'1 \‘, r ‘Io“ -‘ ‘ .;‘ .7— ”I. ~’ ,4.‘ ‘ ‘ ' ' ‘ 'v 1 ' 'j'i' Q-‘IIJM'JLJ—LJJU ‘V'Ai$L‘J.LJ¢‘-L .JL) ‘JL‘! _E_ 4.34111 LUJJJJL'I‘IKIH'JJ ll“ L—JUndtyfiY SL)§1‘\)\JL Grill; UHL‘JLE by Morothy Gucnther, Chm. junice Beck Ann Gllpln Inez 330K Ruth McGllilcuddy I'll: L1" (3 31 1. :4 “ELLE SELECTED CORRELATES OF PEER RELATIONS IN NURSERY SCHOOL CHILDREN afieiv' AN ABSTRACT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR MASTERS OF SOCIAL WORK DEGREE MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY SOCIAL WORK 895 Dr. Gwen Andrew June, 1968 Group Members: Dorothy Guenther, Chm. Eunice Beck Inez Cook Marcella Dean Ann Gilpin Ruth McGillicuddy Timmy LEMRY , Mifi'mas State University ABSTRACT The objective of this project was to study three variables affecting peer relations of nursery school children. Since early socialization patterns are related to subsequent interaction and social adjustment, it may be assumed that understand- ing of interaction patterns among nursery children will be instrumental in developing positive programs that may prevent later maladaptive be- havior. i The sample for this study consisted of thirteen 3-year old and seventeen 4-year old children currently enrolled in the Michigan State University laboratory nursery school. All students had been attending school since October, 1967 and there was extensive family and personal data on each child in the files which were available to this group. The present study attempted to provide some clarification in the above mentioned area by examining the assumption that there is a significant association between: 1) number of siblings and number 6f friendship choices among nursery school children; 2) self concept and number of friendship choices; and 3) chronological age and dura- tion of friendship choices. The following hypotheses were tested: HI: The number of friendship choices varies directly with the number of siblings. H : The number of friendship choices varies directly with positiveness of self concept. H3: The duration of friendship choices varies directly with chronological age. The results of the study failed to support H1. H2 was not supported, perhaps because the instrument used lacked sensitivity and appropriateness. H3 was supported. ii SELECTED CORRELATES OF PEER RELATIONS IN NURSERY SCHOOL CHILDREN A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR MASTERS OF SOCIAL WORK DEGREE MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY SOCIAL WORK 895 Dr. Gwen Andrew June, 1968 Group Members: Dorothy Guenther, Chm. Eunice Beck Inez Cook Marcella Dean Ann Gilpin Ruth McGillicuddy ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to express their appreciation to Mr. William Kime for his assistance in formulating and interpreting this pro- ject. We would also like to thank Dr. Marilyn Story, Mrs. Carol Holt and the teaching staff of the Michigan State University labora- tory nursery school for their cooperation in supplying case records and suggestions. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction .............................................. 1 Method .................................................... 6 Sample ............................................... 6 Operational Definitions .............................. 6 Procedures ........................................... 9 Data Collection ................................. 9 Data Analysis and Results ................................. l3 Hypothesis 1 ......................................... l3 Hypothesis 2 ... ..... ................................. 1n Hypothesis 3 ......................................... 14 Conclusions and Discussion ................................ 16 Implications .............................................. 19 Appendix .................................................. 20 Scoring Sheet for Brown -- IDS Self Concept Reference Test ......00............OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0.0... 21 Play Situation —- Picture Board ...................... 22 Bibliography .... ..... ............... ..... ................. 23 iv SELECTED CORRELATES OF PEER RELATIONS IN NURSERY SCHOOL CHILDREN INTRODUCTION Both experience and research support the theory that much of a child's early physical, intellectual, emotional and social progress is maturational. Since the 1930's, the main current in progressive kindergartens and nursery schools has been to study the child's natural develOpment and to follow along with ancillary measures. However, there are many asPects of growth, especially in social in- teraction, which do not emerge concomitantly with maturation. From age 3 on, playmates become increasingly important to children but there are wide differences in patterns of interaction with playmates. Lambert (1960) notes that the area of interpersonal behavior in children has hardly been tapped. “It seems appropriate, therefore, to explore various aSpects of social interaction among young chil- dren. The objective of this study is to test relationships between three maturational and environmental variables (chronological age, number of siblings, and self concept) and peer relations of 3 and 4 year oldscurrently attending a university nursery school, as in- dicated by duration and number of friendship choices. Variations in social participation of young children have been studied by recording the frequencies of behavior which represent different degrees of social involvement. These have been classified as: unoccupied, solitary and onlooker behavior and parallel, associa- tive and cooperative play. It has been noted that in interaction with their age peers, children progress from onlooker behavior to parallel play where they play