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Ib.‘ . . -. “WW M N. . c 3 R «2 “ MA MAGIC 2 t9" ‘2 mwfim POLICE ROLE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF MODERN BEHAVIOR THEORY TO THE PROCESS OF VIDEO-TAPEO ROLE PLAYING By Jimmie Aiien Rodgers A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fuifiliment Of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Schooi of Criminai Justice Approved by: Comit ee Hairmam/ //O% X m IE . m ABSTRACT POLICE ROLE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF MODERN BEHAVIOR THEORY TO THE PROCESS OF VIDEO—TAPED ROLE PLAYING By Jimmie Allen Rodgers The Problem This thesis explores the extent of the use and reasons for non-use of video-taped role playing as an instructional tool among law enforcement agencies of the United States. It also examines modern Behavior Theory and applies it to the process of role develop- ment through video-taped role playing. Role development emerges as a concept intended to resolve the current police education/training dichotomy. Guidance is also furnished fOr developing a program to empirically test the use of video-taped role playing through appli- cation of Behavior Theory to the role development process. Methodology A proportional, stratified sample of 200 law enforcement agencies was surveyed by mailed questionnaire to determine the extent 1 Jimmie Allen Rodgers of use and reasons for non-use of video-taped role playing among police agencies throughout the United States. Major Findingsg Video-taped role playing was in use among 41.5 per cent of the ll8 agencies that responded to the survey questionnaire. This per- centage was considerably higher than projected. The level of education of the heads of the law enfbrcement agencies and the heads of their training functions was found to be positively related to the use of video-taped role playing at a level of significance beyond .01. The use of video-taped role playing also increased as knowledge of the technique increased, but the availability of funds and facil- ities were more important in determining non-use of the technique than was lack of knowledge regarding it. POLICE ROLE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF MODERN BEHAVIOR THEORY TO THE PROCESS OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING By Jimmie Allen Rodgers A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Criminal Justice 1974 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES .......................... 'v1i LIST OF FIGURES . . . . ..................... ix LIST OF APPENDICES ........................ x Chapter I. THE PROBLEM, CONCEPTS, AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED. . . 1 THE PROBLEM ..................... l IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY ............... 2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED ....... 6 Self ...................... 6 Phenomenological Self .............. 7 Role . . . .. .................. 7 Interpersonal Behavior Event .......... 8 Audience Group ................. 9 Role Conflict .................. 9 Cognitive Dissonance .............. 9 Reinforcement .................. lO Differential Reinforcement ........... 10 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page Contingencies of Reinforcement ......... lO Discriminitive Stimuli ............. ll Operants .................... ll Respondent ................... 12 Role Playing .................. 12 Congruent Attitude Change ............ l3 Incongruent Attitude Change ........... 13 Change Agent .................. l3 II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................. l4 INTRODUCTION .................... l4 PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOR THEORY ............ 18 Conclusion ................... 20 BEHAVIOR THEORY IN RELATION TO ROLE BEHAVIOR . . . . 21 ROLE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH APPLICATION OF BEHAVIOR THEORY TO VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING ........ 24 The Difficulty of Incongruent Change ...... 25 Sources of Feedback ............... 29 The Process of Role Development ......... 32 CONCLUSION ..................... 34 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page III. GUIDANCE FOR CONDUCTING VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING . . . . 37 INTRODUCTION .................... 37 GOAL DETERMINATION ................. 38 PROCESS SELECTION .................. 39 The Physical Setting .............. 40 The Preparation Phase .............. 4l Problem selection .............. 42 Harm-up ................... 43 Participant selection ............ 44 Explaining participant roles ........ 46 Explaining audience roles .......... 47 The Dramatic Action ............... 48 General guidelines ............. 48 The role of the director .......... 49 Methods ................... 50 Discussion ................... 52 General guidelines ............. 52 Conducting discussion ............ 53 Use of evaluation forms ........... 54 Instructor's guide ............. 54 Discussion methods ............. 54 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page Reenactment ................... 56 Analysis .................... 58 EVALUATION ..................... 59 CONCLUSION ..................... 63 IV. THE HYPOTHESES. DEFINITIONS. AND POTENTIAL ERRORS. . . . 64 QUESTIONS ...................... 64 STATUS STUDY STATEMENT ............... 65 HYPOTHESES ..................... 65 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED .............. 66 Law Enforcement Agency ............. 66 Level of Education ............... 67 VARIABLES ...................... 67 Dependent Variable ............... 67 Independent Variables .............. 67 Intervening Variables .............. 68 Control of Variables .............. 69 POTENTIAL ERRORS .................. 69 Response Error in Sampling ........... 69 Sample Size Too Small ........... I. . . 69 Type I or II Error ............... 7O TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page V. SAMPLING PROCEDURES ........... . ....... 7l SELECTION OF STATES ................. 72 SELECTION OF CITIES ................. 73 VI. METHODS OF GATHERING DATA ................ 79 VII. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS ................... 81 VIII. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. . . ............. 83 GENERAL RESULTS ................... 83 Response Rate vs. Stratification Level ..... 83 Number Responding vs. Size of Department . . . . 84 Education Levels ................ 84 STATUS STUDY ANALYSIS ................ 85 HYPOTHESES ANALYSIS ................. 86 Hypothesis l .................. 86 Hypothesis 2 .................. 89 Hypothesis 3 .................. 9l OTHER RESULTS FROM DATA ............... 93 IX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................. 95 RECOMMENDATIONS ................... 97 APPENDICES ............................ 99 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........ . ................... l62 vi Table II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIIA. VIII. VIIIA. IX. LIST OF TABLES METHOD OF DETERMINING PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION FOR SAMPLING BASED UPON POPULATION FIGURES FROM I973 RAND MCNALLY ROAD ATLAS ................ RANDOMLY SELECTED STATES ................. DEVELOPMENT OF STRATIFICATION RATIOS ........... CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: STRATIFICATION LEVELS ....... EXTENT OF USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING AMONG TOTAL POPULATION ....................... EXTENT OF USE OF V.T.R.P. AMONG AGENCIES THAT USE ROLE PLAYING ...................... EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (HEAD OF TRAINING) VS. USE OF VIDEO- TAPED ROLE PLAYING ................... CONDENSATION OF EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (HEAD OF TRAINING) VS. USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING .......... EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (AGENCY HEAD) VS. USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING ...................... CONDENSATION OF EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (AGENCY HEAD) VS. USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING .............. KNOWLEDGE OF THE V.T.R.P. TECHNIQUE AS COMPARED TO USE OR NON-USE ....................... REASONS GIVEN FOR NON-USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING . . vii Page 74 75 77 78 85 86 87 87 89 90 91 92 LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table Page XI. SIZE OF TRAINING DEPARTMENTS NITHIN EACH LEVEL OF STRATIFICATION ..................... 154 XII. SIZE OF DEPARTMENTS AS COMPARED TO USE OR NON-USE OF V.T.R.P ....................... l55 XIII. EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (HEAD OF TRAINING) VS. SIZE OF DEPARTMENT ....................... l56 XIV. EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (HEAD OF TRAINING) AS COMPARED TO EXTENT OF USE OF ROLE PLAYING ............ 157 XV. EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (AGENCY HEAD) AS COMPARED TO EXTENT OF USE OF ROLE PLAYING ............. l58 XVI. REASONS FOR NON-USE OF ROLE PLAYING ........... 158 XVII. LEVEL OF EDUCATION (HEAD OF TRAINING) AS COMPARED TO REASON FOR NON-USE OF ROLE PLAYING ......... 159 XVIII. LEVEL OF EDUCATION (AGENCY HEAD) AS COMPARED TO REASON FOR NON-USE OF ROLE PLAYING ........... 160 XIX. EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (HEAD OF TRAINING) AS COMPARED TO AMOUNT OF AGENCY USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING . . 161 XX. EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (AGENCY HEAD) AS COMPARED TO AMOUNT OF AGENCY USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING ....... 161 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page l. Behavioral Model: The Interrelated Components of Behavior with Emphasis on Behavior Theory in Relation to Role Behavior ............... 23 ix LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. GENERAL AND DERIVED PROPOSITIONS AND DEFINITIONS OF MODERN BEHAVIOR THEORY ............... 99 B. LAWS OF OPERANT BEHAVIOR ................. 106 C. SAMPLE PROJECT PROCEDURE TIME CHART ........... 107 D. SAMPLE LISTING OF SUBJECTS SUITABLE FOR VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING ...................... 108 E. SAMPLE VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING EPISODES ......... llO F. SAMPLE INSTRUCTOR'S GUIDE ................ 133 G. SAMPLE OBSERVER/INSTRUCTOR RATING SHEET ......... l35 H. EQUIPMENT LISTING FOR VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING ...... l37 I. RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE ................. . 141 J. CITIES WITHIN STRATIFICATION LEVELS ........... l46 K. TABLES OF COLLECTED DATA CONCERNING THE SAMPLE UNDER STUDY ...................... 154 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM. CONCEPTS, AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED THE PROBLEM The paucity of information regarding video-taped role playing as a police instructional tool led this researcher to believe that little police use was being made of a teaching strategy that has proven to be effective in several other areas of learning. Working from this belief, a decision was reached to explore three separate but interrelated problems: l) to determine whether or not a problem does in fact exist relative to the extent of use of video-taped role playing as a police instructional method; 2) to deter- mine the principles of learning involved in the technique; and 3) use the principles discovered to develop guidelines for conducting a model program that could be used by future researchers desiring to empir- ically test the effectiveness of the technique. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY In l966 the report of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice thoroughly castigated the general state of police training throughout the United States when it reported: Departments throughout the nation maintain a grossly inadequate level of training--fragmented, sporadic, and poorly designed to meet the needs of a modern urban society.1 . . many courses are unsophisticated and incom- plete. Instruction is often limited to "how to do“ and there is little discussion of fundamental principles Recruits receive too little background in the nature of the community and the role of the police . Civilian instructors are seldom employed. New educative techniques are seldom used in police acad- emies. In the seven years since that report a large scale effort has been underway to improve police training. The Law Enforcement Assis- tance Administration has provided a great deal of financial aid to many agencies to upgrade the quantity and quality of their recruit and in-service training. 1U.S. President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administra- tion of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, l967), pp. 36, 37. 2President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society_(New York: The Hearst Corporation, l968), p. 285. This large influx of funds has apparently been beneficial, with many departments now utilizing or experimenting with innovative tech- niques in an attempt to better prepare the police officer to cope with the complexities of his role in society. In this process of upgrading police training, many techniques have been attempted, such as seminars, participatory experiences, compressed speech, correspondence courses, roll-call training, closed circuit television, coach-pupil methods, audio—visual aids, role-playing situations, situation simulation, and others.3 However, a review of the literature concerning police use of these techniques reveals little attempt to place their use on a sound theoretical footing. It is apparent that the advances in such sciences as educa- tional psychology, sociology, and social psychology are generally not being systematically applied to the learning environs of the police. Failure to apply the results of behavioral science research to the instructional processes of the police can easily lead to poor or im- . proper teaching methods, dissipated activity on the part of the 3National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Report on Police (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, l973), pp. 409—4l2; Martin R. Gardner, Sr., "Some Use of Media in Law Enforcement Training Programs of the Future," Law and Order (February, l97l), 28-37; Edwin Rausch, "Games for Training," Law and Order (February, l970), 40, 94; James H. Auten, "Training Within the Small Department," Law and Order (February, l970), 42-45. instructor, and an impartation of knowledge to the learner that is, at best, random and uncertain. And yet the police training process is enjoined to produce policemen who: . can handle calmly challenges to their self- respect and manhood; are able to tolerate ambiguous situations; have the physical capacity to subdue persons; are able to accept responsibility for the consequences of their own actions; and can understand and apply legal concepts in concrete situations.4 To accomplish such a task without the aid of solid grounding in the learning theory applicable to any particular training approach would require a great deal of trial and error or a fortuitous set of circumstances, either of which is not conducive to the rapid upgrading of the quality of the police. Consequently, this thesis will attempt to consolidate the empirical data and current theory from several related disciplines as they apply to one method of instruction available to the police. The particular method, video-taped role playing, was chosen for the study because it was felt that it could fulfill a compelling need of the police. This need was seen as being a method of learning that would simulate as far as possible as many facets of the environment that an officer could be expected to encounter on the street; but also an 4National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, op. cit., p. 4lO, citing James Q. Wilson, "The Future Policeman" (Paper submitted to Project STAR, November, l97l). environment which the officer could manipulate safely in order to see the probable consequences of his actions and thereby learn from them. The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals recognized the need for such a method5 and several depart- ments have begun to experiment with video-tape in a variety of role- ,playing situations.6 The initial results have been encouraging and one department made the following comments after testing the technique: "The atmosphere in the class is always electric," and "All students appeared enthusiastic," and “Overall this is the best way possible to shbw the recruit how to act and how to handle himself in actual action."7 If such claims are typical of the results to be expected, then it should be important to understand the nature of this technique as thoroughly as possible and also to determine the present extent of its use and reasons for use or non-use. It is also important that claims such as these not go untested. By providing a prototype program coupled with its theoretical basis, it is hoped that future researchers 51bid., p. 409. 6Ibid., pp. 4lO, 4ll; David A. Hansen and John J. Kolbmann, "Can You Use Television in Your Department?," 58;, 39: 3-6, 2l, March, l970; John Fakler, "TV Role-Playing for Training," Law and Order (February, 1970), 32-38. 71bid., p. 38. may be motivated to subject the program to empirical analysis, thereby encouraging the proliferation of a valuable technique or dissuading the expansion of an ineffective one, whichever the case may be. It is to these ends that this thesis is directed. CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED The fOllowing chapter will propose an underlying theory of video-taped role playing as this researcher views it. In presenting this theory many concepts have necessarily been borrowed from other disciplines and these will form an integral part of the theoretical framework. Nominal definitions have also been borrowed from other behavioral sciences in order to retain consistent symbolic communica- tion. The significant concepts and definitions to be used are ad- vanced in the remaining pages of this chapter. From the review of several documentary sources pertaining to this concept, four key ideas emerge. First, the "self" is basically how an individual sees himself. Second, one's self-concept emerges as the result of interaction with others, particularly with those who are significant to one. Third, the self—concept is open to change and development through maturation and learning. Fourth, one's self- concept has the capacity to influence wants, goals, and attitudes as it strives to maintain its consistency.8 Phenomenological Self All those perceptions of the self that are of central impor- tance to the individual.9 In 1936 Linton stated that status is a position in a group, whereas the role associated with a particular status is the dynamic aspect of it and refers to the rights, duties, and obligations asso- ciated with a particular role.10 8Carl Rogers, Client Centered Therapy(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951); T. R. Sarbin, "Role Theory," Handbook of Social Psychology, G. Lindzey, editor (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1954); Robert W. White, The Abnormal Personality (New York: The Ronald Press, 1964), p. 148; David Krech, Richard S. Crutchfield, and Egerton L. Ballachy, Individual In Society (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1962), p. 102; Robert V. Osman and W. Sherman Rush, Strategies for the Compleat Teacher (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Com- pany, Inc., 1969), p. 29; Gordon W. Allport, Becoming (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955), pp. 40-54, 168. 9Osman and Rush, loc. cit. 10Ralph Linton, The Study of Man (New York: Appleton-Century, 1936), Chapter 8. The definition has not changed significantly in the last third of a century. In 1962 Krech, Crutchfield, and Ballachy de— scribed a role as an "expectation widely shared by members of the community of what should be the behavior of persons who occupy a particular position in society." In their view a role encompasses the rights of the position, the duties and Obligations of the posi- tion, and expectations about beliefs, attitudes, and values of those who occupy the position.11 While the study of role theory has begun to focus not only on actual expectations, but upon perceived expectations vis-a-vis role performance,12 nonetheless, the concept of role remains today essentially unchanged. Interpersonal Behavior Event The process of interaction between two or more individuals in which the action of one is a response to a second person.13 nKrech, et al., op. cit., pp. 310-312. 12Jack J. Preiss and Howard J. Ehrlich, An Examination of Role Theory: The Case of the State Police (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1966), p. 3. 13Krech, et al., op. cit., p. 4. Audience Group Those groups or individuals by whom a role player sees his role performance observed and evaluated and to whose expectations and evalu- 14 It should be noted that this definition does not ations he attends. carry the connotation that the role player necessarily confOrms to the expectations of his audience. Role Conflict A situation in which role expectations are inconsistent, incom- patible, or contradictory.15 gggnitive Dissonance Individual discomfort experienced as a result of holding log- ically inconsistent cognitions about an object or event, thereby moti- vating the individual to reduce the dissonance through cognitive and attitudinal change.16 14Preiss and Ehrlich, op. cit., p. 36. 15Ibid., p. 94. 16Krech, et al., op. cit., p. 269. 