M‘QSEC TRAiNSNG FOR FREE-SCHOOL
33*EELEREN

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Mafia? 0% Music
z‘AECfiiGAN STA‘E’E COLLEGE
Maia»? Haming Schneider
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Twelve and one-half million children under the age
of six were living in the United States in 1940. fhis
number constituted almost ten per cent of the entire
pepulation and means that every tenth person is a pre-
school child. In recent decades the preportion of pre-
school children has been diminishing while the preportion
of saint and elderly adults has been increasing. Except
for the temporary halt in the decline caused by the birth
of a bumper crop of wartime and post-war babies, his
trend is ewoected to continue. The Bureau of the Census
in its Statistical Abstract for 1947 estimates that with-
in the next fifty years the number of pre-school children
will have fallen off almost a million wits a corresponding
decrease in the proportion of pre-school children to the
total population. This populational trend augments the im-
portance of the pre-school chill. At the same time, the
education of the large numbers of wartime and post-war babies
offers a challenge of immediate concern.

It has long been felt that there should be an "upward"
trend in education but until recent years little thought

"downward" trend

has been given to the possibility of a
which would provide education for the pre-school child.
As citizens, we must become sufficiently aware of

the importance of the early years in relation to mental

development. Then we rust dis criminato

of trainin: on be given to aiv- t"*e at the

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and desirrb e activity. I- it fiCP~ found to b~ the ones,
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r their citiz as 1;. Jrr-Ttr 2rd c’ocrc,i PP? r¢;id1y
beconfn: C‘nVi rce’1 of the ioiortarce chi facsitility of
yrs-so co incotion and he nest fifty yezss chwl? wit-
ness a definite "5c*'~ood‘ +3- 1 in educrtion for pro-

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Eh extent of meeern interest in the welfare and

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of sre-schoel children is reflected in the many
provisions for the physical care, mental hygiene and
educstionel salience of yawn: children. Chili-protective
laws hnve been passed; clinics end welfere stetians have
been established; chilfiostgdy clubs have been formed; a
kindergarten-nursery school movement is rapidly gaining
momentum.

the new attitude first recognized the fact that physi~
011 care alone WGJld not insure norms fieveloement of
chilfiren. Senseeuently, en increesing amount of attention
has been focasefi upon the problems of mental hygiene and

educational quiiance. Loiern libraries are enfleevoring
to interest yoani hilfiren sni to direct their activities
by tee provision o" plsy corn.rs snfl drsmetizetien or
stsry hoers. Jhe plvyfronnd reverent has taken cognizance
of the importance of organized play, now regarded not as
an aimless exyeniiture of physical ene 3y but es en activi-
ty which throujh he provision of sperpriete materials an?
Oppor unities can be directed into valuable eni worthwhile
channels.

The organization of chilfl-stiiy clubs everywhere re-
flects the seriOus desire on the part of parents to be
infermed concerning the various phases of chili develOpa

meet and to prep“ra themselves to efiminister the guidance

children must Fave if they are to develOp into useful citizens.

tony of them, too, are endeavorin3 to secure for their
children the benefits of socialized activity found in
edicfitionol play groups.

‘ollefes eni universities are o’fer n3 courses in
chili care snfl doveloyment so many have established
nursery schools for the purpose of providing an environ-

ent for the precticel training of students or for the
controlled research of psychologists. An incress1n3
nun her of eler cntory schools e.re ozferin3 the advantages
of kindergarten training.

Prior to 1920 nearly all provisions sole for child
care and troinin: were b-s sed upon hopm ezerd or "con: 1on
sense" rethods. These methods had evolved from the un-

ystemstizei observations of parents, teachers, nurses
and physicians. rho importance of systemstizod trein1n3
was first rec 3nized oy Somenius, ttie uzecioslovselsu re-
former, in the early port of the seventeen th century. In
his book entitled "School for Infancy" he claimed that
youn3 chiLicen coull be essily led in t11e form etion f3ood
habits, but that once formed, habits were not easily alter-
ed. As a part of 1113 system of eiucstion, he therefore in-
cluded treinin; in the home where children from infancy
up to the age of six years were to be guided in habit for-
me.tion, trained in lan3us3e expression, and 3.1ven some
uniersteniinz of the common world about them. mehosis
upon physical education snfi activity foresiu uiowed the best

thou3ht of almost three centiries lo ter.

John loose, the snjlish philosopher, in the letter

.5 ~, A. -. 3-, _.1 ._ . . . _ . ~ __
cert o the sevente;ozn century stressed t¢e importxnce

shcdowei the psychological eni oiolO3icsl point of view
characteristic of efiucetionsl theory of the nineteenth
cent ry.

The imoortrnce of studyint the chili himself and
cdoptinc a cruroe of traininw consistent with normal de-
velopvent was first sivoccted by Rousseau, the French
ph113803her, in a work publisheé in 1752. his book was
followed by e ion: list of treetiSes on the develcpment
of the chili, all of which were based more or less Upon
observation. Roussecu's ‘octrines of nstcrclisn eventu-
ally spronfi to Gerscny, “here fioscdoe uncerstood in a
mecsuro the instincts chi interests of youn3 chiléren end
allovod them free develogment in his school. Festalotti
also believed thot educction should eii the nature growth
of the Chili's powers, one sivoceted the use of concrete
materials snfl situctions in chili training in contrast to
more verbal instruction.

Vroebel, the Serrcn eiocctor, wos tie first to for-
rolete s cosprchonsive theory of pre-school education and
he also compiled a deteiled method of its enactment. His
book, "Liucstion of Pen”, c‘plifiei some of the ideas of
Somenius cni further edvoccted the doctrine of notoralism
introi1ced bY Toussceu. in 1837, Froehel established in

Germany A school for chiliren between the ages of three

and seven years, which he coiled the line crfiorten. stress
wes placed on rotor activity as a ne*ns of lo"rnin* one
on the social esyects of cooperative play.

The kinderoortep movement failed to gain e footing
in Cerrrny been so of government evapicion of its political
influence. the ides Spread to France, however, where the
first nursery school (@coler m cternelle) was esteolished
at “slbech. In inglend the nd striel Revolution and the
accompanyinf bresklown of too fnrily unit as mothers were
drawn from t.e homes for work in factories, lei to the
establiStment Ofu Verity Schools in 1693. Ihese were the
earliest attempts to educate pee-school chiléren through
organized community effort. Rorsl training was stressed
in these schools; discipline was strict; heslth standards
received but little attention; ellect 3'11 tre.inin3 of
unsuitable character and amount was given and no mention
was mofle of music traininfi. Increose in size and number
of cities perclloled the iniustrisl develogment and further
aucmentod the condition detrimental to normal childhood.

Tue neei for a ”ownHQri extension of puolic education
was recognise ed by Lord Lenry 3rou3En an in the following
speech delivered before the House of Loris in 1335

"I consiier the estebli=hment of infant schools

one of the most ir‘ort‘ct in “overerts...in the

civil noiicy of this count ry...»hoevcr knows the

habits of or il‘ren et en ecrliwr ate then that

of six or seven, the age st hich thc* *encrrlly

attend the infent so hools, is well ' Me of their

on pscity to receiV3 instruction lonv before the

e3e of six...P3e trlth is that the child can and

does learn a 3reet doc 31 more bohore that age than

all he ever learns or can learn in all his after
life. his attention is more easily aroused...

his memory is more retentive ...bzd haoits er s

not yet formed nor is his Judgment warped by

unfair bies...Good habits may be easily formed

...Eore would rezzlly be superfluous uoon the

cencral s nteje s of in? ar ut scwools. I will

only add t::t in: ‘rence as in t is country the

most ss.ncvine hopes ere enter taincd by all

certics of tee benefits to be derived from

loeir establishment.”
In 1903 the 3ritish woerd of Education reconcendcd the
establishment of public nur cry schools :nl many are in
existence at the present time

In Amerlco the develoome1t of pro-school education
grew out of the establishment of church schools, infest
sc‘nools, d9 y nurserie.s and iinicrc'“tcrs and later fused
with the nursery school movement. Iildresoin, in the
Journal of Education in llBS, k reu ic ted that in view of
their obvious values nursery sci1ool3' would soon screed to
every corner of the land. As it turned out several otEo er
major movements in Ameriocn education were to run their
courses first.

In this country, as in EuPOpe, the emgloymont of
mothers for reasons of economic necessity, or la k of ab-
scrbin? activities in the home, or the desire to contri-
bute to society has caused a similar brehkflown in family
life and has been one of the chief cc:ses for the spread
of the nursery school movement. As yet tke peed or the
extent of tie movo”e*t cc rot be L re; icted. lee principal

factors in favor of the move r:er.t sssunin: national impor-

tance are the lociccl exte ezs on downward of public education,

. 3%. ;rou¢7 ”axon, Lord Henry, yd:ccti o: of tr e leoLle,
Kev l., 1335.

Q!

 

the recognition of changed home conditions and the com-
plexity of child development end behavior. Lducators are
agreed upon the following advantages and opportunities
offered by the nursery school: fundamental behavior pat-
terns are set Up; ploy facilities usually unavailable are
provided in coobination with expert supervision of the
activity; sportunity for the develOpment of social skills
are given; health and nutrition receive careful attention,
and early exnressions in art, music and literary composi-
tion are encouraged.

The beginninjs of eXperimentsl and objective study
were assured when psychologists discovered in the pre-
school child en interesting subject for scientific research.
The germ of much of the latcr eXperimentsl work was con-
tained in a book entitled "fientsl DeveIOpmcnt in the Child
and the Race" which was written by J. Lark Baldwin in the
early part of the twentieth century. fhe triumph of the
eXperimentel method of research has grertly modified and
enriched our conception of the deVeIOpmental processes and
hes furnished enlightenment regsrdin: the effects of train~
in? during the first years of childhood.

Establishment of research centers for scientific work
in child develogment and guidance progressed slowly at the
beginning of the century. It was difficult, at first, to
secure suitable subjects on: it was not always possible to
control experimentsl conditions. The nursery School LXperi-
ment organized in hew York City by the Bureau of decstional

Axnerimonts was a pioneering venture. Shortly thereafter

nursery schools uni child welfore centers were rgenized
at the fierrill Eslmer School in Detroit, the Universities
of Iowa, Yale, Columbia end ii nesoto, an? nary other
ylsces. The scone of the res nrch conducted has been in
accorlnnce with the purposes for wk on the schools were
organized and the abilities and interests of the teachers
sod psychologists placed in energe. Vary studies concern-
ing the various phases of the piysicsl, mental, social and
aesthetic development of pre- chool children have already
been rade; additional studies are in progress and still
other challenginfi subjects for scientific research re—
main unexylorod.

in revie in? the results of studies nhfe so for in
the field of pre-sckool educction one conclusion scene to
strnl out clen*ly: the policy of allowinf the child to
"just grow" int conventional school age must give away
to a definite program of training designed to awaken

wholesone interests and attitudes.

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Susie is es oli as the world itself. it is every-
where about us. In nature and in human life we see evidence
of its presence. It is a vital source of life, health,
strength and happiness. Ken has realized his need of music
from the earliest times and hes not only made music but has
develoeed an art as well. Down through the ages music has
become more and more significant in the liVes of men until
the present day, when the advantages of musical understand-
ing and appreciation are recognized by all. fhe child's
need for music has been summarized by Dr. Setis Coleman,

music educator, as follows:

"Your chili will need music all his life. From
infancy, thr ufh all the stages of growth, and
throuih the years of maturity and old age, he
will need the socthin: qualities of music and its
power to raise his tensions and quiet his nerves.
He will need the music of others, but most of

all he will need his own musical expression. he
.will need the creative pleasure which music—
ching will bring him, the satisfaction of accom-
plishment end the realization of his power in
producing it. he will need the gratification of
his sense of beauty and he development of his
aesthetic taste which the making of good music
will cultivate in him."

Fusic study has definitely been accepted as essential
in a well-reunfled education, for it proviles voices which
no other course of trainins con give. It cells for a
mentally alert mind; for conscontrstion and recall, and

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for accuracy in performance. It is a coninsnt force in

 

2. Soleman, Setis, Your Child's Fosig, The John Day
C 3 Q ' 2“» 8V Y0 1"}: ’ 1 :93 :1.

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the building 0? character, for it fosters the realization
that nothing worthwhile is accomplished w thout sacrifice
and hard work and that the greatest talent one can have
is the talent for persistent work. It is unexcellei for
teechin3 discipline and the importance of cooecretion.
Jhen a chili has learned to enjoy working with others for
the ; cod of tlze 3rou_n, as he must so in music, he has
learned one of life's most important lessons.

Ihe potenti 1 value of music training in the 3uidence
of problem chiliren has ion: been realized by sociologists.

Fusic trminin3 is an or3anw. ed 0 -ortunity for aesthetic
sni emotional experiences. ilwto claimed it to be a tonic
which accomplishes for the mini what the 3Jinasium does
for the bofiy. It provides for an increasin3 awareness,
interest eni ins 3Lt re3o rding music. Iho claim that music
should be studied for the mental trainin3 it provides is
now regarded as an error in doctrine. similarly regarded
is the doctrine xfl mi 1 "loriii;i the ac: Wiisi ion of tech-
nique cni .'rnc lee e scout music ret12er tnan eXperien
with it. Zoiern psychologists hall that mssic Shflild give
plecsxre o.n1 satisfaction and at the SRTQ time provide a
vehicle for universal evgression.

“.usic tr".inin is arx orcsnicci oh), crtunity for social
exoeriences. It is s $1“Sllt svmilcolc to Host persons.
It is a purse it svcilsble in a variety of sL nificsnt
8901? 1 situations 3. Very young children are in.er ntly
anti-social, one music is one of the best means for en-
couraging them to enter group sit 1 ti: r-s end become parti-

cipctinz members.

A child's energy is boundless and he needs interest-
ing and entertaining diversions on which to eXpend this
energy. husic treinin3 fills this need, keeping active
minds and eo3er fin3ers busy at en3rossin3 tesP's which
will pay dividends in hsnpiness and componionship through-
out life. Susie further provides a means for mekin3 friends
and it fills in leisure hours when one would otherwise be
alone. Fosic-n2k1n3 develoos physical co-ordinstion and
control and enables a child to move and not with a minimum
of effort eni exhaustion.

Nusic 0 ton unifies a peoole. Five hundred years

before the birth of Christ, Confucius, the Chinese philoso-

r(J

her, do Ml. red that er on music and courtesy were better
understood nni suprecieted, there would be no more war.
Longfellow, the American poet, declored that music was the
universal language a m13 races, recognizing no creed, no
nationality enfi no cestc. Lusic may be understood by all:
youn3 and old, rich and poor, educated and uneducated. It
has further been claimed thet the more music men hear the
better they think, and the bett r they think the loss they
fi3ht, and the less they fight, the nearer they approach
civilization.

fihen it is deeoefi so Vito l to n well-rounded life, we
should nvsil ourselves of every Opportunity to make and
listen to music. It would seen sensib e too for eVery
child to be initi .ted early into the Joys of mtlsic mal:in;3.
If some activity must be crow§.d out in the complexity of

modern livinz, w etE1; r for lsct of tire or money, it should

10

not be music. The further our civilization advances in
science, the more we need to keep in balance, and music
is the 3reetest of all balancers. It should be the aim
of educotors the country over to offer the advantages of
music trainin3 to every child, and in turn to have every

child en active participant in the music 3 ogrem.

11

PHE KAFURS b? THd tn;-scntot JHILD

-.

The yrs-school age is the most won roan end most
fescinetini age of men. In no other similar period of
years does a person make the phenomenal growth eni develop-
mént which anorecteristics the Dre-school yenrs. fill
children 3row and develop in accorfinnce with the same 3on-
erel pattern. rue ever 3e infant from birth to one renr
gradually gains in weitht oni heitht end lenrns first to
lift his heed, then to sit alone and finally to stand.
Similarly the nverefe chill from one to six grows end de-
ve10ps very much like all other children of his ege.
Amon3 nnny other things, pre-school children learn to use
their honfls skillfully, to walk steadily, to run and to
skip, to talk easily end to play hegplly with other
Children.

There are normally 3reet differences in the rate at
which children grow and deveIOp, however, and the age at
which they are able to do certain things. isrents must
not be impatient for their child to do the sens things
that another child of his 23e can do. nothing can be
done to hurry development; it comes as the child's body
matures. fiut porents and educators can see that nothing
interferes with the unfoldinf of a child's powers. They
can 3ive him opportunity to develOp, oygortunity to make
the best possible use of the capacity with which he has

been endowed.

12

;hysicnlly, the first year witnesses n development
of a child's original biological eq:ipment. Rho year-old-
child is a "creeper find a climber." rho two-yesr-old
child is s “run-shout.” Cf all the pro-school years, the
third one is one of the most fascinating in the growth of

he child, for the three-yesr-olfi can go thinfis es his
coordination becomes more and more refined. Four is the
age of "finding out,” hrourh physical exploration and by
askin? questions. At five to six years the child has
matured in motor control sni can hop, skip and turn somer-
annlts.

In sidition to the great gains in physical vrowth,
the pre-school chili makes marvelous strides in mental
growth as well. As he becomes more skilled in the use of
his body, the develooment of the nervous system 'hich is
behind all this becomes more end more spusrent. :slking
is an illustration of this development. falkin: is an-
other. the very young pre-school chili is unsble to con-
centrate. He runs hither sni yon scattering his energies
and attentions in many directions. As he grows and de-
velons, he is better able to focus his attention until at
the age of three yeors he will usually concentrate his at-
tention on a few toys or activities for consioerablc
periods of time. For the most part, he understands what
is ssii to him and is able to obey single consands. He
shows an increasino skill in ooservstion and is strongly
imitative. his knowledge costs less cnfl less from touch

and feel and more and more from language and family

13

example. By the age of four he is asking innumerable
questions. He is able to think for himself end sets with
a purpose.

The pre-school child starts the develonment of his
ociel—personel characteristics early in the second year ‘
when he becomes conscious of family relationships, personal
possessions and the meaning of "no," "must" and "must not."
he learns to conform to the various routines his training

requires end radiates under par ntel aggrovnl of his
actions. He wants to understand his environment and to
comply with its cultural demenfis. This carries over as
his horizon widens to include playmates and teachers. He
prefers associative play. He is yenerelly self-ass red

eni dejcndeble old a conforming citizen of his small world.

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be irst sounds a child makes are nothing more than
babblinfis thrt have no meaninf. When certain of these
sounds ere repeated beck to him time after time, he final-
1y associates than with an object or a person. When he
uses such a symbol (a word) for an object or experience,
seeech comes into being. At first, one worfi serves the
purpose of e whole sentence. The one-word sentence is ffll-
lowe 'y a group n: of we words. Its first words are
eddei to slowly, often with periois of months during which
practically no trorress is code but one by one words £3;

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edied until it becomes one of the child's greatest pleasures

I

to put a name to th.ngs sni to espres his desires. Eben

cones s great rush of intertzt dlrin: which words are

added repiily. 'hrsses are often lesrred as wholes with

i

the chilo having no idea of tee meaning

of separate words.
True sentence forninf rarely occurs before the child has

a vocabulary of one or two hundred words. This usually
OCCJPS during the seconi or third years. As a child grows
olier, his sentences :rliselly boos e longer and more com-
glex.

7

Llizobeth Paiorsh finite in per in;estig”tion o

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.L

13115}

" '3‘ ’5 a ‘5 b‘: - L “ ' yw ‘9 ’ ~ ‘ ' ' r: y- -‘ ‘.
sevelopnent Oi the oen,cnce nun tnc “Ktudt o. Joceoulsry
.n3~.

in loun; Shiliren no redo the following observations on
the develoynent of the sentence:

1. The number of words p.r sentence increases with
see from 1.7 at two years to 4.7 at four and
one-half years.

2. Declnrutive sentences predominated at all ages.

3. R

coetition of iienticol sen ences decreased with

4. The rstio of cm: etc to inconglete sentences was
sijnif102ntly greater st three :31 fgur years
then at two.

at two ears verbs nouns eni adverbs were more
I I ‘
frequently used then adjectives snu connectives.
At three to four ears verbs eni ironouns were
‘9
more frequently used toen aujectives, articles,
interjections eni connectives.

U1
0

6. sentences become more cosples with age.

7. The ten worse most freeigntly used were: I, is,
it ”on tbst lo a this not uni the.
I J 9 9 D 9 D

 

 

 

3. Smith, 4113ebet1 7siorsd, hnflinchgiestlog_2f the
3219.1Qi"='ze.r‘..i_.21i_the «est; 9.9; :31 -tz':.e...'-.;t gutsy: 5.3 9 13.1. 'é:.r'1
' ;:Z ihiligqg, loss city: stoiies in onild .elfore,
'u’
A.

In her investirstion o? the extent of vocabulary,

1
-.4

‘

Kiss Srith observed tm°t the sverrge numb r of words in

the vocabulsries o 273 chilircn rsurefi from none at eight

from two to six wcs S?3.S. Girls hsl:ecquired a few more
words than have at two Phi s three years of a;e, but after
this sic there was no difference.

it follows that teeciers of children must become
familiar with the rat» ehu extent of liigqege develOgment
in orier to coordinrte with it otger phases of chili

train 5:.

'1‘1' ’

fl I ,,. " ‘!“. ‘ ‘ 1 [' 1 ' ' " ' "'~" 1'7‘
d.tv--mla\l'.-LC‘ .IL;v~I.I u,IJ"&J.n.|«I ‘45) LA" lIU‘-HLU-&-A)A lb\ua £n~§LL$L

Lusicsl still is acquired in ws;s siwilsr to tuOSG
used in other for s of learninfi. This is true 'hetuer the
skill is Uein- acquired in the use of the vocol orscus or

I
-‘

in the use of the arms, hands or fin ere in the playing

5

o; a music 1 instrument. ilwcys there is the stsgc of
learning whet is to be don , follow d by tte stage of learn-
ing the way to do it. A hebit-forrin: stsje follows with
a gradual soproximstion of accuracy, which in turn is fol-
lowed by a habit-fixing stage as the movements are repeated
in a uniform manner.

Leerninr to 81L: oiffcrs from learninf to talk chiefly
in the number of muscles tntt must be coérdinsted and in
10 de ree of s curacy *ith 1313

y ' .v\-'v »- 1 ‘ l .‘u.\" T
L tuft?) I:.".A.Stl Q‘s) Houd. Jun

sin“in:, the breat in? muscles mgst us more continously and

accurately correlated with those of the vocal organs.

The vocal cords must be more specifically and accurately
controlled while the tongue and lips are molding sounds.
The ear reports the results of these combined novements
and serves so the chief guide in perfecting and coordinat-
ing them, althouth visual imitation of other singers is
also of some help. Iotor sensations of muscular tension
play a considerable part in the attainment of musical
skill.

Appreciation of aesthetic experiences is well establish-
ed in the life of the child before artistic exoression is
possible. By the time a child is eightes months he has
been reaponding to music for many months, but, w th the
exception of rhythmic exoression and sound play, his cres-
tive experiences are still limited. his first artistic
attempts are extremely single ones made at random as he
experiments with different media. Spontano-u humming or
the sinting of meaningless syllables will sometimes be
heard. It will be obserVed that the child has the ability
to produce a wide rsn~e of tones at on early age and that
he has considerable control over the intensity of his voice.
he seeds very much aware of sounds made by bells, whistles,
clocks end ‘he like and he will resyond rhythmically to
their stimuli, using his entire body in the exoression.