alongside but not with other children, using the same playthings. Later, they proceed to associative play where they play with and share materials. Cooperative and organized play, then, seem to develop with maturity. Onestudy by Green (1933) revealed that the number of children with whom a child interacts in group play increases with age, apparently because maintaining an associative relationship with more than one person requires effective use of language. Further investigation is re- quired to determine whether duration of friendship also increases with chronological age. Children differ not only in degree of involvement, but also in their patterns of interaction with others. Bossard (1956), who is especially interested in the relationship between family size and the ways in which children are reared, found that the size of a group markedly influences the patterning of interactions and re- lationships among its members. In a large family there tends to be less intense interaction between parents and children; they have a more satisfying and relaxed way of looking at the world and getting along with people. Some studies have indicated that chil- dren from smaller families are more likely to have feelings of in- feriority and problems of social adjustment. This is particularly pertinent to the "only" child who has a vastly different social environment from the child with several brothers and sisters. McCandless, Bilous and Bennett (1961) found that children who are most dependent on adults are least popular among their peers at pre—school age. This may explain why "only" children, who typically seek out adults for comfort and attention, have more difficulty establishing friendships with peers than do children who are relatively independent of adults. Also, when a child has found social interaction with adults associated with punishment and frustra- tion, he may experience difficulty interacting with his peers. How- ever, under some circumstances, youngsters who have not enjoyed grati- fication in their social contacts with adults may still learn that friendships with other children are rewarding. In this study, socio- metric instruments will be used to determine whether there is a significant relationship between the number of siblings which a child has in his home and the number of friends he has in nursery school. It is important to recognize that differences in family size may reflect, to a substantial degree, differences in values and aspira- tions of parents which are, in turn, incorporated by their children at an early age. Someone has suggested that in the genesis of the adult from the child the creative factor is the child's attachment to his parents. Certainly by the time a child enrolls in nursery school, his perception of himself and others has been colored by the attitudes, values and experiences in human relationship which he has encountered within the context of his family. Some re- searchers have reported that a negative self concept and expectations of failure appear in a child as early as four years of age or younger. We know that at this age children already tend to assign roles and pass judgements on each other. Between the ages of 3 and 5 a child develops a definite personality of his own. The kind of person he will eventually become is beginning to show, not only in his appearance, but also in the way he meets new situations. Whatever patterns of behavior have been rewarded frequently by his parents, gain ascendency in the child's hierarchy of responses and are likely to be used in other social situations. According to G. H. Mead's (1956) theory, which anchors the development of self—awareness in social interaction, a child's "awareness" be- comes translated into self concepts. It seems reasonable then to postulate that there will be a positive association between self concept and number of friendship choices among nursery school children. Research techniques, which would include all the variables re- lating to children's acceptance of and by others, have not yet been devised. However, several early studies of friendship con- tacts of preschool children included variables which continue to be of interest, such as: chronological age, developmental level, popularity and physical attractiveness. Relatively new and im- proved sociometric instruments and measures of self concept make it possible to assess more accurately young children's perceptions of themselves, as well as of other members in their social group. Northway and Weld (1956), reporting on sociometric studies, write, "With children there is considerable variation, but even at nursery school level, there is some tendency for a child to maintain his sociometric level.” Since early socialization patterns are re- lated to subsequent interaction and social adjustment, it may be assumed that understanding of interaction patterns among nursery school chil- dren will be instrumental in developing positive programs that may pre- vent later maladaptive behavior. The present study hopes to provide at least some clarification in this area by examining the assumption that there is a significant association between: (1) number of siblings and number of friendship choices among nursery school children; (2) self concept and number of friendship choices; and (3) chronological age and duration of friend- ship choices. This assumption may be more formally specified in the following hypotheses: H1: The number of friendship choices varies directly with number of siblings. The number of friendship choices varies directly with positiveness of self concept. H : The duration of friendship choices varies directly with chronological age. METHOD The sample