10 Reinforcement The process whereby a response-contingent stimulus has the effect of strengthening the response (increasing the rate or proba- bility of recurrence) which influences the organism to do the same thing again under similar circumstances.17 Differential Reinforcement Given a number of available stimuli, all of which produce and are reinforced by the same or similar consequences, the one which does so in the greatest amount, more frequently, and with higher probabilitm will have the higher probability of occurrence. This process has the effect of strengthening certain behaviors while extinguishing others.18 Contingencies of Reinforcement The relations which prevail between behavior on the one hand and the consequences of behavior on the other.19 17Ronald L. Akers, Deviant Behavior: A Social LearningyAp- proach (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1973), p. 49. 18Robert L. Burgess and Ronald L. Akers, "Are Operant Prin- ciples Tautological," The Psychological Record, 16: 310, July, 1966. 19B. F. Skinner, “The Science of Learning and the Art of Teach- ing," Readings for Educational Psychology, Ellis Baton, editor (New York: Harcourt, Bruce, & World, Inc., 1964), p. 242. 11 Discriminitive Stimuli Stimuli which become associated with reinforcement . . . They increase the probability that the behavior will recur beyond that pro— vided by the reinforcing stimuli, although discriminitive stimuli have no reinfbrcing value themselves. To the extent that the stimuli in one situation are similar to those of another in which the person has been reinforced for some behavior, he will behave similarly in both Situa— tions.20 Operants Behaviors associated with the central nervous system. Operants are not automatic responses to eliciting stimuli; instead they are capable of developing a functional relationship with stimulus events. They are developed, maintained, and strengthened (or conversely are repressed or fail to develop) depending on the feedback received or produced from the environment. In this sense the stimulus fOllowing or contingent on an operant controls it.21 20Akers, op. cit., pp. 54, 55. 211m, p. 48. 12 Respondent Behavior that is governed by the preceding stimuli that eli- cited the behavior. Such behaviors are associated with the autonomic nervous system. While such behavior is reflexive or involuntary, they can still be conditioned in much the same way as Pavlov conditioned his dog to salivate at the sound of a bell. Thus, the preceding stimulus controls a respondent.22 Rol e Pl ayim A teaching or training method involving human interaction wherein members of a group assume roles and enact problem situations. In police use, role playing usually entails police trainees assuming roles as policemen and/or roles of criminals, suspects, or members of the public who are requesting police services. In the pro- cess of interaction, the primary focus is on the behavior of those perfOrming the roles of the police. However, other role behavior is also examined and discussed-at the end of the role-playing sessions. 22Ibid. ‘— 13 nggruent Attitude or Behavioral Change A change in the valence of an existing attitude or behavioral system in the direction of its original Sign, e.g., an increase in the negativity of an existing negative attitude or behavioral system, or an increase in the positivity of an existing positive attitude or behavioral system.23 Incongruent Attitude or Behavioral Change A change in the valence of an existing attitude or behavioral system in a direction opposite to its original sign, e.g., from nega- tive to positive or a decrease in negativity.24 Change Agent The helper, the person or group who is attempting to effect change.25 2:J'Krech, et al., op. cit., p. 269. 24mm. 25Warren G. Bennis, et al., The Planning of Change: Readings_ in the Applied Behavioral Sciences (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962), p. 5. CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK INTRODUCTION According to the available literature, the modern concepts of role playing originated in 1923 with a Viennese psychiatrist, J. L. Moreno. Calling the technique “psychodrama,ll Moreno used it in a psychotherapeutic setting and claimed considerable success.1 Independently of Moreno, the German Army in 1933 developed procedures similar to current role playing practices. The proce- dures were used to aid in selecting personnel that were to be trained for their officer corps.2 Similarly, the British Army used a comparable method in 3 its officer selection procedures in 1940. And in the United States, 1 1923). 2M. Simoneit, Wehr Psychologie (Charlottenberg, Germany: Bernard and Graefe, 1933). J. L. Moreno, Das Stegreif Theater (Potsdam: Kiepenhever, 3A. Tegla Davis, Industrial Trainigg_(London: Institute of Personnel Management, 1956). 14 15 the Office of Strategic Services used role playing for the selection of people for secret war time work.4 Since the end of World War II role playing has been used repeatedly in business, industry, education, and psychiatry for supervisory training, leadership development, interpersonal and intrapersonal conflict resolution, group psychotherapy, and other purposes.5 However, the earliest discovered reference to police use of role playing was an article appearing in the Pgljgg_magazine in 1960. In that article role playing was advocated for use as a method for trainees to gain insight into the complexities of human relations and to improve the trainees' problem solving abilities.6 The adaptability of role playing to such a large variety of human interaction simulations underscores the necessity for clearer specification of the theoretical foundation on which any variety of role playing is based. Clearly the theoretical basis for the use of role playing in a psychotherapeutic situation is 4O. S. 5. Assessment Staff, Assessment of Men (New York: Rinehart and Company, 1948). 5See annotated bibliography in Roleplaying in Business and Industry, by Raymond J. Corsini, Malcolm E. Shaw, and Robert R. Blake (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc., 1961). 6Rolland L. Soule, l'Role P1aying--A New Police Training Tool," Police, March-April, 1960. PD. 19, 20, 22. 16 different than the theoretical basis for role playing in a social learning situation.7 The focus of this thesis will be on the use of role playing in conjunction with video—tape for the purpose of role development. Role development as used herein is defined as widening role expecta- tion parameters, and congruently, more clearly defining the accept- able behaviors within the widened parameters of the role. Role development, then, combines the essentials of both education and training, in that it enables the individual to select a response to a stimulus from a wider range of alternatives, and at the same time, improve the proficiency with which the selected re- sponse is made. Like role acquisition, role selection, and role behavior, the development of a role is deemed to be a learning process which in- volves the cognitive, affective, and in many cases, the psychomotor domains; learning which is acquired through interpersonal behavior events and through non-social interaction with one's ehvironment. In attempting to decide what learning theory was most appli- cable to this learning process, three criteria were used: 7Abraham S. Luchins, Group Therapy (New York: Random House, 1964), pp. 48-54; Mark Chesler and Robert Fox, Role Playing in the Classroom (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research, 1964), pp. 6—17. 17 1. The amount of empirical support for the theory's basic propositions. 2. The "power" of the theory, i.e. the amount of data that can be derived from the theory's higher order propositions. 3. The controlling possibilities of the theory, including (a) whether the theory's propositions are, in fact, causal principle, and (b) whether the theory's propositions are stated in such a way that they suggest possible practical applications.8 A review of the various learning theories has led this re- searcher to conclude that only modern Behavior Theory, based upon the works of B. F. Skinner, fiairs well on all three criteria. It differs from other learning theories in that it restricts itself to the relations between observable, measurable behavior and observable, measurable conditions. It is soundly based on "literally thousands of experimental hours covering a wide range of phylogenetic scale and more nearly constitute empirically derived laws of behavior than any other set of principles."9 8RobertL. Burgess and Ronald L. Akers, "A Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory of Criminal Behavior," Social Problems, 14: 147, Fall, 1966. 91bid., p. 131. 18 Since Behavior Theory will form the central theoretical con- struct of this thesis, it is appropriate that its salient tenants be examined at this juncture. PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOR THEORY10 Behavior Theory recognizes two types of behavior, but concerns itself primarily with only one. The first category of behavior it recognizes is "respondent." This type of behavior, as defined earlier, is seen as reflexive, or under the control of the autonomic nervous system. It manifests itself in direct resonse to external stimuli and the individual has no control over the nature of the reaction. An example of respondent behavior would be an aggressive act in response to an external stimulus and stemming from a deficient supply of sero- tonin in the brain.11 10The principles outlined in this section were derived pri- marily from the following four sources: a) Robert L. Burgess and Ronald L. Akers, “A Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory of Criminal Behavior," Social Problems, 14: 128-147, Fall, 1966; b) Robert L. Burgess and Ronald L. Akers, “Are Operant Principles Tautological," Psychological Record, 16: 305-312, July, 1966; c) Ronald L. Akers, Deviant Behavior (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1973), pp. 45-61; d) Lita L. Schwartz, Educational Psychology (Boston: Holbrook Press, Inc., 1972), pp. 274-296. 1IGeorge Alexander, "Behavior Linked to_§hemistry of the Brain," The State Journal, April 18, 1974, pp. 0-1, 0-10. 19 The second classification in this taxonomy of behavior is "operant." This type of behavior is mediated by the somatic or cen- tral nervous system. It is behavior that is initiated by the indi- vidual for which there is no apparent stimulus. This behavior then evokes a reSponse within the context of an interpersonal behavior event or within the context of non-social interaction with one's environment. The effects of the behavior, its outcomes, its conse- quences, the nature of the response evoked, are seen as determining the probability of future occurrence of the operant.12 This is "operant learning“ and is the variety of behavior considered within - the purview of Behavior Theory. Behavior Theory, then, concentrates on the relationships which prevail between behavior on one hand and the consequences of behavior on the other. The individual performs an act and society or his envi- ronment reactS--and in the process the individual learns. He learns what behaviors are subject to direct or indirect reinforcement and when and how much and by whom; through contingencies of reinforcement he forms a self-concept and a phenomenological self, and develops needs and wants and values and goals in relation thereto; he learns through differential reinforcement and through differential punishment what 12See Appendix B for a complete listing of the Laws of Operant Reinforcement. 20 conforming or deviant behaviors, what roles, what role behaviors, are appropriate and reinforcing for satisfaction of those needs, wants, values, and goals. And each decision, each conflict resolution, each act, each interpersonal behavior event, further conditions an operant by provid- ing further reinforcement, punishment, or neutral response, which then serves to increase the rate or probability of reoccurrence of the be- havior or serves to achieve the opposite effect. This is not to imply that Behavior Theory neglects respondent behavior or relegates it to a lesser position. For any behavioral episode is viewed as a complex combination or chain of both operant and respondent behavior. But social behavior, indeed the entire pro- cess of socialization, is seen as predominantly operant. Conclusion This brief presentation of the significant principles of Be- havior Theory has been intended primarily as an overview. A complete listing of the general and derived propositions and definitions of Behavior Theory are presented in Appendix A for the reader who wishes further information. Additionally, those who are interested may wish 21 to review some of the empirical research from which these laws and propositions are derived.13 BEHAVIOR THEORY IN RELATION TO ROLE BEHAVIOR The preceding discussion should have made evident the com- plexity of the process whereby role behavior is learned. If the pro- cess could be viewed linearly it could be stated as follows: Through interpersonal behavior events, and through non-social interaction with one's environment, including one's physiological self,14 an individualfis self-concept is formed. It is formed through the process of operant and respondent conditioning based on contingencies of reinforcement. As the self-concept is formed it affects wants, needs, cognitions, 13The reader is invited to review the following works as repre- sentative of the empirical evidence concerning the validity of Behavior Theory: 5. W. Bijou and D. M. Baer, Child Development, Vol. 1 (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1961); Arthur Staats, Human Learn- jgg (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1964); T. Ayllon and N. Azrin, "Reinforcement and Instruction with Mental Patients," Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 7: 327-331, 1964; T. Ayllon and N. Azrin, "The Measurement and Reinforcement of Behavior of Psychotics," Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 8: 357-383, 1965; Jacob L. Gewirtz and Donald M. Baer, "Deprivation and Satiation of Social Reinforcers as Drive Conditions," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 57: 165-172, 1958. 14Robert W. White, The Abnormal Personality_(New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1964), p. 147. 22 attitudes, beliefs, values, and goals. These in turn affect the roles one selects as vehicles for fulfilling wants and needs, for striving for goals, and for maintaining a consistent phenomenological self. How one carries out the roles selected will again be a matter of the contingencies of reinforcement supplied by one's audience, the situa- tional factors, and the interpersonal response traits of the individual. However, a linear View of the evolution of role behavior does not fit the concepts of Behavior Theory. The empirical evidence upon which Behavior Theory is based shows instead a continuous, dynamic, interplay of developmental forces between the individual and his phys- ical and social environment. This interplay of forces is an unceasing process that occurs throughout a person's lifetime. Contingencies of reinforcement change; evolving Operants become extinct; Operants become effective in gaining reinforcement in some interpersonal behavior events, but not in others; role behavior varies with the audience and is modified according to the principles of stimulus discrimination and differential reinforcement. Accordingly, rather than a linear view, a more fruitful be- havioral model fOr viewing the dynamic relationship between Behavior Theory and role behavior is depicted in Figure 1. From the behavioral model one can see the central role played by interpersonal behavior events and non-social interaction with the ROLE BEHAVIOR 0 er. cgnd. res . con . CD“ as . 23 PHENOMENO- LOGICAL SELF FGSB. CO . INTER- PERSONAL BEHAVIOR 3 EVENTS ° NON-SOCIAL INTERACTION II. ROLE SELECTION Wants, . Attitudes, O:er. Drives, Goals, res . o 361 IEfS ’ 'I' . Needs, Values cond. 15%! Fig. 1.--BehaviOral model:‘ The interrelated components of behavior, with emphasis on Behavior Theory in relation to role behavior 24 environment. But each behaVioral component is closely interrelated through operant and respondent conditioning and thereby affects and is affected by each of the others, in a constant, evolutionary system of contingencies of reinforcement. This model should be kept in mind as the discussion now turns to role development through video-taped role playing based upon Be- havior Theory principles. ROLE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH APPLICATION OF BEHAVIOR THEORY TO VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING From a Behavior Theory approach, role development requires reinforcing certain attitudes and behaviors and extinguishing others.ré7 Video-taped role playing is particularly well suited to this need since the role player must perform acts, make decisions, and express atti- tudes for which he receives immediate response by his fellow role players. He also receives evaluation of his performance by an in- structor and by his peers immediately after completion of a role play- ing session. This response, or "feedback," is the key element in the learn- ing process. It provides, first of all, the necessary first step in any behavioral or attitudinal change, which is an "alteration of the 25 present stable equilibrium which supports the present behavior and attitudes."15 In simpler terms, the motivation to change is produced. This motivation can be developed by differential reinforcement which produces congruent behavior and attitude change or by differen- tial punishment which produces incongruent change.16 The Difficulty of Incongruent Change Special attention must be given here to the matter of incon- gruent change. The available literature indicates it is more diffi- cult to induce than congruent Change,17 and hence deserves special consideration within Behavior Theory as it relates to video-taped role playing. The literature surveyed implies that before incongruent change in attitude or behavior will take place, cognitive dissonance or role 15Edgar H. Schein, "The Mechanisms of Change," The Plannigg_ of Change, Warren G. Bennis, Kenneth D. Benne, Robert Chin, editors (New York: Holt, Rinehart,and Winston, Inc., 1969), p. 99. 16Supra, p. 10. 17David Krech, Richard S. Crutchfield, and Egerton L. Ballachy, Individual in Society (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1962), pp. 215-216. 26 conflict must exist or be created.18 If conflict or dissonant pro- ducing conditions exist already in the police role or can be easily created within the structure of video-taped role playing, then the change agent should be cognizant of such potential. First of all, there is ample evidence that among police posi- tions, role conflict and role ambiguity exist in abundance. Writers such as Preiss, LaFave, Niederhoffer, and Reiss, plus various commis- sions, have presented a well-documented picture of widespread, diverse, 19 and pervasive role conflict throughout the police function. Such 18Ibid., 215-225; George Strauss and Leonard P. Sayles. ESE? sonnel: The Human Problems of Management (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1960), pp. 263-283; Schein, op. cit., p. 100. 19Preiss and Ehrlich found in their five-year study of a state police agency that (1) there was no appreciable police role consensus within and among rank groups or among various segments of the public; (2) that there was a large variation among and within departmental positions and external agencies and personnel on appropriate police behavior; (3) that 90% of the policemen were incorrect in their per- ception of what was expected of them by at least one of three audi- ences (District Commander, Post Commander, Assistant Post Commander); and (4) that policemen consistently overestimate both their economic and social status as compared to how the public estimates it. Jack J. Preiss and Howard J. Ehrlich, An Examination of Role Theory; The Case of the State Police (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1966); Wayne R. LaFave, "Police Discretion," Crime and Justice in Society, Richard Quinney, editor (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1969), pp. 109-125; Arthur Niederhoffer, "0n the Job," 191g, pp. 217-238; Albert J. Reiss, Jr., "Career Orientations, Job Satisfactions, and the Assessment of Law Enforcement Problems by Police Officers," Studies of Crime and Law Enforcement in Major Metropolitan Areas, Volume II, Section I (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967); The President's Commission on 27 a state is a fortuitous one for the change agent, since the condition can be capitalized upon by designing role-playing Situations which bring such ambiguity and conflict into the open, magnifies it, and forces the actor to deal with it. In addition to amplifying the dissonance and conflict inherent in the police function, other motivations for change can be created. For example, role playing situations can be designed which confront the actor with information that: (1) his self-image is out of line with what others and the situation will grant him or be able to sustain; (2) that his definition of the situation is out of line with "reality“ as defined by others in the situation; (3) that his image of others is out of line with their image of themselves or each other; and (4) one or more of the above in combination.20 The methods cited above are particularly significant if one places them in the context of the behavioral model presented earlier. Any interpersonal behavior events which effect the phenomenological self or provide specific audience reaction that clearly defines an actor's role behavior as inappropriate are powerful tools for Operant conditioning. Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967), pp. 13-18. 20Schein, loc. Cit. 28 However, it is important to note that not every situation which produces cognitive dissonance or role conflict automatically results in behavior or attitude modification. This is particularly true, as re- search has shown, where the result of resolving the conflict or achiev- ing cognitive or affective balance would be more painful or disturbing than that cuased by the new information or experience.21 In such cases, resistance to change can be quite strong. If it is to be overcome, it would appear necessary, judging from the behav- ioral model presented earlier, and in accordance with the principles of Behavior Theory, to either: 1) maximize the quantity, quality, and variety of conflict or dissonant producing information received by the role player in hopes of creating severe imbalance, and/or 2) changing the contingencies of reinforcement to which the role player is accus— tomed and rewarding only behavior and attitudes considered appropriate to the situation. In either case, a closer examination is warranted at this point of the sources of feedback of information reaching the role player in order to determine the procedures whereby differential reinforcement and differential punishment can be used by the change agent to induce Operant learning. 