At two years of age his exoerimentstion is still
largely motor and manipulative in form, but the movements

are becoming more vigorous, better defined and more complex.

17

At this use he is less individualistic in his artistic
espressions than earlier in life. how he is strongly
imitative. He sinos phrases of songs, although usually
not on pitch. Some children recognize a few melodies.
Children of this age enjoy using rhythmic toys and equip-
~ment such as rocking horses, swings and rocking chairs.
Use of these materials frequently stimulates spontaneous
singing. The same phrase may be sung over and over without
pause. The children will make suCh rhythmic responses, as
bonding the knees in a bouncing notion, swinging the arms,
nodding the head or tapping the feet.

At three years of age, greater control and precision
in the use of artistic media is observed, with fewer ran-
dom movements. Kany children of this age will sing entire
songs, althoush seldom exactly on pitch. They possess
some ability in matching single tones sun; to them and
some will recognize a few melodies. Children are less
inhibited at this age than later on, for they Join singing
and rhythm groups more readily. They enjoy walking, run-
nins, Jumping and galIOping to musical accompaniment, and
they keep fairly good time to the music. They also enjoy
dressinq in costumes anorOprirte to their rhythmic activi-
ties. If given Opportunity, they will experiment with
musical instruments.

A chili begins to use his imagination as he aooroaches
his fourth birthday and his musical activities reflect this

trait. Increased vocal control is apparent at this age.

13

The child is row sufficiently mature to p rticipate in
simple sinfinr games and gains much pleasure from drama-
tizing songs. Sometimes he will create little sense of
his own while at play.

The chili becomes more serious-minded at five years
and seems to possess a hither level of sepiration, which
at times presents difficulties in attainroit. he may be-
come self-conscious concerning his musical nbility ard if
so, he will prefer to concentrate his talents on more con-
ventional subjects. When his artistic attenots have be-
come wellnorganized, the child may lose some of the joys
of eXpression, but this joyousness is reblaced by a deeper
satisfaction of achievement. host of the five-year-olds
can reproduce sinéle tones accurately and many can sing
short melodies on pitch. Host of thzm can hep, skip and
dance in time to music and nearly all can synchronize hand
or foot tanning with the rhythm of music.

Individual differences in ability seem to be more
marked in aesthetic expression than in any other field of
behavior. This is esnecially true of musical eXpression.
A child of 21 months way be able to sing songs accurately,
while sore adults never attain this ability. Lusical
ability may be detected early in life. Ln the other hand,
a lack of ability may not show itself during the pre-school
years unless a child is obviously physically handicapped.

Re are all eager to learn what our pre-school children

can do and how they can be trained to the best advantage.

19

It is inportant that we she lfl engect enough ani yet not
too much of our children. It is inpcr9tive for those who
work with all chilfren, young 9ni old, to observe and in-
tergrzt their activities carefully cni accurately in order
tnat soilitie-s 9n;i file a bilitle 3 may be diecovered early
and develOpei or checkefl as the need may be. fhis is the
key to the rearing of health* 7*ri well-adjusted chiliren.
This treatise aims to present the data so far obtain-
ed from a number of observations, tests and exgeriments
with chiliren from three to six years of age in he field
of nusic education and to suggest a Cirriculum for train-

ing which will be practical in application and of maximal

edice tionsi effective? .ess.
"i“:.}';'?..."1'i‘I;TZE V.::;¥.;3'..3 Flinn“;

The primary concern of anyone decling with youngc hiliren
is to undersV ni the factors thet deter: line their develop-
ment. Fnese f9 ctors ccn be divij ed into those which are in-
hgrc nt in 1a or: anic make-up of the chili and those which
surrocni but are outside him. The interaction of these two,
herofiity and environment, constitutes the determiners of
inflividuel development. Scientific stufly is constantly at
wor? enieevorin: to underst9nd how this interaction takes
place and to what extent each group of f9ct: rs (inherited
ani environmental) determines oevtlotment. isychologists

and educ9to rs collabor9te in an attempt to understand this

development through a study of maturation nix: training.

20

dveryone realizes that a child's accomplishments
increase materially from month to month and from year to

year. This influence is presumably due to two factors:

’1
g...»
(3
:5
O
(D

the influence of growth and he influence of BXpO
end traininj. lie 999 At Te” ctor cannot be studied experi-
mentally unless abnormal conditions are introduced. The
factor of treinin9, however, can be controlled erosriment-
ally. hat ”ill 99o n, we ask, if we take a number of
chillren, similar in are end ability, and give Special
training to so:e while others are left to develon at their
own race? Hill tfzcse who receive trainin? gain a pertrsne nt
or only a tempor9ry advantage over tbe others? If it is
found possible to aid a chill to superiority through
Special Opportunities, it would grocer that individual
differences in fundamental especity could be sirnificsntly
influenced by 619 rly env:iror; sent. tn the other hand, if
tho so fro9 than this early train n.j is s.ith eld core as
high when tested at a later stcge of growth, it would
appear that to a lsrge extent :erf.o rmcnce depends upon
fundamental cnpocity alone.

A number of scientific st dies n9ve been mad e in the

last twenty—five yeors in an attempt to answer questions

9

of tnis nature which have risen in the minds of educators
and othe are interests 1 in the dc vclo:mtnt 9nd guidance of
young children. rho equivalent group method of exocrimenta-

tion is usually used in research dealing with the relative

influence of tr9 inir; end r9t‘r'tion. such or eriments

m
1...:

include the tollowing stegs:

l. Initiel tests on all subjccts.

2. Segregation of subjects into two eouivclent
eroups (erectice ens control or evperimentsl
and check).

3. fiflministretion of s ecific training to the
practice or evoc.in ntel group for a period
of ties d.rin: which the control or check group
receives no training.

4. Retests of both groups at the enfi of the train-
ing; oer loci, and

G. Retests again several montas 9ft;r training
1313 ended.

Following the above-mentionei procedure, A. 1. Gates,4
an esinent psycholo~ist, conducted tvo ereriments in an

attempt to determine the noture an? limits of improvement
due to tr9inin3. In the first experiment the rate of to;-

pin9 of children ranging in see from four to six years was

tes t.: i befo1_~e rn‘ eftor treinin~ rnl the results compared

.3

with retinzs ohtoined from testing 9“ initially-equivalent
group. After a lapse of six montns during which no prac-
tice was given either group, training 9nd tests were stein
given to all chilfiren. it? Lin a fee dnys the V ec« group
received as hifn a score as the group thot had received
training over an extended periofi. T?‘.e sate testing pro-
cedure wee usei in a second study dealing with the influ-
ence of trs inin_, or imfiodiste memory Span in a tee t using
fin~er manipulation. fihen retests a .re more follozirg e

p riod of no ornctice for either croug, little difference

 

 

4. Gntes s.1.,3h_e f't re 9.191 Ii"its of _Im>rove-
gen .Eu: to chin in; i.ationsl Leo is ty for the otuey of
educe.ion, Dwartv-Seventn leerboor, 1327, yp 441- 461.

in the performance of the Erectice and control group was
noted. In view of the results obtained in these two tests,
Gates concluded thEt training gives informetion and tech-
niques but does not increase fundamental capacity.

5

Jacob Ywalwesser, who has compiled several tests
designed to measure fund mental capacity, has stated that
training has little influence on the sccres obtained but
at the same time he sch newledg es th e possibilitv that
training allows for better use of fundsmentc.l cepncity.
Acccrding to Fwalwesser, treinin3 does not add to one's
musical heritage; it merely cultivates thEt heritare. It
cannot increase talent itself end it me.y not even incres.se
interest in music, but it cen and does increE se the use of
whatever talent children have been endowed.

Carl Seasiore,6 wlo errE .n3e the widely-used 3e nsz1ore
tests of musical talent, has repeatefily stfited that musi-
cal especity is inherent enfi fixed axed thEt treinin3 has
no effect upon it or upon the scares obtsined on music tests.
Seashore agrees with Gates and szlwesser when he stated
that use of fundsmentsl especity can be increased but that
the capacity itself will remain unaltered.

Studies on the relative influence of training and matu»
ration in several fields of endeavor were rflsc.e by Dr.
Arthur T. Jersild and associates7 at Colxmbia in 1932.' using

__.-

5. Ywalwsser, Jacob, The ”errosition of “usiCEl Abilitg,
Rational Society for the Stir iy of “luofltion, 33th Ie eroook,
It. II, p 35.

6. seashore, Carl 3., isle clozy of Tusiccl Talent,
lows Jity, Univ. of Iowa :ress, 1919.

7. Jersild, Arthur T. and others, gram nin3 eniAQrowth
in_the Develcnzent of Children, a. Y. Ten 0 -er's Jollcge,
Jolumbie univ., Jhild DevelOpment Eonogra_hs, so. 10, 7‘32.

 

 

 

m. . t. a. ,. .3 .-_J- _ .
he sz~e sub sets a”? the equivolent 3rmoi n,thod of re-

H

search, the effect of nrsct 09 upon siesd of color naming,
strength of back, Speed of tapping End improve ent in
vocal perfo or once wss rotcd. 'Thc results with but a
single exceotion indicEted that special train r;_3, at

least when confined to a period of severtl months, does
not si:nificantly acceler"te developnent or alter fistrin
bution of individual diffs erer ces. The sole evcejtion in
the results occirrsd in the stony on VOCEl ability, in
which the children who received treinin: mod astonishing
gains over those who received no traininf. The goins were
much wore pronounced and were more fer Enent than in any
other test made. Shis gEin is doubtless due to the fact
that the vocal tee sub3-c ts could inorove t1eir scores

by addint new itors to the perforrorce, while tne tests
consisted of the repetition of a sinfle iten of perfor-
mance. In th.se tests $”P“‘1 it improv w::tent recuired an
increoso in chility in :r.s of strenfith and speed.
results obtained from this s ries of str
in: with the accegted belief thot training can scconglisb

an extension of knowledTE or s 111 ro.ce reslily if -an it can
accorylish en increose in motor or mental conscity.

With dte re o3zition of the 09inions of these psycholo-
gists, it must be conceded that, for all practical purgoses,
an increose in use is en ivm.l nt to an incrcose in funda-
mental capacity ind for this rcnsgn trolnin: of yrs-school

children is desirable

In eiiiti: n to the abovc- mentioned stzdy, 3r. Jersild
he safe other studies in the field of music education a
have other ;:ro."ine:t psycLolo:ists. All have been made
n an effort to cor riblte to cor unfi erstEndinE of the re-
lation of riEturS tion Enzi tr'inin The test3 hEve not
anew rei all quostions, but 1:y iE.vc in: 10°.tei the types
of musicsl activities that are e fective at certain ages

and also the types of activities in u ;ich training has

(I!
O

ionoi ineffective. Ih- tests nouli seen to urove con-
clusively thEt music tEEin-n for pre-s scizocl chiliren is

decioeily wortnwhile.

25

ATUDIES IN S EGING

.,, a. l 1 m , n H, 1
P113 J-..2;JILD- '3, -4‘Z;;'L-3 ’ aim-3!“

Ltudies in singinfi at the ore- ~school level have yield-
ed interesting results, both in regari to the extent of
fundamental capacity am} also in re,' 3:u*fl to the effect of
tra ning. An investigation designed to measuio the sin3-

‘

in3 ability of three-year-old chilsren all to study the
effect of trainings neon the- vocal pc*”or1cu-e cf t1w save
children was cgniuctei by Jersild on; sienstock at
Jolumb a Lniversi+ y in 1930-31. fair ty- ~six ceill on were
used havinf an average a e of 33 months sni ranging in
age from 31 to 43 months at the beginning of the exyeri-
ment. The children were given initial tests to mvesure
their soility to re wr nice sin3le pitches or two-tone
intervals. The ages of t1w children end the results of
the initial tests were uazd as a guide for the division
of the szojects into two equiW lent grouga s (cxoerim wnt l
and check) of ei-ute~n hilaren each. {be ch iloren in
he eXperimentel group received training in the min:
of singlep Ditches and two-tone intervals during 43 ten-
minute lessons distributed over a period of six months.
The traininé also included the sin 153 of san:s contain-

ing notes within and beyonfl the child‘s pitch range as

well as perioiic repetition of pitca 331 interval tests

 

 

 

 

3. M M? ild an1 Bienstock, fie lillnrrce of Train-
3:: og_t“e_3q_al 1uilit£ cfl_2h3ee;1esr-tld Ch liren,
Shili Sev;lo> ent 2, Dec. 1;} , :p 272-491.

stressing items on Which the child hsd previously fail-
ed.

The practiced children were compared with those of
the check group at the end of the six month training
period, again five months later, and finally two years
later. The check group enabled the investigators to de-
termine the degree to which the improvenent exhibited by
the trained group coull be attributed to such factors as
maturation, motivation, familiarity with procedure and
teshx~snd other incidental conditions, rather than to an
actual increase in vocal ability reellting from training.
The performance of each child was scored by observational
technique based on the Judgment of musically-trained
adults. The child was given a score when in the Judgment
of the tester he correctly re reduced a given pitch or
interval one or more times in a series of eight successive
trials.

Ehile the training was in provrcss it was found
necessary to extend the range of tones and the numb r of
intervals used in the trainin: series and periodic retests.
The initial pitch test included 11 notes extending from
middle c' to f" in the second octave hirher. The augment-
ed pitch test included four additional hifher notes and
three additional lower notes making a total of 13 notes
with a range extending from 5 below middle c' to c"‘two
octcves above middle c'. The eirhteen subjects of the
exocrimentel group sang an average of 4.22 notes on the

initial test of ll notes given before training, but after

0'7

six months of traininfi, the av rose score was nesrly per-
feet (Table 1). tn the extended test of 13 notes, the
exoerimentsl vrouo sang an average of slifihtly over 15
notes after three s;d one-half months of training. From
the cornerstIVe scores Tiven in Table I it will be noted
that the exoerirentel children after treinini sang an
oversee of almost twice as many tones as did the initially-
equiv lert check children. The pract cod children still
retained a ststisticelly reliable superiority when both
EPOWSS wcre r tested five months eft r th; treinin: had
been discontinued. fhe relativé difference in scores

still existed when rotests were made two yesrs later.

. r :T‘r "-1
Penn)“; I

A comnsrison of average scores of ergsrimentnl
children (13 pairs) received on pitch tests.

v'twr . v,—“
I “
Lam- . ”L "’

3‘ r --- :1 w ~. ‘ *. ._~. ‘ r‘ 'r-1 '3‘. «. ‘. "1:47.!

[‘3' _..4s1"3 “74,20 1‘ -. i' J-..51 lit a. J.' .L J'bL ‘J ‘-A.LU-L‘

:1 31 ~:-' fir“ .."I‘Af“'\f q n! 7*" ."V 1.. .:. ) I r)
1"\‘ L :1") JK4. 55.091. L...) UsJL-iG is: L\-' ~18 Gsde '4‘
m w an; M

 

 

 

Cn initial test of 11 tones 4.22 4.22

On reoetition of the 11 tone
test after six months of
training 10.72 6.44

Cn extendtd test of 13 tones

after three end one—half

months of training 15.50 8.00
Cn repetition of the 11 tons

test five months after termi-

nation of training 10.2” 7.00
Cn renetition of the 18 tone

test five months after termi—

nstion of trsining 16.36 10.21

The interval test showed a similarly high rate of im-

provement coincident with trsining. The initial test had

23

1"”le "‘e ‘v'"1l_l""i." tirlve in trv'le: '1 0713.21; old
, 1 «D ..... - . ’1 ' ‘_-. A.,. ‘

d9ocnr3i' "93*r ' 1 inrr 9w; 1: '1 tui: t, ycriest
1 ,. a a 1 r‘~., - :2,- v. L - 3

”ovrt 9 Fri yer ct .itt.1. 1* evt 3.3 LCU inclined

t eoe intoerlo "nd in e3diticn the OSCSHQHxH

,4 . .. . . .1.“ a ,1 -. 1. 1,. . .,.t #- 4.
cen;ino rojor find minor siwt.s 73 stvthtio ail actives,
"v”in’ n tctcl 0’ 22 irterv 15. Set: ev*erifa1t‘l an?

0290? children son? on ov:re"e 3f F31r 51 a int2rvvls
crrrectly on the initial test of 12 intrrvale. fifter six
nortAS, t19 ”VG?“T9 score of the tr1in: l chil3r n wre seer—
ly eerfect (Table II}. Then the ext gfled 12 int rval tee
was elven than a? or three enl one-helf ronths of training,
t‘1ev $17~ an avcro"e of cvrr 17 int3rv le. rem th; com-
parative scores given in Table II it will be Lotti toot

t“

(D

experimzntel children r35r93ucei many more intervals

thnt 313 the iriti ll"-e ,0 ivel 2t “33% clil3ren. I39

I
4

(D
“'1’
Co

yrficticec chil3ren still r toino l a substantiol superior-
ity wh9n both ETSJES were re tc-s tci fiv: fonths after the
trainint ha3 bee. fiiscontinuefi. The rel ti 9 difference
in ec31ee still existei waen retests wene ~1aa two years

Inter.

A c-'_1‘~‘*r:s"1ris:1*1 of av'trr’é'fc scores 9‘? 61:33:.1'sri.“is-Ltrxl {3.1131 check
chilfiren (16 pairs) received on interval tests.
13'21‘ .111-

AV 313? T3737? H.5LAL 3L33I

31;.1 .2..‘3.CIJ‘{ L .):::.:i "

‘,l y I'. J
«\J- M-o‘vo'v.‘

[£471
Ir": I

 

 

 

Cn initial test of 12 intervals 4.25 4.31

('3

n renetition of 12 intsrval test
ft9 r six mo11.the of trainin: 11.50 8.00

’33

.11)" ‘3 1 ‘ ' 1' 14;?!“ L 1 1" 3:"!
11V 5 L L ¢ A . g .. ...L 1 J—- 4-“ U48..-qu
n 1 7;: a '10 1:33:11- n s x! any-rd (V {1 3r 1 F)
I L 1.“ ' V J J‘-- .L-i J LR. ‘J ,-'I .4 k\15-i: \4-~\-~Ji
-——-— -a.mw.. - -I‘- W'

 

 

 

 

Cn extended test of 22
nft3r turLG 331 one '7 m
of training 17.60 13.13

Cn repetition of 12 interV3l te st
five 3:31U23 aftsr t"r;13313’33 of
train win, 11.40 7.33

Cn reretition of 22 intarval test
five montgs aftwr t3..-“1t131 3f
training 19.00 9.84

Y

7 -1- r. . - - t 3 ’ .-. .1. r-- ‘ .w - u - J" 4 ' w -r- ‘1 1; - 1- yr
pcrolll 331 JLthUJC\ no nan 01 in taut UJQ mar3ed

v

mg‘s 3*;Lt BhDWfl aftar training in both gltoh uni interval

r15rol .ctlsn rotten :ta a change in fundamental ebpccity,
Dar data this stuiy RHSWbP t3: questlan as t3 thetnar the
chili who eceivc1 tr°1n1“' in 81131:: rt an early 336 will
tava a p3rma 3: -nt a3 vzntage WV -r t3e chili whase vcice is
not tr3133i until later. 133 finiings do lufiicate, hencver,
t.Lt tr3lnln: at the age of three yeurs can b@ undertaken
31th wrczisin; r3311t3.

321.3 1:1t3rvazl tiast ”13;! Jersll-i 1313.71 .Ezienst'm': f‘thher
inllcfitéd thxt t13 n11r3w 1 tarxa1s (see 3333 331 talrds)
are 333' mare reailly than the wifler intervala (perfect
fanrths 3&1 fifths}; that the 39809111“: intervals taud to
ha in: mare reaTily thwn aacenflin; int3rvals 331 that the
carcratic intcrv 1 31 1111f ate) w33 sunfiqq31te re 3311y in
tie test sit ntion {33319 III}. in the final test, t1e
winor 503 L? was 31n‘ 3” all 13 c llfreu who hafi racelved

traininj. 1313 latter 1133133 $333 nst an; art the rather

30.1

17.13.63;'-"'.€'..'7 “Vi, 234.1; 111g, ':;;;;‘;-....tlu i.;;;.-.;"v‘;.l 53;}.J-mlgl be
6:31 3:1 f2L1 t”. on L Lf ysahg buLlLLbu. nebuullj it
i. I.) L. ‘ 3.; 1.1--) -v..‘ul‘l~3t..q;. LAW...“ L 1v {uv‘f'lnl h'lez-
. j. ‘J t)‘? .4 ‘3 v’ 3L .

IHTbCP of children re; Jer sin: Certain intervals befare

 

 

- a. 1 "r'7 -‘ a r .
1" . r r '1’: ~\ -. -
$51-1... \w, 0.1.... ’ tea uui).
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“nfr ‘ 't '3 I" *1 -‘ 1' 1'3179
.i ... ‘. .-

A. . ...__ in...”

in 1936 Janet Learned conducted a stniy at the
university of lcwa on the effect of tre. inin3 upon the
nusicfil perf3rmence cf three- and four-year old children
and concluded thvt such treining was worthwhile. aixteen

tiree- -yesr-cld sri fourteen Icur-yeer-cld children were

Liv n an initial test

gm
\J

(D

used in the stufiw. Eccfi child was
on the r production of pitch, intervals, uixr 5t 3 anal
rhythms. In addition, interest in music er reaction to it
was meted. fhe reeults of the tests wer usei on a basis
for dividing the children into initially-equivalent groups:
eX‘crim‘ntcl ex: 4 creek. ise e.g c-r m :rtcl sebJL cts wer re
trained in groups of three for ten minutes daily for thirty

days. Tex scnfs were usvd f3: trs.i tmi . :LQrpssee, but only

a.

two sen3s were 3mr mt escz day. Various means of in-
creasing voice fle -i Jility as well as interest were em-
ployee. iisuel nr3l motor er)er33ncec were cc ined with

a itcrv 0363 in an effort t3 give a concept of high and

low eni t3 fzcilitnte voice placement. fine singing of
intervcls, using names of parts cf vehicle) an} other

rill. Ihe children were given

Ch

classificatiows wee 3Jsei es
bitches directly from s 32n3. Ehie instrumental stimulus
seeved to ccnfuse them, eni it wts later fenni thnt the
human vcice, garticulerly the female vzice, was the best

edium for stimulatin3 correct vecel re53a cnse in t‘n e pre-

 

 

 

 

 

5t

9. Lee Prod, Janet, fike .ffect LT i‘rgizigfi unen the
“sic “l Ferfcrfidnce e? E‘.rce- r r~chr- ll Qaillren,
amt Lniversity of laws .estwrr 0.

ines is, 193

'2’)

935091 stilt. It we: '13? f: n’ that levitticn frcm the

stinulus ten: :ftcn beccfie frettir icyLnj the fourth

"‘1'! q .. - - 3
-' Q a IMO. fit A ~.' o: u_ f - a 1 , w-r ‘ ~ Q. ‘n‘ i ‘ t ’ 7*. in)“ 3 C! «fiat
1 V'}. O 3 a L ed :1ts " I. t) , 3 x: t.‘ 1‘. .. 8 lg - \J ~ . L-q {Jr . u; a.) .' l-J

p."n .- A u 'l v '~. I . " . n- n- "\ * \ — ' .
,nreses r: r31 39% bzt else xa-e it azeeitle .3 rs,:afllce

tfier with fewer trials (fab’o If).