for this study consisted of thirteen three year old and seventeen four year old children currently enrolled in the Michigan State University laboratory nursery school. All the S's had been attending the school since October, 1967, and there was extensive family and personal data on each child in files which were available to the E's. Operational Definitions "Number of siblings" and "chronological age” in months was recorded from the files, and no operationalizing as such was required. "Self concept" was defined in accordance with the theory of G. H. Mead (1956) as the feelings of intrinsic self worth held by an in- dividual. It was determined by taking a polaroid picture of each child and using this to administer the first part of the Brown IDS Self Concept Reference Test. All fourteen descriptive items on the test were presented in an "either - or" format, the more socially desirable choice being scored "1", while the less socially desirable choice was scored "0". The closer a child's "self score" approached the maximum of 14, the more positive his self concept was considered to be. "Number of friendship choices" was arrived at by administering The Play Situation-Picture Board Sociometric Technique, which was adapted from sociometric techniques initially developed by McCandless and Marshall (1957). Presenting the same photographs used in the 7. Brown Test, along with ten stimulus pictures portraying play situa- tions and activities, each S was asked to select the five play situa- tions he preferred. He then chose the child he would most like to play with in each of the activities selected. After making these five choices, the S was asked whom he would like to play with mggg of all, whom else, and a third choice. (This resulted in three selections). The E then put all the pictures back and asked the S whom he did ng£_want to play with, whom else, and a third choice. (B tried to get all three responses, if possible.) The "number of friendship choices" includes the number of children chosen for the play activities and the number of different responses to the positive question, "Whom would you like to play with most of all?" Thus, each 8 was assigned a score between 3 and 8; this score will be correlated with number of siblings and with self concept in checking H1 and H2. ”Duration of friendship" was also derived from sociometric data. In the Play Situation set and Positive Choices, scores of 3, 2, or 1 were assigned according to the frequency with which choices made in October, 1967 reappeared on the May retest. The positive and negative choice sets were then combined and scores of 3, 2, or 1 given, depend- ing upon consistency both of choice and position of preference in October and May tests. The details of the procedure are given in the next section. The "duration of friendship" score for each S may range between 0 and 21, the higher score representing more consistency in friendship patterns. This score will be correlated with the chronological age of $3 to check H3. For further clarification on this matter reference may be made to the sample data collection form in the appendix. PROCEDURES Data Collection, When the E had established some rapport with the children in their classroom situation, she took the 83, one at a time, to an interviewing room where she took a full-front color picture of each 8 with a polaroid camera. Standardized, but ambiguous in- structions for posing were used in order to obtain a spontaneous facial expression. After the exposure was made, E waited fifteen seconds for the print to develop, during which time she talked with S to establish better rapport. When the developed print was pulled from the camera, E pointed to the print and obtained a statement from S indicating that he recognized himself in the picture. B then sat opposite S at a table, placing the photograph on the table top directly in front of S and beneath his head. Pointing to the picture, E said, "Now can you tell me, is Johnny Gallagher happy or is be sad?” She proceeded through all fourteen of the bipolar ad- jectival items on the test, being careful to point directly to the picture before asking each question, and always prefacing the ques- tion with the phrase, "Is Johnny Gallagher .......?" This procedure establishes a set in which the child is induced to "stand back from himself" and to gain a perspective of himself as an object in the photograph. As noted above, the more socially desirable choice re- ceived a score of "1", while the less socially acceptable choice was scored "0". The "self score" could range from O - 14 and, in this 10. study, was assumed to represent the "self concept" which was corre- lated with the number of friendship choices to determine whether there is a relationship between positive self concept and ability to establish friendships in nursery school. After all thirty 83 had completed the Brown test, the same E administered the Play Situation-Picture Board Sociometric Technique to the same group of children, but on a different day. The pictures which were used when assessing self concept by the Brown (1966) pro- cedure were placed in a group on a piece of white fiberboard and positioned directly in front of each S. The B then showed ten pic- tures of play situations to the 8 who was instructed to select the five activities he preferred. These were subsequently presented to S, in order of his preference, with his own picture attached to the play situation picture. 