2.IDavid Krech, et al., ep. cit., pp. 42-46. 29 Sources of Feedback The feedback of information to the role player that is so vital to the learning process will come from four sources. The first of these sources is the reactions received by the role player from the spontaneous interpersonal behavior events and the nbn-Social interac- tion contained within the structured framework of the role-playing situation. However, if such feedback is to Be meaningful to the role player two criteria must be preserved--spontaneity and realism. Both are necessary in order that the role player will feel that the reac- tions he receives to his behavior are reflections of reality and not artificial or contrived. The setting, the situation, and the roles to be performed should be, as nearly as possible, a microcosm of reality which the role player can manipulate safely and see the consequences of his actions and can see the reactions of others to his role perform- ance. The more closely the setting, the situation, and the roles parallel reality, the more Closely the actor will be able to identify with the situation and with any feedback he receives. Closer identi- fication should strengthen the process of differential reinforcement or punishment and should thereby facilitate operant conditioning. The second source of feedback is video-taped replay of the role-playing action. This technique has special significance in light of Behavior Theory by, first, quantitatively adding to the amount of 30 feedback received, and second, and more significant, vastly improving the quality of the feedback to which the role player is subjected. Using video-tape, the change agent is able to confront the role player with concrete and irrefutable evidence his behavior, the subsequent ‘ reactions to it, and the consequences that flow from it. Of particular importance here is the fact that by using video-tape, the role player is forced to consider reactions, cues, or consequences he might other- wise have tended to ignore because of their conflict or dissonant pro- ducing potential. Therefore, the probability of both reinforcement or punishment is strengthened by this technique, especially when video- taped action is stopped or slowed during playback and the subtle nu- ances of a behavioral episode are discussed and analyzed. Video-taped replay, then, magnifies the contingencies of rein- forcement, thereby greatly increasing the power of differential rein- forcement and punishment, and also greatly increasing the probability of operant learning taking place in the direction desired. The third source of feedback is the instructor. The feedback he provides is Of paramount importance to Operant learning since what he provides serves several functions. First, the feedback he furnishes must direct the attention of both role playing participants and ob- servers to the conflict and dissonance inherent in the roles portrayed 31 and to whatever is also created within the role playing situation.22 In so doing he acts as a catalyst to the change process. Secondly, the instructor becomes the focal point for providing the cues or the information both role players and observers seek in order to restructure the Situation, to restore cognitive or affective balance, to resolve or reduce conflict, and to gain reinforcement for the behavior performed, in the case of the actor, or behavior identi- fied with, in the case of the observer. A third, and highly important function of the instructor in the feedback process, is to obtain as much consensus as possible among the peers of the role players who are acting as observers regarding the appropriate role behavior for the situation which they are evaluating. Research has shown that obtaining this consensus should facilitate the process of Operant learning for several reasons: 1) group pressure has been shown to have significant affect upon individual judgments and opinions of group members;23 2) the best predictor of police behavior 22Those observing role playing, as well as the participants are affected by cognitive dissonance and/or role conflict that frequently results in attitude or behavior change. However, the effect is not as great on observers as it is on participants. Francis M. Culbertson, "Modification of an Emotionally Held Attitude Through Role-Playing," The Adolescent: A Book of Readiggs, ed. Jerome M. Seidman (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1960), pp. 663-670. 23Krech, et al., op. cit., pp. 504-512. 32 has been found to be the individual policeman's perception of what his 24 and 3) if a role player is rewarded fellow policemen expect of him; by approval he will more readily shift in the direction of the atti- tudes he expresses in playing his role; if he is not rewarded by ap- proval he will not so readily shift.25 Thus approval or disapproval by an actor's peer group (the fourth source of feedbaCk), regarding the suitability or appropriate- ness of the actor's general role behavior as expressed through his role performance, should have considerable power for differential reinforce- ment or differential punishment. The Process of Role Development The foregoing discussion has attempted to make clear the forces within video-taped role playing that can be marshalled and integrated into a variety of learning experiences that focus on role development. As defined previously, the first aspect of role development is "broadening the parameters of role expectations" and this can be brought about through control of those mechanisms of feedback just outlined. 24Preiss and Ehrlich. op. cit., p. 210. 25W. A. Scott, "Attitude Change Through Reward of Verbal Be- havior," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 55: 72-75, 1957; W. A. Scott, "Attitude Change by Responsive Reinforcement: Replication and Extension," Sociometry, 22: 328-335, 1959. 33 By control of those mechanisms, the role player and the observer are exposed to a diversity of role performances as the actors attempt to deal with the situations with which they are confronted. This exposure and the resultant feedback have been shown to convince, beyond the temporary stage, both Observers and participants alike that there exists a wider range Of alternatives for approaching or handling calls for police services than they had originally realized.26 Once such a realization is made, role parameters have clearly been broadened. However, while this process does broaden the parameters of the role itself, it is necessary to employ differential reinforcement and differential punishment through the four sources of feedback in order to delineate the acceptable role behaviors within the broadened param- eters of the role. (In the delineation process it is important that the contingencies of reinforcement employed be directly related to the be- haviors and attitudes whose appropriateness has been determined by practical police experience, by knowledge of group dynamics, social structure, and cultural values, and by the interpersonal response traits of those involved in the behavioral episodes. 26Planning and Research Associates, Final Evaluation Repert 0n TELETRAINING (Mimeographed report prepared for the SuffOlk County [New York] Police Academy, Audio-Visual Research Unit, September 30, 1970), p. 20; W. A. Scott, "Attitude Change by Responsive Reinforcement: Replication and Extension," loc. cit. 34 The remaining component Of role development is "increasing the proficiency with which a selected response, chosen from an array of appropriate alternatives, is made.“ This is mainly a function of repe- tition and reinforcement. Within the framework of video-taped role playing, it would likely entail the performance of the initial role- playing episode which is simultaneously viewed on a remote monitor by the participants' peers and the instructor; then replay of the video- tape of the episode followed by a discussion of it; and finally, re- enactment of the scene with the same or new actors. This scenario could be repeated as often as necessary until the desired level of pro- ficiency is obtained. The key to obtaining the desired level is in reinforcing, through feedback, the correct or nearly correct responses and ignoring or mildly punishing incorrect ones, thereby shaping be- havior over a period of time. CONCLUSION It should be reemphasized in closing this chapter that police role develOpment through application of the principles of Behavior Theory through the process of video-taped role playing, is a completely untried, untested, and novel approach to the problem of improving the quality of the police. 35 It is likely that considerable time will elapse before this technique is ever empirically verified or confuted. Before either is done, however, several questions may have to be answered by the change agent. Some questions may be moral ones regarding the deliberate con- trol of the contingencies of reinforcement for the purpose of behavior modification. However, Skinner himself has explored this problem extensively.27 Another question is the ability of the change agent to be well enough acquainted with the unique conditioning history of each change target to be able to know what his effective and available reinforcers are. It is recognized that the same stimulus can be reinforcing for one person but not for another, that it can be reinforcing at one time but not at another, or it can be reinforcing at one time and one place and not at another.28 But this should not be a deterrent. The existing knowledge of group processes, general psychology, and the effects of culture upon values and norms, should allow some predictions to be made about what are likely to be effective and available reinforcers for members of specific groups. 27B. F. Skinner, Beyond Freedom and Dignity_(New York: Vintage Books, 1971), Chap. 6 & 7. 28Ronald L. Akers, Deviant Behavior: A Social Learning_Ap- proach (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1973), p. 51. 36 Speaking conjecturally at this point, one might expect that when given large numbers of policemen over a period of time who parti- cipate in a specific video-taped role-playing episode, it may be pos- sible that a range of typical role behaviors will emerge as responses to the stimulus events. It may also be possible that those who re- spond in one manner within this range will be susceptible to specific types of reinfbrcement. If this were true, the task of the change agent would be made considerably simpler. But again, this is specu- lative and is inserted merely as a provocative idea which bears in- vestigation. However, in the hope that the process and the principles in- volved will be investigated and eventually subjected to empirical analysis, this thesis will present in the next chapter a number of procedural guidelines for conducting a video-taped role-playing program. CHAPTER III GUIDANCE FOR CONDUCTING VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING INTRODUCTION The potential power of video-taped role playing as shown in the last chapter dictates that its use be attempted only after thorough knowledge is gained of its theoretical basis, but also only after ob- taining thorough grounding in the practical considerations associated with it too. This chapter will devote itself primarily to these latter aspects. To use the technique most effectively requires careful analysis and planning. The instructor or designer of the episodes must first decide upon the goals intended to be reached at the end of the course or session. He must then select procedures, content, and methods that are relevant to the objectives; causes the students to interact with appropriate subject matter in accordance with principles of learning; and finally, measure or evaluate the students' performance according to the objectives or goals originally selected. It is the intent of this chapter to offer guidance that will facilitate this process. 37 38 GOAL DETERMINATION Educational and management literature is replete with admoni- tions to change agents to develop goals as the essential first step in the process of behavioral modification or organizational change.1 Those who are experienced in simple role playing advocate the same procedure2 and the logic of such a position is compelling. In determining the goals for video-taped role playing, the writers of such programs should be asking, "What is it that must be accomplished?" "What is it the group must learn?" If, for example, the goal concerns attitude change, then questions must be asked such as, "Changed from what, to what--and for what purpose?" If imparting knowledge is desirable, then "What Knowledge? For what purpose? How does it relate to the overall goal of role development?" In short, the change agent must know in what context the learning is to be 1Walter A. Wittich and Charles F. Schuller, Instructional Media: Its Nature and Uses (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), pp. 631- 638; Robert F. Mager, Preparing Instructional Objectives (Palo Alto, California: Fearon Publishers, 1962), pp. 1-10; Joel E. Ross, Manage- ment byeInformation Systems (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, 1970), pp. 78, 108, 200; E. S. Quade, "Systems Analysis Tech- niques fOr P1anning-Programming-Budgeting," Planning, Programming, Budgeting, Fremont J. Lyden and Ernest G. Moller, editors (Chicago: Rand McNally Publishing Co., 1973), p. 249. 2Alan F. Klein, How to Use Role Playing Effectively (New York: Association Press, 1959), p. 13. - 39 applied. Without this specific goal determination being made, it is difficult to conceive of role development taking place with this, or any other, method. PROCESS SELECTION Once goals are established then a decision must be made in advance concerning where and when to use video-taped role playing. The technique Should not be considered a panacea despite its wide applicability to the role development process. It is a technique which takes more time and resources than the usual methods of training or education and these are important considerations. There are also several methods of conducting video-taped role playing depending upon the purpose for which it is to be used.3 How- ever, only the basic technique will be discussed in this section, with additional information on other techniques discussed later.4 Whatever method is selected, it is ordinarily preceded by the instructor delivering his lecture on a particular subject aided by 3Raymond J. Corsini, Malcolm E. Shaw, and Robert R. Blake, Rele_ Playing in Business and Industry (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc., 1961). Pp. 102-168; John E. Grenfell, "Staff Training and Video- Tape Replay," Canadian Journal of Corrections, 10(2): 409-413, 1968. 4Infra, PD. 51, 56-58. 4O whatever techniques or audio-visual aids that are compatible with it. He will then follow his instruction with video-taped role-playing situations which will not only indicate if the lesson has been ab- sorbed, but also if it can be applied.5 The basic video-taped role-playing method consists of six components: 1) the pre-arranged physical setting; 2) the preparation phase; 3) the actual role-playing action; 4) discussion; 5) reenactment when necessary; 6) analysis. Each of these will be discussed in turn. The Physical Setting The physical setting can be further sub-divided into two parts: the set, where the actual role playing takes place and is filmed by television cameras; and the classroom, where a T.V. monitor is placed so that the instructor and the class can observe and hear what is transpiring on the set. It is important that these two parts be physically separated to the extent that sound from the classroom cannot reach the set.6 This insures that the spontaneous comments of the observers as they watch the action unfbld, does not create a disturbing influence on those involved in the video-taped role-playing action. . 5John Fakler, “T.V. Role Playing for Training," Law and Order, XVIII, No. 2 (February, 1970), 34. 61bid. 41 This arrangement offers two significant advantages over standard role playing: 1) it allows the actors to concentrate on their assignments and not on the reactions and comments of their peers, and 2) the ac- tivities do not have to be limited or restricted to the space available in the classroom. Two other suggestions regarding the physical setting are: 1. No one should be able to enter or be able to look in on the set while video-taped role playing is taking place; and 2. Sets should be as lifelike as reasonably possible in order to increase the illusion of reality and facilitate actor identification with feedback from the situation. The Preparation Phase This component, comprised of five sub-sections, can be pivotal in the success or failure of the video-taped role-playing process, de- pending upon the care employed in implementing it. Its five parts are identified as follows: 1) the selection of the problem; 2) the warm-up; 3) selection of participants for the video-taped role-playing episodes; 4) explanation of the participants' roles; and 5) explanation of the functions of the audience. There are precautions that should be ob- served within each of these subdivisions. 42 Problem selection.--The two most important considerations in selecting problems are relevancy and simplicity. Concerning rele- vancy, writers who have had experience with role playing by itself have found that peOple will work more productively on problems that have an interest for them.7 Therefore, it would seem important that the problems selected for Video-taped role playing should arise from the needs and interests of the group.8 A method of making such selec- tions could be the use of questionnaires that focus on discovering the types of incidents which police officers feel least confident in handling, or seem most ambiguous as far as role expectations are con- cerned. Simplicity is necessary, particularly at the outset, in order to allow the students to experience success. This initial success will aid in avoiding the development of a negative reaction to the entire role playing experience, and will, at the same time, provide a vehicle for differential reinforcement. 2 7Klein, Op. cit., p. 14; Chris Argyris, Role Playingin Action, New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Bulletin No. 16 (New York: Cornell University, May, 1951), pp. 8-12; Mark Chesler and Robert Fox, Role Pleying in the Classroom (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research, 1964), p. 63. 8See Appendix D for a partial list of subjects suitable for video-taped role playing. 43 Problems should generally not be too complex and should be amenable to solution. Fuzzy, unclear, or imprecise episodes should also be avoided. Instead they should be clear and specific. Too many goals should not be attempted in a single episode either.9 Warm-up.--This is a period where the instructor has relevant but very simple episodes enacted by the students in order to relax them and to give them some practice and security in public expression. For adults who have never experienced role playing or other forms of dramatic action this step is vital in order to overcome the inhibi- tions that exist in many people toward engaging in any type of acting]0 However, initial role-playing in front of a camera instead of a group should be helpful in the warm-up process since it eliminates the neces- sity of having to endure the comments and reactions of one's peers as one becomes accustomed to the performing of roles. This should alle- viate some of the reticence that many people experience. The problems selected for the warm-up period Should be brief, and Should be highly structured. The feelings and ideas to be 9Chesler and Fox, op. cit., p. 56; See Appendix E for sample role playing episodes. 10A survey of 79 police officers who experienced video-taped role playing revealed that 70% were initially afraid that they would make mistakes. Planning and Research Associates, Final Evaluation Report on TELETRAINING, Report prepared for the Suffolk County Police Academy, Audio-Visual Research Unit, September 30, 1970, p. 20 (Mimeographed). 44 expressed should be carefully identified and improvisation should be kept to a minimum. This allows the student to experience success, reduces confusion, and lets the learner become acquainted with the nature of the video-taped role-playing process in a supportive atmo- sphere. Each student should undergo this warm-up period. A short discussion should follow each warm-up episode to allow the student to express his reaction to his performance and to gain the reaction Of the group. Since this is the initial feedback that the individual re- ceives it is important that these prefatory contingencies of rein- forcement be kept supportive in nature. Participant selection.--Various methods have been suggested for selecting participants for routine role playing and these Should apply equally well when video-tape is incorporated into the process. Some of the methods advocated are: l. Describing the role and then asking for volunteers. If no one offers to participate, the instructor should remain silent for a full sixty seconds if necessary. Those who use this technique claim that the stillness produces enough tension to prompt people to volunteer.]] HKlein, op. cit., p. 21; Corsini, et al., Op. cit., p. 63. 