A camparison of number of trials required ani cgrrect res-
ponses 33c by ex_srimenttl enfi chock chilfrcn in pitch,
interv l and phrase tests.

'uxLE-I;~fi-Li33 (sixteen children)

m

. x...‘

.111.”
r-.
.. - 4.-

 

 

Irisls Correct
l:£§£?1"£;§?é LglgiZQi ;Q*:252:3 Seer

 

veerinental
" I .r’ I“.
aroup 2707 003
I“‘_‘ 7'. .‘O ‘ l‘: p a 7 I
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7 V ‘ ' ‘VV ’ s '3 fl ' V

l T f T | ‘ ' ‘
l. , |- 4.

* -‘ -aouuc-o ~“W- ~ ‘— —. an

ivgerimentsl
Group 17.
20

as s f?
. '31:. -~' .v-vv'n
‘l~-h'c . ". ~)w;p

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3.3L»:

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Fourteen children)

17 , 1r-«- 2 ~ ‘
1 ‘---\"..'. 4.3).. "L . I‘J

IflT’? r7”
54..-: .‘sa

4:. 3

F3
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34
(I)
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I
P‘

Possible Iitch Score - 9 4083101-
;ossible ;nrase ' 3

4
3
j

b
J

‘

J

,-

r

’-

()
I

J

7

v.

1

gr . 1,“, ~. _, -.._, or-v :: :.- w- .._ ,,.‘. 1:1 t
‘71? 9F uvd tr inlnl ‘urr: ; ;,_ v.5 :Jur-’e c-V as, firea er

‘ Th" H‘f ' ’VV" ‘ -4'A 9" fir'.‘ .- f .' '. ‘ . 'u ' I. .‘.:l '2 O U “ .'. r
i. 5‘. -‘v‘ . ‘ .t, GC’J‘.’ b Ln '4‘- :szy 89 ~."--'3.')tp, ta: u-.. "4 ll; {4.4.13

first half C“ 2L; training :3r1:~, A steal? :‘ln in interest

1‘ a Q -. v- r. 7 ‘,-.~ - 1 , . w’ .., - 't- ' v" . -. “ ‘\»-. . 1 1 ‘. “ .- q . . 'h v . r -.

I'? .re Tn ,. =j tn: o ..3; WL9?1 grogg n; tgLa mas a spur
our. 1.+ up” ‘ -~ ' ‘ ‘11~ « n r; m w a 1.

t3 2?; fit, b1, DJ; 0. 3 ;ru.J er r.r+t UK;JT1wu3u‘ a :83

Pair: Beads to be vs I little Jiffercyie between the
rin~3w* aEllity of three—fiai fcur-vewr-yl” chllirem. Dif-
frrhrce in rhility gas t‘e r*:t arzncrhoei in yhrvse re PD-
5 ctlan. ticker tongs zeru more 517Yicu1t far he children

a ‘ ‘. ,, '. .- ,. .‘.“ ~
0;~ oat: 8'9 'rou s tn34 13vur ones.

Iouise :eiliger conducted a study at the Unlvsrs1ty
of lows in 1935 on tte effect of traininf 130: ths szl—
cal performance of five-year-old children an” c3ncludsd
th°t such trsinini ws 5 WOPtflW‘ile. Thirty-six chiliren
with an avernje chronolozlcsl age of 55-63 mo utls phi an
average mental axe of 63.4 were used in the stufiy. gash
child was 31VGn an iritlsl test on the r3~roduction of
pitch, intervals, in} races an1 ruyti ms. In addition in-
tersst in 21313 or as t1on to it was n3t31 on a blfink
devls d for th“t nurpose ani any mono can1itlfius which

«

m13ht influencs musical 8 mtitude were noted. lh3 r--

salts of th: tests were us;d as the basis for scgregatins

.1 '3

the chilfirsz into f31r initially—3 ulvalsxt 3r31 s: two
eXpsriwentcl an! two sh: k. The 939 rimentdl fro
trcinoi in smal rrowps for tin m1‘;31tss fislly for forty
days. tine soncs were used for traininf ywrpossc, but

other sowgs were 31n3 for interest. 31ff1cn1t W3rfis were
explained, 3313131 skips were practicefl and consifi arable
indiviflvsl help was 31vo n. Vsrious tcsch r3 devices vs:

no d in an EttGTfit to brlrg meiodic csmscionsnoss to esch
chllfi. In order to increase an awareness of melodic gattern
and to develop tonal rcmory, th3 teacher often huwmcd the

meloiies anfi askod the chilfirsn to identify th m. cometimos

10. M111ser 131199 2&3 gffcct of Ir115133 iron th
9 -1... .-.... .. .....
:L219;7 _,“”*“fi he 5? V”-"”1- 13 “Jillirens at? e

-nivsrsity of 10-3 ;::t3r' s ILzsls, 1f 33.

 

 

KN
Ul

the Cjflil r33 313335 3 30731331133 0? 13333 on the 3333 or
tun1n3 f3«_»3 aha f1 st 133 tedcher eni th,: e chilc sens
t‘er ~“13 CEEVFPTM were 1b
9ft r t‘: inatr ceLtil $31n‘1nf.

“3t? o":-r133nt31 rufi check grovgs were tostei 3&3

03'33r.d.rffx1~f "teen, th1rt

<
M
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.31 correct res-

,.3 require z
: liren in pitch,

.1
332305 "333 U? CXW"?1W?Rt?l -n1 cfiec‘
luv... 'va" l {3. .1 Jul”:

lu3-Y1L1-;_,3 (th1; y-six hilQren)

 

_ . -'i it; ‘4' :1 - 1' ~ ; 1‘33". .1.- -
A. J—h J'o. ,5 A- -J L.i .. .--x.:_‘_vg‘
-‘.—.‘.-.. «-1 --.--.—¢~ '— *9
”wt-6111] “* w. n.» t "’ ‘- 01 'r-ur‘ ant
.LJ. (Av S 'J-II‘- 34C J-ra'u-:.~.3 J—J‘r'v'ur
V "Q’I'r? m - i-fi" . o " - r ,\ .’.. . 4- ‘ ‘l‘ - ‘:
I 1111“ L ,1; chuirc1 nee»33333 13311r31 Ies-ozscs coore
”co-vo—‘o- “wa‘aHF—‘w “muA-‘a *o-v—n‘ ——-~-—- .‘.-on‘ ‘u-c—H... W-“o‘n- m—--——-.---—c.-—u—. ..

 

:71. y..?é.,:afi_rh :- rlt- p l
Tr‘f‘31 \p

w
.L
onec: rouo 1

f'i
.4

fps-3131,? 11.0 :..3 16 7 1103 18.2
,;eck Groun 13.7 3-3 33.5 10‘} 15'9

 

Iossible Bitch score - 9 Icssible Interval Score - 12
ioeeible Lhrase ocore - 29
In contrast to the untrained children, the trained
Childl en showed a consistent im;r ”veie nt in each tee The

33.1ne were not statistically eiénificezt but it would seem

\JJ
0\

that such consistency of imprevenent wouli not be due
to chance alone.

Using data compiled by Liss Learned in the geevisus
stufiy along with data secured in her own 8 may, Lies
heiligen made a csmparison of the differences in vocal
ability at the three- four-, enl five-year levels. she
found there was a greater ability to regroduce single
pitches at each succeeain' age level from three to five
yesrs. She further fauna that the five-yesr-olds of he
study significtntly exceeded the three- and four-year-
olds in interval spa phrase reproduction. rhese differ-
ences in ability at the various age levels largely fiisap-
pe”Pfifl subsequent to the traininz prsfirem. Ens ability of
the three- and fear-yeer-olfls, altHOJgh lswer than that of
the five-yeer-olds upon initial testing, approached it at
the close of trsining. this fact alone eviflences the
worth of music training at the age sf three anfl four years.
The improvement ends by the five-year-olds during the

was less marred but it must be remember-

Lu

training perio=
ed thwt there was less room for ingrOVement at this age
level. From the studies of Learned and neiliger, it is
separent that training is effective flaws to the three-

yesr level.

Y 11

1‘ JE LIIJJJ SJ. JJ

In 1952-33 Irene Lissa“ conductsfi an ei3ht month
trainlnj pPOjrnd wit) pro-school chill.en at Lille College,
California with fsvo r'ble results. Her elbjects were
forty chilfiren ranging in age from t"; to four years whom
See gave 10 to 23 lessons. 3y usin: a so 3.: intii‘icslly-
tuned Lecgon gone on sed on a six tone 3 tolic chore
(e' e' 3‘ o" e“ 5"), a moiel of pure tone was rr-ssnted
and the coils asked to repr3ilce it as see Hr te 1y as pos~
sible both vocally an? oy playin3 it on the 3on3. A

child' s ne.tmzr l oitcl had been proviotsly astermlned and
all work startei from th1t point. A "song" was fives on
tLis tsne nnfi as a chill rastered it, gains} control and
aified another tone, the song was brosdened to inclide it.
fusic conv rsations were also used.

At tze close of the trsinin; periol, tnrs 9 children

mul to

G)

(D
a

were sbls to match all six tones; f31rteen wer
match two tones; seventeen CDJli natcn on: bone end only
six failei to match any tone. Six of the c911. ren deve lep-
ed a Sm1se of pitns 1 a or)achin; the absol; te. The cEiilfi ren
also SlDWGd imnrovetent in interval nraiuotion.

fhe children of this study did not make as spectacular
gains as did those of 0th r studies, but the gains were

sufficient to S'lJW that trainin3 was bonefic iel.

 

ll. iisse1, Irene, A fie: aggggnch_tl‘fssic for Yotng
“_ 11 "a“- .. '1 ." 'r N -‘.. '-
_.T-—‘—..—:’....;_.._ «.3, "' ' .0} ‘ -'.) J1.

1123;. fI:J"f'\.‘-;a.'v :1"_“|:“‘ j" T " ' ' ..‘ I ‘3' 1‘. ,".-""“'. 'Iigfy 12
1.44.3: J5. .J .‘.-VA. L... a: , i .1131. 3.‘4-{ (“1.3. 7 J,.J.“ul (Judi?) ul 'ul)

‘he procedure used in the foregoing studies was re-
peated, with important supplements and a larger number
of chilfiren in a study made by Lpie3raff, fieiliger and
Learnsd in 1935-35 at the University of Iowa. Cne bun? red
and fourteen children were used in the preliminary Stde
for the purpose of perfecting techniques. Sixty-six
children completes the various tests of the main study: six-
teen three-year-olds, fourteen fo ur- -yecr-clds 'nl tr irtg'-six
five-year-olds. Cn the basis of scores secured in initial
tests ani upon ratinfs in interest, the subjects at each
age level were divifled as equally as pose -ible into two
groups. There were six groups in all, three ex; )er rimental

«.11,

and three check. as chilfiren in the evccri.:ntal groups
were given intensive s}:ecia1 trainin3 for ten minutes each
day for thirty to forty periods. Kine sonjs were used w th
rare 8 from b below middle 0' to the second f" above. As
the tra inin3 pr03ressed, retests of both the esper mental
and check groups on the initially-given pitch, interval

and phrase tests were given at the end of fifteen days,
again at the end of thirty days and finally, for the five-
yezivr-olais, st t e 011d of :orty d1.ys. The children at each
age level made consistent cni substantial gains nni althou3h
some of th differences were not statistically significant,
tEr ev do point to a marked inprovsrent fl llow n3 training

9

(Table_VI).

 

l2. Tdeorofi, Xeilirer, i.esrn
ins noon the sir i"in" ibili t1 eni Ens
Log-Art; 3-133 Five"; ’5‘ 7r:\—1d 3111.154; P931, 13"} (o

 

39

TABLE VI

Comparison of changes in scores of three-. fourw, and
rive-yearvold children in the experimental and check groups
after thirty training periods.

Experimental Three.
Year-Olds (8 Children)

cheek Threealssr-
Olds (8 Children)

EIperisentsl Fonre
Yeer~01ds (7 Children)

Cheek Fouritesre
Olds (1 Children)

EXporimentsl Five.
Yesr~01de (18 Children)

Cheek Fiveoleerw
one (18 children)

ReprOn

Pitch
Interval
W

Pitch
Interval
Phrase

Pitch
Intervsl
Phrase

Pitch

Intervsl
Phrase

Pitch
Interval
Phrase

Pitch
Interval

7 Phrase

mum mo:- Thirty
W

Jill...
5.75 8.35
7.00 10.25
3.13 5:37
6038 7e1}
3:75 3:25
‘u37 ‘c37
5.45 8000
5:71 9d71
5:10 9d57
8'29 7471
7e85 8“)
“.71 5.00
7-65 344‘
10e0° 10189
13.50 17.50
8:00 8‘27
10.22 10.28
13.20 15.60

A perfect score in the pitch test was given if a child
the nine notes of the
per notee Possible

succeeded in reproducing oorreetl
test after no more than four trla

pitch score .. 9. .

i.

A perfect score in the interval test was given it e child
succeeded in reproducing correctly the twelve essending

and descending intervals of the test after no more than
Possible interval score .. 12

four trials per interval.

Possible Phreee Score for Three. and Four—Year~01ds . 14w

Possible Phrase Score for Fiveoresreclds . 29.

The trained ohildren were amazingly skilled in reproa
ducing intePVels in the right direction.

40

Pereentages sung

in the right direction by the variouc age groups follows:

3 Yr. Old: - 99.2% (only 22 incorrect out of 2523
intertels)

4 Ir. Olds ~ 99.5% (only T incorrect out of 1282
intervsle)

5 Yr. Olds v 99.8% (contributed by only three
children from s group numbering
eighteen)

Tests in the singing or phrases proved to be the

sect discriminating, since they gave the fiveeyearuold
group opportunity to register the full scope of improve~
nent made by training. The ability of children to repro-
duce phrases chewed a normal increase with maturation,

but over and shove this it was shown that the ability
could be improved substsntielly st each age loyal by means
or trsining. Treining (to the extent or thirty practice
periods) brought the three-yearuolde up to the initial
level or the fouruyecr-olde and the fourvyearvoldc became
practically equal Mn ability to the initial level of the
fiveayearuolds. The training program definitexy increased
the ability of the three», fouro. and five~year~old

children to reproduce single pitches. intervals and phrsses.

41

253 UILLIARS STUDY 13

on the other hand, evidence secured in other experi-
ments has gone ageinst the trend of that socurel by Jersild
and Bienstock, Learned, Reiligsr, fiissom, and Hyde; aff,
heiliger and Learned. Dr. Karold K. fiillions re orts a
study conducted at the University of Iowa in 1935. In this
study, children aged four and five were trained in groups
in the singing of songs. The songs were presented vocally
with piano accompaniment and then the children were invited
to join the teacher in singing them. Two practice periods
a day were elven for thirty days. Lbjoctivs measurements
of achievement (by the dictsohone technique) were made be-
fore training and after ten, hirty-one and sixty practices.

A weifihted error method of scorin cg was used in which
the amount of error in half tons units for each tone was
recorded and the cumulative total was assigned as a score
(error score). This retioi of so orinfi more heavily penal-
izes the nor r monotone, for example, than the child who
ms! cs only small or occasional errors.

iractice in learning the melocl y of s son3 in this way
resulted in improvement ms:1e hc' tzsen the tenth and thirty-
first sessions when tests were administered, but some
children howc=1 poorer performance after sixty grmctices

than after either ten or thirty—one. (fable VII)

 

 

l3. Uillisns, I. H., Inhefiiste snfi Dslsgsd Isgor o
Fro- Echool Children for Ditch in ' 31131 ”ocqggggg_, 1935.

 

)1’)

TABLE VII

Group error scores in delayed recall on phrase re;roduo~
tion for children completing the training serial.

21 Children 31 children
147e69 Vonthgl ifi7e70 Kontgll

era-72.71.1213 emanate

 

Preliminary 51.6 53.9
After 10 practices 5359 57.9
After 31 practices 37.6 33.0
After 60 practices 3#.0
ggiito'sngs qugg;
Prolimimry 60.0 56.5
After 10 practices A2.6 #6.}
After 31 praatisOI 30.0 32.2
After 60 practises ‘4§.7

Williams interprets this result as due to boredom
with the song. It in poaoiblo that different results
might have been obtained if a larger variety of songs had
been used and if more individual attention had been givon

to members of the group.

Th; ssrr;1sv sruvy 1“

Dr. lelvin 5. Eattwich, Dniversity of Iowa, also
studied the effect of practice on the musical responses
of ore-school nni other children. Hattwick lists four
possible nethofis for neasnrin: differential reactions
to pitch: the interval matchin: method, the conditional
response method, the singing method oni the ver a1 con-
cegt method. For various reosons, he rejected the first
two methods for use with pre-school children. In the
sinfing method, the chilfi listens to sinnle intervals under
the instruction to sing what he hears. Fhis method of
testin: pitch discrimination was ustd in all studies re-
viewed thus far in this treatise and fiattwick uses it in
this stnfiy.

The sound producing anoaratus consisted of s vibrat-
ing bar hung over a resonator which was tuned to the bar.
3y striking the bar with a small rubber hammer, a pure
tone was produced. Table VIII shows the results obtain-
so when childrei aged four and five years were given a

test to reproiice three different intervals.

14. “attwick. E. 3., A tonetic itwiy of Differential
Pitch Sensitigitv, 1935.

 

i; 2'
6

masts v III
5 KELCLDQ 5 :2. ago: my

Numc Porn Bum¢ For» Nun. Pon-
Qtiidm mmmmmm
Teltod 16 24 4O
Rocpondod for twonty~ ’
five trials h 12 75 17 71 29 73

Staging direction.cor~

rootiy in 90 par cont

of trials 3 25 12 70 15 52

Refusing to sing but

accepting a vbrbal

method of rotponno 3 19 5 21 8 20

Refusing to sing or

90-pond verbally i 6 2 8 3 8
Since one-fourth of the children refused to sing in

this experimont. it was impossible to dotcrmino what por-

oantage of the total group could sing. In an effort to

scour. POSponlII from «very child, an experiment using on

Ediphone horn to add motivation was undnrtaken. The

teacher sang “ding-dong“ on the proper interval into the

horn and instructed the child to sing Just as ho had done.

The motivation.was provided by promising the ohild.ho

would lator b0 allowed to hear the recording. The Itimiii

used var. vocal major third. and seconds. 'A ohiid.wal

givun crudit if‘ho long it least him. out of tho first ton

trials correctly. If he failed on.moro than one trial. tho

tent was augmented to about twenty-five trials in ova-r to

actormin. a more accurato poroentago of cacao... The odi-

phono proved an oxooiiont motivating dcviuo and tho

children rcnpondod without oxooption (Table IX).

#5

TABLE Ix
Halttionlhip or vcccanotcr control to chronological can.

Per Cent Per Cont For Geno
A50. Ghil- Who fibula Singing Ace Singing Only
1113!]. its: §LBE._._.. .IEEIE21!.2.

b 21 100 O 5
5 26 100 13 23
6 21 100 1‘ 58
' 90 For Cont Succocl.

The effect of practice on the interval singing ability
or pro-school children by use of the singing method was
not determined. Eighty children aged 7 to 11 inprotcd
from 0-27 per cont after practice. Eattwick fools thct
the use of the singing method of pitch discrimination b0.
comes morn limited no children grow oldcr and become more
roticiont about 3010 singing.

In summary Hattvick says that non. of the four-yoarw
old: in his ctudy could sing a twcotonc interval accurate.
ly and that only one child in ten had chOIOped sufficicno
vocc-motor to respond in the right direction. Svory tenth
child in the five-year cg. group could sing accurately the
intortal heard and ovary fifth child could sing them in
the right direction.

In the vocal concept method of pitch discriminltlon,
two tones are presented to the subject, who is requircd to
respond verbally with some sign to tell whether the coccnd
tone vac higher or lower. In a study on the effect of

training on the use of verbal concept to tell direction

#6

of intervals conducted by Dr. Sattwick at the University
of Iowa in 1935, 125 chilflren ranging in L56 from three
years, six months to eight years, five months were trained.
by the regular music teacher flaring the daily music hour
for a period of five weeks. At the end of five weeks the
children were again tested infliviiually. Table ijresenta
the results of the test both before uni after the group
training periofl. ‘

TABLE X

Effect of extensive group practice in learning a simple
Verbal concept in audition.

ER 33K? TJSTABL?

   

 

Chrono- Per Cent Gain
logical Children Before After from EKtonBive
can... Mini... Minion mains mining *

A 16 10 19 9

5 20 23 40 13

' To secure credit 3 child had to respond correctly nine
trials out of ten.

The results of the tests showed that in the rcnroducu
tion of direction and pitch of intervals improvement with
extensive training comes after five years and that prior
to that ego, trsining gives little improvement in the
scores. It is interesting to note that between the fourth
end fifth years, greet improvement without extensive trains
ins occurs. Hattwick scknovledges that use or the vocal
concept of pitch discrimination increases with see and
that few children or pro-school sge will respond to its
use. He discovered that children made better scores when
using instructions involving terminology of “goin5.up-
going down” than when using “higherw-lcwer”. They also

h"

made better scores when the Speed of the test was made
voriblo and set to the pace of the group tested.

In the four-yearuold group, five children out of ten
could successfully use a Verbal concept of "going up-.
going down“ in the visusl field. but only one in ten
could use the terms successfully in tho suditory field.
hot more then two out of ten children of this age could
report verbally or by singing whether they were able to
discriminate large pitch differences.

In the five-yeorwold group, only two out of ten
before extensive practice and four out of ten after s1~
tensivo practice were able to report successfully in the
auditory field. Not more than four out of ten children
of this use could report verbally or by singing uhethor
they were able to discriminate large pitch differences.

Neither a minimal nor 1 long period of training was
effective in teaching the verbal concept of “going up~¢
going down" in the auditory field although the some con-
cept was understood in the visual field by all children
at five years of age.

In 1932 Dr. Williams reported s previous studysin
pitch discrimination by use of the verbal concept method
mode st the University of Iowa. Its purpose was to test
the possibility of teaching the use of the words “high--
low“ or “upstairsoodcwnsteiru' to denote the direction of
the second tone of a tenotone interval. In his study

twentyofour children used four and five years were trained

15. Williams, Siovers and Hattwick, §hW_§oosurgmong
9; Fusion; ngglgpmo , 1932

 

4e

in groups. Training consisted of verbal instruction.
demonitration on the piano and having the children go
"upstairs or downstairs“ by physical steps or leapl.

