school achievement problems occur more frequently

-22-

thu1could be explained.by mere chance in the chronologically less mature
mfimol entry group as opposed to the chronologically more mature school
entry group. This has been accomplished by submitting grOuping number 1
(see above) to the chi-square test. In order to refine the analysis further
each of the remaining 6 groupings have also been.submitted to the chi-square
test and for the same reasons of comparison as grouping number 1. [The 6
additional groupings will also provide a greater variety of contrast as well
as of comparison. 4
Based on discussion and on the survey of literature it was expected that
relationships of significance would have been feund in the following areas:
1) Referrals Specifically mentioning school achievement problems will
have occured more frequently than could be explained by mere chance
in the chronologically less mature school entry group as opposed

to the chronologically more mature school entry group.

2) Immature boys will have been referred more often for said problem
than mature boys.

3) Immature girls will have been referred more often for said problem
than mature girls.

h) Immature boys will have been referred more often for said problem
than mature girls.

5) Immature girls will have been referred more often for said problem
than mature boys.

6) Mature boys will have been referred more often for said problem
than mature girls.

7) Immature boys will have been referred more often for said problem
than immature girls.
For the purpose of this paper a level of statistical significance equal
to .05 for each of the seven groupings will be considered acceptable. Attain-
ment of such a level of significance in any or/all groupings will be considered
an indication that a significant difference exists between the observed fre-
quency and the expected frequency of the aforementioned referrals within each

-23-

In conclusion of this section it must be noted that there have been many
other factors brought to light in the survey of literature which are thought
to enter into successful or unsuccessful school achievement. Any relationship
of significance brought to light by this study with regard to school entry age
and subsequent referral to the Clinic because of school achievement problems
must be considered subject to modification by all of those factors mentioned
but not controlled for E.G. mental age, socio-economic status, school achieve-
ment subject to interpretation by any interested party, etc. In short, this
study can only hope to provide direction for studies more sephisticated and

refined than this one.

-211-

CHAPTER III
RESULTS OF THE STUDY

The following list of findings is the result of comparing and contrasting

the mature and immature catagories referred to on page 23.

1) The Nature School Entry Group vs. The Immature School Entry Group.

The analyzed data shows that referrals Specifically mentioning school
achievement problems have occurred more frequently in the chronologically'lgss
nature school entry group than in the chronologically'mgrg mature school entry
group. This finding was at the 10 per cent level of statistical significancel
and therefore does not fall within the prescribed limits of the 5 per cent
level of statistical signigicance considered acceptable for this study. However,
this finding definitely suggests that as far as the caseload trend of the
lhskegon Area Child Guidance Clinic is concerned the referrals of children

falling into the immature category will mention school achievement problems

more frequently than the referrals of children falling into the mature catagory.

2) Immature Boys vs. Mature Boys

 

The study results show that referrals specifically mentioning school
achievement problems occurred more frequently with regard to the immature boys
than with regard to the mature boys. This finding was at the 20 per cent level
of statistical significance2 which while not falling within the limits specified
for this study tends to lend some measure of credence to this particular sub-

hypothesis.

 

1See Table I on page 33
2See Table II on page 33

-25-

3) Immature Girls vs. Mature Girls

 

The statistically analyzed data shows that although referrals specifically
mentioning school achievement problems occurred more frequently with regard to
immature girls than with regard to mature girls this frequency is not signifi-
cantly important. This finding was at the 50 per cent level of statistical
significance3 which indicates that the frequency of occurrence had an equal

chance of going either way.

1:) Immature Boys vs. Mature Girls

 

This particular finding shows that referrals Specifically mentioning school
achievement problems occurred much more frequently with regard to immature boys
than with regard to mature girls. This finding was significant at the 2 per
11

cent level and as such was the only one found to be significant within the

limits considered acceptable for this study.

5) Immature Girls vs. Mature Boys

 

The data gathered shows that referrals specifically mentioning school
achievement problems occurred with equal frequency in the cases of the immature
girls and the mature boys. Statistical analysis5 showed this equal. frequency

of occurrence to be absolutely non-significant.