45 2. Have the group or instructor select people for the roles.12 3. Start with competent peer leaders whose cooperation has been secured in advance. This will usually insure that other members of the class will follow and participate more will- ingly.13 4. A random Choice of roles, i.e., draw the role names from a hat. This procedure eliminates instructor bias. The method used to select participants may vary with the group and the instructor. But whichever method is used, there are three recommendations that should be followed in the process of participant selection: 1) Avoid having a person's superior or his subordinate in a video-taped role-playing group in which the person will be in- volved;14 2) A person Should not be forced to face personal inade- quacies with which he cannot cope, and hence, should be able to de- cline a role if it appears too threatening to him psychologically;15 12Argyris, op. cit., pp. 15, 16. 13Chesler and Fox, op. cit., p. 29. 14Argyris, op. cit., p. 20; Planning and Research Associates, op. cit., p. 43. 15Chesler and Fox, op. cit., p. 57. 46 but, 3) eventually all members of the group should participate in one or more role development skits.16 Explaining participant roles.--Among the authors reviewed, only one offered specific recommendations regarding this step of the preparation phase.17 The writer, Roland Soulle, recommended that first, the class as a group be explained the nature of the problem to be explored, and then separate briefings be given to each actor just prior to playing the roles. He further recommends that the in- formation regarding the roles should be provided on separate cards to each actor and the players should not be aware of the content of the other players' roles. He also suggests that the instructions be read to the participants exactly as they are worded on the cards. However, this appears to be an unnecessary step. He also feels that no infor- mation should be provided beyond what is given on the cards. This in- formation might be a description of the problem, the personality of the role character, his motives, and how he has reacted in the past to certain events. The cards Should also define the physical limits of lelplg,, p. 29; Planning and Research Associates, op. ci ., p. 34. 17Rolland L. Soulle, "Role Playing--A New Police Training Tool," Police, March-April, 1960, pp. 19, 20. 47 the role playing area, the important features of the set, and any objects of special significance and for whom they are significant,18 The students are then allowed 5-8 minutes to think about their roles prior to conmencing the scene, and during this time the instructor proceeds to the next step--explaining to the audience what their re- sponsibilities will be during the video-taped events to follow. Explaining audience roles.--As noted in Chapter II, the ob- servers of role playing, like the participants, are also susceptible to the forces of behavior and attitude modification that evolve from the video-taped role-playing process. This susceptibility can be heightened by assigning observation tasks in advance of the commence- ment of the dramatic action. Tasks that are frequently assigned to be performed include identifying with a specific actor and trying to understand and experience his emotions or cognitions and reporting on them during the discussion, or judging the dramatic portrayal of a player or a player's handling of the situation.19 18One department that uses video-taped role playing for inci- dents that may involve violence, injects added realism into its oper- ation at this point by having the selected officers empty their re- volvers and reload them with plastic loads. The officers also dress in protective coveralls and a fencing mask to protect themselves in case an actor decides to employ "deadly force.“ The plastic loads only sting, but any player hit is automatically "dead" and out of the action. Fakler, 10c. cit. 19Chesler and Fox, op. cit., p. 26. 48 Considerable variation exists among role playing and video- taped role playing practitioners concerning the methodology involved in these assignments. Some prefer to have a relatively free and un- structured system and have the entire group observe and report on the actions of all players;20 others prefer to use a more structured sit- uation and assign specific tasks to individuals or sub-groups and use observer or rating forms.21 In either case, delineating these tasks in advance would seem to insure the continued attention of the Observers, increase their identification with the action transpiring, bring to bear added in- sight during discussions, and in general, facilitate the process of operant conditioning. The Dramatic Action GeneralghidElines.--If the preparation phase has been well planned and executed, the dramatic action should proceed smoothly. However, time will be an important factor at this point. Generally, video-taped role-playing episodes should be brief and the actors should have a 5-10 minute time limit imposed upon them. This should 20Klein, op.‘cit., p. 24. 21Corsini, et al., op. cit., p. 211; Soulle, op. cit., p. 20; Infra, Appendix G, for sample observer rating forms. 49 allow sufficient time for the players to become immersed in their roles, but not so long as to cause loss of interest. In order to assist in maintaining interest, the scenarios should be designed to provide rapid action on the set. This will not only reflect the pace of the officer's daily contact in his work, but will also insure that sufficient action takes place in the required time limit to permit the accomplishment of the desired learning out- comes.22 The role of the director.--The director's role begins before the dramatic action takes place, since it will be his responsibility to insure that the set is in order, that camera crews are present, that audio and lighting requirements can be met, and that props or special effects materials are in place and working properly. In order to insure all of these requirements are met, the di- rector should have a "guide" that is specific for each problem to be enacted. The guide should contain a description of the problem, the learning objectives, and all information necessary to set up the problem, including a diagram of the set and a list of required special supplies and/or equipment.23 It should also include the instructions 22Infra, Appendix E, for sample role playing scenarios. 23Soulle, Op. cit., p. 22. 50 for the participants, so that the director knows what roles are to be enacted during any particular problem. Once the director receives the actors from the instructor he must install them in their proper places on the set and get the action underway. Once the scene is in progress, the director must be keenly aware of what is taking place on the set and how it relates to the learning objectives. He must be alert for members who fall out of their roles or characterizations and for those who might be in peril of physical or psychological injury. In either instance, action can be stopped, the scene discussed, and then activity resumed. If such an event does occur it should be telecast to the classroom where dis- cussion of the event can take place at the same time. Methods.--Corsini, Shaw, and Blake have developed the follow- ing three variations upon the standard role playing theme that can be adopted for video-taped role playing.24 The first two variations would be more suited to warm-up periods, while the last could be used during regular episodes or during reenactments. The third one also has the advantage of allowing more members to be involved in video- taped role playing and also should stimulate lively discussion periods. 24Corsini, et al., _p. cit., p. 68. 51 Read the roles to the entire group. The group then discusses how the problem Should be handled and a consensus should be achieved. Volunteers are then obtained and the problem is enacted. After enactment, further discussion may ensue, attitudes and cognitions explored, perhaps new suggestions are obtained for proper handling, and reenactment may occur followed by more discussion. Have several sets of participants. All of those who are to take a particular role can discuss the proper ways of handling the problem. If the roles are about X. and Y., all of the X35 can discuss how X. should handle his problem and at the same time the Y.'s meet for the same purpose. After the X.'s and the Y.'S have discussed their roles, one X. and one Y. act out the problem, after which a general analysis can take place with reenactment when required. Have two sets Of participants read the instructions and while the first set is acting out the situation, the second set is kept out of the room so that they do not see the first set role-playing. Immediately upon completion of the first enact- ment, the second set of role players come in and re-play the same problem. This permits the group to see how different individuals handle the same problem. 52 Discussion General guidelines.--In order to maximize the Operant condi- tioning effects of feedback, discussions should begin immediately after a video-taped role-playing episode. It may be necessary after the first several problems for the instructor to carry the major part of the discussion, to keep it going, until the class becomes accus- tomed to evaluating, and receiving evaluation from, their peers. Once this state is reached, however, the instructor should only have to provide guidance when it is necessary to direct the contingencies of reinforcement that are required to achieve the learning objectives. The instructor should try to have a timetable for the discus- sion with the strategy of the session well worked out in his mind. While discussion of tangential matters cannot be avoided, and may even be desirable at times, nevertheless, the instructor should try to keep it controlled and on course. The playback features of video-tape can assist in keeping ition course by showing only short segments of the action and discussing each segment until the entire tape has been re- viewed. At times in the discussion it may be necessary to ignore raised hands and call upon the quieter members of the class to make comments or evaluations. It has been shown that by eliciting a public ex- pression of an attitude, especially when the expression is met by 53 approval, the probability of operant conditioning is significantly in- creased.25 Conducting,discussion.--As soon as the role players are re- assembled the actors are “brought back to earth." That is, they should be disassociated from their roles, thereby permitting the role characters to be discussed freely using role names rather than the names of the actors.26 For example, the instructor might say to a policeman who had played the part of a burglar, "Officer Jones. How did the prison escapee, the burglar, feel when he was surprised by the lone policeman? Do you feel he might have felt differently if there were two Officers?" This disassociation allows the learners to more freely express their attitudes and emotions without feeling threatened by then. After role disassociation is accomplished, the participants should be allowed to discuss the episode and comment on or criticize their own role performance before the audience does 50.27 Criticism and suggestions will be more readily accepted from a fellow role 25I. L. Janis and B. T. King, "The Influence of Role Playing on Opinion Change," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 49: 211- 218, 1954; and W. A. Scott, "Attitude Change Through Reward of Verbal Behavior," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 55: 72-75, 1957. 26Chesler and Fox, op. cit., p. 32. 27Fakler, op. cit., p. 34; Argyris, op. cit., p. 17. 54 player than from an Observer,28 so structuring the discussion in this order should facilitate a freer exchange among the actors and, if properly guided, can be a strong force in operant conditioning. Use of evaluation forms.--If the group was given Objective evaluation forms to use, they should have been prepared in advance, tailored to the learning objectives and to the significant expected behaviors and attitudes, and then completed as the observers watched the action on the television monitor or as the actors were reassembling. The group members should use the rating sheets as a basis for making their comments when their turn arises. Instructor'seguide.--The instructor's guide should have the identical rating sheets for each problem as the group does. His guide should also contain the learning objectives along with the applicable law and the departmental policy on how the situation Should be handled. This will insure that all instructors are giving the same advice and that they do not add to the existing role ambiguity.29 Discussion methods.--Again the techniques of standard role playing can be adapted to discussion of video-taped role playing and can probably be made more effective in doing so. As a scene is played 28David Krech, Richard S. Crutchfield, and Egarton L. Ballachy, Individual in Society (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1962), pp. 232, 233. 29 Planning and Research Associates, op. cit., p. 50. 55 back and stopped or slowed, each of the following discussion methods can be used singly or in concert with the others as the instructor sees fit. 1. In a "soliloquy" the participant explains how the character he portrayed felt or thought or what his reaction to another person's behavior was. These comments serve as the basis for . . 3O dlSCUSSlon. 2. If a I'double" was assigned from the audience to identify with a player, the double may be asked to soliloquize and then the participant's and the double's perceptions are compared.31 3. Conduct open and free discussion by all group members of any of their observations. From the literature reviewed, this appears to be the most popular method. 4. "Buzz Groups" are a variation of the free discussion method. This technique calls for the larger group to be broken into sub-groups with instructions to discuss the performance in general or some specific aspect of it, and to summarize the 30Chesler and Fox, op. cit., p. 53. 31Ibid. 56 sub-groups' ideas. The consensus of each small group is then reported by the spokesman to the larger group.32 5. In the "Round Robin“ approach each individual is asked to make a short comment, usually a single sentence, in reference to an overall evaluation or some specific aspect of the performance. There are no interruptions as each person speaks and as com- ments are made they are listed on the blackboard. These com- ments then serve as the basis for further discussion.33 While other techniques of handling feedback exist, these seem to be the most common, judging from the literature examined, and they also seem most easily adaptable to the incorporation of video-tape replay into the discussion period. Reenactment This step in the video-taped role-playing process is not always necessary. The instructor should carefully evaluate the initial scene and‘the discussion that follows and compare these with the learning objectives. If the learning Objectives have not been met then re- enactment is definitely required. 32Corsini, et al., pp, cit., pp. 77-79. 33Ibid. _— 57 Mistake-ridden initial episodes usually require reenactment and in such cases the students normally request that they be given another opportunity to perform the scene.34 To cope with a mistake-filled initial enactment there may be a complete replay of the action using the same or different members of the group. However, repeated replays of the same situation, while desirable from a Behavior Theory approach, can be time consuming. Two efficient, but probably less effective methods would be to have experienced assistants replay the scene and telecast it live into the classroom, or to Show a video-tape of a pre- viously enacted skit of the same problem that was handled well by another group.35 Other situations that might call for reenactment are when (1) there is difficulty in reaching a consensus on the best way of handling an incident and the instructor feels the results of one or more alternatives can be demonstrated by live or video-tape action; (2) if group members fail to achieve the level of proficiency that is considered appropriate, it may be desirable to repeat a performance several times; or (3) if group members fail to exhibit confidence in handling problems of a particular nature, then reenactment of a variety of these problems may be essential. 34Planning and Research Associates, op. cit., pp. 17, 18. 351bid., p. 17. 58 For problems of a human relations nature, an excellent tech- nique for reenactment is "role reversal." In this procedure the protagonist and the antagonist switch roles completely. For example, the police Officer may assume the role of an insolent, derisive member of a group of teenagers at a loud party, while local high school stu- dents may be recruited to play the role of the officers responding to a complaint about the party. Video-taped role reversal Situations like this have been enacted in at least one department with considerable positive effect on both the police officers and the students.36 Numerous other techniques for reenactment have been cataloged, 37 Effective adaptation of especially by Corsini, Shaw, and Blake. these methods for police role development use could probably be easily accomplished by a creative and imaginative designer of video-taped role-playing events. Analysis Students should be informed at the beginning of the video-taped role-playing process that they will be asked to provide feedback rela- tive to the instruction they will be receiving. They Should also be told what type of information is desired from them. 36Christopher M. Cook, “Play-Acting with a Purpose for Police," Newsday (November 2, 1972), 101. 37Corsini, et al., op. cit., pp. 81-100. 59 Some of the questions that might be asked are: 1) How did the students feel about the sessions and the role of the instructor? 2) Do the students have any suggestions for improvement of the video-taped role-playing process? 3) Do they have suggestions for new problems? 4) Should the video-taped role-playing technique be used more or less extensively? 5) What did they feel they learned and was the instruc- tional method used the best way of learning it? 6) Do they feel that the time and effort spent was actually worthwhile? 7) What aspects of the video-taped role-playing process did they find most interesting? most instructive? 8) Do they feel that they can cope with their daily problems any better as a result of the instruction they received? This small sample Of questions is only a few of the many that could be asked to provide immediate feedback to the instructor on the effectiveness of his teaching and the video-taped role-playing process. This feedback can be obtained by direct questioning of the students or by the use of anonymous questionnaires. But in either case, such feedback is necessary for refinement of the student role development procedure and also for the role development of the instructor. EVALUATION The final step in the role development process is the obtain- ing of information designed to determine whether the goals established 60 at the outset relative to cognitions, attitudes, and skills have been met. The goals, if properly written, should have been set in terms of performance objectives, that is, the objectives should have Clearly specified what is to be learned, how that learning will be objectively measured and against what criteria, and what special conditions of evaluation will be imposed and held constant for each learner.38 Measurement of the performance Objectives is a vital step, since the results provide objective data on whether or not the instruc- tion has been effective in meeting the criteria established; they may provide clues as to the effectiveness of particular instructors or instructional methods; or they may call into question the validity of the objectives themselves. In short, feedback is provided into the system which can make it self-correcting. However, designing and interpreting the measurement tools re- quired, may necessitate the services of educational or psychological testing professionals. For example, certain changes in attitudes could be measured by pre- and post-testing using a device such as the Ten- nessee Self-Concept Scale. This scale consists of 100 self-descriptive 38For a complete discussion of perfbrmance objectives see Robert F. Mager, Preparing_Instructional Objectives (Belmont, Cali- fornia: Lear Sieglar, Inc./Fearon Publishers, 1962); or H. H. McAshan, WritingBehavioral Objectives: A New Approach (New York: Harper & Row, 1970). 61 statements which the subject selects to portray his own picture of himself.39 However, measurement instruments like this should be administered and interpreted only by competent psychologists. Less sophisticated and more subjective measurements could be Obtained by having the students tested on their overall ability to cope with typical police problems as judged by a panel of police supervisors. The students could be required to solve a series of Short role-playing problems which are video-taped. The tapes could then be viewed and judged by the panel members who would have objective rating sheets to complete for each problem. The use of video-tapes would allow the action to be slowed or stopped at critical points for closer examina- tion. The objectivity of the judges could be increased by assigning a number to each student and by having the students wear fencing masks as they perform in order to Obscure their identity. Whatever technique is used it is imperative that the intended outcomes of the instruction be measured as objectively as possible and at frequent intervals to keep the program responsive to the needs of both the learner and the department. 39The scale is self-administering and can be used with sub- jects having at least a sixth grade reading level. Some of the sub- scales are: 1) self-criticism, 2) self-esteem, 3) identity, 4) self- satisfaction, 5) behavior, 6) physical self, 7) moral-ethical self, 8) personal self, 9) family self, 10) social self. See William Fitts, Manual: Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (Nashville: Counselor Recordings and Tests, 1965). 