Afton about fit. minutes of orientation, the children war.
first tested visually ond then auiitionally on the d1r90~
tion of intervals given by the tester. The interval: wore
presented vocally and by moans of the piano. The follow-
ing situations in both directions were used: a stepwise
progression, 0' d' o’ f' 5'; an orpeggio, o’ o' g': a

minor third, 0' 3’; a Iooond, 5' a'; and a minor second,

The visual learning was cocoonsrul with very littlo
practice with all childrin demonstrating correctly four
times the preps: direction of intervals. In the auditory
tout the following poroentages of children responded oar»
rootly (averaging the results for both directions on each
toot situation): scale. 90 per cent; arpeggio, 72 per cont:
third, 52 per cent; Iooond, 52 per cont; semi—tone, 54
per cent. In the case or the stepwise scale progression,
auditory orientation was quickly made. With the other
,interVai fungal, however, this method of pitch discrimi¢
notion failed, as the percentages are only o non-signifiolni
amount above chance luooooo. Certain children, however.
wort ablo to make between 90 and 100 per cent contact roo-
ponno: for the entire tout.

Williams felt that on. possible roaaon for tho senor.
.11! poor result. val that tho ohildron became bored vith
tho uituation even during the first trial: and he orprOIlod
the Opinion Iubotantiated by Hattviok in 1935 that it in

49

difficult to test pitch discrimination.in pro-school
children through ass of the vocal concept method. Williams
did not make any tests on the effect of training upon ros-

1301130. 0
SUEKJRY CF STUEIQS IN SILGINK

In summnrizins and comparing rssults shown in tho
studios nods on the singing or prsoschool childrsn. ssvsrsl
interesting fscts are brought forth. First of all. s rid.
rungs of fundamental capacity was reported by tho various
ospcrimcntcrs. For example, the performancs of tho tour.
ysérbolds in.tho Hsttvick study was infsrior to the par-
formnnco of tho thrssqysar-olds in tho Jcrsild and Bienstook
study. The Updsgratt, Hoiligcr and Learned study rcportsd
that their four-year-olds could initially sing on sversgs
of 5.71 intervals out of s 12 interval test, vhsrsas
Hottwich had no foursyccrvolds who could do this.

Secondly, s11 studios showed that performance of all
ages and in all tests improved with training. with the
sole exception of the Williams test, in which children in-
proVod their weighted error scores through 31 practices
snd than rogresssd, s fact which Williams himself attri-
butes to boredom with the song. Notwithstanding the rod
grossion, the childrvn of the Williams study had not schiQVo
ed the rats of improvement up to tho start of thc regrsssion
as had those of other studies. hattwick made no test on

the effects of training on the scores of prc~school children,

but‘his older children showed decidedly less improvement
otter training,than did the childron of other experi-
wIontero. Tho discrepancy botvoon initial scores and ion
provomont duo to training sppesre to be due in part to
differences in scoring standards and to s lsrgc extent
slso to differences in procedure. Qho Rottoick children
were required to give ocrroot responses nine trials out
of ten in.ordor to receive credit whereas children in
other studies received credit it they were correct one
or'two times out of several trials. This is on excep—
tionally high standard of performanoo. and s loll rigid
one would seem adviscblo in.tosto designed for the
practical purpose of probing children's potentislitioo.
Furthermore, in the Hottvick study. if the child failed
in more than one trial out of ten. the toot one expended
up to twenty-five trisls. 0n.oucb s test it is concsin
solo that some children‘vould become fotiguod or bored
or both snd sooros would be adversely effected.

As for differences in procedure, the children in
the fisttwick study roosivod their stimuli directly tron
tho tone of s vibrating bar. Thoso in tho Hissom ltudy
received theirs tron s Dosgon gong. Children in oil
other studios reproduced tones or intorvels presented
directly by say of the human voice. As an osporimcnt.
Updogrstr tried using‘bslls for stimuli and had many re.
tussle fro: children who had responded correctly when:

given the tone or interval by the human voice.” It is,

51

therefore, quite possible thst the children of the
Hattwick study would have made higher scores if they had
been given their pitches in this manner. In all educem
tion the more teeting procedures and methods of training
are adapted to the individual needs and nature of young
children, the larger are the potential shilities that are
revealed and the larger are the gains achieved through
practice.

in continuing the comparison of the results of the
various tests it must he remembered that the Jersild and
Bienetock and the Updegraff, Heiliger and Learned studies
used the experimental and check group plan or research
which enabled the experimenters to know what amount or im-
provement could be credited to training and what amount
nuet be credited to naturation. This fact would seem to
give these studies greater import than the Hsttwick and
Williams studies which did not use this plan of reeearoh.
With due regard to the findings or all experimenters, the
value or training in preesohool singing is spparent.
Further study is needed to tell how permanent the values
may be but the findings have strongly indicated that traine
ink in singing in one performance that might well be select-
ed for emphasis in the education or young children.

52

R; ‘53.? A313 PIA3EE€T£DET

The studies in singing brought forth interesting
facts concerning the range and placement of the voice of
the preasohocl child and at leaet one independent etudy
on the role of pitch level and pitch range in young
children has been made. According to certain prominent
educators in the field of music educsticn. the range of
a child's voice extends from first line s' to fourth epace
e". Although there hee been no published experimentel
date in support of this claim, music publishers have ac-
cepted the range and have used it as a guide for the
selection and arrangement of song materiel in children‘s
music books. Jereild and Bienstock in their above~
mentioned study on the effect of training on the‘VOoal
ability of children eleo conducted research on the range
of children’s voieec end their piecement on the susicel
scale. According to their findings, the vocal range of
untrained children.ef preeschocl age ss represented in
their study averages fron five to ten tones. Sons“
children reproduced so many ss twenty-two tones. nhich is
s greeter’range then that pcessssed hy the average adult.
(Title II).

53

TABLE XI

Average number and range of tones sung by pro-school
children.“

Number Average
Children dumber

‘55; Iegteg Tonal Sung P a”
TKO YEARS

24-30 months 16 4.3 0-9

30-36 months 14 6.4 0'17

24-36 months 30 5.3 0‘17
THREE YEARS

36-A2 months 19 79‘ 1’17

42-d8 months 24 6.5 1r17

36-#3 months #3 . 6.9 l-l?
FOUR YEARS ‘ g ..

43-54 months ,24 . 9.9 2-22

Sit-60 months 21 8.2 3-17

48-60 months 45 9.3 2‘32
FIVE YEARS

60-66 months 27 10.# 2-19

66-72 months 25 9.7 2-19

60-72 months 52 10.0 2-19
ADULTS 65 19.7 13~29

‘ Scoring based upon the reproduction of individual tones
and half tones corresponding to the O Hajor scale.

The table presents evidence of a rapid deveIOpment of
ability to sing a ride range of tones. Improvement from
the age of two to six years is decidedly greater than the
improvement from six years to maturity. Indications are
that a child has the capacity to produce a wide range of
tones at an early age. Tests further revealed that a
person realises s large portion.of his potential vocal
range by the tine he reaches third grade in elementary
school. These findings emphasize the need for vocal train-

ing at an early age.

In the Heiligcr study, the 01perinental children
after training possessed an average vocal range of tvo
octaves and one note. All could sing as high as one
octave above middle 0': 83 per cent could sing as high
as the second g“ above middle 0': 25 per cent as high as
the third d”' above. All except four per cent could sing
as low as the b below middle 0'; over 50 per cent could
sing the a: 36 per cent as low as g and 17 per cent as
low as e below middle c'. Fifty per cent of the subjects
could sing all the notes vithin a range of a below middle
e' to the second a” above it. These data indicate that
the vocal range of the five-yearuold child is wide and
that it extends to the lover ranges.

These range. for'the riveayear-olds were identical
to those given in the Updegrarf, Heiliger and Learned
study. In this same study. the three-year-old children
sang in a range of from d below middle c' to g' the second
octave above. Fifty per cent could sing as high as the
first a" above middle c’. Fifty per cent could sing as
low as 3 below middle s'.

Hattwick reported a study“ in 1933 in vhich he meet-
took to determine the mean pitch level and mean pitch range
used by pre-school (and first and second grade) children
when voluntarily choosing and singing any song. In his

.54; _ .a...

16. Hattvick, M. 8.. 1g; Role of P ch Lev

Eitgh Rang; in the Sggcggg gr Pro-school F r ”
e G , Child Development. 4:193}. pp 281-291.

 

U)

55

study he first used thirty-four children aged four and
one-half to six years for subjects from the University

of Iowa pre-school laboratories, and an edlphene for rec
cording. The pitch a’ was sounded-ethe child :itched and
sung the song he liked best-othe pitch a' was again re.
corded. The pitch level of these pro-school children was
found to be the e’ above middle 0' for this was the level
most children had chosen to start their songs.

Yhen the range and pitch level for these children
were compared with those for the same songs as presented
in songbooks, they were found to be significantly within
a narrower range and with a lower pitch level.

After forty-eight group practice periods (two a day)
for thirty-seven children aged four and oneohalf to six
years, Hattvick found that the pitch level was still signi-
ficantly lower than that presented by the teacher during
the practice period. After the same number of practices.
the mean range was still significantly lower on the anal.
cal scale than the range presented in the practice period
but not significantly narrower in semitone value.

Hattvick then sampled three hundred and fifty songs
to determine range and the percentage of certain pitches
used. A summary of his findings follow:

6 per cent contained one or more pitches of f'

42 per cent contained one or more pitches of e'

#7 per cent contained one or more pitches of e'flat
over 81 per cent contained one or more pitches of 0'
only 8 per cent contained one or more pitches of c

47 per cent of the songs had a range of from f' to

e"f1at
only 8 per cent of the songs had a range of from c' to c'

55

In the songs he sampled Hattwich found the mean '
pitch level to be at approximately 5' sharp and the mean
range to be approximately 10.5 semitones (0' to e” flat).
From his study, Hattwick believed the range of the pre-
school voioe to be about the some in semitone value but
be firmly believed that it is placed lower on the musical
staff, about c' to c". In studies previously mentioned
Williams concurs in this belief.

Hattwich further believed that many children who
ling off pitch when songs are pitched as written would
sing correctly if the songs were pitched at a lower level.
Practically all children would then be able to participate
in the music activities and the interest of the group
would be united in purposeful activity.

The Jereild-Bienstock study also indicated that
children's voices are pitched lower than is commonly sup-
posed (Tables x11 and x111). On initial tests the pitches
middle 0' and d' (which are supposed to fall below a
child's favored range) were sung more readily than the
higher pitches. d", e“ and t" (which here been regarded
as well within a child's range). The tests further indie
catod that the ascending notes from.middle c‘ to s' were

sung the most readily by the children (Table xxx).

TABLE XII

Pitchee reproduced by fifty per cent or more of subject.
tested at each age level.

2~3 yearn d' e' f’ 5' n'

3-4 years c' 4' 9' 1' 5' 5' a

4-5 years b c’ d' c' f' 5’ s' b' o"
5-6 years a b c' d' c' f' 5' c' b’ c" d"

* a’ was sung by forty-nine per cent or the children.

TA3LE XIII

Number of children rejroducing certain pitches before train-
ing (forty-eight children tested).
0' c' e‘ 1" c' a' b' o" a" e" t"

k)

19 29 30 27 29 22 13 12 11 6 5

This same tendency to favor the lower tones was nppnr-
ent in the subsequent phrase tests and on the final pitch
test given after six months of training (fable XIV). One
of the effects of training was the increase in the number
of notes which could be sung. After six months of training,
the eighteen children used in the study averaged practi-
cally one hundred per cent in reproducing a range from b
below middle 0' to the second 9“ above (Fable XIV). Ho
evidence of Itrain was noted in using this extended runs.
but the children had been encouraged to sing softly at 111
times and thin caution doubtless insured against strain.

TAELE XIV

number of children reproducing certain pitches after Ii!
months of training (eighteen children tested).

3 n b c' d' e‘ r' 3' c‘ b' c" d” e" f" a” c" b" 0"

5 15 17 13 13 13 18 18 13 13 17 18 17 15 15 14 13 9

Gains made during trainina included proportionately
more high than low tones. s more formal or an embcrrseeins
situstion seezed to harnper the production of high tones.
Thus it appears from the initial pitch tests, from the
final pitch tests given after trainin3, and from the test!
esglcying rzn “as 3 used in training 3, that three~yesr-old
children, as represented in this investi3stion, can sing
notes below the commonly accepted range quite as readily
as some of the hi3her notes which have been regarded as
well within the child's capacity.

sppro xinstsly two years after the first stcdy Jersild
and c enstoc1: trained twenty-five children use fortyoone
to fifty-six months in thirty-eight periods.17 During the
training, the vocal range or these children improved from
an average of 13.2 to 17.2 tones for a gain of about thirty
per cent. As a control group method of research was not
used, t e amount of improv-smer t due to maturation could
not be gau3 ed, but in vice of the results of the previous
study it was felt that the 33 in in range was largely due
to training.

Heiliger observed that when the rive-yecr-olds of her
study were given an Opportunity to pitch their songs, they
always pitched them lower than they were written (93 per
cent of the songs were pitched between 3 below middle 6'
and the first f' above).

A .‘. ._‘

17. Jersild and Bienstock,A Study3g! th33Delglgn--
m n C A c S . Jour. Educ. Peych., 25,
Catcher. 1934. pp 91-503.

59

As another approach to the determination of place.
ment, the nine tones used in the pitch test administered
by Updegrcff. Hoiligsr and Learned were arranged in order
as to relative difficulty of reproduction. These orperie
mentors also agreed that children's voices were pitched
lower than has been previously suspected for their children
sang the lower notes with greater ease than the higher ones.
In a phrase test administered by Hillismc the children made
fewer errors when allowed to start on keynotes or their own
choosing. which were always lower than the one used by the
eXperimenter.

Failure to take into account the voice range of a
particular child may lend to s mistaken irpreosion or bi!
ability to sing. In some cases observed by Jersild and
Bienstock children who had been set down as incompetent
singers by their teachers not only made relatively high
scores, consisti?3 chiefly of tones lower than the tones
usually included in the songs presented to them, but c100
improved considerably after a period or special trcining.

Due to lack of encouragement and training, children

often do not make full use of their potential abilities.
A child may become socustorod to being regarded as incap-
able of singing and become resigned to roirrding himself
as unable to sing. Children undoubtedly differ in funds.
mental capacity and there is no reason to believe that

children would be equally competent if given equal encourage-

ment and training but the all-important principle is to

60

provide the environment so that whatever fundamental espeo
city a child hue. it may he need to the tulle-t extent.

All experimenter: who have conducted eeientirie re.
neuron on the range and pleeement of the preoaohool voiqp
nre, therefore, agreed that it in somewhat narrower in
range than has been previously luppOIed and that it is
placed neveral tonee lower on the mueieal nonle. Their
etudiee have shown that the lower tonel are lung more
often and with greater ease than the higher tonal. Optimum
range and placement is placed about from 0' to a". flea:
eonge appearing in booke will not here this range and plaee~
neat and the tmher will have to be diligent in her queet ,
fur euitable and yet intereeting materiel. While teete
have shown that training will inerenae range. until that
ie eeeonpliahed, eonge within the optimum range should he
used. Only by doing thin, will intereet be uninteined
and greateet educational benefit reunit-

LEARNIKG SYLLABLE NAMES

Hieeen made an incidental utuayla o: the feasibility
of teaching preosohool children syllable namee. The eix
tonee of the Deagon whine (do, mi. sol, do. mi. sol) which
were identical to the pitch test tonee were need. The
nyllahlee were taught'vieunlly h: loeation nnd not hy
lound. At the end of training. two ohildren.knew all the

.‘.. - Ail.-.—

w

   

18 . Hieeem,l

thlggln, Child navciOpm3fii. Px'1933. pp 308~317. "‘ "

61

syllable names, four knew five, eleven knew only one and
eight children were unable to name any eyllablea. It ie
doubtful that syllable training ie of any value at the

pre-echool leVel.
SECRTAREC‘US VOCALIZAT IONS

Several inventigatore here nude etudiee or the span,
taneoue vocalieetiOne of preeechool children. The etud:
made by Jereild and Bienetock;9 ie of particular signifie
canoe. In thin study each child wae obcerVed in play for
a total period of one hundred ninntee divided into at
leaet ten interwale occurring over a period or three to
five months, and the verifiable note: he aounded were re«
corded. It was found that the children eons high tonoe
more readily under epontaneoua conditione. Of the nine
hundred and fifteen tones tabulated, ninetyonine per cent
fell within a range of e' first line and e'I fourth epeee.
Fifty per cent were within a range or e‘ to a‘: titty per
lent were above e'. The note: from t' to d‘ were need the
neat frequently: a' was the eingle note neat need. Higher
notee were need more frequently in cello and outcriee than
in actual einging. Theee tindinge are in direct contract
to those of the formal teete both before and after train»
ing in that they show a higher placement of the voice on

the mueicel staff under epontaneoue conditione.

.‘..n

19. Jereild and Bienctock. is: hr := z . sla' ,‘.
v a Ab t of o ~Yegr-Old gg;1gggg, child
DeveIOpment, 2: December, 1931. pp 272-291.

  

62

The children song mostly when alone. The songs some-
times related to cunrent activities or play and sometimee
contained only repetition of syllables or words. Activities
involving rhythmic notion tended to be accompanied more
often by singing. Improvieationa occurred more frequently
than snatches of songs taught at home or at school. The
frequency with which diatonic or chromatic scales occurred
was small, but often enough to show that children do not
limit their spontaneous singing to isolated notes. The
chromatic interval occurred relatively quite frequently.
The relative frequency of spontaneous singing, humming and
chanting showed a negligible correlation with the free
quency of overt activity and of laughter, records of which
had been made available by another observer. The children
showed wide individual differenoee in their snonteneoue

vocaliaatione.

S‘I‘L‘DILLS IN HiiITE‘E'EIJ iiESfCl‘JSE

studies by Jereild and Bienstook. the JereildeBienltcck
Study,2o Heinlein, Williams. Hieaem, Christianeon, Vance
and Grandprey and Van Aletyne and Osborne have dealt with
the ability or pro-school children to keep time to mueic
or rhythmic eound petterne. A study by Jereild and
Bienetook conducted over a period of three years. from 1931
through the epring of 1934. wee the most comprehensive.
Kinetyufour children, aged two to five yeare, and eeventeen
adulte were uaed ae subjects. Among the rector: investi-
gated which might influence children’. rhythmic respcneel
were tempo and meter and the complexity of music pattern.)
whether best response is given by hand or by foot: age.
eex and intelligence; and the effect of maturation and
practice.

The etudy wee baled on a method which meaeured the ac-
curacy with which children could keep time to the accom-
paniment of the mueic of an electrically-operated piano.
Motion picturee were taken of the eubjcct both when he
walked and as he beat time with his hands to nueic. A
light controlled by especially designed perforation. in
the mueio roll and that flashed on every accented beat in

the mueic wee a part of the equipment. There wee also a

we:

20. Jereild and Bienetook, WW3
Ch r I College, Columbia

New York. Touche
University, Child DevelOpment monographe No. 22. 1935.

64

clock (the hand of which made a complete revolution every
second) by means of which both the subject's movements
cue the accents: beat cocld be timed. The record of each
subject, then, included c picture of his movements. the
light and the clock. Al the film was examined, a tran-
Icript could be made of the roading of the clock when each
accented beet had acourrcd (as shown by the light) and
when each new step or hand mcvement had been made by the
subject. If the step or hand movement was synchronous
with the beat as shown by the light, the subject was exact-
ly in time with the music and a score was reccrdcd. If he
was not in time, the exact discrepancy between his perforw
mance and the beat was indicated in units of time by the
clock. A variance of five units or 5/6Cth second wee allow~
ed. Isolated alignment of beats and steps or claps war.
not credited, since it was felt they probably were due to
chance. Tests were administered in units of fifty beats.
In the test on the ability to keep time as related
to age and other factorl, seventy-four children aged two
to five years were used. Two tests of 50 beats each for
hand and foot reaponac were given for “unaltered” music
and two additional tests of 50 each were given for "simpli-
tied” music. In the latter type music the roll on the
piano was so arranged and blocked out that only the note.
written on the beats would be sounded.- The results of tho
tents showed a cébltantial increase in score: at each as.

lcvol as compared with the preceding age level (TabloXV).

TABLE XV

Scores at yearly age levele.*

212311.123; man man

Rumber tested 19 23 13 19
:::::§§0.°°’. 400 400 400 400
Range of scores 52~139 57-235 84-239 112~280
Average score 8#.5 109.4 159.8 192.8

* Music used was Amsryllie, tempo 107 best: per minute.
feet was administered in units of 50 beats, equally dis.
tributed between hand and foot and between'hnsltered“
and “simplified“ music.

When the scores for boys and girls of all age levels .
were compared without regard to discrepancies in age,

there was no significant sex difference in the ability to

keep time. When the scores were compared with all avail-

able intelligent test scores. there was a positive corre-
lation but it did not appear to be so consistently high or
consistently positive as to be significant. It was further

felt that order to make e completely adequate inquiry. I

greater number of children and more representative children

would have to be examined. A positive correlation between
rhythmic ability es measured by these tests and the ability
to sing as measured by the number of tones reproduced in
the Jersild-Bienstock vocal tests existed.

As has been mentioned previously. the rhythm teete
utilized both unaltered and simplified music. Result. in-
dieated that the children made only slightly higher scores

in response to simplified music when the scores of all age

levels were combined.

reliable.

The difference was small and un~

To test the effect of tempo, comparisons of responses

were made in keeping time to the music of the

"furkinh

March” played at the respective rates of 75, 107. 135.

160 and 186 beats per minute.

sistently higher for each faster tempo.

Average scores were cone

The resulte of

one test of fourteen children, aged three to four years

old, on tests of the

tempi is shown on Table XVI.

TABLE XVI

Results of testl of tempo.“

76 BEATS PER
RINUTU

Simplified

Unsltered
Total

107 BEATS
an FINU

   

Simplified
Unaltored
Total

136 BEATS
PER MINUTQ
Simplified

Unsltered
Total

* Scored on basis of margin of 5/60

fiend.

’(1QQ)

100
200

100)
100)
200)

100

(100i
200

Aver-

seen.

22.6 ‘

23:1

25.6
29.5
55.1

30-5
34.7
65.2

£921

(100)

100)
200)

(100
(100
(200

(100)
£100
200

"Turkish Karon“ played at various

fiend
Aver- Plus Aver.
.sse. ‘EQQI 18!.
18.2 (200) 40.8
1902 $200 39e9
37.# 80.?
29.8 £200 54.8
25.3 55.8
33.0 {m 67.7
55.3 400 13005

second.

Both simplin

fled and unaltered forms of ”lurkish March“ need.

Three other tests were made with the same reeultea
teete played at the respective tempi of 76, 107. 135, 160
and 195 beats per minute showed an increase in score with
an increase in tempo. In a study by Sievere,21 children
likewise responded better to the faster tempi.

Compositions need in the tests represented three
meters: 2/3 (Turkish Karon), 3/4 (Erahm'e Waltz, No. 15)
and h/A (Amaryllie). Fourteen children aged three to
four years were tested on each of the meters and data from

the tents appears in Table XVII.

TABLE XVII

Comparieone of different meteru.‘

 

AMARYLLlS {5(5)
3.2m 191
Number tested 14
Band (200 beate) 45.3 #3.# 55.1 65.3
Foot (200 beet!) 43.9 37.5 55.5 65.3
Hand plus toot 94.2 80.9 110.7 130.6

(400 beats)

* Both simplified and unaltered forms used.