6) Mature Boys vs. Mature Girls

 

The findings show that referrals specifically mentioning school achievement
problems occurred more frequently in the case of the mature boys as opposed to

the mature girls. This particular finding was at the 50 per cent level of
6

statistical significance however and-could have gone either way.

 

3See Table III on page 3h
[See Table IV on page 31;
5See Table V on page 35
63cc Table VI on page 35
-26-

?) Immature Bays vs. Immature Girls

 

This finding shows that referrals specifically mentioning school achievement
problems occurred more frequently with regard to immature boys than with regard

to immature girls. The 20 percent level of statistical significance7 indicates

that this is a slightly more than happenstance occurrence.

 

7See Table VII on page 36

-27-

CHAPTER-IV
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The findings referred to in Chapter III tend to lend some positive weight
to this study's major hypothesis that children who begin their school careers
at a relatively early chronological age are referred more often for school
achievement problems than are children who begin school at a relatively later
chronological age.

The findings also indicate that school achievement referrals tend to
occur more frequently in the case of boys than in the case of girls. As such,
the direction of the over-all findings parallels the thinking of the staff of
the Muskegon Area Child Guidance Clinic as well as the synthesis of thinking
on this subject as presented in the literature surveyed.

It must be kept in mind, however, that for the most part the findings
did not fall within the prescribed limits of acceptable statistical significance.
It cannot be said therefore that the major hypothesis has been adequately con-
firmed. By the same token it cannot be said that the majority of the sub-
hypotheses have been adequately confirmed.

Beyond the general but not acceptably signigicant tendency of most of
the findings to support the hypotheses two items of special interest stand out.

The first of these is the highly significant finding1 that referrals
Specifically mentioning school achievement problems occurred much more frequently
in the case of immature boys than in the case of mature girls. More than any

other finding this one lends much support to the hypothesis that mature children

 

18cc Table IV on page 311

-28-

are referred less often for school achievement problems than are immature children.
It is immediately apparent however, that this holds true only in the case of
immature boys vs. mature girls. The high degree of significance does not hold
true in the case of the over-all immature group vs. the over-all mature group2
nor does it hold true in the case of immature girls vs. mature boys3 where the
degree of statistical significance is in fact nil.

In short, what this particular significant finding seems to be pointing
out primarily is that mature girls have a definite edge over immature boys in
coping successfully with school achievement problems and that sex seems to be
as much a factor here as chronological age. The tendency of both immature and
mature girls as a group to be referred legs often for school achievement problems
than are immature and mature boys as a group is prevalent in the findings. This
data could well serve as the basis for a new hypothesis i.e. that girls are less
likely to be referred for school achievement problems than are boys.

The second item of Special interest is the unanticipated finding that all
of the units in the total sample had school achievement difficulties mentioned
in their referrals more frequently than any other problem. On first sight this
finding might be considered significantly descriptive of the majority of referrals
made to the Clinic. However, extreme caution must be exercised when considering
this data. First and foremost it must be kept in mind that this entire study
concerned itself with referrals which were written out by parents, teachers,
interested parties, etc. These persons described the problem.as thgz_saw it.
It is not held by this study that these descriptions were found to be accurate
appraisals or diagnoses. It is quite possible that referrals mentioning school
achievement problems were in error and that the real problem as diagnosed later

by the Clinic had little or nothing to do with school achievement. Secondly,

 

2See Table I on page 33
3See Table V on page 35

-29-

it must be kept in mind that this study's' definition of school achievementh
is extremely broad and all-inclusive and as such may have covered more referrals
than was intended. It is readily apparent, of course, that both of these limita-
tions must be considered when estimating the entire reliability of this total
study.

In any event the possibility that school achievement problems make up the
bulk of all referrals made to the Clinic is an intriguing one and could serve

as the basis for mrther hypotheses.

____

h
See page 16.

-30-

CHAPTER'V
CONCLUSION

Of basic interest at this point are what generalizations if any can be
nude on the basis of this projects findings.