62 A final aspect of evaluation must not be overlooked. Proce- dures should be established to measure the effect of time and practical experience on the strength and permanency of any attitude or behavior changes that took place in the role development process. For when the learners leave the contrived setting to which they have been exposed, they will return to their normal work environment where the contin- gencies of reinforcement may differ from those encountered in the video-taped role-playing situation. How effective and how long lasting the role development experience will be will depend on a multitude of variables, many of which may be beyond the control of the change agent, i.e., personality factors or the stimuli encountered in the work set- ting. Therefore, it is only through evaluation that a proper schedule of reinforcement can be developed that will insure that the learner is adequately exposed to information and experiences that intermittently reinforce whatever was encountered in the role development proceduresfl'0 Evaluation may show that similar episodes must be repeated as fre- quently as manpower and budgetary constraints will allow or it may Show an entirely different picture of the effectiveness of Behavior Theory applied to the development of the police role. 40Behavior reinforced on an intermittent schedule has been shown to take longer to extinguish than behavior reinforced on a fixed-interval or continuous schedule. See Robert L. Burgess and Ronald L. Akers, "A Differential-Reinforcement Theory of Criminal Behavior," Social Problems, 14: 134, Fall, 1966., 63 CONCLUSION The guidelines that have been furnished in this chapter reflect the compiled experience of numerous practitioners of both standard and video-taped role playing. They also reflect this reseacher's manage- ment and training experience and also his experience on the theatrical stage. It is hoped that this compendium and the guidance in the appen- dices will provide adequate and valuable information for any researcher wishing to pursue this project. CHAPTER IV THE HYPOTHESES, DEFINITIONS, AND POTENTIAL ERRORS In order to formulate a basis for a status study statement or for the development of hypotheses, four questions are posed that relate to the use of video-taped role playing. The answer to these questions through the testing of the resultant statements or hypotheses, should allow conclusions to be reached concerning the extent of its use and factors in its use or non-use. QUESTIONS 1. To what extent is video-taped role playing presently used by law enforcement agencies throughout the United States? 2. What is the relationship between the educational level of the head of a law enforcement agency's training function and the use of video-taped role playing? 64 65 What is the relationship between the educational level of the head of a law enforcement agency and the use of video-taped role playing? What factor(s) dictate use or non-use of role playing in general and video-taped role playing specifically? STATUS STUDY STATEMENT Video-taped role playing is in use in less than five per cent of the law enforcement agencies in the United States. HYPOTHESES Video-taped role playing will increase in use as the educa- tional level increases of the head of a law enforcement agency's training function. Null Hypothesis: The educational level of the head of a law enforcement agency's training function is independent of that agency's use of video-taped role playing. 66 2. Video-taped role playing will increase in use as the head of a law enforcement agency's educational level increases. Null Hypothesis: The educational level of the head of a law enforcement agency is independent of the use by that agency of video-taped role playing. 3. The use of video-taped role playing will increase as knowledge of the technique increases. Null Hypothesis: The decision to use video-taped role playing is independent of knowledge of the technique alone. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Law Enforcement Agency For the purposes of this study, a “law enforcement agency" has been very narrowly defined. As used herein, it refers only to a state police force, a county department serving a population of over 50,000, or a municipal police force serving a populace of over 10,000. 67 Level of Education For ease of sampling purposes, levels of education were strat- ified as follows: 1) below high school, 2) high school graduate, 3) 1-2 years of college, 4) 3-4 years of college, 5) over four years of college. VARIABLES Dependent Variable In hypotheses #1, 2, 3, the dependent variable is the use of video-taped role playing. Independent Variable l. Hypothesis #1: The educational level of the head of a law enforcement agency's training function. 2. Hypothesis #2: The educational level of the head of the law enforcement agency. 3. Hypothesis #3: The existence of knowledge of the technique of video-taped role playing. 68 InterveningeVariables In hypotheses #1, 2, and 3 the following factors may exist as intervening variables: 1. The size of the department. The size of the training staff. Preconceived notions regarding the applicability of the tech- nique to a particular agency. The desires of the agency head. Preconceived ideas regarding the time required for utilization of the technique. The existence of funds for purchase of the needed equipment. The ability of a training officer to secure approval to pur- chase the required equipment even if funds are available. The existence of adequate facilities. The presence of personnel within an agency who are qualified to utilize the technique as a teaching tool. 69 10. Previous experience with role playing or video-taped role playing that was not favorable. Control of Variables Variables will be controlled to the extent possible by the sampling procedures employed, and by the use of a questionnaire that will identify as many of the variables as possible. The variables identified through the questionnaire will be subjected to statistical analysis to determine their level of significance. POTENTIAL ERRORS Response Error in Sampling The possibility exists that only a small number of question- naires will be returned. Should this occur, it will be difficult to draw meaningful relationships from the data. Sample Size Too Small If the sampled number of states or the sampled number of cities in each stratification level is too small, then inferences should not be drawn from the sample. 70 Type I or II Error If the sample size is too small or if the response error is too great, there is a probability that a true hypothesis could be rejected (Type I Error), or that a false hypothesis could be accepted (Type II Error). Appropriate statistical procedures must be employed to test the level of significance of the null hypotheses. CHAPTER V SAMPLING PROCEDURES In determining the extent of use of video-taped role playing as a police training tool in the United States, it was first necessary to limit the pppulation for sampling purposes. Cognizance was taken of the fact that over 1/3 Of all the personnel involved in law enforcement are in fifty-five of the 40,000 separate law enforcement agencies. Those fifty-five agencies are the police departments of cities having a population of over 250,000 inhabitants:l Consequently, a decision was made to limit the sampling universe to law enforcement agencies in the United States serving cities over 10,000 inhabitants, counties having a population of over 50,000, and to include also all state police agencies as part of the sampling universe. It is recognized that this prohibits many, many small departments from haVing the opportunity to be sampled. But employing this cut-Off sampling pro- cedure is not expected to influence the results for two reasons. First, even though there may be a large number of separate law 1President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society_(New York: The Hearst Corporation, 1968), p. 240. 71 72 enforcement agencies serving cities less than 10,000 people, the actual number of personnel associated with those agencies is relatively quite small, since the majority of the 40,000 agencies is composed of one to three man departments.2 Second, it is logical to assume that any agency serving a city population of 10,000 or less, or a county popula- tion of less than 50,000, would likely not possess the resources to invest in video-tape equipment. After thus restricting the sampling universe, the next step was to conduct a multi-stage random sample which first involved selecting states and then cities from those states. The aim of the multi-stage procedure was to Obtain 200 randomly selected agencies that would even- tually be surveyed regarding their use of video-taped role playing. SELECTION OF STATES An initial decision was made to select fifteen states from which to choose the cities. This decision was subsequently subjected to statistical analysis and it was determined that a sample of this size should yield a .05 level of confidence that the mean of the sample 2Statement by E. Wilson Purdy, Lecture delivered at Michigan State University, 1966. ' 73 would be within .5 standard deviations Of the mean of the population.3 It was therefore considered to be an adequate sample size. In selecting the states a simple random sample was not deemed appropriate. California, with its 19 million people, certainly re- quired greater representation in the sample than Alaska with its popu- lation of 300,000. Consequently, proportional sampling was resorted to. In doing this, consecutive numbers were assigned to each state in accordance with its share of the overall United States population. Thus, California having fifty-seven times the population of Alaska had fifty-seven consecutive numbers assigned while Alaska had only one. Table I shows how this was accomplished. The next step in the selec- tion of states required reference to a table of random numbers and then picking the first 15 numbers between one and 607 which enabled a state to be selected. A withdrawal without replacement procedure was fol- lowed. The selected states are shown in Table II. SELECTION OF CITIES In selecting the cities a proportional stratified sample was taken. All cities over 10,000 population and counties over 50,000 in 3Wilfred J. Dixon and Frank J. Massey, Jr., Introduction to Statistics (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1969), p. 521. 74 TABLE I METHOD OF DETERMINING PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION FOR SAMPLING BASED UPON POPULATION FIGURES FROM 1973 RAND MCNALLY ROAD ATLAS Consecutive Consecutive State Numbers State Numbers Assigned Assigned California 1-57 Washington 520-528 New York 58-111 Arizona 529-534 Illinois 112-144 Arkansas 535-540 Texas 145-177 Colorado 541-546 Pennsylvania 178-213 Kansas 547-552 Ohio 214-243 Missouri 553-558 Michigan 244-270 West Virginia 559-564 Florida. 271-291 Oregon 565-570 New Jersey 292-312 Nebraska 571-573 .Massachusetts 313-330» New Mexico 574-576 Georgia 331-345 Utah 577-579 Indiana 346-360 Rhode Island 580-582 Mississippi 361-375 Maine 583-585 North Carolina 376-390 Hawaii 586-587 Virginia 391-405 Wash. D.C. 588-589 Louisiana 406-417 Idaho 590-591 Maryland 418-429 Montana 592-593 Minnesota 430-441 New Hampshire 594-595 Tennessee 442-453 South Dakota 596-597 Wisconsin 454-465 North Dakota 598-599 Alabama 466-474 Delaware 600-601 Connecticut 475-483 Nevada 602-603 Iowa 484-492 Vermont 604-605 Kentucky 493-501 Wyoming 606 Oklahoma 502-510 Alaska 607 South Carolina 511-519, 75 TABLE II RANDOMLY SELECTED STATES 1. California 9. 2. New York 10. 3. Illinois 11. 4. Texas 12. 5. Ohio ' 13. 6. Florida 14. 7. Massachusetts 15. 8. Georgia Virginia Minnesota Alabama Connecticut Colorado Mississippi Oregon the selected states were identified using a 1973 edition of the Rand McNally Road Atlas.4 Stratification of the selected population was as follows: All counties and cities having a population of over 250,000 and all state law enforcement agencies. Cities and counties having a population between 100,000 and 250,000. 118-127. 4 Rand McNally Road Atlas, United States/CanadaZMexico, pp. 76 3. Cities and counties having a population between 50,000 and 100,000. 4. Cities with a population between 10,000 and 50,000. The ratio of the numbers between stratifications was determined to be approximately 8:9:18z65. Following this ratio, then, the number of cities to be surveyed in each category was as follows: 1) l6, 2) l8, 3) 36, 4) 130, for a total of 200. See Table III, page 77, for further information on the derivation of these figures. After the preceding numbers were established, the same proce- dures were followed for selecting the cities in each stratum as were followed for selecting the states, i.e., a number assigned to each city in each stratum; reference to a table of random numbers; selec- tion of the appropriate city, county, or state agency to be surveyed. Appendix J contains a listing of the agencies that were selected in each stratum. The confidence intervals of the sample sizes are listed below in Table IV. DEVELOPMENT OF STRATIFICATION RATIOS 77 TABLE III Number Of Cities in Each Stratification Level Over 100 3000' 50,000- 10,000- State 250,000 250,000 100,000 50,000 T°t315 California 23 22 51 193 289 New York l7 16 32 116 181 Illinois 8 13 25 124 170 Texas 12 15 32 93 152 Ohio 15 12 34 122 183 Florida 10 12 16 63 101 Mass. 10 5 20 74 109 Georgia 4 8 ll 34 57 Virginia 3 10 7 25 45 Minnesota 5 4 6 49 64 Alabama 4 6 ll 27 48 Connecticut 4 9 12 37 62 Colorado 2 7 7 14 30 Mississippi '1 3 5 22 31 Oregon 3 4 8 20 35 Total: each category 121 146 277 1013 1557 Per cent of all cities 8% 9% 18% 65% 100% Number to be surveyed 16 18 36 130 200 78 TABLE IV CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: STRATIFICATION LEVELS5 that X will be within _ sarfiiiiieiiion PmbabI‘W mngggjlggggtggg 0f Over 250,000 .95 .5 100’000-250R000 .95 .4 50,000-100,000 .99 .4 10,000-50,000 .999 .25 5Dixon and Massey, loc. cit. CHAPTER VI METHODS OF GATHERING DATA The empirical research data that was gathered came from only one source--a mailed questionnaire. The questionnaire was used to obtain data on the extent of use of video-taped role playing and to identify the variables in non-use of the procedure. The recipient of the questionnaire received an introductory letter and a research ques- tionnaire containing eleven multiple-choice, coded items. (A sample of the questionnaire and letter is included in Appendix I.) Response error was dealt with by sending a follow-up letter to non-responding agencies after 15 days had elapsed from the time of the initial mail- ing. Time limitations precluded a third mailing, but nonetheless, 118 out of 200 questionnaires were returned for a 59% response rate from the two mailings that were conducted. It was recognized that many agencies no longer conduct their own training and this complicated the questionnaire/random sample approach. Consequently, the survey incorporated a question that asked for information on whether or not the particular department conducted its own training. If it did not, the questionnaire asked the 79 80 respondent to provide information on the responsible regional or central training facility that conducts the training for it. In such cases an additional questionnaire was sent to the responsible agency indicated. CHAPTER VII ANALYSIS OF RESULTS The questionnaire responses were pre-coded, which enabled a computer card deck to be easily prepared and sorts to be run. After completion of the sorts, the data was assembled into tables and sub- jected to statistical analysis. Three tests were performed on the data obtained relative to Hypotheses #l.and #2, which concerned the relationship between educational levels of the agency heads and the heads of training departments that were surveyed and the department's use of video-taped role playing. In order to determine the degree of correlation between these variables, Cochran's Q formula for obtaining the coefficient of corre- lation was employed. Calculations were made according to the proce- dures outlined by Forcese and Richer.1 A second test was conducted to determine the probability of any Observed differences in usage of video-taped role playing among 1Dennis P. Forcese and Stephan Richer, Social Research Methods (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973), pp. 225- 226. 81 82 the educational levels as being due to chance alone. This was done by computing the standard error of the percentage difference. Again the computations were made according to the procedures outlined by Forcese and Richer.2 In order to determine the relative independence of the vari- ables in all three hypotheses, the Chi square test was employed ac- cording to the procedures outlined by Dixon and Massey.3 In this study, probability was considered significant at the five percent level for all three hypotheses. In presenting the find- ings, unless otherwise indicated, frequently used qualifying adjec- tives are utilized to describe certain levels: .05--significant .Ol--highly significant .OOl--extreme1y significant 2Ibid.. pp. 226-230. 3Wilfred J. Dixon and Frank J. Massey, Jr., Introduction to Statistical Analysis (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, 1969), pp. 240-241. CHAPTER VIII INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS GENERAL RESULTS Response Rate vs. Stratification Level The best respOnse rate came from the largest departments. Sixteen questionnaires were mailed to departments serving populations of over 250,000 and of these, twelve were returned (75%). The second largest stratification level in terms of population served (100,000-250,000) returned 13 out of 18 questionnaires, for a return rate of 72 percent. However, the lowest response rate (47%) came from the third level (50,000-100,000). Departments serving this population Size re- turned only 17 out of 36 of the questionnaires that were mailed. The lowest stratification level (10,000-50,000) returend 76 out of the 130 surveys that were sent out for a return rate of 58 percent. Overall, 118 out of 200 questionnaries were returned for a response rate of 59 percent. 83 84 Member Responding vs. Size of Department Size of Number Size of Number Department Responding_ Department Responding 1. 1-10 men 2 7. lOl-l5O 8 2. 11-20 7 8. 151-250 9 3. 21-30 17 9. 251-500 5 4. 31-45 27 10. 501-1000 4 5. 46-70 10 11. over 1000 4 6. 71-100 10 12. Unknown _jji 118 Educational Levels The mean educational level of agency heads was determined to be 14.86 years of education. Heads of training were slightly higher with an average of 14.93 years of education. Further breakdown of these educational levels is as follows: Agency Head Head of Trng_ Under high school 4 (3.4%) 2 (1.7%) H/S Graduate 29 (24.6%) 25 (21.2%) 1-2 yrs college 25 (21.2%) 30 (25.4%) 3-4 yrs college 27 (22.9%) 33 (28%) Over 4 yrs college 30 (25.4%) 25 (21.2%) Unknown 3 (2.5%) __;g (2.5%) 118 Agency Head Head of Trng H/S graduate or below 28% 23% 1-4 years of college 44% 53% Over 4 years college 25% 21% 85 STATUS STUDY ANALYSIS The extent of use of video-taped role playing in this sample was far grater than anticipated. The status study statement in Chapter Four projected that no more than five percent of the sample would be utilizing this technique. However, the results revealed instead that 41.5 percent of the departments surveyed were utilizing this instruc- tional method (Table V). Use of the technique further increases when one analyzes those departments that are already involved in role playing. Among this group, almost 78% were also using video-tape in conjunction with their role playing sessions (Table VI). TABLE V EXTENT OF USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING AMONG TOTAL POPULATION Num % Users 49 41 .5 Non-users 69 58.5 TOTAL 118 100.0 86 TABLE VI EXTENT OF USE OF V.T.R.P. AMONG AGENCIES THAT USE ROLE PLAYING Role Playing V.T.R.P. Num % I Num % Users 63 53.4 49 77.8 Non-users 55 46.6 14 22.2 TOTAL 118 100.0 63 100.0 HYPOTHESES ANALYSIS Three hypotheses were set forth in Chapter Four regarding the use of video-taped role playing by law enforcement agencies throughout the United States. These hypotheses are presented in this section and discussed according to the findings of the study. To facilitate analysis, each of the three hypotheses shall be restated and discussed. Hypothesis 1 Video-taped roleplayingepill increase in use as the educa- tional level increases of the head of a law enforcement agency's training function. Through the use of the questionnaire, the respondents were 87 stratified into five levels of education and into categories of users or non-users of video-taped role playing by their departments (Tables VII, VIIA). TABLE VII EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (HEAD OF TRAINING) VS. USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING Level of Education: Head of Trng Below 1-2 yr 3-4 yr Over 4 yr H/S H/S C011. C011. College UNK Total Users 0 3 9 16 19 2 49 Non-users 2 22 21 17 6 l 69“ Total 2 25 I? 30 33 25 3 118 TABLE VIIA CONDENSATION OF EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (HEAD OF TRAINING) VS. USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING Education Level: Training Head Above H/S H/S and Below UNK Total Users 44 3 2 49 Non-users 44 24 I l 69 Total 88 27 3 118 88 Analysis of the above tables shows a very high coefficient of correlation of .81 between the educational level of the head of train- ing and the use by an agency of video-taped role playing. The Observed percentage difference between users of video-taped role playing having a high school education or below as compared to those having above a high school education was also subjected to sta- tistical analysis. It was found that the observed difference in use (39%) yielded a value of plus or minus 3.6 standard errors or a prob- ability of less than .002 that the observed difference was due to chance alone. Additionally, the chi square procedure, testing the dependency of the relationship between the educational level of the head of the agency's training function and use by the agency of video-taped role playing, was utilized. Tests were applied to the data in both Tables VII and VIIA. The data in Table VII yielded a test statistic of 24.52, substantially above the .001 level (18.467); the data in Table VIIA yielded a test statistic of 15.53, again substantially above the .001 level (10.828). Based on this sample, the null hypothesis was clearly rejected and the research hypothesis was tentatively accepted. 