In each or the two netere. the differences in renpcnee
are small and unreliable. 0n the basis or Jersild‘e find.
inge, it would appear that the factor of meter ie not a
significant variable. In another tent. it yes noted that

21. Williams, Sievere, Hattwick. zhewfiggggrgggn§_gt
Q! fusical Develormggg, Iowa Gity, University of lawn
Studies in Child Welfare, 7: Ko. 1, 1932.

unit: tin. vs. no more difficult than other meters. From
flhin teat tho conclusion may be drawn that the three
notcrl. 2/‘. 3/# and #/4, are practically equivalent in
their cfroct on the child’s ability to keep time to the
accompaniment of music.

In comparing the acoroa made whcn subjects walked
with than. received when they beat time with their hands,
u '11). hi noted um toot. score: slightly exceeded hand
Icorco for the two-, threo- and four-year-oldl. With the
five-ycarwoida, hand response was superior, perhaps due to

grotto! manual control (Tabla XVIII).

TABLE XVIII

Comparisons between scores obtained when subjects walked
to manic and vhcn they beat time with their hands.*

mEAGE 3 SC 113*:

{5535 3221
2 Your: - 19 Tested 40.5 #4.1
3 Your. - 23 rooted 53.5 55.0
4 Years 0 13 rooted 78.7 81.1
5 roars . 19 Tested 102.4 90.§
2-5 Your. a 74 Tented 67.3 66.2

* Simplified and unaltered music used.
** Maximum Obtainable Score was 200.

A high correlation existed between scores obtained in
walking and those obtained in beating time with the hands.
Other tests with foot and hand reaoonso utilizing other
childron and various meters nni tomyi were made. In sum-

mary it may be said that the foot led in a considcrlbly

60

grootor number or toot: than did tho hand but thio trond
woo not oonoiotont nor wan tho difforonoo roiiobio.

Joroild oayo it cannot ho concludod from theoo roouito

that it io oignifioantiy noro or iooo difficult for o child
to hoop timo with his hando than to keep timo walking.

In comparing the effect of training. o project uoins
twonty-ocvon children, ranging in ago from twenty-fivo to
forty-four montho wao undertaken. sixtoon childron (lotor
fourtcon) woro placod in an.oxporimontai group and clovon
(iota? nino) in o chock group. Division woo mado on tho
booil or rooponooo in three practice periods of 200 booto
(ioo hand. 100 foot) using "Amaryiiin". tompo 107. Tho
orperimental group was then givon extensive training for
ton minutoo each day for 40-50 days uning tho muoio of
two other compositiono. ”Amonyilio". tempo 107. was ogoin
used in giving final rhythm tooto to both oxperimontal 1nd
chock children. Tho improvement of tho trained childron
woo small ac compared with the gain: of the control childron

who had not had intervening practice (Table XIX).

 

TAéLE XIX
Effect of training.
dxporimental 003‘901
Group _i» .QIQHR.
Number tested 14 9
Initial tests - 400 beats 108.8 107.0
Final tests - 40c beats 130.7 128.6

70

The fourteen trained children were further compared
with no! 'controlo' notchod to them in use and eex. The
average ecore or the fourteen children who received
training (on the oooond 200 booto of the final toot) wao
62.1: the average oooro of the fourteen untrained 'oon»
troll" woo 53.6. Thio difference io not significantly
husher and it may he concluded thot thero io but little
tranofor'of training from reoponding to two opooirio eon.
pooitiono to rooponding to o third.

to far no the rooulto of thio otudy were concerned.
Jeroild did not feel that the threouyoeruold child'e obilo
it: to keep ooouroto time could ho improved Inbotnntiolly
to treinins of the kind and amount provided in.hio otudyo
The tindingo further ougsoot that speciel opportunitioo
cannot oooomplioh the ohcnsoo that normally oomo with
meturction and ouch incidental practice co o child may ob.
toin during the oouroe of'hio general experience. The
outhoro ouggoot that work in the field of motor rhythm
‘vith.youns children thould not oonter primarily upon.ou1~
tivoting the child’o ebility to keep oceurote time. but
rother upon encouraging a voriety of eotivity and oxoroioeo.
ond Cultivating the ohild’o own opontonoity and hie interolt
in participating in rhythmic eotivitieo.

The reunite ond oonoluoione from the rhythm toote ore
on interooting oontroot to the rooulto and oonoluoione of
the oinging tooto conducted by the come oxporinontero,
oopocially when it io known that the otudioo wore carried

71

on.procticelly oiniltonoouoly and that all aubJecto were
drawn from the some nnroery school and were, therefore,
quite similar in age. intelligence and homo and eohocl

background.
can mamas cm!!! 22

A williome etudy concerned itcolf primarily with the
Ioocuromont of rhythmic performance, chiefly no to ego,
co: and intelligence differences, in.tormo of a grophio
record of their attempte to tap oynchronouoly with a mechani-
cally-sounded periodic pottern. Tho Seeohoro motor rhythm
apparatus, modified in.eertain,recpccte to meet the require-
nento of work with young children. woe used to eeoure
graphic rocordo of regulated hand movemente.

Subjecto used were two hundred and three children,
one hundred and fifty-nine of then threo to oix yecro of
ego. The eimplect patteranhich may be reprooonted Ineio
call: by qucrtcrrnotee ( J J ) in alt time who uood boccuee
e preliminary otudy had shown e practically unchroal fail.
are of precochool children to roepond to more complex pot.
terns. The otudy dealt with cdjuotnent to change of opeod
rethcr than to o complexity of pattern. Thio otimuluo for
response who the tick of a clock and each child woo ookod

to top e circuit breaker with c hemmcr in exact time to

22. Willicmo, Sievoro and Hattwick, a

W
‘gfiggggiggl_2g1_1gpggnt, Iowa City, Univ. of Iowo Studiee
Child Welfare. 7: No. l. 1932.

72

ito ticking. Intorvclo between ticko were veriouoly
opooed ct .50. .67 and 1.00 seconds. A magnet recorded
the tapping from which a ecoro wee computed for ten rovoe
luticne.

The findinge revealed a. oignificcnt age difference in
the per cent of failuroo found, ranging from approximately
75 per cent at the age of three to practically no foiluroo
et oi: yeare. Aboolute accuracy of tapping woo lower at
the elowcr opood. Contrary to the uoucl tendency. girlo
did not‘tend to oucceod at an earlier age than boye. How.
ever. a greater percentage of bcye throughout the age range
failed. 'The relation to accuracy to the mental age even
at three yearo wao extremely law. There woo high correlen
tion between hand and foot occroe.

Three other testing techniqueo were need including
ohoervation e1 technique of accuracy with which children
were able to edJuet the rate of valking to Iueiccl otilu-
lotion and c cinemetcgrephio technique which phetogrophod
o metronome with e owinging ponduluo and tho movenont cf
the hando. A phonOphotographic technique by which the
eound of a child'e footetepo recorded ao well oe hie pieo
ture was also need. The roeulte eeeurod by theee techniquee
coincided with thooe of the graphic technique.

Williams node no test: on the effect of training. He
eignifiocntlp concluded, however, that vocal rhythm. ee-
pociclly in complex patterns may develop earlier than.hond
rhythms. Sievere, who was an aooociato of willie-o at the

Univoroity of Iowa. also made rhythm teoto23 (but with
children 7-33 yearo) and concluded that a limited amount
of coaching and practice had practically no effect upon

performance.
on HEIRLEIN aruoxa‘

Chriotian Poul Heinlein reported hie work on the
rhythnio reopenaee of children. which woo completed in
the Poyohologicel laboretorioo of John Hopkine Univoreity
in 1928. He had felt that the obeerveticnal method of
determining ohiidren‘o rooponoeo wao extremely unreliable
('illuoione in Juduent oxiotod which made a need for acne
met neaeuring dovioo apparent") and in order to enable
objective neaeurenente to be node. ho deviled and let up
an electromagnetic apparatul by moane of which be obtain-
ed exact recordo of theindividual rhythnio performance of
eight pro-ochool children (age range of 3 yearo, lo nonthe
to 5 yearo. 3 monthe) in marching to nuoic played by e.
Mean-t reproducing piano. The toot interval wee fifteen
eooondo and with only two children no there exact temporal
coincidence of muoical beat and foot movement.

This study affirms the findinge of othero to the effect
that the rhythmic response of preoeohoo‘l children ie not
MeIOped to any great extent. He made no etudy an to what

,—

l$23K" Will-lame, Siovero and Hattwick. W

 

H24.a Heinlein, Christian .aul, M S u
392 Rhythmic Responses of Shilgzo n 20 go lo w Ev
of S ‘ W. Pod. Son. 5: Jour. Genet.

  
   

Payoh.,H5 : 1929, pp 205~228.

7t

the effect of training would be or a change of tempo or

motor.
. -. . . _, 25
THA HULSCN JPUDI

The Hulaon etudy wee undertaken in 1929 for the pur-
pose of determining whether children's rhythmic perfore
canoe in walking, running and skipping to music wee more
easily attained at any one tempo or eeriee of tenpi. Her
IubJecta were twentyaone four—year-OIdI. Piano nueic.
the epeed of which.wae governed by a metronome eet at
various tenpi. wae need an etimulue. A child wae consider.
ed eucceaaful in maintaining a rhythm at a given tempo
when in the obeerver'e Judgment hie foot muched the floor
in consecutive etepe in coincidence with the beat of the
uncle.

Her findings ahoved that each activity had ite own
tempo with which beet resulte were obtained and that train?
ing presented poeeibllltiee of increasing the range of
adaption. Hulaon gave the following tempi co the moat conp
ducive to rhythmic responcee with her subjectet

WW W

Walking 126-132 132 ae-aoc

Running 112-116 112 88-1“

Shipping 116 132-136 100-160

' Sloweet and faeteet tempi at which any child made rhythmic
reeponce.

.4

25. Hullon. 19" Leah. WM“
‘Qgilgggn, Childhood Education I 1929. pp 78-80.

75

THE VAN ALTS'I'YNE AND‘CSBORNIS SI'UY)! ’6

The Van Alstyne and Osborne study undertaken under
the sponsorship of the Universities of Chicago and Harvard
and reported in 1937 evaluates the rhythmic response of
Negro and white children to a given rhythmic pattern. A1-
most five hundred children aged two and one~ha1f to six
and oneehalf were tested. in adaptation by Williams of
the original Seashore device for testing was used except
that clapping blocks were substituted for the tapping
hammer. A new type of test called a free rhythm test was
given as well as the type given by Jersild and Bienstock.
Williams, Sievers and others. which was a regulated test.
The latter consisted in performance in time to a constant~
ly sounding stimulus, whereas the new type consisted in
the performance of rhythm after the stimulus had ceased.
The patterns given consisted of mechanicallyosounded beats
with no variations outside of the main unit.

From their findings the eXperimonters concluded

l. ngro children are much superior to white children

:gegg: simple rhythmic patterns of fast and slow

2. The difference is much less marked in the response
to the complicated.rhythlic patterns.

3. The difference is much less apparent in the five
and onechalf to six and one-half year age group

A. Negroes especially excelled in the regulated rhythm
series in contrast to a somewhat lesser response in
the free rhythm test.

_-a A An.“

26. Van Alstync and dsbourne. ' thm c R e

Eecggjang‘ggitg Children 21o to Six, Hashington: Soc. for
Research in Child DeveIOpment 2:4, Serial No. 11, 1937.

76

m
c

In the simple rhythm patterns, there was a
greater tendency to “anticipate rather than
delay response.

6. In the more difficult patterns. there was a great
tendency to Hdelay response.

7. Both types of responses (anticipated and delayed)
are twice as frequent in the free rhythm series
as in the regulated series. and

8. Fast rhythm pattern was best for both white and
colored children.

According to the accuracy score method devised by the
writers, all Negroes responded about 50 per cent better
than the white children in the fast rhythm pattern (50
second intervals) in all age groups, and in the slow
rhythm pattern in the four and one~half to six and one-
half age groups. The Negro children aged two and one»
half to four and oneehalf years responded about one nun.
dred per cent better than the white children on the slower
speed. In an attempt to find some exolanation for the

great superiority of the Negro children, iusical Back-
ground Questionairee were filled out. The findings were
consistent in revealing that the Negro children had a
higher degree of musical participation and training in the
home. It was also thought that hereditary and racial
characteristics might have exerted some influence as well.
The effect of such limited practice as a repetition of
tests would give was noted for twenty-one white and twenty-
soven colored children in both the simple and complicated

series and it was insignificant.

Hettvick found that children learn pitch dild'iflinl-
tion by starting at their own pitch level and then, through
training, reaching new levels. Van Aletyne and Osborne
suggest that it is also possible that children learn to
keep eccurate rhythms by first practicing them in their
own time and then gradually learning to make them contort
to a time etimulue. Whether this timing achievement is
the result of maturation or training, the authors feel
further research will reveal. If it be true that e child
will learn best by practicing rhythm in his own time.
then the practice or attempting to teach rhythm hy means
of the rhythm band would be positively harmfu1.. The
euthore feel that the best method is to slice the child
to eeeinuiete the whole structure or the rhythm pettern
st his own rate or speed rather then hy drilling it IUnto)
him" bit by bit at some crhitnrily~set speed. These find-
ing. are in accordance with the principle. of educationnl
philos0phy concerning individual deveIOplent as against
the insistence of group resetion resnrdlese of individual
differences. The findings imply that children should be
given opportunities for building and expressing rhyth-
individuclly intresponse to all sorts of material end
stimuli in informal situations. i.e. rhythm in ltngusge.
in block building. hcmmering. swinging. es well as to
simple musical compositions. They imply also that the
rhythmic response of the individual child should be taken

into account as well as the responses or the majority of

78

the group. So h individual end group reopensec should
be develoyed.

In regard to particular rhythm patterns, the author!
drew certain implications for education. They claim it it
is nececcery for children to achieve seventy-five per cent
accuracy on the rhythm test before a pattern is introduced.
none of the patterns, except those of fact rhythm should
be given children before the age of six and onc~hc1f yeerlo
If a standard of fifty per cent accuracy is taken, Negro
children may be taught feet rhythm sometime before four
and one-half, possibly about four years; white children
about four and one-half years. Kegro children may be
taught theeflow rhythm sometime before four and oneohclf.
possibly shout four years; white children at about five
and one~hclf years. These are the ages indicated if
children are allowed to use their own timing. 1: they
are cXpectod to keep exact time, the ages at which certtin
rhythms may be taught ere deferred. Negro children may
be taught feet rhythm at four and one-half years; white
children not before six and one-half years. neither
Negroee nor white children should be taught the elow rhythm
pattern until after the age of six and one-half years.

The euthcre conclude hy pointing out the implication
of their Itudy for general psychology: children first
learn a total structural organization rather than the ele-

mentc of the structure.

79

A“

 

THEE 31333.94 3mm! 37

In conjunction with her vocal tests, Hieeem did some
work in determining the rhythmic response of twenty-seven
pro-school children, aged 21-54 months. A model of tone
and rhythm in the most simple terms was presented which
the child reproduced as accurately as he could both vocal.
ly and by playing it on the song. The following pattern-
were presented: a slow, even, half-note pattern; a fast.
even, eighth-note pattern: a combination of the slow and
fact pattern and various other more complex patterns.

After traininc, three children could play the entire
croup of patterns and could also invent patterns, {our
children could reproduce four patterns, the balance could
reproduce only one or none. Hiseem noted a definite correlau
tion between ability to match tones and rhythmic discrimie

nation.

The Vii-s05; iii-if) monomer mum: 23
In the hope of determining what responses children
Gun make and thul be able to adapt the activitiel of the
nursery school more closely to their capacity. s study of
thirty-one children enrolled in the nursery school at Iowa
State College was undertaken by Vance and Grendprey shout

1930. fiecorde were secured on the following sbilitiea:

 

27. Hiscem, Irene, §_£ew Approach to finale for 303;;
Children, Child Development, 4: 1933. PP 308-317.

23. Vance and Grendprey, Cb cctive Rethcie o? l, ,
Eureery School Shildrgn on Certain Accents of {ugicc Ca -
cit , Jour. on. Bay. 1931: 22, pp 577-535.

 

l; Initating the teacher in beating rhythmic petterne
(13 were evolved from melodies appearing in I .
long book for young children) and heating time to
phonograph music with a triangle.

2. Initating the teacher in singing an interval.,

3. General response! (including epeech and bodily
movement) to music played on the phonograph.in
reply to the queetion, "What can you do to that
“.16 7 e

t. Reopeneiveneel to nueic introduced.vhen the
children were engaged in other spontaneous in-
terecte and curing the regular music period.when.
the children were encouraged to participate. and

5. Ratings booed on opportunitiee for experiencing
mueic in the home environment.

Graphe were drawn to portray differences found in individu.
cl. paired according to identical use. The vritere have
not attempted to prediet nueical ability, but hope to corn
relate theee eeoree with tho-e eeeured in ten or fifteen
yenre through use or the Sealhcre nee-uree.
In the cheervetione planned to test the children'e
rhythnic perception, they concluded
1. That the rhythmic pattern tent as e.neaeure or
one aspect of munical capacity is suited to use
with young children.

2. Thet none rhythmic petterne are more eeeii: repree
cuced h! children than others. and

3. That capacity to eenee rhythm in not clceel: de-
pendent cn use or intelligence.

The nedien.vee progreeeively higher for each use level.

The host reeponee on a single pattern totaled fortyanine
out of e pceeibie one‘hnndred end twentyorour. Patterne
in which quarter notes proceeded the‘half notee received

higher eccree than thcee in reveree order.

81

In tbs singing tssts. scores for descending intsrvals
wsrs higher than for ascending intervals. The authors
felt that singing behavior dirsctions to children snd hav-
ing them sing s rssponss could be ussd ss s measure or s
child's ability to sing. In the singing, interpretativs.
and rssponsivs tests, rssults vsro inconclusivs and bsttsr
nsthcdology vss indiostsdo

Tbs rslults did not indicate s sloss rslstionship
bstvssn‘homs snvironmsnt and musical sspsoitw. tbs: did
indicats, howsvsr, that children of tho same age and
intslligsnss rank vary in musical capacitiss and also
that ths same child may not posssss all types of musical
sapssity in.ths ssns degree. Vsnos and Grandprsy do not
rsoommend singing and rhythmic tests bslov tbs thrso year
lsvsl sinos thsy fsol thsro is s shsnos of nonsurins

naturity rsthsr than spt1tu4..
THE OHRISTIAESCN STUDIES 39

fislen Christianson did hsr first rssssroh work in
flan Francisco in 1929-30 whils dsvsIOping tsohniquss of
study spplissbls in tbs plsy snvironnsnt of ssrtsin pro-
school children. Her studyag was designsd to

1. Study the duration of rhythmic responds st
various ass lsvsls.

‘4‘..— AAA—A

29. Christianson, Helsn,‘Eg§13 '(In) Tbs Prs~8chool
child: His Development and His Guidancs. Mills College
Bullstin 1928, Seriss 18, No. 6. pp 119-134.

82

I'D
0

Observe evidences of emotional response to the
music situation, and

3. compare the rhythmic responses of children with
reference to nationality backgrounds.

Ninety-three children enrolled in nursery school, kinder-
garten and Junior-primary groups, were observed in.wslking.
epileping, skipping and dancing to four selections, three
meters and four tempi and the steps made in time to music
were recorded. Final score was the highest continual rese
ponse.

After the responses had been tabulated tor compare-
tive purposes, the following conclusions were drawn:

1. Difference due to nationality seemed of minor in-
portanoe as compared with differences due to age,
sex and certain personality traits which tsndsd
toward inhibition or toward spontaneous, whole-
heartsd bodily rhythmic activity.

2. The nursery school children were more success-
ful in synchronising their movements with fast
tempi than with slow ones and they were more
successful in walking, running and ga110ping
activities than with dancing. It was thought
that perhaps the dancing called for greater ini-
tiative and that that was the cause of the poor-
er response, and

3. A fairly regular progression in duration of
rhythmic response at successive age levels suggest-
ed the need for more intensive observation and
experimentation under conditions in which correo
lotional methods could be applied.

Kiss Christianson made an extended study30 on the

bodily rhythmic movements of young children in relation to

the rhythm in music as a part or her doctorate work at

A

30. Christianson, Helen, Bodily Rhythmi F m

Yo dren:;nRelation to flhzthn in hugig, Teacher's
College, Bureau of guolications, 1333.

83

Colulbia University, published in 1938. Systematic cbser~

vation was chosen as the most suitable technique, since

it was felt that any analysis of curriculum needs should

be made with reference to the total behavior situation.

The experimentation and observation was carried on in both

private and public school situations and with set-ups which
were highly conducive to spontaneous activity and creative

eXpression of ideas.

In one school, twentyosix kindergarten children were
given three twenty minute music periods each week, during
which the children.were encouraged in various types of
activity, including bodily rhythmic movement, singing,
appreciative listening, individual song composition and
invention of dance patterns. In a nursery sshool, the
experimenter spent the major part of each day with a group
of sixteen two- and threeoyear~olds. Music was used spon-
taneously throughout the day whenever it seemed to either
teacher or children to fit into some play situation.

There was also an informal music period of about ten min»
utes duration, in which the children were free to part1.
cipate or not as they choose. A group record was kept of
the verbal cues for music and also individual records of
a child's rhythmic pattern which was revealed by means of
pictozraphs and supplementary verbal description. Pros
an analysis of individual responses, a scale was evolved
for the purpose of rating each of the following aspects of

overt responses to musical stimulation:

at

l. Synchronization of movement to rhythm in music.

2. Dramatic play in connection with bodily rhythmic
activity.

3. Spontaneously-evolved dance patterns.

4. Socislcemotional responses as shown in facial'
expression, posture and movement in the musical
situation, and

5. Interest and enjoyment as shown by verbal requests
and comments.

Five nursery school and five kindergarten children
were individually rated by this scale. Ratings were based
on records of approximately one month. Average scores for
the five headings listed above were added to give a total
score for responsiveness to music as shown in bodily rhythms.
The nasiaus obtainable score was 25. In the nursery school,
range in the total scores was from 10 to 15.8; in.the kins
dergarten, 13.1 to 17.9.
During the second year, additional children.(8 twee,

8 three-,‘7 four- and 9 five~year~olds) were observed for
ten observations of ten minutes each and the rating scale
was further refined. Average scores for these thirty-two
children at yearly levels from two through five years were
7.38. 9.69. 10.89 and 12.e2 respectivexy. These scores

show a considerable progression with age. The widest range
in total scores at a single age level was found in the
threewyearvold group. The girls held a slight edge over

the boys, but it was not large enough to be statistically
reliable. There was no relationship between intelligence
quotients and the factors scored in bodily rhythmic responses.

he esperimentation was carried on on the effect of training.