As pointed out earlier in this text the majority of findings were found
to fall outside the limit of statistical significance designated as acceptable
ibr this study. Never-the-less the majority of the findings were in fact
quite close to the designated limit. Added to this was the direction of the
trend set by the findings, most of which lent limited support to the hypothesis
that referrals specifically mentioning school achievement problems have occurred
more frequently in the chronologically less mature school entry group than in
the chronologically more mature school entry group. The relative closeness
of the data's statistical significance together with the trend set by the data
in its entirety strongly suggests that the major hypothesis has a good deal of
merit. If this be so than it could be generalized from the hypothesis and the
findings supporting it that children who start school at a relatively early
chronological age are more apt to have school achievement difficulties than
are children who start school at a relatively later chronological age. This
would be particularly true in the case of immature boys vs. mature girls as
has been pointed out above. In any event this generalization could easily be
turned into a hypothesis for testing purposes.

The implications of a hypothesis such as the one investigated by this
study appear to be many. For instance, at first sight it might seem that
Children should not enter school until they have at least reached an age span
ranging from five years-six months to six years. On the other hand it may

-31-

seem sufficient merely to hold the male children back until they reach this

age span while at the same time allowing the female children to begin their
school careers at an earlier age. To arrive at conclusions such as these on

the basis of this study alone would not be prudent. As has been pointed out
repeatedly throughout this text there are a good many factors which could enter
into school achievement problems i.e. mental age, organic brain damage, emotional
trauma, hidden physical affirmaties, etc. This limited project could not control
for these variables.

What this study has tried to do however, is to look at associations between
chronological age at time of school entry and subsequent school achievement
problem referrals to the Clinic. It has succeeded in showing a limited associa-
tion in this area and along the way has provided some additional hmtheses
concerned with the general topic of school readiness. It is quite apparent
that the study is a rough one but it is submitted with the hope that it may

possibly provide direction for later studies of a more sophisticated nature.

Joseph W. Holmes
May 26, 19611

-32-

APPENDIX

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tables
Table I
Number of Referrals number of Referrals
for School for other
Achievement Problem Problems
Mature Group 53 h? 100
Immature Group 65 35 100
118 82 200
x2 = 2.976
df = l
P < 0.10
Table II
Number of Referrals Number of Referrals
for School for other
Achievement Problem Problems
Nature qus - 29 ' 21 SO
Immature qus 36 1h 50
65 35 100
X2 ='2.152
df = 1
P<< 0.20

-33-

Nature Girls

Immature Girls

Mature Girls

IITmIature Boys

Table III

Number of Referrals

Number of Referrals

 

 

 

 

 

 

for School for other
Achievement Problem Problems
2h 26 50
29 21 50
53 h? 100
X2 = 1.000
df = 1
P < 0.50
Table IV

Number of Referrals

Number of Referrals

 

 

 

 

 

 

for School for other
Achievement Problem Problems
2h 26 50
36 1h 50
6o ho 100
x2 = 6.000
df = 1
P < 0.02

Table V.

Number’of Referrals

Number’of Referrals

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

for School for other
Achievement Problem Problems
Mature Boys 29 21 50
ature Girls 29 21 SO
. *1.-. -s. ......,_.....r,....~- J
58 h2 100
X2 = 0
df = l
a_. ..
P < 0
Table VI
thber of Referrals Number of Referrals
for School for other
Achievement Problem Problems
iature Boys 29 21 50
iture Girls 2h 26 SO
53 h? 100
X2 = 1.000
df = 1 '
P < 0.50 I

Immature Boys

Immature Girls

Table VII

Number of Referrals

Number of Referrals

 

 

 

 

 

 

-36-

for School for other
Achievement Problem Problems
36 1h
29 21
65 35
x2 = 2.152
df = l
P < 0.20

50

50

100

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Bigelow, Elizabeth, "School Progress of UnderaAge Children", Elementary School
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Hamalainen, Arthur E., "Kindergarten-Primary Entrance Age in Relation to Later
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Morphett, Mabel V., and Carleton washburn, "When Should Children Begin to Read",
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-37-

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~38-