89 Hypothesis 2 Video-taped roleeplaying_will increase in use as the head of a law enforcement_egency's educational level increases. As in the previous hypothesis, the research questionnaire was used to gain infOrmation whereby the respondents were stratified into five levels of education and into two categories of users and non-users of video-taped role playing by their departments (Tables VIII, VIIIA). TABLE VIII EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (AGENCY HEAD) VS. USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING Educational Level: Agency Head Below 1-2 yrs 3-4 yrs Over 4 yr H/S H/S College College College UNK Total Users 0 7 9 ll 20 2 49 Non-users 4 22 16 16 10 1 69 Total 4 29 25 27 30 3 118 90 TABLE VIIIA EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (AGENCY HEAD) VS. USE OF VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING Educational Level: Agency Head Above H/S H/S and Below UNK Total Users 40 7 2 49 Non-users 42 26 1 69 Total 82 33 3 118 Analysis of the above tables produced a coefficient of corre- lation of .56 between the educational level of the head of an agency and the use by the agency of video-taped role playing. The observed percentage difference between users of video-taped role playing having a high school education or below as compared to those having above a high school education was subjected to statis- tical analysis. It was found that the observed percentage difference in use (29%) yielded a value of plus or minus 2.56 standard errors or a probability of less than .01 that the observed difference was due to chance alone. Additionally, the chi square procedure, testing the dependency of the relationship between the educational level of the head of a law enforcement agency and use by the agency of video-taped role playing, was employed. Tests were applied to the data in Tables VIII and VIIA. 91 The data in Table VIII yielded a test statistic of 14.24, significant at the .01 level; the data in Table VIIIA yielded a test statistic of 7.42, again significant at the .01 level. I Based on this sample, the null hypothesis was rejected and the research hypothesis was tentatively accepted. Hypothesis 3 The use of video-taped role p]aying_will increase as knowledge, of the technique increases. Based upon this hypothesis and the projections of the status study, the researcher expected to find a large number of persons not using video-taped role playing with the primary reason being that they were not aware of the technique. However, the data obtained did not ' support these expectations (Tables IX, X). TABLE IX KNOWLEDGE OF THE V.T.R.P. TECHNIQUE AS COMPARED TO USE OR NON-USE Aware Non-aware Total Users 49 O 49 Non-users 13 1 l4 Total 62 l 63 92 The chi square procedure was used to test the dependency of the relationship between awareness of the technique of video-taped role playing and its subsequent use. While a degree of dependency was established between the two variables, significant at the .05 level, more important data was obtained from the 13 persons that were aware of the technique but were not using it. The questionnaire had asked the reSpondents to identify their reasons for not using video-taped role playing and 50% stated that lack of funds was their main reason for not using the technique (Table X). Thus it is apparent that var- iables other than knowledge of the technique influence its use. TABLE X REASONS GIVEN FOR NON-USE 0F VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING Reason for non-use of V.T.R.P. Number % 1. Never thought of it 1 7.1 2. Equipment is too expensive 2 14.3 3. Money isn't available 7 50.0 4. Equipment has been ordered 4 28.6 5. No one trained to use it 0 0 6. Can't get approval to buy, but money is available 0 O 7. Tried, but it wasn't effective 0 O TOTAL 14 100.0 93 OTHER RESULTS FROM DATA While not directly related to the hypotheses being studied, other data was obtained from the questionnaire that should be presented at this point. The tables relating to this data are contained in Appendix K and only a brief statement of the relationships is included in this section. 1. Size of training departments are related to the size of the population served by the law enfbrcement agency. Test per- formed: chi square; Test statistic: 47.0; Critical value: 37.16 (P )3 Table XI. 99.5 2. The Size of the department is related to the use of video-taped role playing. Test performed: chi square; Test statistic: 32.17; Critical value: 25.19 (P99 5); Table XII. 3. The size of the department is related to the educational level of the head of the training function. Test performed: chi square; Test statistic: 21.03; Critical value: 20.48 (P97 5); Table XIII. 4. NO relationship was established between the educational level of the head of the training function and the amount that an 94 agency uses role playing. Test performed: chi square; Test statistic: 1.236; Critical value: 7.81 (P95); Table XIV. No relationship was established between the educational level of the agency head and the amount that an agency uses role playing. Test performed: chi square; Test statistic: .289; Critical value: 7.81; Table XV. The primary reason for non-use of role playing was the lack of available facilities (40%). The second most frequently cited reason for not using role playing was the lack of anyone trained to use the technique (21.8%); Table XVI. No relationship was established between the educational level of the head of training and the amount that an agency used video-taped role playing. Test performed: chi square; Test statistic: 3.729; Critical value: 15.51 (P95); Table XIX. No relationship was established between the educational level of the head of a law enforcement agency and the amount that an agency uses video-taped role playing. Test performed: chi square; Test statistic: 3.31; Critical value: 15.51 (P95); Table XX. CHAPTER IX SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Chapter I of this thesis examined the theoretical foundations of a relatively new police instructional method. This method, video- taped role playing, was postulated as having its soundest theoretical foundation in modern Behavior Theory, a theory which concentrates its emphasis on operant behavior, or behavior governed by its antecedent environmental consequences. Within this framework, Chapter II dealt with the dynamics of the formation and development of the phenomenological self, roles, and role behavior. These were subsequently related to role development, a concept which emerged as incorporating the essential elements of both education and training and is intended to eliminate the dichotomy between them. Role development based on Behavior Theory was also examined within the framework of video-taped role playing and specific prin- ciples were established in this chapter fOr maximizing operant learn- ing utilizing the sources of feedback in the video-taped role-playing process. 95 96 Practical considerations were dealt with in Chapter III, where guidance was furnished for developing a program of video-taped role playing. Part of the guidance furnished concerned the necessity for establishing clearly defined departmental goals and then relating the performance Objectives of video-taped role-playing episodes to those goals. The various processes involved in video-taped role playing were discussed along with an analysis of the need for constant evaluation of the processes and also the goals. It was intended that the guidance furnished therein would enable future researchers to empirically test the application of Behavior Theory to the video-taped role-playing process for police role development. Chapters IV through VIII were concerned with developing and analyzing hypotheses relative to use, and reasons for non-use, of video-taped role playing among law enforcement agencies of the United States. Chapter IV presented the hypotheses while Chapter V detailed the procedures whereby a proportional, stratified sample of 200 law enforcement agencies was selected for survey by mailed questionnaire concerning use and reasons for non-use of video-taped role playing. The results of the survey were reported in Chapter-VIII, In general, the major findings of the survey were: 1) that video-taped role playing is being used by law enforcement agencies much more than was originally projected; 2) that a highly significant relationship 97 exists between the educational level of the head of a law enforcement agency and also the head of a training function and the use by an agency of video-taped role playing. The extent of use of video-taped role playing was also found to increase as awareness of the technique increased, but the avail- ability of funds and facilities were more important in determining non-use of the technique than was lack of knowledge regarding it. Recommendations The scarcity of information in police literature concerning use of Video-taped role playing by police led the researcher to conclude that little use was being made of the technique. However, the results of the questionnaire did not support this conclusion. These results should be verified by replication and, if supported, an attempt should be made to determine why the scarcity of information exists. Two of the several possible reasons that cOuld account for this situation are: l) the use of the technique may be in its embryonic stage and depart- ments may yet not know enough about the efficacy of the technique to speak about it professionally; 2) those agencies that are using the technique may be employing it without a theoretical foundation and hence may be reluctant to discuss its use. 98 Another area that needs investigation is the success that departments are having with the technique and how the method is being employed among the various agencies that are involved in its use. APPENDICES APPENDIX A APPENDIX A GENERAL AND DERIVED PROPOSITIONS AND DEFINITIONS OF MODERN BEHAVIOR THEORY1 Behavior is a function of stimulus events. Def. 1: Def. 2: Def. 3: Those behaviors that are mediated by the autonomic nervous system are called "respondents." Law of Respondent Behavior: All respondents are a function Of antecedent stimulus events. Those behaviors that are mediated by the somatic (central) nervous system are called "Operants." Law of Operant Behavior: All Operants have the potential to produce stimulus events which alter the behaviors' future occurrence. Law of Operant Reinforcement: All Operants have the poten- tial to produce events that will strengthen their future occurrence. Those stimulus events which will strengthen the future occurrence of Operants are termed, reinforcing events. Law of Positive Reinforcement: Those events which will strengthen an operant's future occurrence include the pre- sentation of stimuli. 1 Robert L. Burgess and Ronald L. Akers, "Are Operant Prin- ciples Tautological," Peychological Record, 16: 309-312, July, 1966. 99 Def. Def. Def. Def. Def. Def. Def. 10: 100 Those stimuli whose presentation will strengthen an operanfls future occurrence are called positive reinforcers; the pro- cess, positive reinforcement. Law of Negative Reinforcement: Those events which will strengthen an operant's future occurrence include the re- moval of stimuli. Those stimuli whose removal will strengthen an operant's future occurrence are called negative reinforcers; the pro- cess, negative reinforcement. The strength of an operant before any known reinforcement is termed its "operant level." The strengthening of an operant as a function of reinfbrce- ment is called "operant conditioning." The response-contingencies that determine when reinforcement will be delivered are termed "schedules of reinforcement." A schedule of reinforcement in which each operant is rein- forced is called continuous reinforcement. Any schedule of reinfbrcement which does not provide rein- forcement following each response is called intermittent reinforcement. The following are instances of intermittent reinforcement. 10.1: Fixed-interval reinforcement is a schedule in which reinforcement is delivered following the first response after a constant period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement. 10.2: Fixed-ratio reinforcement is a schedule of reinforce- ment in which every nth response is reinforced. 10.3: Variable-interval reinforcement is a schedule of re- inforcement in which the time intervals between reinforce- ment vary about a given mean. 10.4: Variable-ratio reinforcement is a schedule of rein- forcement in which the number of responses between rein- forcement varies about a given mean. Def. ll: Def. 12: Def. 13: 101 Ratio reinforcement produces a higher rate of responding than interval reinforcement. Variable schedules produce more stable rates of responding than fixed schedules. The strength of an operant is a function of the amount of its reinforcement. We may call the number of reinforcements per given time period the frequency of reinforcement. The strength of an operant is a function of the frequency of its reinforcement. We may call the reciprocal of responses-per-reinforcement the probability of reinforcement. The strength of an operant is a function of the probability of its reinforcement. Law of Extinction: If an operant no longer produces its customary reinforcers, it will eventually return to its operant level. Let us call the process whereby an operant returns to its operant level, extinction. The amount of time elapsed between the onset of extinction and an operant's return to its operant level is a function of that operant's previous schedule of reinforcement. The amount of time elapsed between the onset of extinction and an operant's return to its operant level is greater for and operant reinforced intermittently than continuously. Ratio reinforcement produces a greater number of responses following the onset of extinction and an operant's return to its operant level than interval reinforcement. The amount of time elapsed between the onset of extinction and an operant's return to its operant level is greater for interval reinforcement than for ratio reinforcement. Def. l4: Def. 15: Def. 16: Def.l7: Def. 18: 102 The strengthening of certain behaviors while others are being extinguished is termed differential reinforcement. Law of Differential Reinforcement: Given a number of avail- able operants, all of which produce the same reinforcer, that operant which produces the reinforcer in the greatest amount, frequency, and probability will have the higher probability of occurrence. Law of Stimulus Discrimination: Differential reinforcement increases the future probability of an operant to a greater extent in the presence of stimulus conditions the same as those that were present during previous reinforcement. The process whereby an operant is emitted only in the pres- ence of certain stimuli is called stimulus discrimination. Those stimuli in whose presence the strength of an operant is increased are termed discriminitive stimuli. Those stimuli in whose presence an operant is less likely to occur than in their absence are termed S-deltas. Law of Conditioned Reinforcement: The same stimulus may function as a discriminitive stimulus, thereby determining the strength of an operant that prevails in the presence of that stimulus, and as a reinforcer (conditioned), thereby determining the strength of the operant preceding that stimulus. The establishment of stimulus as a discriminitive stimulus is not a necessary condition for the establishment of that stimulus as a reinforcer (conditioned). Law of Stimulus Satiation: As a function of past reinforce- ment, a reinforcer will temporarily cease to strengthen the operant that produced it. The process whereby a reinforcer temporarily ceases to strengthen an operant is termed satiation. Law of Stimulus Deprivation: The reinforcing power of a stimulus will be restored by depriving the organism of it for a period of time. Def. l9: Def. Def. Def. Def. Def. 20: 21: 22: 23: 24: 103 The process whereby the reinforcing power of a stimulus is restored through the witholding of that stimulus is termed deprivation. Law of Stimulus Generalization Type I: Whenever a stimulus acquires discriminitive stimulus properties, then other stimuli will also take on discriminitive properties for the same operant to the extent that they are similar to the original discriminitive stimulus. The process whereby stimuli similar in nature acquire dis- criminitive properties is termed stimulus generalization. Law Of Response Differentiation: Differential reinforcement has the potential to alter some specific property of an operant such as its duration, intensity, or topography. The process whereby reinforcement alters an operant's dura- tion, intensity, or tOpography is termed response differen- tiation. Law of Neutral Stimuli: All Operants have the potential to produce events which will not alter their future occurrence. Those events which have no effect upon the strength of an operant are termed "neutral stimuli." Law of Conditioning: A neutral stimulus may acquire rein- forcing prOperties through temporal association with another reinforcer. Those stimuli which can function as reinforcers without any special history of conditioning are called "unconditioned reinforcers." Those stimuli which can function as reinforcers only after a special history of conditioning are called, "conditioned reinforcers." The conditioned reinforcing effectiveness of a previously neutral stimulus is a direct function of the amount, fre- quency, and probability of reinforcement in its presence. Def. Def. Def. Def. Def. 25: 26: 27: 28: 29: 104 Law of Stimulus Generalization Type II: Whenever a stimulus acquires conditioned reinforcing properties, then other stimuli will take on reinforcing properties to the extent that they are similar to the original conditioned reinforcer. Law of Punishment: All Operants have the potential to pro- duce events which will weaken their future occurrence. Those stimulus events whereby an operant's future occurrence is weakened are termed punishing events. Law of Positive Punishment: Those events which will weaken an operant's future occurrence include the presentation of stimuli. Those stimuli whose presentation will weaken an operant's future occurrence are called punishers; the process, posi- tive punishment. Law of Negative Punishment: Those events which will weaken an operant's future occurrence include the removal of stimuli. Those stimuli whose removal will weaken an operant's future occurrence are called negative punishers; the process, nega- tive punishment. Law Of Differential Punishment: All the behavioral effects produced by punishers are analogous to those produced by reinfOrcers, except that the direction of change in the strength of the operant is reversed. Those stimuli which can function as punishers without any special history of conditioning are called unconditional punishers. Those stimuli (neutral and reinfbrcing) which can function as punishers only after a special history of conditioning are called conditioned punishers. The amount of Operant suppression produced by an operant- contingent punishers is a function of the intensity of that punisher. 105 Smaller intensities of punishers will produce complete Operant suppression if they are paired with positive rein- forcement for an alternative and incompatible operant. When a punisher is delivered during extinction, it will reduce the number of responses and the amount of time re- quired before an operant will reach its operant level as a function of the intensity of that punisher. If a punisher is repeatedly paired with positive reinforce- ment, and reinforcement is not available otherwise, the punisher will become a discriminitive stimulus for the operant, as well as a conditioned reinforcer. APPENDIX B APPENDIX B LAWS OF OPERANT BEHAVIOR1 l. A behavior may produce certain stimulus events and thereby increase in frequency. Such stimuli are called positive reinforcers and the process called positive reinforcement. 2. A behavior may remove, avoid, or terminate certain stimulus events and thereby increase in frequency. Such stimuli are termed nega- tive reinforcers and the process, negative reinforcement. '3. A behavior may produce certain stimulus events and thereby decrease in frequency. Such stimuli are called aversive stimuli or . . . punishers. The entire process is called positive punishment. 4. A behavior may remove or terminate certain stimulus events and thereby decrease in frequency. Such stimuli are positive rein- forcers and the process is termed negative punishment. 5. A behavior may produce or remove certain stimulus events which do not change the behavior's frequency at all. Such stimuli are called neutral stimuli. 6. A behavior may no longer produce customary stimulus events and thereby decrease in frequency. The stimuli which are produced are neutral stimuli, and the process, extinction. When a reinforcing stimulus no longer functions to increase the future probability of the behavior which produced it, we say the individual is satiated. To restore the reinforcing property of the stimulus we need only deprive the individual of it for a time. ARonald L. Burgess and Ronald L. Akers, "A Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory of Criminal Behavior," Social Problems, 14: 133, Fall, 1966. 