8%

In closing, Eiec Chriltinneon make. the following
conclusions
"Experiencing music experimentally and croetiwoly
through bodily rhythmic movement is one of tho
most important (yet often neglected) phases of
the young child’s musical deveIOpment. The abilo
ity to use one'e body as an instrument to ex-
press subtleties of feeling, thought. and move.
ment is highly desirable for eocial~emotional
growth, and affords a truly latiefying means
for creative expreclion at an age when eon.

form of motor activity is still the primary POI-
ponlc to most ctimuli.‘

SUEHARY OF STUDIES IN RHITHMIe RiBPQNSE

In ability to keep exact time in walking or with
hand movements to beats of music or a rhythmic sound pat-
tern. the findings indicate that there in a steady in~
OPOBBO in ability with age during pro-school yearn. Be!
end intelligence were shown to have little or no bearing
on rhythmic reeponlo. One study showed negro children to
b. greatly superior to white children in simple rhythmic
pattern. of fact and slow speeds. Several studies have
indicated that children are not significantly more accurate
in responding to music of a highly simplified character
than in reaponding to the same composition in unaltered
form. Tempo was found to make a difference in the scores,
the beat responses coinciding with the fastest tempi.

The children did substantially as well in responding to
one meter as in reeponding to another. Foot response
was ouperior to hand reeponee, but the difference was not

great. A positive correlation existed between rhythmic

and singing ability. A high correlation existed between
foot and hand scores. Equipment designed to measure
rhythmic response proved the Judgment of observere to be
highly unreliable.

Training in response to a rhythmic pattern over a
period of time did not eubstsntislly improve ability to
keep exact time. From the studies made it did not appear,
for exsmyle, that training could raise the performance of
the average threeeyesruold to that of the average foure
year-old, an wee shown possible in the singing studies.
From the resulte of the tests in the field of motor rhythm,
it would econ unwise to concentrate upon cultivating e
child's ability to keep accurate time. It would be far
wiser to provide apportonitiee for and to encourage a
variety of rhythmic activities and by means of thie epu
preach to cultivate the child's interest in participating
in further rhythmic activities.

87

argsxxs Ix scoro.uxcr12:;L nzsrcnss

Several aspects of tho Ghristianson study also measure
ed sociOoenotional responses to music. It was observed
that the use of markedly rhythmic music helped some shy
children to become more expressive and to participate more
fseely in are}; activities. ThPOlgh continued cxoerienoe
with music, the single spontaneous dance patterns invented
by the children frequently evolved into more complex movea
nente. As was stated, there was an increase in response
at yearly levels. children's requests for music may be
used as a criterion of interest in music. It was interest.
ing to note that they provided the stimuli for thirty-three
per cent of the music at the twonyear level; fifty-threo
per cent at the threeoyear level. In.the kindergarten.
the requests dropped to twenty—five per cent. Whether
this drop was due to normal development of the child or
to an increasing formality in the school situation. the
results do not indicate. Hattwick similarly noted a decline

1th age in spontaneity in musical activities and that
children became increasingly reluctant to sing on request.
the Updograff, Keiliger and Learned study31 pointl
out that it has been demonstrated experimentally that pre-
school children have improved in singing ability when
trained intensively, but raiSes the question as to whether

31. Updegraff, Heiligcr, Learned. Lie ; fe
n Uncumtnenéiuzinn.ihiliiz and Ecsicel Interest of Thresza
four-. and Five-Icar-kli Shilgzgg,(ifl) a. LPdOEPEfre .‘ ‘1'
studies in Ire-school lducation, 1. Iowa City: Univ. of
Iowa Studies in Child welfare. new Series No. soc, Vol. it.

83

or not an inmau in interact ”companion the improvv
ment in ability. fhey further ask if it would not be
preferable to allow ability to develoy without specific
stimulation rather than perhaps to endanger a feturo in.
tereet in music. In an attempt to answer those and other
questions their study in singing previously reported in
part was undertaken. In addition to the records kept on
pitch, interval and phrase reagonaa, daily record cards
containing items of czpreeeive behavior indicative of
degrees of interest or disinterest were kept for each
child. these cards were originally devised by Updcgrert
and Williams and were adopted for nae in this study. In
the beginning many of the children were shy, negative,
or distracted. but as the training progressed the large
majority became interested and entnueieetic. Usufilly
high interest was accompanied by excellent effort. The
three-yeerocld children were usually willing to so to

the testing room with the eXperimenter. If they were
not, they were not coerced and frequently on the next day
the child would make a request to go. Four- and five.
year-old children were always ready to go.

do a further aid in estimating interest an observer

tionel blank was devised on which was entered all signs
of interest displayed or satisfaction, enjoyment or
appreciation shown by the children. Such items of behavior
as facial expression, fixation, participation, gross bodily

movement and verbal responses were carzfully observed and

89

rated in secordnnoe with.the reletIVe importance of var»
ious items as indicators of interest. The highest possiv
ble interest score vss 1.00.
This study use conducted with experimentcl and.con»

trel eubjects and at each age. the experimental groups
showed an ineressing interest in the musical activities
or the school. During the some time. the intereet scores
of the control group reflect little or no change in atti-
tuds. 3? the end of the thirty- to fortyedsy trsining
period, the difference betvcen.the two groups use ststie-
tically significant. (Tshls 1:)

TABLE xx
Keen interest ratings or experimentsl snd control groups
or threeo, rourv, and tive-yeeruold children.

Euperisentcl Control
W

THREEbIEAEpOLDS

Initisl retina .58 .53

After fifteen days .58 .48

Arter thirty Gets .65 .50
FOURpIEABnOLDB

After fifteen “I. e61 A2

After thirty days .80 .‘9
FIVEkIEfiflpOLDS

After fifteen days .52 .52

After thirty days .60 .55

After forty days .60 .53

Highest possible score .. 1.00
Increase in ability that came with the training of the
saperimentsl group gave the children more eelt-confidencs.

90

a desire to participate in music activities, a greater
interest in learning and a greater apparent enjoyment in
music. These effects were not only evident during train-
ing but they also appeared to carry over to the customary
music activities of the nursery school from which the lube
Jects were drawn.

In his Measurement of Eunical Development under the
section entitled Tests of Emotional Responsiveness.
Williams discusses the measurement of interest. He points
out that individual differences might be measured by a
variety of means: relative amount of tine spent in playing
with musical instruments or apparatus, frequency of occur.

rence of spontaneous activity of a musical type. per cent
of voluntary attendance at a group music period, the
carryoover effect after the music period or in requests
for music.

One group of preesohool children was obserVed an to
the per cent of attendance at an informal music period where
each child was permitted free choice between it and a verb
iety of other types of play activity occurring at the same
time. The observations were conducted over a long period
of time. in order to offset the factor of novelty and also
to satisfy the requirements of statistical treatment. The
total percentage of attendance for the twenty-nine two-
and three-year-old children observed ranged from is to 100
per sent over twelve observation periods ranging in length
from seven to twelve months. Williams points out a great

91

number of other factors which seemed to affect the inter-
est score of individual children and which, therefore,
makes acceptance of the per cent of attendance a misleade
ing criterion of interest.

As a further attempt to measure individual difference
in interest, Williams worked out a chart of descriptive
categories and weights. Possible scores ranged from 0 to
20. The mean of observations made by Williams was 14.8
and he felt that this technique offered possibilities for
rating individual difference in musical interest.

Williams cites as another criterion of musical inter-
est the amount and kind of spontaneous musical activity
of the.child. For the purpose of recording activity of
this sort, he devised a chart on which appeared the name
of a child, stimulus or accompanying activity and a musi-
cal staff and space for entering a description and inter.
pretation of a spontaneous activity. These showed up
rather large individual differences in the amount of spon-
taneous musical activity to be found among children.

Williams concluded by saying that the only satisfac-
tory method for determining individual differences in in~
terest or musical responsiveness is to sample as widely as
possible by various techniques, using test or rating de-
vices only with full knowledge of their limitations.

In practically all of the studies made to determine
the effect of training, the experimenters have reported

that increased performance has been accompanied by

92

increased interest. There has been no indicstion that
future interest in music has been endangered hy such
training. On the contrary. there is every reason to
believe that training has developed an interest and an
ability that will bring happiness and satisfaction to
the child throughout all the yesre of his life.

93

STUDY IN mammmmr. rmmao 3’

Genetic studies of music among proaachcol children

have been almost exclusively restricted to vocal and
rhythmic performance. One study, howovor, concern: the
instrumental reproouotion of modody and was mad. by Earth.
Guernsey Solby in 1935 under the aponlorship of tho
University of Eichigan Psychology Department. The original
purpose of her study wan to dotsrmino the oxtont to which
pitch discrimination of diatonio intervall could b0 Odbrdl~
noted with simple motor habit. in melodic reproduction by
young children. The nature or early rouuitl, hoquor,
rapidly turned the study into a more general experiment

in musical training. The oxperiment did not connorn it-
self with tests of isolated sensory capacities, but ruthur
with the pores tion, retention and crooution of melodic
pattern. Perception presuppoaed pitch discrimination,
direction and interval. bctvoon lucooaoivo hotel.

The subjects were Iixtoon childrqn, eight of coon

flex and between three and out-half and four and oncohalt
years of age. Rental 330 was volativoiy close and social
background was cimilar. Musical background varied con.
siderably. The inatrument used was a tin fit. oonnintina
of I11 holes which by combination could produce tho Gonnjor
scale through several octavon. The orpcrinont Itartod with

H

32'. Coiby,21u'tha, - ._ .- .- -_ ~
Wow 0 «tag. Pod. Sam. at J5ur. 51‘ 90!»
Pay.. 7: 1935. PP 413-429.

94

 

two daily clcce drill: of fifteen minutes etch. After
six weeks, differences in individual Itasca of develop»
ment made it necessary to divide the class into an ado
Vanced group of five children and a loan advanced group
of eleven. This latter group was later decreased to
nine when two children showed not the slightest interest
nor proficiency. Etentuclly it was necessary to abandon
group instruction altogether for individual leeeone.
Experimental procedure arranged itcelf in the follow»
ing general divisions: introduction to the instrument.
'blowing"drilll for the mechanics of poeture, breathing
and fingering, matching pitchee. pitch diecrinination,
two~unit diatonic “fingerbgamec' and melodic reproduction.
Some twenty-five melodic pattern: yer. used. when it
became apparent that petternc involving intervale beyond
the Iixth were too difficult for the group cc 3 whole. the
number or pattern: was reduced to twelve. Ghrometie inter-
vals were not included. It was noted that patterns cone
Iioting of more than four notee were difficult for moat
children. Ascending interrale were cooler than deecehdins
one: and diatonic progreecion‘vee much eeeier than skip.
of c fourth. fifth or more. It loomed evident that diffi-
culty in perceiving. remembering and executing was direct~
ly preporticnal to total complexity of design. All
children tended to eimclify melodic contour and clue to
persevere with a familiar pattern while lecrning a new one.
At firet, the rate of progress was quite rapid. At
the end of the first month, all subjects except two could

95

reproduce coat of the melodic patterns within the restrict.
ed compaea of the major third. Al the training progreeeed.
some children mastered a few additional patterne and one
child was able to mactor all twelve patterna plue eix
additional tunee and an aeeortnent of email "original'I
melodies which he repeated often. Thole were moetly com-
pocitee of other tunea.

At the end of the eXperinental period, the children
could sing more molodiee than they could play which ehowed
a ctriking difference between vocal and manual reproduction.
When the experimental progrcee became quite lacking nidwny
in training, it was thought to be due to the difficulty
encountered by those vith very ahort fingere in covering
more than three holes at once and also to the fact that the
limit of auditory-manual coHrdination appeared to have been
reached for some children.

fire. Colby appraiece her eXperinent by concluding

that cpecialiled inetrunental training at too early an
age (pre-echool) cocte far more patience than it ie worth.
She felt that the acne amount of effort applied to vocal
acquieition of folk conga and other nelcdiee would produce
greater resultc because it would capitalize on a natural
reeponee and an eacier technique. 0n the other hand. ehe
feele that a “minimal amount of auditoryomanuel training"
under apprOpriate conditione might foster an intereet in
inctrumental uncle and probably deepen it'e aesthetic value

later on.

96

m H “Y T'? :"leanfixnv '~ Tw» cwbvaxia wwrvwa-W 33
uTJDY L‘l‘i EL... Li 1 '~ L his Ki! $1-3 uglhui»‘~..m--4 -J6.ldab.-JU&5LAD

In attempting to determine the musical capacity of
pre«sohool children, it was inevitable that oneono would
investigate the possibility of using the Seashore measuron.
Since the measures had been designed for use with adults
and older children (fifth grade and above). it was nee..-
nary to adapt them to tho maturation level and interest
span of younger children. This task was undertaken by
Esther KoGinnia in a study reported in 1923. His! EeGinnia
was also interested in determining what reliability and
Validity the results of any adaption would have. The tout:
Ieleoted for use were those on intensity, pitch and con-
sonance and they were administered individually on two
occasions to sixteen children enrolled in the Nursery
School of the University of Rinneaota Institute of Child
Welfare. The group included eight boys and eight girls
with an age range of hl-SQ months.

Elsa ficfiinnia encountered four difficulties in giving
the tents:

1. The length of the tents.

2. Inability of the children to understand the
terms "high“ and "low".

3. The uninteresting nature of the test materials.
4. Omitted responses.

A 4——

33. MoGinnia, 3., geasnore's Kegsureaggfi Ruggog; 5211‘

1&1 Angligg Lg Qhélgggn o; gzg-Sgggol gag, Amer. Jour. Pay.:
#0: 1928, pp 020* 23.

Sho ovoroamo tho tirot difficulty by no marking tho rou
oordo that they oouid ho uood in two parts. Tho highor
and tho 1mm!- tonoo a». called ”baby bear” and “dad”
bur" roopootivoly. tho child reporting which voioo
gavo tho loot noto. To ovoroomo tho uniniorooting naturo
of the motorisl, tho tottl wort made into sumoo. If ‘00
many omitted rooponool ooourrod. thot lootion of tho toot
vol ropoatod.

maim- "ported tho pol- cont or earl-out rupomol
on tho bolt trial of tho tooto for pitch. connononoo and
intonoity oo ranging from 50.5 to 62.2. 39.6 to 68.0 and
51.2 to 65.3 ronpootivoly. Sho oonoiudod this with suit.
(bio modifications. particularly in tho dirootion of
Ihortoning tho rooordo and inoroooing the intorvoio botwoon
Judgmonio, it oppourod possiblo that tho-o tooio night boo
oomo valuohlo rolooroh instrumonil for uoo with young
ohildron.

summit OF STUDIES IN FEE-SCHOOL I'SUSIG

tlmooi thirty Itudioo on proooohool ohiidron hovo boon
roviovod on tho torogoing pogo. and thoy huvo oovorod a
wido romeo of oubjoot matter. From them it has boon poolin
bio to ioarn

1. Musical capacity at the voriouo ago lovolo.

2. Improvomont poloiblo through training, Inn

3. Methods of training moot profitablo.
This 1: vital information for tho muoio oduoator iniorootod
in Iotting up a training program for pro-school ohildron.

Tho studioo havo rovealod potentialities horotofbro nae
realized; they have indicated that it is possible to giro
oyctomatic training and opportunities calculated to incroulo
a child's competenco in.mucic with worthwhilo results and
that, with proper caro, gains in ability will ho accompaniod
by increased interest and enthusiasm. They would ooom to
prove that a 'downward“ trond or oducaticn in tho manic

field is entirely feasible and nice.

A SU- HE TED GURRICULUK.FOR THE KUSIC TRAINING

0f
PREnfldHOOL CHILDREN

A large amount of scientific data hal been.pr0I¢ntod
and it has boon of contincing naturo and yot it in folt that
the caution an to tho prcpor uao of ouch data mado‘hy Arnold h
Goooll. Yalo psychologists, has a placo in this oocticnm Ho

tritoa,

"A rational approach to the problonl of child pay.
chology can remove many misconceptions but it in not
infallible. Thoro is always a temptation to cvorulo
nowotound scientific data. For oxamplo. an excess.

ivo omphacio on tho measuro of intolligonco ha. tend-
ed to blind no to other very important factors in.tho
child's oconomy. Individual ditforoncoo in poraon-
ality ma?;re-up, in emotional predispositions and in
innate growth characteristic. demand moro connidarto
tions particularly in children or pro-school ago. A
Iuperficial adoption of the doctrine! of tho condition»
al reflex and of habit training likewise has led to
faulty aims and methods or child care. Eton tho nodorn
nursery school in too much influenced by a conventional
psychology of learning and by traditional patterns or
public school organization. The pre-aohool child il

in danger of being regarded as a miniaturo school
child. fne only corrective for this danger in an in-
creased insight into the distinctivo devolopmontal
needs and hygiene or the early years."

34. Gosoll, Arnold, 2gp Firgt Fizg Year; Q: Li‘.,
Rev York, Ho.rpor and Broa.. 1940.

99

we hats attempted to provido this information osrlior
in this papor and its uss in combination with tho scionti-
fio data also prosontod should insuro background and depth
of undsrstanding on which to build a curriculum of motto
mus oduostionsl ortootivonosss

No ottompt should ho nods to tornulsto a curriculu-
without first nouns in and tho Objectivos of such s pro.
gram. Simply ststod. tho priso purposo is to hsyo childron
onjoy music as an intogral port of tho day's astiwitiss.
Upon.this foundation sll futurs»sdvancomont lust ho laid.
Sstis Ooiwan writos that tho truo oduostor. whothor poront
or toachor. is conosrnod with tho child's dsyolopnont tron
his own.loyol and in his own capacity and that it should
to the combined oftorts of tho parent and tho music oduo
actor to sso that tho child is given amplo Opportunity for
music sxporioncss at that lsyol.35 Updograft‘writos in.s
similar yoin by saying that tho teaohor should bo cone
scious of including music in the school environment and or
trying to stilulato that dogros of participation.hy s
child which is within his ability and which is ccinoidsnt
with his enjoyment.36 It 1- hapod that a child will soon
lssrn to rospond oaaily to the bounty of s simplo melody;
that he will ho abls to sxpross himself in a clear froo

V010. and that ho will remain frss of all Colt-consciousnOIs

 

)5. Coleman, Satis, 39g; thld'g Kugig, how York, John
Day 00.. 1939.

36. Hod-craft and others. W
cation, New York, EcGraw-Hill, 1933.

100

when'he sings. Seashore writes that at the end of five
years the musical child should have gradually acquired

a sense of appreciation for musical sounds, pleasure in
self-expression in musical intonationa, confidence in
his ability to compose a tune, some proficiency in sin3~
ing and some degree of satisfaction in free playing with
an instrument. He further cautions to "let the emphasis
lie upon the broadnese of the leaning of music to the
child, upon the child's learning by doing at his natural
level of successful achievement, and upon the utilisation
of natural motivation in place of formal instruction.“ 37

Seashore further writes that musical activity is.
basically a form of play .. an espression for the eatiee
faction in the orpresaion itself without ulterior motive.
If this attitude can be carried through life. so much the
better. It does not free one from effort, but if the
driving motive can be found in.play, much of the drill and
effort necessary will be pleasure. with pre-school children.
the play situation provides an ideal approach for music
training. 37 '

In building a music curriculum for young children.
certain.chnllengcs must be recognized. Individual differ-
ences exist. Differences within a given age group are
often greater than those between two age groups. If our
curriculum organisation is to be of greatest effectiveness.

37. Seashore, Carl E., Magic Before Eilg, Univ. of
Iowa, Child Welfare Pamphlet No. 72, 1939.

101

it aust provide an enriched progre- for all children not.
withstanding individual differences. A further challenge
is the fact that the needs. interests and potentialities
of the pro-school child expand tremendously alsost tron
week to week through the processes of saturation.and axe
perience. we must build curriculus. but it cost be flea.
ible as to snvircnsental arrange-cuts including Iaterials.
possible experiences and guidance to suit the need and
interest of the accent. and at the seas ties cork teesrd
the objectives of seals education. As an additicaal shale
lease. the social life or the preosshcel child is also
changing and this too lust he considered. flose~acscunt
nest he token of the attention and persistence span. for
in prewsehocl children it is relatively short. they cane
not carry activities over tron day to day with an: earned
continuity or effort. By five years or age the attention
and persistence span has lengthened and sole csphssis can
be placed.cn resets goals and projects develOped that carry
ever fro-ids: to day.

Guy hontrose Whipple enlarges upon the scopeief the
shallcnacrhy'writinsg

“The fitting or instructional its-c and sstivi.

ties to the developaentel level of the child in

such a way as to secure maximal educational

effectiveness is certainly one of the most cone

plex and likewise one of the lost crucial pre~

blens in curriculum making. Ideally. it presupe

poses precise knowledge of hundreds or details

of the process of maturing over a brood range of

physical and mental traits; it draws extensively

upon our knowledge or child psychology; it de-

mands full familiarity with individual differences:

it necessitates skill in the techniques of leacureo
ment; it compels exhaustive classroom experiaentations

10!

it inevitably reaches into the facts and prino

ciplea of sociology for guidance; it likely in~

plies adherence .. even though it be not ex.

plicitly recognized -- to some underlying

principles of political and educational philo-

eOphy...tho consciousness of this intricacy of

the factors involved in curriculum-building

and of our distressing ignorance of the factors

themselves, and particularly of their reciprocal

interactive effects when built into an educse

tional cyatem, has long bred a spirit of humility

...the outcome hears, it would almost seem, a

relation to an ideal educational instrument about

like that of a child's homeugade push wagon to a

modern stream-lined river. "

This scientific approach Whipple recommends has been
taken in the field or preaschool music and the various
tectc made have been outlined in a previous section. The,
have revealed that preeschool children, at least from
three years on. can be siVen music training with not only
worthwhile results but with a gain in interest as well.
They have also shown what methods of training are most
effbctive. Armed with this information. the task of build.
ing a music curriculum is much easier. a discussion of
the physical setup and materials needed will be first pre0
sented.

In setting up a program of music training, two things
are necessary: an environment suitable for music exper-
iences and an adult sensitive to the possibilities for
music orperiencoo in that environment and willing to help

the child build upon them. The physical Space for music

38. Whipple. Guy Neurone. W «-
Dgzglgpnont and thg Curriculug, hntional Society for the
Study of Education. Thirty-nighth Yearbook, ft. 11, p 11.

103

training should b0 largo in arc. and unoncunbcrcd. It
should be light, dry, warn and clean. It should contcin
nothing that the exuberant cctivitiec or prc~loh001
children could roadily damage. The floor should be of s
material which can be chilly and thoroughly cleaned, for
children will use it for many purpoloc other than.uclk¢
ins. Equipmont should provide opportunity for groan

rather than fine muscular coordinationc. Thor. should be
c piano, 3 phonograph, c chromatic pitch pipe, mucic bookc.
rccordn and.toy instruments. Than thcrc will he need for
on endless variety or materials for play cctivitioc: blocks.
balloons. contra. hall. and the like. Not all or this
material should be tvcilcblc all the time but rather should
_bo brought out on c need arises.

Seashore points out that to give a child musical on-
vironmont mean: not only QXpoauro to formal music but
rather a motivation for hearing musically all sound. a-
round him, for acting rhythmically. and fooling the rhythmic
impulnc in all forms of activity, for responding by imita-
tion or other form: of appreciation to all sounds bounti-

ful. 39

EATZRIALS
The music materials should be of good quality and thaw
ohould have educative value. There is such an abundance of

A‘ A-A

39. Seashore, Carl 3., ins Before Figg, Iowc City,
Univ. of Iowa Puh., Kev Series no.1056, 1939. Ghlld Wolfcr.
Pamphlet No. 72. fieprlnted from tho Parent's xagazine. 1939.
14, No. 3, 21; pp 65-95. (March).

10*

satsrial available that the problem is to select from it
vhat is boot-suited to the child's growing conceit? for
understanding. Music for young children should bs strong
in rhythm, simple in melody and harmony and the selection.
should be short enough to lie within the child's limited
span of attention. Eusic of symphonic proportions with
heavy instrumentation, dissonent harmonies and complicated
rhythms is not suitable for use with pro-school childrsn.
Neither is some of the music or the contsmpofif school for
it is of a charactsr that would contuss and overlyostimulats
children.

Materials should be pregrssoivsly graded and they
should fit inwvith ths social background and eXporicncss
of the children. Selection will also hings upon squipe
ment. Equipment should be in good order .. piano accuratse
1y tuned to standard pitch and phonograph records in good
condition. Eaterial should have correlative value. This
is particularly important, as the most natural and effectivs
susical approach is through play activities. As prsviously
mentioned, selection or materials should be mods for inu
dividual differences. It should be remembered that children
like rims and repetition.in their songs. The pitch rang.
and placement of the pro-school voice has been thoroughly
discussed in the studies reviewed and it seems to have been
provcn that children can sing lower than was once holisvsd,
that narrow intervals are sung more rsadily than.vids onss

and descending interane more readily than ascending. This

105

means that song material should be analyzed with those
facts in mind and at first only that presented that is

well within the range and placement of a particular in-
divilual or group. This may mean transposition to either

a higher or lower key or perhaps not using it at all until
a later date. If training later increases range and raises
pitch level as the tests have shown that it will. then
songs possessing these characteristics may he presented.

It a child has only a limited tonal range, chromatic ine
tervals should be introduced as a means of providing great-
or variety and avoiding monotony.

The music should be strong in rhythm. It should not
be so complex as to be confusing or so simple as to ho
uninteresting. fhrasea should have musical balance and
yet must not he so long as to tax the breath. Quality
and character or the text should he examined to make sure
it is within the understanding of the pro-school child
and that it is appropriate. Occasionally the child should
be taught hymns or patriotic songs. He won't undsrstand
the words but the spirit they will instill in his will bs
an important influence in his life. Accompaniment should
be or simple structure and should support or follow tho
melody.

In the appendix a list or song and rhythm books is
givsn*which have been examined by the writer and felt to
be suitable material for pro-school use. A wealth of ideas
for presentation and adaption are given in each book and

either parent or teacher will find them easy to use.

106

METHOD

Vastly more inportsnt than any other phase of music
training is method, for it requires the greatest discern~
sent on the part of the teacher and the greatest skill in
edeinietrntion. EXperience has shown that the flexible
and informal situation provides the best environment for
music training of pro-school children and that results are
more easily achieved in working with the individual or in
small groups. When the children are called together for
'music time" the period should not be for more than fif-
teen to twenty minutes depending on interest, and s child
should be allowed to come and go as he pleases. It must
be remembered that the child's attention span is limited
and that to hold his interest the activities of “music
time" must be varied.

Emphasis should be upon spontaneity. originality and
freedom of OXpression rather than upon the learning of
skills. no attempt should be made to bring all children
to the same musical level, for it cannot be done. What-
svor musical abilities a child may possess should be as-
certained and work started at that point. In the most
elementary sspects of teaching, the foundation often needs
to be laid by the teacher, but in all teaching one should
proceed from the simple to the complex and at e pace no
faster then s child indicates readiness. To confront s
child with tasks for which he is not ready, with the impli-
cation that he should succeed, gives him a feeling of faile

are and undermines his security. Rather we must guide his

into learning situations that he can attack effectively
and with sufficient success to yield satisfaction, on!
couragement and growth.

It is unwise and impractical to hold up older or morn
advanced children as examples, since competitive tendon»
also do not appear until about the fifth year. bometiunl.
however, a child will rolpond morn readily to the voice of
another child than to that of an adult and often an inf
hibited child will respond favorably to the Opportunity
to sing with another child. In this instance a rogfltivoly
good singer should be paired with a lean oopablo child.

A child will often roupond to the singing of his own name
when he will make no other response.

when a child's interest has been.won. songs may be
introduced which contain some tones which he has hereto-
fore been unable to reproiuoe. Tones he can readily sins
should remain the foundation or the tune, however. Either
the home or the nursery school offers abundant Opportuno
ity for individual work with children who lack pitch con-
sciouaneal. The task is made easier for little children
or. not yet aelf¢oonaoioua. Too muoh cannot be said about
tho importance of bringing pitch consciousness to each
child while still a "pro-aohoolor", for never again will
the Opportunities for attaining this objective be as many
or can it b. accomplished as Oasily.

The devices and toohaiquoa for the training or littlo

children to sing in tune are many. Ann itorling noesol in

108

bar lplondid book ontitlod.'aing and Sing Again‘ ‘0 lint.
tho tolloving:

1. “Frosting on tho diaphragm to roioo 5 ton.
when the child is singing.

2. "rolling his whonio ton. in not oorroot and
ohowing'Vhothor it was too high or low my
direction of your'hand.

3. ”running his: to think of tho tonoo of the
tool. on ottpl.

4. 'Rlpooting a tone auroral time: when one. it
is sung ouoooufully, and

5. "Starting with a ton. ho eon tins and buildo
mg on that.“

This Ion. author claim: thot a child should be taught to
sing on. ton. luoooootully borer. he in aokod to tins two.
two tones bororo throo. than throoiond thou four. adding
now ton.- as soon as ho it roody for them. At noon no ho
ho. loarnod to sing nix or eight tonal in tuno, ho in
road! to sing Very oinplo songs. Whilo training in going
on, ho thould b. hooring non: songs and ho thould ho allow»
od.to “sing“ tho: it ho IO dooiroo.

Solo tooohorn hare found it nor. offbotivo to common-
troto on tonol oonlidOEobly higher than 5 ohild'n tororod
rung. ond than work dovnrnrd to tho dooirod ton-n rothdr
thin approaching from tone. immodiotoly bolov. In tho
training toward pitoh oonsoiouonooo. it should be romonhor-
0d that tooto‘hovo ohovn o child“: upontanooul‘vooaliso¢
tiono to ho considerably highor in pitch than his: “mic
cit-I” voice. Thorotoro. it tho teacher can Iuooood in

.4.____k A

*0. Boa-1. Ann sterling. W “I
Iork, Oxford University Pro... 1 38.

109

bringing internal and spontaneous aituetione into IBIIO
oleee. then she will have prorided the environment loot
favorable for o conecioue control of pitch. The foot that
little children like repetition and find pleasure in nine-
ina the some mueicol pottern over and over enables e
toecher to administer drill without rioting monotony. There
ere many more techniques for the treatment or eonotcnee in»
Iluding chanting. conversational closing and question: lad
enlvorl and.any teacher is ebde to invent additional tech-
niquee en the cceeeion.requiree. olvcye remembering tbet
intereet must be maintained It all costs. for without it
progreee in impossible. _

Tho more capable singer: must not to neglected in the
urgency of training thoec lees copeble. These linger-
will need a progrcu'whieh.vill challenge the full ecope of
their ability in.both range and interval.

There ore oer-rel nethode of teeming rete noose. but
experience hoe shown that pre-echool children will learn
e eons more eooily and accurately if they hear it lovernl
tilee before they try to nine it. The technique or citerw
hotel: eingins e phreee end having the childrun.ein3 it
beck in not euiteble for prouechool use. do more then.tuo
or three long. dhould be introduced in.eny one day. The
einsing. especielly until the eonge ere leerned. enould
be mootiy unaccompanied.- When.the pieno or other cocoa:
ponilent in added. it should follow the IQIOd] line with

a einple harmonic etructure. The proper use of the piano

110

can mean much to the nueieel growth of the preoechoel
child but oere must be taken that the hermonic etruetur.
doee not “drown out“ the melody we went the child to beer.
Finelly. enhouregenent end intereet on the part of
the parent or'teacher ie the meet velueble aid or'nethod.
Little ehildren Icon to need e sympathetic endienee. end
they will progreee nueh teeter in each an environment.
The seine node by the leee eepehie children ehould not be
‘rewerded hy elehorete pretee, for it will tend to late
then eelf-eoneeioue. It is better to greet any euceeee hy
tacit eeeeptenoe end to provide opportunities for further

develoyuent-
SINGING

The content or e music treunins currieulue neturelly
errengee iteelt in four divieione: einging, rhythmic
ectiritiee, erectire expreeeion end noeie appreeietion.

Seeehore_pointe out that music and epeeeh.enploy the
lame medium; namely, eounde which very in.pitoh, inteneity.
duration and timbre. The epecking ectivitiee come first.
Juet an e child leerne to talk by heering othere talk, en
he leerne to eing by heering cthere nine. The quality or
the epeeking voice ie highly important. for little children
will imitate what they hour. It should he well-modulated
and characterised by e clear enuncietion. The eingins
voice. too. ehould be projected in the beet manner poeeihle.
for again the children will imitate whet they hear. The
more perfect the original. the finer the imitetion. Free

111

early intone: it in important to eurround a child with
einging .. lullehiee and other cause thet ere nelodicue
end eeey to listen to. He ehould eieo hear inetrumentel
nueic. but thie pheee will be discussed in e later eection.

Al the child grows older. he will want to Join in the
Iinging. and he should, of course. be allowed to. fill
tiret attempts and for some time thereafter will likely
be out-ot-tune, but this really does not matter, for, et
the pre-eohool level, interact he evidenced by participee
tion ie the inportnnt consideration. At timee, he will
buret out with tunes of hie own creation and the elert
mother will notice and sing then back to him. Thie will
delight him and econ he and hie mother will have e new
game -- playing echo .. which will be greet fun for both.
The beginnings are simple and coneiet of only e few tonee
dealing with daily ectivitiee and experiences. Perente
end teachere ehould watch for opportunities to enrich
ohildren'e activities with singing. It ie easy to invent
conga to fit theee oceeeione end thie edde to the fun.

In the internal pro-school eituetion. many opportune
itiee will preeent themeelvee for the uee of tone matching
devicee which will lead c child into pitch conscioueneee.
end ce previously pointed out it ie highly deeirehle that
they be ueed before the child reachee the etege or eel!-
coneciouenoee. It is also important that they he need
before children get in the habit of thinking they "can't

ling.“

112

we need to heer much talk ebout einging in e “high.
clear voice.“ Since teete on range end placement have
revealed that the pre~echcel voice in pieced lower on the
mueical stuff than was previously euppoeed. educatore
have not placed co much empheeie on this quality. They
have come to realize that some children previouely thought
to be unable to carry a tune can do us when e eons ie
transposed down to the range in which their natural voice.
lie.

Within the past five years, many eons hooke ccnteino
ing excellent collection: or originel end folk eons: end
texte adapted to the tunes of the eleeeice heve been pub-
liched and ell contain e weelth of cusseetione ee to their
use with preoechool children. A listing of theee hocke
with general comments ee to content appeere in the appene
dix and any one of them will be e dependeble guide in.the
teaching of preoechcol eingins.

RHYTHBIIO ACTIVITIES

Teete have shown that no eignirieent improvement can
he expected from training pre-echool children to reepond
to a glVen rhythm but there ie greet value in.providing
many individual rhythmic experiences which the child will
later be able to adapt to tempo end meter. Thin point of
view raise. some question as to the educational velue of
the rhythm band in the pro-echool yeere. It in the belief
of the writer that the toy instrument ehould he need for

113

individual training and that on occasion tho ohildron ho
Illoved to play them together for the onjoymont or the
activity, but that no attempt should be made to make the
rhythm band a vehiolo of rhythmic training or to bring
the ensemble to any not standard or performance.

The vioo parent or teacher will oboorvo the rhythm
of tho child in any particular activity and will oomotilno
roinroroo it with piono or‘other accompaniment. It a
child aooolorateo his rhythm, tfio music must aoooloroto
accordingly and if ho .103! hi. nativity. tho muoio moot
aloo ho olovod. Thin will givo tho child the oonoo of
oorroot rhythmic rooponoo so well on tho pleasuro of fro.
rhythmio activity and in tho very boot on: to otart hi.
rhythmic training. In timo he will spin tho nuooulor con»
trol that will onoblo bin to ndJuot his rooponoo to tho
otimuluo.

Littlo ohildron aro naturally rhythmical. and tho
modiuml for rhythmio rooponoo Ir! logic: in tho onrironp
nont of tho pro-oohool child. It viii to natural for
childron to noko lorso Iuoolo rooponoo. boforo omall
muoolo responooo and physical well-bolas requires toot
ouch grooo ootivitioo no running. JuMping, skipping, north,
ins, tumbling and tho liko be given prominont plooo in tho
curriculum. Finn obout four years on, children enjoy how.
ing othor*0hildron Join.thon in.thooo aotivitiooo

Singing 5amoo oro an nativity of childhood.whioh oono
bino oingins with rhythmio nativity. Whoa aotivity involv-
ing largo muooloo in Oallod for, it io bettor to havo only

11o

part or the group participate while the remainder carry

on with the singing. In otrenuouc exercise, breath

control is short and singing will either be omitted or
will cutter in tone quality. The singing game in the rivet
type or game a pre~echool child is able to participate in
and is an interesting form of play activity. Often e

child who refuses to take part in any other mulic activity
will Join in the fun. The finger play games ero fun, too,
but their educational Value for this age it somewhet linite
ed since they involve fine-muscular cdtrdinntion.

In connection with rhythmic activity. the firot rudi-
ments of intensity can be taught .. to clap loudly when
the music oeyo to do so and to clap softly when tho manic
is soft. They also learn.thot the firot boat of the
measure is an accented beat and can IO indicate hy giving
it a louder clap or by omitting the clap: on the other
boats of the measure.

The record companies all have oopociolly'prepered.ro-
cordo for uoo in the rhythmic octivitieo of children.cnd
lists or these are given in the appendix.

The toy instruments of both melodic and percussive
types offer unlimited Opportunity for rhythmic devolOpment.
The children will sometimes enjoy making instrument. and
many musical lelaonl can be taught in the pronoun. Ohildrin
can soon learn the any to produce the moat pleasing loan!
and will enjoy playing them in combination with cthcro or
with piano or viotrole accompaniment. Some childrun‘vlll

even learn the first principloo or orcheetreticn.

115

Too much emphasis cannot be put upon the devo10pment
of the rhythmic Icons, for all work is easier and lose
tiring when done rhythmically. The swing of rhythmic
effort carries on or it's own impetus. to e greet saving
of‘humsn energy. Rhythmic sense is, therefore, one of

the greatest of gifts.
CREATIVE EYPRSSSIQN

Educational practices or e decade or so ago stressed
the importance of conforming to e pettern and perfection
of detail end oaocution. Mbdorn philoIOphy hoe recognised
individual differences and has determined that pecple are
happier if their ereetive tendencies ere encouraged end
develcped. These tendencies ere possessed by everyone --
not Just those with special talent or genius .. but they
ere the easiest to doveIOp if the otsrt is made st the
preoeohool level when children ere not self—conscious e.
bout their creative efforts end are happy and satisfied
with results on adult would deem entirely insdquste. In
music, e child sen be creative with his voice and with
bodily octivity or he cen crests instruments on which
music is made.

Often he sings in a rhythmic chant to his play. The
chanting step: when the acquisition of some new motor
skill requires ell his concentration, to be resumed when
the skill is mastered. His chonting may be keeping time
to his rhythmic activity or he may simply be describing

what he is doing. Or it may be a repeated phrase suggested

115

by something going on around his, the words themselves
having no issuing to his. but the rhythm they create spa-
pealing to the ear. mtever form the expression takes,
it nuts the beginning or crestive effort and should be
recognised end encouraged ss such. Eventuslly in sddio
ticn to the rhyths. the shi'id will discover the sided
interest of tone. or pitch. Latin perhaps he imitates
the sounds of others or the sounds he hesrs, but again it
marks the beginnings of ersstive effort.

The suidsoes of erestivs effort requires constructs
skill for s child will eventuslly reach s point where his
skill in manipulating sound tells short of producing that
which he wishes to express. It then beeches the teseher‘s
seiisste function to discover whet he wishes and to old
his to express his ides without superimposing he ides on
his. It hes been ssid that the sis, insotsr es erection
is scsserned. is thst of giving the shild opportunity to
develop skills so thst he say be free to progress rather
than be belted by his own sbilities.

This nesns thst st tiles teachers should pertisipste
in erestive sstivity «- sosetises following the child' I
lead entirely, sometimes helping his to see the next step
shesd. Gare must be constantly exercised not to overstiluo
lste. but st the me tise it sust be resection-ed thst
children ere sonstently reaching out for new end sstisfy-
ins experiences and it they do not have then. they will
eventuslly become behavior problems. Will hrbsrt has

117

eullerized the teacher'e role in the guidance or ereeo
tire effort ‘1 he follows:

“Standarde in.ereetive dotivitiee muet eteer

between encouragement of oheotio expreeeion and

the imitation of models. Creative work uuet

avoid imitation of patterns, yet etandarde one

tail nodele and theee ere elveye in danger of

becoming pe terne to he imitated. The moet pro.

foundry difficult problem for the teeoher who

guidee creative effort is that of causing oonetant

and intelligent inprovement without making the

children priggieh imitators. On the one hand. she

nuet not eet patterns and teach rule-3 on the

other hand, ehe dare not accept with Joyful ene

thueieem every outpouring, week and unpremedio

teted or wholly unprogreeeive though it be. be»

eeuee it ie ‘the ehild'e very cent

It followe thet it ie not neeeeeary to teke dovnkthe
nelodiee e child Greetee ee evidence of “budding genuie.'
although it in often nice to eing or pin: the! beet to
his ee e shared experience. Furthermore. it ie e leans
of leking e child aware of that he ie doing or hee done
and'ie a pert or the learning proeeee. The preeervetion
or e particular melody ie not importent. but the preeer»
ration and enoouresenent of the tendeney end deeire for
creative effort ie vitally importent. end snidenee lllt
be directed townrd thet end.

The provieion 0! Opportunities through environment
for creative expreeeione ie the reeponeibility or perent
and teacher. The etese of the ohild'e phyeieel develOp-

nent end perceptive ehility will determine that eonetitutee

A.‘ LAAA.

A1. Earnert Will %;|‘LL¥1_AQ&IILL1.5 Bntionnl
Society for the Study of educat on, Thirty-titty Yeerbook,
pp 123’137. 1936.

118

proper environment. It can be provided in almoet end-
leee variety with apparatue. toys. nueic, literature. pic~
turee. people, activities and even space.

Satie Coleman in her work at Lincoln School. Golunbie
University. makee extensive use of toy inetrumente in en,
couregins creative expreeeion. her children not only one
then to experiment with eound hut eleo enJoy making the
instruments themeelvee. Emma Dickson Sheehy. Horace Heal.
School, Columbia Univereity, also ueee toy inetrunente and
etreeece the importance or ueins only a few etinuli at a
time and changing the number and cite of the etimuli-often.
She feels that e child ehould be given every opportunity
to try out inetrumcnte in.hie own way. barring deetructive
activities. When this ie done. e child will econ become
awere or the eimilaritiee and dittereneee in ecunde and
will be able to repeat the sound he mchee with a certain
regularity, marking the creation of a rhythmic pattern.
when he can eoneciouely produce a pattern at will. here--
ins‘hae taken place. BelfrOXpPeeaion end oreetive eetirity
hae also taken place.

Moat educatore feel that no eet torn or directicne
should be given. the worde and melodies being allowed to
flow from the child ee he reele them. creative experience
coupled with the lietening to nueie will tend to influenee
the child'e creative efforte and gradually they will take
on the element: of mueical torn and composition.

It creative effort 1: nurtured in the early yeere.
the ehild will eecept it ee a natural activity. and in

.ell‘

later life this mean. of cclf-oxyreeeion will pcrhapl pro.
wide the relecce which will make his psychologically well-
adJuetcd ae an adult. It will also give him a greater

undoretandins and appreciation of all mueie.
P111310 APP R120 IAI‘ ION

It is easy to develop in the preoechool child a lik-
ing for good.mueic for ell that ie neceeeary ie to euppl]
the proper environment. In liatening, a pereon abeorba
according to hie pact experience and hie preeent ability
to aheorb. With the pre-echccl child. thie ability in
email and, naturally. he hae had no eXperienee. For these
reasone, the mueic herheare Inet be carefully eelocted ec
ac to be interesting and of autticient variety to hold
hie attention. It muet be preeented in anounte gauged to
hie epan of attention. It ehould never be thruet upon
him.

From peyohology we learn that a child’e traite and
attitudee for>hie entire life are largely determined hy
the tine he ie eix yearn old. Therefore. if mueieal ex.
periencee can be furnished during the preoechccl yeare of
a child'e life, he will develOp a permanent taete for good
nueic. Before a young child can develOp nueical diecrimi-
nation, he nuet have etcndarde by which to Judge that which
he beers. The nueie he heare .. whether good or had ..
will supply him with theee ltandarde and it 1e, therefore.
imperative that he hear the heat. Someone has eaid.
"Thole who live with good music learn to like it.."

Q

120

hueic should he presented at a time when the child
is physically comfortable and happy. Ac Floy Rosaman put.
it, "Ihe association or pleaeent sounds with personal ease
ie nececeery for first impreeeione. which are lasting.n #8 '
If grownpupa listen to nueic with their children the addie
tional plcaenre of a shared experience will be present
which will benefit both adult and child. There is no set
time for listening activities, although in many homee the
time Juet before bedtime in "listening time." In nureery
echoole and kindergartenc. music for appreciation is often
played during 'reet tine" end, of course, it is a regular
part or ”mueic time." Ac soon as children are able to
manage the nechenioe of a radio or record player, they can
lieten to mueic whenever they like.

The mueic of a child'e environment will come through
three principal channele: firet. through vocal and instru-
mental eueic performed personnlly for him; second, through
the redic; and third, through records. The vocal and
inetrunentel mueie performed personally for the child cons
_ tributea immeaeurebly to his mueie education.' In the
majority of inetencee, the mueio will lack profeeeicnal
musicianship. but the personal contact with the mueic nhen
the child can actually lee it being produced more than
compensatee for the lack in ekill in.producing it. Short
worke are the moat euiteble for a child's listening and

A

#2. Roeeman. Floy Adele, P -Schoo M , New York.
Rational Bureau for the Advancement of Music. 9‘0.

121

thor. or. many from which to choc... Th. inotrulont. a
child will hour will dopond, of oour... upon tho inltru~
wont. thooo about hi. can play. Sometino. player. .an
be invited 1n.to .haro thoir t.l.nt.. Th1. 1. th. 140$!
'concort' for th. young child, for it i. informal, perv
.onal and geared to his interest and .ttention .pnn.

Th. radio can contribute much to the musical dov010po
nent of th. child, but its usefulnoa. ha. been bluntod in
many home. whore it runs from morning to night, through
good program. and bad. with no on. paying on: apparent
.ttontion to it. The propor‘woy to utili.o the radio for
music appreciation in to .olcot in .dvanc. . program of
merit .nd than li.tcn to it quietly and ottontivoly.