106 APPENDIX C APPENDIX C SAMPLE PROJECT PROCEDURE TIME CHART [_Phases III IV I Months 11 12 MOBILIZE STAFF PREPARE ALL TRAINING MANUALS AND EVALUATION FORMS ORDER AND ASSEMBLE EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL VTRP Staff TRAINING Remote unit operators Instructors Line, Staff, Admin PROJECT VTRP Unit CONFERENCES Consultants:Tech(T) Educ(E), Psyc(P) wrn (“ESTABLISH PRODUCTION PROCEDURES Scripts PREPARE Sets Props PRODUCTION REHEARSALS INSTALL EQUIPMENT Recruit - ° ROLE PLAYING Detective ° Supervisor ' ANALYSIS - ° ° ° ° EVALUATION ° 107 APPENDIX D APPENDIX D SAMPLE LISTING OF SUBJECTS SUITABLE FOR VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING Recruit School Patrol Procedures Driving while intoxicated: accident with injuries Officer-violator relationships Suspicious persons and vehicles Juvenile disturbance Public intoxication Family disturbances Burglary in progress: use of force Handling mentally disturbed Booking procedures Traffic stop/narcotics arrest Suicide attempt Bank robbery with hostages Stbp and frisk Courtroom Procedures Crime Scene Search Community Relations Assault (Between Opposing racial or ethnic groups) Minority group confrontation Street interrogation of suspicious subjects Property line dispute (civil) Routine call for service, i.e., stalled vehicle 108 109 Detective School Crime Scene Investigation Crime scene search Preservation of evidence Interviewing witnesses Interrogation of Suspects Surveillance Undercover Assignments Sppervisors Training of Subordinates Introducing Change Discipline Communication with Subordinates Resolving Disputes between Subordinates Acceptance of Gratuities APPENDIX E APPENDIX E SAMPLE VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING EPISODES I. RECRUIT SCHOOL A. Patrol Procedures 1. Officer-Violator Relationships a. Speeding Officer: b. Speeding Actor: Purpose: PrOps: Officer: Actor: Observes violator exceeding speed limit (70 in a 50). Do your duty. Hurrying to get home for Anniversary Party. You were detained by detec- tives who were investigating a bur- glary of your coffee shop. You know a lot of high ranking police officers. Proper procedures (approach to ve- hicle, etc.) Dialogue with violator (attitude, response); Proper applica- tion of law. Marked unit, Sedan, Walkie-Talkie Observes violator exceeding speed limit (70 in a 50). Do your duty. Resist all efforts by officer to re- solve the situation. Force the officer to make a decision by creat- ing a Disorderly Conduct, Assault, or Obstructing Arrest, situation. 110 c. Weapon in Purpose: Props: rear seat: Officer: d. Weapon in Actor: Purpose: PrOps: rear seat: . Officer: Actor: Purpose: 111 Proper procedures (approach to ve- hicle, defensive tactics, etc.) Dialogue with Violator (attitude, response); Proper application of law; Laws of arrest, search, & seizure. Marked unit, Sedan, Walkie-talkie loaded Stops vehicle for passing stop sign. Hurry to get home. You run a stop sign. You have a loaded shotgun in the back seat of your car. There have been a lot of assaults in your neighborhood and you carry it just in case. You don't know itis against the law. Submit to everything the officer asks of you. Procedures (approach to vehicle) Radio (computer check of weapon) Powers of observation; Application of laws; Arrest, search 8 seizure. Marked unit; Sedan; Walkie-Talkie; Shotgun; Dummy rounds unloaded Stops vehicle for passing stop sign. You are in a hurry to get home and run a stop sign. You have a shotgun (unloaded) on the rear seat of your car. You are an avid hunter (friend of the police) and usually carry the gun in your car. Approach to vehicle; Powers of obser- vation; Application of the law: weapons, search & seizure; Dialogue with violator (attitude,response, etc.) Props: e. Fraudulent License Officer: Actor: Purpose: Props: 2. Cami tment a. Detecting an elopee Officer: Actor: Purpose: Props: 112 Marked unit; Sedan; Walkie-Talkie; Shotgun; Dummy Rounds. You stop a vehicle for passing a red light. 00 your duty. Officer stops you for passing a red light. You know you are guilty and you carry a phony license for which you paid $125.00. Agree with officer on all matters except the licence. As far as you are concerned, it is legitimate. Approach to vehicle; Dialogue with operator; Ability to detect fraudu- lent licence; Laws and techniques of arrest. Marked unit; Sedan; Walkie-Talkie; Fraudulent license. You are walking your usual foot post. You are an elopee from the State Mental Hospital. Display erratic behavior to draw the officer's atten- tion. Then act placidly. Detecting an elopee; Method of handling (approach, dialogue); Ap- plication of the law. Arrest pro- cedure 8 technique. State Hospital I.D. card; Walkie- Talkie. 113 b. Detecting and subduing an elopee Officer: Actor: Purpose: PrOps: c. Call for services: Officer: Actor #1: Actor #2: Purpose: Props: You are walking your usual foot post. You are an elopee from the State Hospital and have a strong fear of the police. Act erratically to attract the Officer's attention then display fear & a hostile attitude. Make the arrest difficult. Same as 2b but under violent circum- stances. State Hospital I.D. card; Walkie- Talkie; Inert Mace can. routine commitment You are assigned to sector patrol and receive a call "10-17" possible commitment. Respond to “home" and handle. You are docile and Obliging. Sit and stare and respond in monotone if questioned. Go along with any- thing the police request. You con- templated suicide; answer yes if asked. Refuse to go to hospital if asked. Your brother (actor #1) threatened suicide. He was found in his pres- ent location with a razor blade. He has no past history of mental illness. You want him committed for his safety. The family doctor is not available. Voluntary commitment? 2 Physicians? Call for Public Health Officer or Supervisor. Portable room; razor blade. 3. First Aid (aided case: Officer: Actor #1: Actor #2: Purpose: Props: 4. Stop & Frisk 114 scooter patrol) While on scooter patrol you observe someone signaling frantically; Respond. You had a chest pain and find it difficult to breathe. As police arrive you grab your chest, go uncon- scious 8 stop breathing. You observed the response of the officer 8 the man's collapse. You respond & offer assistance. Comply with any instructions from the officer. Respond to any questions asked by the officer after aid has been rendered. Application of First Aid procedures; Proper use of the resuscitator; Notification procedures; Obtaining information from witnesses. Scooter; Resuscitator; Walkie-Talkie. a. Concealed burglar tools Officer: Actor: While on fOot patrol in a business district you observe a male subject standing in a doorway. It is 0400 hours on a Friday morning. You are a burglar who intends to break into "Ted's Ties" sotre. You are carrying various burglar tools but they are well concealed. Before you gain entry you hear a policeman approaching and decide to stand non- chalantly in the doorway. If ques- tioned you "took a walk because you couldn't sleep." Purpose: Props: b. Bulge in pocket Officer: Actor: Purpose: Props: c. Owner Closing Store . Officer: Actor: Purpose: Props: 115 Interrogation technique; Knowledge Of "stop & frisk" laws. Burglar tools; Simulated store front. While on foot patrol in a business district you Observe a male subject standing in a doorway. It is 0400 on a Friday morning. You are a burglar who intends to break into “Ted's Ties" store. You are carrying various burglar tools but they create a bulge under your jacket. Before you can gain entry you hear a policeman approaching and decide to stand non-chalantly in the doorway. If questioned, you "took a walk because you couldn't sleep." The same as 4a. The same as 4a. You are on foot patrol in a business district at 0300 hours on a Friday morning. You are the owner of a business, "Ted's Ties," who had to work late to complete some bookkeeping. You finish up at 3 a.m. (begin locking the front of your store as the po- liceman approaches). You have no identification. Powers of observation; Questioning techniques; Knowledge of stop & frisk law. Key to simulated store front; Simu- lated store front; Walkie-Talkie. 5. Juvenile Disturbance a. Blocking Doorway Officer: Actor #1: Actor #2: Actor #3: Actor #4: Purpose: Props: 116 While on foot patrol you observe several youths congregating near the entrance to a store. You notice that a few store customers have been inconvenienced by the location and actions of the boys. Do What you feel is necessary. You and a few of your friends meet at a shopping center. While you are talking a police officer approaches the group. 'If_he attempts to move you: a. Ask why, you are not bothering anyone. b. Ask what laws you are breaking. c. Ask him where you eep_congre- gate. d. Ask why cops "hate young guys." Support your friend's point of View in his discussion with the police officer. Support your friends. You've had trouble with the juvenile authorities before and don't like police. You refuse to move if the officer attempts to have you do so. Tactful approach; Attitude in discus- sion; knowledge of the law. Simulated store front. 6. Family Disturbances 117 a. Husband drunk; hits wife Officer #1: Officer #2: Actress: Actor: Purpose: Props: You both respond to a family distur- bance call and approach the home together. The only information you have is that the call is from a female who states her husband has assaulted her. Your husband came home from work in a miserable state of mind. You have two teenage sons. Your husband ap- pears to have been drinking and you see him smack your 2 boys and send them to bed. You can see no good reason for his actions and you told him so. He responded by smacking you. He has hit you before, but this was the last straw. You call the police for help. Your wife made strong objections to the way you disciplined your child- ren (2 teenage boys) this evening. You had a few beers before you came home tonight and the kids bugged you so you decided to "shape them up" by smacking them and sending them to bed. Your wife has been nagging you ever since and you decided to "shape her up“ with the same treatment (minus the trip to bed). After you smack her she calls the police. You are a conservative and like cops, but you resent their interference in your family affairs. Procedures (separation); Attitudes; Amount Of force; Change in approach when needed; Interview technique; Knowledge of the law. Simulated house front 8 room; Walkie-Talkie. 118 b. Separated; He comes back & will not leave. Officer #1: Officer #2: Actress: Actor: Purpose: Props: c. Argument; She is drunk Officer #1: Officer #2: You respond, along with your partner, to a "10-17“ Family, female com- plainant. You have been separated informally from your husband for 4 months. He stopped by to see you to attempt reconciliation. You want no part of him and call the police to have him taken out of the house. You had a few drinks after completing a successful business deal. You de- cide to patch things up with your wife who you have been separated from for 4 months. Your attempt is re- jected by her and you wind up in an argument. You are not legally separ- ated and you decide to sleep at the house tonight. Refuse to leave on grounds it's your home as well as hers. Procedure (separation, self-defense) Attitudes, amount of force, change in approach when needed. Interview technique. Knowledge of the law. Simulated house front & room; Walkie-Talkie. You respond, along with your partner. to a "10-17" Family, female com- plainant. Actress: Actor: Purpose: PrOps: c. Weapon in the house Officer #1: Officer #2: Actress: 119 Your husband comes home late again. He claims he worked late. You have been drinking because of boredom. He gets aggravated and curses you when you question him. You are afraid and call the police. After police arrive find an opportunity to hit your hus- band. You come home from work late (legi- timately). Your wife has been drink- ing and she begins to question you about your working late, implying that she doesn't believe you were working. You become angry and curse at her and shout loudly. When po- lice arrive you answer the door and deny that anyone called the police. If police insist, allow them to enter but object violently. Procedures (separation, self-defense); Attitudes; Amount of force; Change in approach when needed; Interview tech- nique; Knowledge of arrest laws. Simulated house front 8 room; Walkie-Talkie. You respond, along with your partner, to a "10-17" Family, female com- plainant. You had an argument with your hus- band Over money and bills. He threatened to kill you. You are afraid because he has a gun some- where in the house. You call the police and would like him out of the house while he is in this mood. Go along with poiice advice. Actor: Purpose: Props: 120 Your wife has been buggin you about money and bills. You lose your temper and threaten to kill her. You have a weapon hidden in the house but you deny it if asked. Act passively with police when they ar- rive; go out of your way to be oblig- ing. Go along with police advice. (If police find the weapon, do not say a word. Refuse to talk.) Procedure (separation, self-defense). Attitudes; Amount of force; Change in approach when needed; Interview technique; Knowledge of search & seizure laws. Simulated house front & rooms; Blank pistol; Walkie-Talkie. 7. Possible Burglary in Progress a. One burglar runs away Officer #1: Officer #2: Officer #3: Officer #4: Burglar #1: You respond to a "burglary in pro- gress" call at a factory building in an industrial park. A silent alarm hooked up to the precinct has been set off. You know the building does not have a night watchman. The operator assigned to the call is familiar with the layout of the building. The rear of the building has a door that is open, but there is no Sign of forced entry. K-9 is ppt_available. It is a busy tour and your supervisor is not available. Do your duty. You are hooked on drugs and need money. The other burglar you are with promised you enough money to take care of your habit for months if you gave him a hand on this job. Burglar #2: Purpose: Props: 121 When you see the police enter the factory, you panic and run away with your hands up yelling "don't shoot." You are breaking into a safe in an industrial building. Your partner, a lookout, panics when he sees the police and runs away. Conceal your- self and attempt to shoot police if they expose themselves. Entry procedures; Command of the situation; self-defense; knowledge of the law (burglary, arrest, use of force). Searching techniques. Simulated building and office area; Fencing masks (6); inert Mace; plas- tic ammunition. b. One burglar gives up; another concealed. Officer #1: Officer #2: Officer #3: Officer #4: Burglar #1: Burglar #2: Same as 7a. You are breaking into a safe in an industrial building when the police enter the building. Let them dis- cover you and then surrender and follow their instructions. Don’t answer any questions. You are acting as a lookout for a safe cracker. When police enter be sure you are concealed. After the arrest of burglar #1, look for an opportunity to either get the drop on all the police or at least shoot any or all. 122 Purpose: Same as 7a. PrOps: Same as 7a. 9. Robbery in Progress; Hostage Officer #1: You respond, along with your partner, to a "robbery in progress" call at a bar and grill. Do your duty. Officer #2: “ " “ Actor #1: You commit a robbery at a bar and grill and decide to take a hostage with you as a shield. You leave the bar just as the police arrive. Use your hostage as a shield and threaten to kill him/her if the police don't drop their guns. Actor #2: You are used as a hostage in a rob- bery. Do not attempt to resist. Do as actor #1 commands you. Purpose: Knowledge of law and procedure; self- defense; reaction in stress situa- tions. Props: Marked P.D. unit; blank ammo; Walkie- Talkie; Pre-fabricated Bar & Grill front; Blank pistol. 10. Possible Robbery in Progress: Petit larceny Officer: You are walking your foot post at approximately 1700 hours on a Friday evening. Actor #1: You are a bartender and you spot a customer taking a bottle from your shelf. He sees you spotting him and he runs out of your bar. You chase after him yelling, "I've been robbed! Stop him--I've been robbed." Actor #2: Purpose: PrOps: 123 While stealing a bottle of whiskey from a bar, the owner sees you and you run out of the bar with the bottle. If you see a policeman, run the opposite way. Don't stop. Powers of observation; Knowledge of the law; reaction in a stress situa- tion. Pre-fabricated liquor store front; Whiskey bottle; Blank ammunition. 11. Public Lewdness: Female Complainant Officer: Actress: Actor #1: Actor #2: Purpose: Props: You receive a disturbance call from in front of a bar; Irate female com- plainant states a man inside exposed himself to her. You were walking down the street when a male subject exposed himself to you. You are upset and excited. When the Officer arrives, you advise him that the perpetrator looks just like a subject you Observed sitting in the bar. You've been sitting in the bar for the past 3 hours. You're shocked at the woman's accusation., Demand that the officer fully investigate the charge. You're a bartender. You verify the accused story. Interview technique; Laws of arrest; Use of Discretion. Pre-fabricated bar 8 front of bar; Appropriate accessories. 12. Stolen Motor Vehicle Officer: Actor: l3. Homocide Purpose: Props: Officer: Actor #1: Actor #2: Actor #3: 124 You receive radio call pertaining to a subject sleeping in a vehicle that has been parked in the same spot for the last two weeks. Do your duty. You have stolen a motor vehicle and have been living in it for the last two weeks. The vehicle has been wired to start without keys. Attempt to talk the officer out of an arrest when he responds. If the officer places you under arrest--resist. Proper procedures (approach to ve- hicle, identification of the suspect, etc.); Dialogue with the violator; Laws of arrest; Self-defense; Amount of force. Vehicle wired to start without keys; Walkie-Talkie; Inert Mace. You are patroling a foot post and are advised by a passerby that a stabbing has taken place. Run past the police officer and state that you just Observed a knif- ing. You do not want to get in- volved, so advise the officer and keep on going. You have been knifed in the chest and are dead. You are a high ranking Officer of the police department. Attempt to foul up the crime scene in minor ways. Purpose: Props: 8. Community Relations 125 Proper procedures; Crime scene pro- tection techniques; preservation of evidence. Simulated house front and room; Dummy knife; red stain. 1. Property Line Dispute (civil) Officer: Actor #1: Actor #2: Actress: You respond to a call requesting police intervention in a loud argu- ment between two neighbors. One man is reported to have an axe in his hand. You are a white male and have moved into your present house six months ago. You have a Black neighbor who has lived there for 8 years. You've decided to erect a fence to separate your back yard from his. You begin to chop down a tree that is located where you plan to erect the fence and which you believe is on your property. You are questioned by your Black neighbor and you become angry & abusive. You finally tell your wife to call the police. You are a black male who has been living in your house for the last 8 years. While raking leaves in the front yard you observe your new neighbor (white) attempting to cut down a tree which you believe is on your property. You feel you have to stop him before he damages the tree but you don't want any violence and will avoid it. Wife of Actor #1. Firmly support your husband in his dispute; agree with all he says. Purpose: Props: 2. Street Interrogation: Officer #1: Officer #2: Actor: Purpose: Props: 126 Proper procedures (prevention of violence; approach); attitude; dia- logue with disputants; knowledge of the law. Tree; Ax; Rake; Pre-fabricated house fronts. Suspicious Subject You and your partner are patrolling a residential area that has had some minor thefts recently. You observe a man walking down the street carry- ing what appears to be a record player. The suspect is Black. The neighborhood is 100% white. You are a Black male returning from your girlfriend's house a couple of blocks away. You picked up a record player that you loaned her last week. If asked, you will tell the police that your girlfriend is white and how good a time you had with her. You resent being questioned by the police and you tell them so. You think they are just trying to harass you. However, you will cooperate, but reluctantly so. Proper approach 8 attitudes; Dia- logue with the suspect; Knowledge of the law. Residential area; Marked patrol vehicle; Record player. 127 II. SUPERVISORS SCHOOL A. Personal Appearance Problems Actor: You called the police to report the theft of your automobile. The of- ficers are now in your home taking the report. Officer #1: You and your partner responded to a residence to take a complaint of a stolen automobile. You are now in- terviewing the complainant in his home. You look sharp, uniform neat and properly worn. Officer #2: You are doubled with the first of- ficer in a sector car. You also are in the living room of the complain- ant's home, but you have left your hat in the patrol car and your jacket is unbuttoned. Your shoes are not polished. When questioned by the Sergeant, you become beligerant and argumentative. This is not the first time he has called you on your appearance and you feel he's picking on you. Supervisor: You are responding to the location of an auto theft complaint to meet the officers for a spot check. You are checking because you've had trouble with one of these Officers in the past about his appearance. You enter the complainant's house after the officers have begun the interview. Purpose: To test observation and application of good supervisory techniques. Props: Two marked units; Pre-fabricated house front; simulated room & a living room set. 8. Personal Problems Officer: Purpose: Props: Supervisor: 128 You are a regular sector car oper- ator with three years experience. You have not been able to concen- trate on your work recently because you are preoccupied with personal problems. Two months ago your wife left you and recently all the de- tails Of the separation agreement have been on your mind. If the sergeant asks what the problem is, do not immediately divulge it. Say everything is O.K. Eventually ex- plain your problem. You are the regular supervisor for the patrolman in question. You have noticed a change in his performance recently. He was a very aggressive and competent man with a congenial attitude, but in the past several weeks his performance has dropped to the point of bare acceptability and his attitude has changed for the worse. He has used all his compensa- tory time and personal leave days during the last two months. He also has used an unusually high number of sick days of late. You have called the officer into your office to find out what is wrong. To test interview techniques and leadership ability (motivation, em- pathy, interest in subordinate's welfare). Personal record of the patrolman regarding personal leave, sick time, vacation, etc.; Office setting. 