When some familiar .oloction i. played, the childron It.
always delighted and tool they have renewed .oqu.intano.
with an old friend.

The playing of records is the moat .ati.fa.tory n..n.
or acquainting children with . groot varioty or nuoionl
seléctiona, .lnoe the chain. of number. can be .ubJoot to
the need. and dollre. of th. 11.tener.. A number of lint.
or record. recommended for children hat. boon compilod
both by the record companio. and in muoic book. and . .hort
list of .uggootlon. 1. included in the appendix. Record.
of good quality are orpenaiv. to buy in the number. on.
would like to own then, but it i. sometime. po..ibl. to
borrow them from libraries and this poolibility should b.
investigoted.

122

Sometimes music shouli be listened to without com-
ment. Cther times, "identification” measures can be
played first and this will give the child something defin-
ite to listen for. If there is a etcr to the music, it
can be told, leaving the musical ingression entirely to
the child. The children may be asked if the music heard
was fast or slow, sad or gay and the 1 Rs. Or they can be
taught to recognize a particular instrument by its tone.
Some children even sense the bare elements of form. The
teacher should try to terminate the experiences of each
child at the peak of his interest, rather than running
the risk of endangering the child's future enthusiasm or
Jeopardizing the listener's interest by permitting any
one member of the group to disturb others who are listen-
ing.

The better a child can understsni music through pre-
vious participation, the keoner will be his appreciation
anfi the greater lift music can give him. Since so few
carry active participation over into adulthood, it is all

he more desirable that appreciation cf’music be doveIOp-
ed early in life and the pro-school level is the place to
start.

It has been necessary to discuss segirately the var-
ious aspcct. of music education for the porpose of clarity,
but actually there are no boundaries between them. Cres-
tivencss flows thro'gh every phase of music and listening

is a part of every activity. As Beatrice Landeck advisel.

123

"Lot music weave itself into the fabric of the school as].

Lot its varied cxprOIcicnc find their cun.bcainning and
0nd. . ‘3

OVERSTIHULATIGN AND EXFLCITAPION

Specific problems met in the music training of prc~
school children have been previously discussed, as well
as the general problem of dealing with individual diff!!-
ences. Two other problems remain to be dealt with: over-
stimulation and eXploitation. In the complexity of nad.r‘i

li ing the drains upon the emotional stability of all

4

people are tremendous. We attempt to protect our childrcn
from these tensions, but they sense than and are indirectly
effected. It, therefore, behooves us as music educator.
not to be so desirous of making progress and attaining
objectives that we add to their tensions and overstimulato
them. we must be painstaking to gauge their needs scour»
ately and to supply as enriched a curriculum as their It‘s.
of readiness indicates but no more. Cnly in this way can
we prevent overstimulation.
The second pitfall to guard against is that of cxploitt-

ion. It in natural for parents and teacLers to be proud
of the accomplishments of their children and to want to

how them off in perforrance, but the final result in.nc

way compensates for the necessary drill and strain that are

A”.

43. Kursell, Christianson, Landeok, Schwinn, ”
gflgufiflllln Washington: Assn. for Childhood Education, igfg.

a part or such displays. music educators arc recognising
the lack of educatianal valie in such exglsitaticn anfi
are substituting invitations t3 parents and interested
frienis to :bserve the daily rautine of the class-room,

where children feel free in their oxyressisn of music.

125

CZECLUSICN

She first purpose of this study was to determlno

(1) whether or not the administration of music training

at the

ore-school level would advance children faster

than the natural processen of growth and maturation, and

(2) whether or not such training could be cccompliohcd

without coercion, drill or loss of interest. some thirty

scientific studies on the effects of training and various

otnor asooots of musical reaponoo were reviewed and the

findings are summarized as follows:

1.

2.

3.

A wide range in fundamental capacity and results
due to training were renorted by the various ex~
perimcntoro. The latter was duo in part to difc
forencoa in procedure and scoring ctandards.

In singing, all studio: chowcd that performance
of all ages in test: of pitch, interval and
phrase reproduction imprOVed subsequent to train¢
ins. cost response was secured when the stimulus
was given by the human voice.

Dcccendtng intervals were sung slightly more read-
11y than ascending intorvcll; narrow intcrvall
(major and minor seconds and thirds) were more
readily sung than tho widor intorvclo.

Kongo of the preocchool voice was found to b.
nomewhat narrower thou had been proVioucly cup-
posod and plaoofi several tones lower on tho muni-
cal scale. Moot exocrimonters gave optimum

range and placement on to 0' to 0'.

Improvement in increase in range in dooidodly
creator from two to six years than from six years
t0 maturity.

Higher tones were sung more readily under sponp
tcnooul conditions. This in a clue to method in
bringing pitch consciousness to young children.
Intervals of tho mcjor and minor second and third
were sung readily under spontaneous conditionl.

126

7;

.8.

9.
10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Training in response to s rhythmic pattern did
not substantially improve ability to kccp exact
$130:

Children lcsrn to kccp accurate rhythms by first
practicing than in their own time and than grade
uslly lcsrning to make them conform to a cot
I‘WUIs

thngc of actor, simplicaticn or music. so: or
intclllscncc-hsd littls or no bearing on rhythmic
"spans...

Ecsro children wcrc much superior to whitc children
in response to s simple rhythmic pattern of rust
and slow cpccds.

Best rhythmic rcsponsc coincidcd with the fastest
tcmpc used (186 boots per minutc).

Increased ability resulting from training was sc~
conpcnlcd by s gain in intcrcst and s.kscn dcsirs
for furthsr psrticipsticnu

Tho prceschool level is the idcal use to bring
pitch consciousness to children due to (s) tho
inforusl nsturc of the environ-cot. (b) shun.

dcnt opportunity for individusl work, cud (c)

lggldot sclfeccnsciousncss on the port of tho

01c

Within.thc limits dsfincd or scientific research.
music training for prcoschool children is a worthy
whilc and dcsircblc sctivitw.

The ideal sctup for such trsinins would be c
“downward" cstcnsion.ot the educational system to
the nursery school lcscl. Until then, training
will hove to ho given in tho hone, in pro-school
susic classes, or in private nursery schools.

Regardless of whore the training is given, it will
he more effective it tho internaticn.rcvcslcd c1
scientific research is drown upon in curriculus
Nildmc

When prseschcol music training wss found to D. s worth-

whils and dcsirsblc activity. c second purposc of this

treatisc was to suggest a curriculum of music truining1ihich

127

would be of maximum educational effectiveness. The find-

ings of this phase of the“study are summarized as follows:

1.

3.

3.

d.

5.

5.

7.

8.

9e

10.

11.

Effective guidance requires a thorough underetand-
ing of the nature of the pro-school child includ-
ing his vocabulary development and his need of
music. The more methods of training are adapted
to the individual needs and nature or young
children, the larger are the potential abilities
that are revealed and the larger are the gains
achieved through training»

The first and foremost objective of pre-sehocl
nusis training is to have children learn to enjoy
music as an integral part or the day's activities.

Ho attempt should be made to bring all children
to the same musical standard;* A child should den
velop fron‘hie ovn level and in his own eapaeity.

Participation should come through interest rather
than through required attendance; the ideal ep-
proaeh is pncvided hr the play situation.

Results are more eesily achieved by working with
the individual or with small groups. The flea-
ihle. informal eituetion is best. '

The curriculum for the training of the preosohool
child should include singing. rhythaie activities.
creative expression and ausie appreciation.

Vocal or instrumental lessons of a formal nature
at the preoschocl level are ill-advised.

Due to the slow development of ability to keep
time to a set stimulus. rhythm band activities
should be deoemphasised.

Every possible means should be used to bring pitch

_eonsciousness to the child at the preoschool level

vhen environ-eat end the child's nature are most
favorable.

Individual differences must be recognized end pre-
per guidance given. Overetimulntion and eXploitao
tion must be guarded against.

Every pro-school child is endowed with eertain

fundamental capacity. Proper guidance and train»
ing will enable him to make the fullest possibls
use of the talent with which he has been endowed.

123

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137

Aeeeuuxx 1
some AND RHYTHM BOCKS FOR PREnSCHOCL CHILDREN

Arnitage, Dykena, Pitcher, Roe-man, Vande¥ere,p93:_£1tlfi
mm, Boeton, Biz-chard a: 00., 19“..

Thin ie a comprehensive collection of treaty-four unit-
dealins with every phaee of mueical activity. It in an
excellent eource book for preuechool uee.

Armitagei Dykem, Pitcher, W, Beaten, Birchard a:
C0,,

The conga of thie book will be a little advanced for
moat prwechool children to ling, but they will enjoy
hearing the teacher eing then.

Bang-fag, math, W, New York, Mille Hueic, Inc...

Fifteen piecee or deecriptive nueic moetly about anio
male, to lieten to or uee for creative expreeeion.

Banpton, Ruth, W, new York, Mills Eueie, Inc.,
19157.

Forty-five conga with any piano aoeonpaniuntc about
the eeeeone, nature, aniaale, innate and holidaye for
nee for dramatizatione, patriotic occaeione, games and
other activitiee. Hotee are numbered. Teete are excelo
lent although perhape a little advanced for the pre-
‘OhOOl Ohilde

Beat-tie, Velvet-ton, Wileon, Hinga, W .
m, flew York, The American ok Co.
A good general text for kindergarten children.

Bentley and flattevecn, W, Chicago, Clayton
F e m. I”.

Thie ie a eplendid collection or rhythms, einging sauce
and play neteriele for nureery ecbocle, kindergartene
and the bone. Basso-ted rhythmic activitiee are inn-
Oluded. Nicely illustrated.

300-01. Ann Sterling. W. New York. Oxford
University Preee, 1938.

A fine book or titty-lever; conga many of then baled on
folk eonge and claeaic melodiee. Included are good tone

plan with ctoriee for individual work with the begin-
ning cingcr. Attractive colored illuctrationc.

Cable Company, W1 Cong @923, Chicago, The Cable
00., 1927.

Part One or this book contains material (nnrcery rinee,
game conga and other!) cuitable for preecchocl uce.

Carter, Jeccie, w, Cincinnati, The Willie
Milli. OOe

A good collection at a moderate coat.

Christie, Catherine, Hal: -1- , Chicago, Clay-u
ton Fe 8M, 1935e

A book containing alneet two hundred dramatic conga,
game and rhytm for young children covering every
phace or activity and intereet. Eac’ piano accompania
nentc.

Colt and Hampton, W new York, Birchard 4:
00eg IMe

Thic ic a collection of mueical gamcc and action conga,
including new and original finger game that children
are cure to enjoy. Suggectionc for uce are included.
Illuctrctionc facing nearly every page.

Ccit and haptcn, W, New York, Herold
manner, Inc" 39.

Thic excellent book containc twelve adventurec in mid
lictening, with ctory cuggectiona. hoctly about cninall.

Colt and Banzaton, WM, New Xork, Harold
“3111311.”. 130.. e

Thic collection of tone matching tunee with cuggecticnc
for uce chould help a child to eing in tune at an early
age. One index ic arranged according to the cine of
interval to be matched. Songc are arranged co that the
child imitate. the flinging of the teacher within the

”use

Coleman and Thorn, W Nev York, The John Day Co.,
1929.

Forty chort conga about the ceaeonc, cninalc, birde,
transportation and other childhood interectc and expel-o
iencec. aongc are neatly two to eight meacurec in
length and have cinple piano accompaniment.

ii

601m!!! and uom.9gumu3mmm. Kev fork. The
Jam My Way 1 e

a collection of twenty-two aentence conga nicely illne-
‘ffltt‘c

Goatellc. louiae. W, New York. Oxford
Univaraity Preac. 193 .

crocninehiold, Ethel, W. Boaton, Boaton
Hucio 00.. 1945.

Cronin-Mold. Ethel. 193W.
Boaton. Boaton Muaic 00.. 1 7.

drowinahield, lthel. W. Boaton. Beaten
Halli. 00c. lg‘le

Short conga with my accompanicent that have good
rhythm and action. lo ganea are given but the wcrda
auggeat gamec for the child to play , auch aa growing
taller, running, ringing the bell, etc.

Dill-r and Page. AW. New York. 0-
son1m.r’ 1110., O

Containa a large collection of material for general
uae -- coalc and group conga. quiet conga and ganec
and uncle for rhythaic activitiea.

Gunpeon. Helen. M, Buffalo. The flincoe Publiah-
ing 00.. 1930c

Twenty-two conga, four toeight ceaeuree in length.
with ainple accocpanilent.

Dykama. Peter (Editor). Wm Dalton
Birchard and GOe. 1” e
Thia collection of gamea with music and directionc ic
worth far more than ita cull price.

06.3111. OIMOMO, ‘ .'.
24111! Millio IHOc. 1 ‘ 3e

 
   

:. . ' , New York.
A anall collection of original tunec in novelty arrange-
cent at a email coat.

clean. Witt-Rem. W. .Ghieago, Gian and co.
Thic book la for the teacher'a uce in preacnting vocal
uncle in the kindergarten. It containa one hundrea

teenty-tcc chort. aicple rote conga of varied aocd and
interact.

Glenn. Leavitt-Rchmann. flax A lung, Chicago, Gina and Co.

This book preaenta one hundred fifty folk nelodiea
and excerptc from compositions of great composers, in
simplified form. The child flrat listens and then
interpretc the rhythms freely.by come form of bodily
activity or dramatization.

Hater. Hart flu-f. W.Ch1n3m
Slayton F. Sunny.

a collection of piano uncle in three volunea. containa
characteristic acence and sketches, rhythms. narchcc,
gamea and a nuaical ctory and picture book.

Hunt. Evelyn. W’ New York. The Vlkms ”.'.. 1”76

Forty-five American and international conga for small
children.in both major and minor kewa. One la in the
pentatonic acalc. Simple accompanimenta. Alao auggeco
tionc for games.

Hydo. Hot-bert- 2.. W Chicago.
Clayton F. Sunny 00.

Eighteen chart piecea for piano, with auggective titlea
repreaenting fundamental rhythm.-

 

Kenagy and Arnold, .1:_: ,
Cincinnati. “lili. Mucic 00.. 19320

This collection contains conga and rhythma for varioua
occaaiona and alao deacriptivc akotohcc for the piano.

undue and sure. W.
New York, Hilla Huaie. Inc.

 

HaoGartncy, Laura Pendlcton. - .
Cincinnati, Willie hucic 00.. l937.

An excellent all-arcund book containing activitiea for
twouyear-olde. tone gamec. finger playa and a few cuge
gcetionc ac to the method of preeenting.

McGonathy, Morgan, huraell, Bartholomew, Bray, Hieacner,
Burge, . Chicago, Silver

Burdott. 1

Twenti two appealing short conga beautifully illuatratcd
in co or

Modcnathy, horgan. hureell, Bartholomew, Bray, Mieaaner,

Bum. W. Chicago. Silver
Burdett. 19“.

11

The conga of thic book will be too advanced for pre-
achool children to caater but they will enjoy hear-
ing the teacher cing then.

Portia. Burnett W. Glucose. Hall and
hoareary, 1932.

Martin and #hite,‘§gggg__hilgzgg_§ing, Chicago, dall and
HcOreary, 1943.

Manner and Battle. WW.
chicagc, Hall and Modreary, 1935.

W‘rao WW! “9", Work, G0 Schiner,
1929.

Oltz, Carlo, jglghg_gigg, Chicago, Clayton F. Sunny 60.,19#6.

Pwenty-one original pieces to be used for rhythmic acti-
vitiea and development.

Pol-hen. Batu". W... 3mm. Ohio-Lac.
L011 A. ”Jo. “11.10 00.. 1937a

A ctcry illuatrated with chort conga. acne folk and
acne claaaio maladiec. An excellent book for the
children to look at aa they aing. Later they will he
able to play the notec, which are anchored.

Potter, Edna, U , new Iork, Oarl Ficcher
(Oxford University Preac .

A book of cinging games with directionc for each gene
given with itc aong. colorful illuatrationc.

Radcliffe and "hitch-u. W42:
thlggln, Beaten, Oliver Ditcon o. _

Traditional and folk conga fro- all countriec with a
piano part of median difficulty.

Rocalcn, flay. zzggggng31_zglig, Beaten, O. 0. Birchard and
CO..1959.

Race-I. flay. W, lew Kerk, Paul-Pioneer
”HIIC Corp.. a

Scatter. liccic Illlaee.‘|.||_i|_||11||b Cincinnati. lillic
“.1. “e, I“.

fhia book contains a anchor of ainple rhythca for children
to interpret and atoriea to auggeat interpretation. Bock
ic nicely illuatrated.

Silver Burdett company, V
InflL111:§_§:lgg, thcago, Silver hurdett Go.

a collection of alcoct five hundred conga and inctrue
cental aelectiona for every type of muaic activity.
Iorha of the heat of the claaeical and modern compoaera
and poetc are repreaented.

Upahur, dlaire Harana, m , o_3t
York, Harold Plan-er Publiflting 0.. 19.

Vandcvcrc J. Lilian, _ z _ _ , A”; on..
”"1110. .a In. 'e . PUD Chins 9..

Vetaw, Laederach, Nainhciner, :. - ‘.-
flannel, Chicago, The Raymond Hoffman 00.

Vin.Loon, Hendrik Hillel, 3g; hggg W1 Slag. low zero.
83." and ”heater.

luraery rhylea and their traditional tunea with eaqy
but very fine piece accompanicent. Each.acng ic fcced
by a f l-page illustration in color.

wadley and Ailiaca,‘nilggggring_§nlig, Beaten. the Beaten
luaia GOe

ihia hook containc a wealth of euaioal aetivitiea for
the pre-achool child.

Warner Lamina. WW. Button.
3:. a. Shir-er. 2).

a collection of ceVentyoacven conga of nether Goocc.
the ceaaona. geogrophy and conga or featival. Alec cone
tainc lullabiec. dialoguec. ganea and atreet calla.

Waterman. Elisabeth. W. Guinea.
Gluten F. m 60a. 1927.

Containc complete leaeon plane her teaching rhythmic
reaponae to nuaio.

Water-an. Elisabeth g§2g_flhz§nn_gggg, new York. A. a.
m.md°°api e

The firat half of the book eontaina cathode for tcaehe

mithc and the aecond half providee auaic auitahde
for we king. running, Jucping. hopping and ten other
typec of rhythcic aotivitiec.

Witches-d. Ans-1n Oren-10. W
o. o. Bic-chard and 60.. 931.

Very good conga for the young. with an eaay piano part.
Not illuatrated.

 
 
  
 

APPENDIX 2
SOURGES OF RHIIHE HARD EQUIPMENT AND SUPELIEB
Greteoh ManurIoturing 00.. The Fred. 218 South Wabeeh

Avenue, Ohiohso t. Illinoic.

Ludwig and Ludwig (Divicion of a. G. Goon Ltd.). Elkhhrt,
Indiana.

krone Band Inctrunent 00.. 223 Wect Lake Street, Chicago,
6. Illinoil.

lotionhl Rccrchtionhhccooihtioh, 315 Fourth Avenue, Re!
Iork 10. New York.

Zhnnis. Auguctuc D. ‘n4a{.s- at-
yang. chrinted i 9 10.35.

Peripolc Productc. 2937 Avenue 8. Brooklyn 29. Ben York.

White’s and Juan. :1 Ecroantile strcct. fiorceoter,
Eacohohucettc.

   

'11

A:’P3.‘DIX 3

L13? 0? PHCKCG;£PH RESCRDS

The verioue companiee offer a wealth or rooordc from
the ohild'c ovn.vor1d. Many celootionc have been recorded
a number of times, for different companies by different
trtietc. It in, therefore. vile to listen to several re~
oordingc before sexing e purohocc. Unbreakable reoordc
are now urhilablo end hre a good insectmont. Often e rc-
oord may he need for cererel purpocec. A.ohild'c library
of reoorde chould eontein to wide a renge of eoleotionc he
poceiblc in order to here exhilable tho typo record needed
to enrich on activity or to provide e woll~roundod oource
in audio appreeietion.

The following recordc ere cuggeeted tor cuoh h librhry:
RHITHMIG AED MARCHING RECORDS

Becie Rhythlio Aetiviticc .. Victor Album E>71
Grand Mcroh (Aide) -- Verdi

Harmoniouc Blackcmith .. Handel

March of the Dwertc ~— Greig

Store and Stripes Forever - Sound
whehington Post Maroh - Sauce

£1 Gepitdn e~ Souch

Preeludihm .. Jhrnetclt

Anaryllic a» Ghyc

haroh of the Little Lced Boldicre ¢~ Pierne
Enroh Hinhture .. Tcohhikovnky

deoety Earth a. Borlion

Turkich march «o Beethoven

Heroh.Milteire .. Schubert

Grand Heron (Tennheuecr)~ ”Uhgner

Funcrel March of e Morionettc - Gounod
Arkencec Traveler

Pop Goec The Wendel

Soldier' e Haroh 9- Schumann

Mdrlh oe Hollccnder

vii‘

OLLBSIOB

fleeic Lictcnin; Activiticc - Vietor Albue E—‘n
children‘c Preyer (Hamel end Gretel) - Met-diner
Oredle 8on3 .. arable
Ave Eerie n Schubert
hlec tron the Vienna Woodc «.- atreuec
Blue Denuhe Welt: .- Strcuee
(New World) .. Liclt
to Voter Lilly «- HacDowell
to A Wild floce .- thnceell
llreiccue .. Ethclbcrt Kevin
Bercme (Jocelyn) .. Goderd ..
Gernivel of the Aninelc - acint Scene
Dence Hecebrc - Saint Scone
nutcracker EEuite 9- Tcohcikoveky
Peer Gynt Suite «- Greia
‘ the Hcppy Earner - Bchmlcnn
Trhunerci - Sam-mean
dlcir Dc Lune -- Dehueey
night of the Enable Bee .. Kinky-Korean?
Haunt Xueiccle «- Schubert
The Sheter'c Welte «- Heldtentel
Heltcina Doll (Poupu Veleente) -- Foldini
Bchcrco (Xideueeer night'e Dreee) .. Kendeleeohn
1'07 when! - Ryan
The Old Refrain .. Mhllulleth
Emmerich Rhepeody «~- Licet
Israel-one (Telee or Korma) .. Offenhcch
Le Golondrine (The Shallow) - lexicon
All Through The flight we Weleh
Deter hnd the flolf (Opue 67)- Prokofiev
Willie. Tell Overture «- Roceini
In e Clock Store .. Orth
On The i'reil .. erotic

the Hurdyoaurdq a» carpenter
WEBB FOR crmm OOOABIONB AND OTHER RECORDS

Bceic Singing fictititiec - Victcr Album E—B)
flinging Geeee - Victor Album 3.83
lureery donae
I end Scroll
Patriotic Sam
Allegro Junior Reecm .. e1 1 to e) 8
l'he City Since for Micheal -— lcrth
fuhw. The Tube . IBripp end Kleineinaci‘
Little lndicn than - north
lame For the lurcery School - lecOerteney

can: “he Young People'e Record club. 295 Medina Avenue.
lee Icrk. new York otter-e e flubecription Seriee of
ten unbrechehle rceorde e yeer for prcoechcol children.

"WW