129 C. Civilian Complaint of Abusive Treatment Actor: Officer: Supervisor: You were stopped by a cop for speed- ing (45 in a 30) and given a summons. The violation was valid, but the cop was foulmouthed and angry. He said things like, "What the hell's the hurry pal?“ and "I ought to lock your damn ass up." There didn't seem to be any reason for the cop to be angry. You pulled over as soon as you realized the cop wanted you to. You are now at the precinct to complain and are very angry your- self, since your wife and kids were in the car and had to listen to what the officer was saying. Even though its after normal duty hours you want to see the Chief, the Captain, the Sergeant, or someone who has some authority. You want this officer taken care of! About twenty minutes ago you pulled a guy over for speeding 45 in a 30. You had to pursue him fOr about 3 blocks before he finally stopped and before you could pull him over an- other auto almost struck your car. Consequently you were quite angry and may have said some things that you shouldn't have although you can't remember exactly what they were. You came into the station for some coffee and you see the guy you gave the ticket to complaining to your supervisor. You would be willing to apologize if your supervisor would ask you to. You are the shift supervisor on the 4-12 shift. Atiabout 9 p.m. a cit- izen appears at the precinct to com- plain about a patrolman who gave him Purpose: Props: 0. Attention to Duty 1. Sleeping Officer #1: Officer #2: Supervisor: 130 a ticket. That same patrolman has a long record of minor complaints against him. The patrolman is avail- able (in the precinct). Test for knowledge of supervisory techniques, skill in interviewing, willingness to act. Simulated citation; Simulated super- visor's office. You are a regular sector car oper- ator. After picking up the footman and having coffee, you ask him to listen to the radio. You put your head back and fall asleep: You are working an extra job becduse of money problems and worked all day yesterday. It is 0430. The Ser- geant is a former squad member Who worked the adjoining sector car and you know him well and used to be on a first-name basis with him. You are a footman. The sector car operator picked you up for coffee at 0400 and you just finished it. You agree to listen to the radio. You take Off your hat and relax and in- advertently fall asleep. You find one of your patrol units parked behind a shopping center at 0430. The footman is in the car and both men are asleep. Both men have good records of performance. Prior to making Sergeant you used to be a fairly good friend of the sector car operator, but you have purposefully 2. Grouping Purpose: Officer #1: Officer #2: Officer #3: Officer #4: Purpose: Props: Supervisor: 131 tried to let the relationship di- minish since being promoted. Test for application of good super- visory techniques, leadership, etc. You are a regular sector car oper- ator (101) in a doubled unit. It is a quiet Sunday evening (2030 hrs). You have met with an adjoining sector unit for coffee in a Secluded area. Partner of Officer #1. You have met with an adjoining sector unit for coffee in a secluded area. It's a quiet Sunday evening. You are a regular sector car oper- ator of the adjoining sector (102). You have your footman with you and you are out of your sector meeting 101 sector unit. You are assigned to a footpost in 102 sector. You are in unit 102 and having coffee with the sector car operators. You discover two sector cars to- gether, one of which is a mile out of his sector area. The car which is out of his area also has his footman with him. Test for application of supervisory techniques, and decisiveness, etc. Two or three patrol vehicles; coffee containers. E. Gratuities Officer: Purpose: Props: Supervisor: 132 You are a regular sector car oper- ator. You have four bottles of liquor in your car which were given to you by a businessman in your sector for Christmas. The Sergeant meets yougfor a regular inspection and you attempt to give him one of the bottles. Act as if it is a per- fectly proper thing to accept the "gift.“ Justify it, if necessary, by saying that it's Christmas," "What can it hurt? It's just a small gift. It's not like taking money,“ etc. You are meeting the sector car for a normal inspection of the sector car and check of the officer. It's only a couple of days before Christmas. Discussion of gratuities; applica- tion of good supervisory tech- niques; Leadership by example. TWO patrol units; Four bottles of liquor. APPENDIX F APPENDIX F SAMPLE INSTRUCTOR'S GUIDE (A basic blueprint for use in planning and monitoring a video-taped role-playing episode) 1. Type of problem situation: (i.e., CommunityeRelations) 2. Performance Objective: 3. Description of the problem: 4. Time limits for problem phases: a. Warm-up (if required): 6. Participant selection: C. Explanation of participant roles: d. Class briefing: e. Role playing time: f. Discussion: 9. Reenactment (if required): h. TOTAL: 5. Special instructions for the instructor in setting up the problem: 6. Physical layout checklist: a. d. b. e. c f. 133 10. 134 Supplies & equipment other than the physical layout: a. d. b. e. c. f. Specific instructions to role players: Role #1 Role #2 Role #3 (To be supplemented by individual instruction cards for Role #1, Role #2, Role #3, etc.) Observer Score Cards available as required. Discussion period (based upon scores 8 comments from Instructor/ Observer Score Cards) APPENDIX G APPENDIX G SAMPLE OBSERVER/INSTRUCTOR RATING SHEET Participant Observer Situation Circle your evaluation of each aspect of the participant's performance Good [Ayg_ Poor N[A_ Comments 1. Approach to the scene. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 O 2. Initial posi- tioning of the Officers 7 6 5 4 3 2 l O 3. Control of the situation 7 6 5 4 3 2 l O O5 01 .p no N —J O 4. Attitude expressed 7 5. Attitude implied 7 6 5 4 3 2 l O 6. Effectiveness of the dialogue with the violator 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 O 7. Knowledge of de- partmental pro- cedures 7 6 5 4 3 2 l O 8. Knowledge of the law 7 6 5 4 3 2 l 0 135 ~ 10. 11. 12." 13. Use of discretion Use of force: a. Amount b. Proficiency c. Timeliness Search Other: a. Use of radio b. Powers of ob- servation c. Reaction to stress Overall Evalu- ation 136 APPENDIX H APPENDIX H EQUIPMENT LISTING FOR VIDEO-TAPED ROLE PLAYING] The basic equipment components necessary for video-taped role playing include a T.V. camera, a video-tape deck for recording and playback, T.V. monitors for the classroom and the recorders, and an audio system. Purchase, rent, or lease of a single manufacturer's system would probably be required, since normally there is no compat- ability of equipment across producer lines. For those interested in obtaining the required equipment, the following additional sugges- tions are offered: Cameras A minimum of two, three if possible, should be used in order to provide complete coverage of the action from front and side angles. A plumbicon tube is preferred over a vidicon tube to eliminate lag in picture in low-light level situations. An alternative is to use some artificial light with vidicon. 1Suffolk County Police Department, “T.V. Role-Play: Logistical Problems," pp. 97-99, n.d. (mimeographed); John Fakler, "T.V. Role Playing fOr Training," Law and Order (February 1970), 33-34. 137 138 All cameras should be on dollys to permit movement quickly and each camera should be equipped with a zoom lens. Recorder Any good 1/2" or 1“ helical scan recorder is adequate. How- ever, 1" tape produces far better quality pictures than 1/2" tape. T.V. Monitor A 23" screen for each group Of 40 students in the classroom setting should be considered the minimum requirement. There must also be a 9" monitor at the recorder for each operating camera. Aggyp A minimum Of three cardoid microphones, concealed strategically across the set, must be provided. They should be placed in sufficient numbers and at such locations as to allow the actors to move freely across the set and still maintain a clear, steady audio signal. Other Equipment 1. A microphone mixer to receive the quantity of microphones decided upon. 2. A camera switcher to enable the director or instructor to choose the appropriate shot he sees on the preview monitor. 139 3. Adequate wiring and connecting cords. 4. Headsets to communicate with camera operators. For an overview of how the equipment would appear wired and ready fOr use, refer to the diagram on the fOllowing page. 140 ><.Etm._om .>H do“. hzmsEScm amozmze‘oumu 3.32.2.2 APPENDIX I MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE ' SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE Dear Sir: A research project is being conducted under the auspices of the School of Criminal Justice at Michigan State University to examine methods whereby police training can be improved. As part of this project your department was one of the agencies throughout the United States that was randomly selected to be queried regarding the use of certain training techniques. Each of the selected agencies is being asked to complete a questionnaire on the subject of video-taped role-playing as a police training tool. The questionnaire is short and should take no longer than three minutes to complete. By completing the questionnaire you will provide valuable in- fOrmation relevant to the improvement of police training. It is im- portant that each recipient fill out the questionnaire as soon as pos- sible and return it in the enclosed stamped, self-addressed envelope. Results will be reported only in summarized form, individual replies will be kept anonymous. At the conclusion of the proejct a summation of the question- naire results will be furnished to your agency. In order to insure that the report is forwarded to the appropriate person or section, please provide the following information and return it with the com- pleted questionnaire. Name of person to receipt the report: Name of agency: Agency Address: You should receive your copy of the report in approximately 12 weeks. Thank you for your consideration in completing the question- naire. Sincerely, Dr. Larry T. Hoover Assistant Professor 141 142 RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE General Instructions: Mark an "X" inside the box alongside the appro- priate answer to each question. The numbers shown in parentheses beside the answer categories should be ignored; they are included only to assist the processing of your answers. BACKGROUND DATA 1. What is the approximate size of your training department? (3) __ one individual, part time 1. (__) one individual, full time 2. (::) 2-3 people 3. (_- 4-6 peOple 4. (::3 6-10 people 5. (__j 11-20 people 6. (__) over 20 people 7. (:_) 2. What is the educational level of the head of your training department? (4) less than high school 1. (:3 high school graduate 2. (:Z) 1-2 years college 3. (:Z) 2-4 years college 4. (::) over 4 years Of college 5. (-_) unknown 6. ( ) 143 3. What is the educational level of the head of your law enforcement agency? (5) less than high school :1 0 high schoOl graduate 1-2 years college 3. ( ) 2-4 years college 4. ( ) over 4 years of college 5. ( unknown 6. ( ) 3a. If basic training fOr your agency is conducted by a regional or state academy, what is the anme and address of that academy: (TURN TO NEXT PAGE) 144 RESEARCH DATA The next few questions pertain to the training technique called “role playing" that was mentioned in the introductory letter. This tech- nique involves a procedure in which incidents based on real life police/public/criminal situations are enacted by the class members playing the roles and making their own decisions. These decisions are then discussed by the class and summed up by the instructor. Special Instructions: In the next list of questions you may check as many answers as you feel apply. 4. Does your department use role playing as a training tool? (6) l GLYes I—(_._—) 2-N0 4a. To what extent is role playing 4b. What is the reason that used as a training tool in role playing is not used? your agency? _ (7) (8) ,_. ___ CZ) 1. Seldom (__) 1. Never heard of it (__) 2. For a few training (__) 2. Heard of it, but I subjects don't think it ___ will work in our (__) 3. USed in many training agency sessions ___ ' _ —- (__) 3. The agency head (__) 4. It's our primary doesn't want to -—- training technique ' to use it. (::) 4. Too time consuming TURN TO THE NEXT PAGE (::) 5. No one trained to teach it (__) 6. Tried it, but it wasn't effective (::) 7. No facilities ,___ available QUESTIONNAIRE COMPLETED 145 5. Is video-tape used in conjunction with your role playing training sessions? (9) l {j 1. Yes l———-(__) 2. No 5a. How frequently is video-tape 5b. What is the reason that used in your training ses- video-tape isn't used? sions? (10) (ll) (::3 1. Some of the time (:Z) 1. Never thought of ‘ it - (__) 2. Most of the time __ __. (__) 2. Equipment is too (__) 3. All of the time expensive L" (j 3. Money isn't available . Equipment has been . NO one trained to . Can't get approval . Tried using it, ordered operate the equip4 ment to buy the equip-' ment, but money is available but it wasn't effective QUESTIONNAIRE COMPLETED APPENDIX J State . Alabama CalifOrnia . Colorado Connecticut . Florida . Georgia . Illinois . Massachusetts . Minnesota 10. Mississippi 11. New York 12. Ohio 13. Oregon 14. Texas 15. Virginia moowmm-wa—x Random number selected 11 57 89 113 12 74 65 38 13 91 24 .= 42 29 43 20 92 —l—I_l—l _a_.l mmbwgdommwmmth—l STRATIFICATION LEVEL: OVER 250.000 Number of cities, counties, or state Consecutive agencies in this numbers stratification assigned 4 1-4 23 5-27 2 28-29 4 30-33 10 34-43 4 44-47 8 48-55 10 56-65 5 66-70 1 71 17 72-88 15 89-103 3 104-106 12 107-118 3 119-121 Agency Orange County, California Essex County, Massachusetts Cuyahoga County, Ohio Dallas, Texas Riverside County, California Erie County, New York Massachusetts State Police Orange County, Florida Sacramento County, California Hamilton County, Ohio San Diego, California Miami, Florida Colorado State Police Florida State Police Santa Clara County, California Lorain County, Ohio 146 147 STRATIFICATION LEVEL: 100.000-250,000 Number of cities Consecutive or counties in this numbers State stratification assigned 1. Alabama 6 1-6 2. California 22 7-28 3. Colorado 7 28-35 4. Connecticut 9 36-44 5. Florida 12 45-56 6. Georgia 8 57-64 7. Illinois 13 65-77 8. Massachusetts 5 78-82 9. Minnesota 4 83-86 10. Mississippi 3 87-89 11. New York 16 90-105 12. Ohio 12 106-117 13. Texas 15 122-136 14. Virginia 10 137-146 Random number selected Agency 1. 71 Rock Island County, Illinois 2. 70 Peoria County, Illinois 3. 24 Santa Ana, California 4. 69 Macoupin County, Illinois 5. 127 McLennon County, Texas 6. 20 Glendale, California 7. 143 Newport News, Virginia 8. 61 Richmond County, Georgia 9. 47 Escambia County, Florida 10. 58 Chatham County, Georgia 11. 141 Hampton, Virginia 12. 81 Springfield, Massachusetts 13. 12 Solano County, California 14. 5 Mobile, Alabama 15. 104 Syracuse, New York 16. 48 Leo County, Florida 17. 41 Hartford, Connecticut 18. 144 Portsmouth, Virginia .—a OUDQNO‘U'I-hWN-J dfl—‘d thd State . Alabama . California . Colorado . Connecticut . Florida . Georgia . Illinois . Massachusetts . Minnesota . Mississippi . New York . Ohio . Oregon . Texas 15. Virginia 148 STRATIFICATION LEVEL: 50,000—100.000 .----------------------------------- Random number selected 1. 126 2. 152 3. 238 4. 151 5. 74 6. 250 7. 102 8. l 9. 261 10. 211 11. 136 12. 175 13. 47 14. 111 15. 254 16. 142 17. 247 18. 275 19. 67 20. 218 21. 123 Numbers of cities Consecutive or counties in this numbers stratification assigned 11 1-11 51 12-62 7 63-69 12 70-81 16 82-97 11 98-108 25 109-133 20 134-153 6 154-159 5 160-164 32 ~165-196 34 l97-23O 8 231-238 32 239-270 7 271-277 Agency Champaign, Illinois Waltham, Mass. Salem, Oregon Somerville, Mass. Fairfield, Conn. Randall County, Texas Lowndes County, Georgia Baldwin County, Alabama Irving, Texas Scioto County, Ohio Lawrence, Illinois Madison County, New York Richmond, California Henry County, Illinois Fort Bend County, Texas Brockton, Illinois Tom Green County, Texas Chase City, Virginia Lakewood, Colorado Euclid, Ohio Des Plaines, Illinois 149 Random number selected Agency 22. 63 Larimer County, Colorado 23. 128 Oak Lawn, Illinois 24. 23 Costa Mesa, California 25. 35 Hayward, California 26. 216 Wayne County, Ohio 27. 227 Lorain, Ohio 28. 13 Imperial County, California 29. 263 Mesquite, Texas 30. 71 Bristol, Conn. 31. 202 Erie County, Ohio 32. 203 Fairfield County, Ohio 33. 95 Pensacola, Florida 34. 107 Dougherty County, Georgia 35. 240 Bowie County, Texas 36. 81 Meriden, Conn. State . Alabama California . Colorado Connecticut . Florida . Georgia . Illinois . Massachusetts . Minnesota . Mississippi . New York . Ohio . Oregon . Texas 15. Virginia —l-I—l—l—-l thdOtomNmm-wa-d Random number selected 1.: 202 53 370 420 993 199 466 813 994 724 11. 9 12. 770 13. 419 14. 189 15. 348 16. 392 17. 1012 18. 164 19. 633 20. 332 21. 536 _a O‘DQDNO'DUT-bwm 150 STRATIFICATION LEVEL: 10,000-50,000 Number Of cities in Consecutive this stratification numbers assigned 27 1-27 193 28-220 14 -221-234 37 235-271 63 272-334 34 335-368 124 3694492 74 493-566 49 567-615 22 616-637 116 638-753 122 754-875 20 876-895 93 896-988 25 989-1013 Agency Tustin, California Cerritos, California Alsip, Illinois Kewanee, Illinois Colonial Heights, Virginia Tracy, California Rockdale, Illinois Mentor, Ohio Covington, Virginia Oswego, New York Decatur, Alabama Brooklyn, Ohio Kankakee, Illinois Sierra Madre, California Forest Park, Georgia Deerfield, Illinois Winchester, Virginia Roosmoor, California Picayune, Mississippi Wilton Manor, Florida North Andover, Massachusetts Random number selected 22. 883 23. 30 24. 725 25. 1005 26. 666 27. 342 28. 374 29. 388 30. 960 31. 78 32. 754 33. 696 34. 692 35. 268 36. 950 37. 455 38. 717 39. 247 40. 653 41. 925 42. 337 43. 752 44. 603 45. 61 46. 366 47. 550 48. 518 49. 954 50. 97 51. 856 52. 651 53. 844 54. 349 55. 640 56. 335 57. 428 58. 685 59. 655 60. 764 61. 480 62. 60 151 Agency Hillsboro, Oregon Arcadia, California Patchogue, New York Pulaski, Virginia Elmont, New York Covington, Georgia Belvidere, Illinois Chicago Heights, Illinois Pecos, Texas Enterprises, California Alliance, Ohio Kenmore, New York Jamestown, New York Williamantic, Connecticut Mineral Wells, Texas Park Forest, Illinois North Tonawanda, New York Newington, Connecticut Copiaque, New York Farmer's Branch, Texas Bainbridge, Georgia West Seneca, New York Richfield, Minnesota Covina, California Valdosta, Georgia Southbridge, Massachusetts Hingham, Massachusetts New Braunfels, Texas Imperial Beach, California Troy, Ohio Cohoes, New York Sharonville, Ohio Gainesville, Florida Auburn, New York Americus, Georgia Lincolnwood, Illinois Hempstead, New York Cortland, New York Berea, Ohio Westchester, Illinois Coronado,WCalifornia Random number selected 63. 242 64. 910 65. 181 66. 529 67. 436 68. 769 69. 283 70. 1011 71. 632 72. 995 73. 849 74. 634 75. 281 76. 322 77. 511 78. 847 79. 961 80. 365 81. 251 82. 367 83. 256 84. 591 85. 449 86. 999 87. 44 88. 542 89. 468 90. 836 91. 2 92. 663 93. 287 94. 765 95. 592 96. 780 97. 206 98. 383 99. 332 100. 119 101. 979 102. 563 103. l 152 Agency Hamden, Connecticut Cleburne, Texas ’ Santa Cruz, California Milford, Massachusetts Maywood, Illinois Broadview Heights, Ohio Cutler Ridge, Florida Waynesboro, Virginia Pascagoula, Mississippi Danville, Virginia Steubenville, Ohio Starkville, Mississippi Cocoa, Florida Rockledge, Florida Everett, Massachusetts Solon, Ohio Pharr, Texas Tucker, Georgia Orange, Connecticut Warner Robbins, Georgia Shelton, Connecticut Mankato, Minnesota Normal, Illinois Harrisonburg, Virginia Brea, California Reading, Massachusetts St. Charles, Illinois Ravenna, Ohio Anadalusia, Alabama East Northport, New York Delray Beach, Florida Bexley, Ohio Maplewood, Minnesota Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio Vacaville, California Calumet Park, Illinois Wilton Manor, Florida Los Alamitos, California Texarkana, Texas Winchester, Massachusetts Alexander City, Alabama 153 Random number selected Agency 104. 573 Brooklyn Center, Minnesota 105. 362 Thomaston, Georgia 106. 245 Middletown, Connecticut 107. 986 Weslaco, Texas 108. 502 Belmont, Massachusetts 109. 585 Fridley, Minnesota 110. 533 Newburyport, Massachusetts 111. 821 North College Hill, Ohio 112. 703 Lynbrook, New York 113. 426 Libertyville, Illinois 114. 129 Merced, California 115. 799 Greenville, Ohio 116. 401 Evergreen Park, Illinois 117. 673 Fredonia, New York 118. 166 Rosemead, California 119. 83 Florence, California 120. 278 Brandon, Florida 121. 481 West Chicago, Illinois 122. 262 Thompsonville, Connecticut 123. 226 Grand Junction, Colorado 124. 220 Yucaipa, California 125. 885 Keiser, Oregon 126. 203 Ukiah, California 127. 56 Clovis, California 128. 133 Monrovia, California 129. ll Prichard, Alabama 130. 769 Broadview Heights, Ohio APPENDIX K TABLES OF COLLECTED DATA CONCERNING THE SAMPLE UNDER STUDY APPENDIX K TABLE XI SIZE OF TRAINING DEPARTMENTS WITHIN EACH LEVEL OF STRATIFICATION Size of Training Department 0n:;m2art On:;m:ull 2_3 4-6 IO :5' Ozgr Total 2531330 0 ‘ 3 1 3 3 1 12 "133133? 4 3 ‘ ‘ 3 ‘ ° ‘3 .3343:- . 2 4 3 . . ° ‘7 13:33: .. 9 9 . . . . 7. Total 55 15 17 11 7 6 7 118 154 155 m— .. .. 1 u .. .. .. .. .. i i 555...: No_ e e m a m op o, NN N_ N N _eeoe ee o o P e N N N PN OF N N meam=-eoz mm 4 e e m m _ N e N o o deem: coo, OOON com omN om_ oo_ ON .mw om 0N - _Npoe ea>o -_om -_mN -_mp -_op -PN -ee -pm, -PN -_P or _ 22.238 mo 3 5 .a.~_.._..> mo mmanzoz mo mm: 0h smug—zoo m< mhzszEmo “_o #3 :x ”.39: 156 N__ N_ N e e N N N, N_ NN N_ N N Paper m\_._ _N mp N e e N e N N N, N e o psoe< zaPeN NN N N N N N N N N N N _ N New NN: NNN_ NNNN NNN NNN NN_ NNN NN Ne om NN NN Pepe» x2: ease -_om -NNN -FN_ -_NN -NN -Ne -_N ..N ..P ._ pcggmamo DB 33. hzm2hx ANzNzNNNN No NNN s