8 was then asked to select from the photo- graphs of his peers, the picture of the child whom he would most like to play with in the play situation portrayed. His actual behavioral response in selecting a picture from the group constituted his sociometric choice response. This procedure was repeated for each of the five play activities selected. The B then said, "Now tell me-- whom do you like to play with most of all?" Show me the picture." Then, "Whom el§g_do you like to play with most of all?" E repeated this question until she got three selections. She put all the pictures back then said, "Tell me now, whom do you ngt_want to play with? Show me the picture." Also, "Whom else do you ngt_want to play with?" Again this is repeated until three selections are made. y- 11. The E computed the score for "number of friendship choices”by adding the number of different children chosen for the five play situations and the number of different responses to the positive question, "Whom would you like to play with most of all?" Scores would range between 1 and 8, the larger number representing a wider friendship circle among nursery school peers. This was then correlated with the number of siblings each child had in his home. "Duration of friendship choices" was scored according to the following criteria: Play Situation Set and Positive Choices: 0 For any response made in set T1 or T2, but not made in T1 and T2 (T1 = October testing; T2 = May testing.) For any response made in both sets T1 and T , and no 2 more than once in either T1 or T2. For any response made in both sets T1 and T2, and more than once in either T1 or T but not both. 2, For any response made in sets T1 and T2 and more than once in both T1 and T2. Positive and Negative Choice Sets: 3 - For any response made in the same set in the same position in T1 and T2. 2 - For any response made in the same set in adjacent positions in T1 and T2. 1 - For any response made in the same set T1 and T2. 12. The scores which each 8 obtained on the Play Situation Set and on the Positive and Negative Choice Sets were combined to yield a score which was assumed to be an indication of the S's duration of friend- ship choices. This was correlated with the child's chronological age which had previously been computed in months. 13. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS Hypothesis 1: Examination of the number of siblings in the home and the num- ber of friendship choices in nursery school revealed no significant association. The numbers of friendship choices were distributed as follows: No. of Mean No. of Siblings Friendship Choices 0 “.83 1 6.14 2 5.18 3-6 5013 As the mean number of friendship choices by "only" children was n.83 compared to a mean of 5.96 by children with any number of sib- lings, and as this was in the predicted direction, the Chi-square statistic was used to test the null hypothesis that there was no significant difference between the two groups. The results, which appear in Table l, were not significant and failed to reject the null hypothesis. Table 1. Comparison of Number of Siblings in the Home and Number of Friendship Choices in Nursery School. No. of Siblings No. of No. of Total High Choices Low Choices 0 2 (33%) H (67%) 6 l - 6 ll (”5%) 13 (55%) 2% Total | 13 17 30 M3; .31, df = l, P about .50 (not significant)v 14. According to this study, the number of peer choices among nursery school children did not seem to be associated with the number of siblings in the home. Hypothesis 2: The prediction that children with the highest self concept would have the largest number of friends was likewise not supported by the results of this study. The mean number of friendship choices for 83 who had high, medium or low "self scores" on the Brown IDS Self Concept Reference Test was essentially identical, as indicated in Table 2. Table 2. Comparison of Self Score on Brown IDS Test and Number of Friendship Choices in Nursery School Children Brown IDS Mean No. of Self Score f Friendship Choices High (1“) 8 5.25 Medium (12-13) 19 5.26 Low (6-7) 3 6.00 N: 30 M: 5.33 If there was a trend, it was in the direction opposite to that hypothe- sized in H but because of the small sample and because the test it- 2” self appeared to be inappropriate for this study, no confidence can be placed in these results. Hypothesis 3: The statistic used to test the third hypothesis was the t-test for the difference between the means of two independent samples. As predicted, the duration of friendship choices of u-year olds was 15. significantly greater than that of 3-year olds. The results are presented in Table 3. Table 3. Comparison of Chronological Age and Mean Scores of Duration of Friendship Choices by 3-year and u-year Old Nursery School Children 3-Yr. Olds u-Yr. Olds (N=l3) (N=17) Mean Duration of Friendship Choices 6.61 10.23 SD 3.71 3.59 t = 2.53, df u 28, significant <:.02 level. The difference between the mean duration scores of the 3~year and 9-year olds was significant beyond the .02 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected and it may be assumed from the results of this study that the ability to play cooperatively with the same peers over a period of time is a function of maturity which usually develops simultaneously with chronological age. 16. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION The failure to reveal significant association between self con- cept and peer participation does not necessarily negate the assump- tion that a child who thinks well of himself is inspired to be friendly toward his peers. Failure to reject the null hypothesis in the present instance may be due to the fact that "self as subject" was used as a measure of "self concept". Perhaps "self as object", or the perception which one has of the way in which he is seen by significant others in his life, is a more accurate estimate of "self concept." However, it was the opinion of the Es who adminis- tered the Brown IDS Self Concept Reference Test that the instrument as a whole is not sufficiently sensitive to differentiate between children in a comparatively homogeneous school population. The format is such that a child--especially one who is already "test-wise"-- almost invariably responds positively to the first question regard- less of its appropriateness. The preponderance of high scores appears, then, to be an artifact‘ and cannot be regarded as a true indication of the children's self concepts. The only three low scores seemed to be either the result of emotional immaturity or precocious mental development, rather than a measure of self concept. More- over, the vocabulary of the test is appropriate for only a very narrow age range—~immature children being unaware of the meaning of some of the adjectives while advanced children respond on a cogni— tive level. Different results would be expected if a more sensitive l7. and appropriate instrument were used to measure self concept or if the Brown Test in its entirety were administered to less sophisticated children who have not been so frequently exposed to empirical studies in a laboratory atmosphere. The greater ability which 4-year olds exhibit in establishing continuing friendships with members of their nursery school group may, in reality, be a function of increased perception of the concept of duration. For instance, u-year olds are more likely to look ahead for a week or a month as they anticipate doing something with a "buddy", whereas 3-year olds live primarily in the present. The concept of time seems to correlate with play activity; that is, increased perception of time and duration, develop along with the ability to participate in co- operative play. This is important for programming and instruction at all levels. Teachers should be aware that chronological age, more than physical size or appearance, determines a child's pattern of social interaction. It is also important to identify excessive differentials be- tween chronological age and emotional maturity so that help may be given to the older child who cannot interact with his peers at a level consonant with his age. Likewise, the younger child who is exceptionally mature emotionally should be encouraged to develop maximally in the area of social interaction. A teacher's philosophy will determine how much emphasis she puts upon peer relations within her classroom. If she considers this to be a critical part of the curriculum, she will provide both play 18. and work experiences within a context of reasonable social freedom. In this way, she may observe each child's behavior and develop strategy to reinforce adaptive behavior while attempting to modify ineffective or maladaptive behavior. The more teachers and re- searchers can identify the pertinent variables affecting the child's peer status, the more specific help can be given to children who, as early as nursery school, have difficulty relating to their peers. lg. IMPLICATIONS As studies in which predictions have been made from early be- havioral records suggest a positive relation between the quality of early social behavior in the peer group and adult social adjust- ment, it seems important to further refine hypotheses about peer relations among nursery school children. The present study indicates that continued efforts should be made to develop a sensitive in- strument which adequately measures the self concept of young chil— dren. Also, it would seem pertinent to follow "only" children throughout their school experience in an attempt to determine whether their initial handicap in establishing meaningful peer re- lationships is eventually overcome, and at what grade level. The association between chronological age and emotional maturity should be examined and utilized at all levels to develop more effective classroom programs. It is hoped that this research study has contributed in a small way toward the identification and understanding of a few of the innumerable variables which contribute toward successful peer relations among nursery school children. The more hypotheses can be refined and tested, the greater is the possibility of zeroing in with the specific help early in a child's school career which he needs in order to establish successful patterns of friendship and social interaction. APPENDIX 20. , C- . f _' APPENDIX I Scoring Sheet for Brown -- IDS Self Concept Reference Test 1/ if ‘1 Example of question format: 1. Now tell me, is Johnny Gallagher happy or is he sad? 2. Does Johnny Gallagher's mother think Johnny Gallagher is happy or sad? Item S311 MES Teacher _I_’_e_<_a_1: Score* gears 5.2.222 255.2 1. Happy-sad {I;\O l, O l, 0 1, O 2. Clean-dirty 1, 0 l, 0 1, O l, 0 3. Good looking-ugly l, 0 l, 0 1, 0 1, 0 4. Likes to play with other kids-doesn't like to 4’: play with other kids '1, O 1, O 1, 0 1, 0 5. Likes to have own things- likes to have other kids things (I, O l, 0 1, 0 l, 0 6. Good-bad ;"I, o 1, o 1, o 1, o 7. Likes to talk a lot-doesn't ,,p like to talk a lot 1,;95 1, o 1, o 1, o 8. Smart-stupid (I, o 1, o 1, o 1, o 9. Scared of a lot of things- not scared of a lot of ,w things ’1, 0 1, 0 1, O 1, 0 10. Scared of a lot of people- not scared of a lot of people 1, 0 l, 0 1, 0 1, 0 11. Likes the way clothes look- doesn't like the way ' clothes look 1, 0 1, 0 1, 0 l, 0 12. Strong-weak ii, 0 1, o 1, o 1, o 13. Healthy-sick '1, o 1, o 1, o l, o 14. Likes the way (my) face looks-doesn't like the . ~ way (my) face looks ilj'o 1, 0 l, 0 1, 0 *Note: Score values parallel order in which adjectives are presented. 21 APPENDIX PIAY SITUATION -- PICTURE BOARD W Record Form Child's Name / “1;; ’ I'LL; Child's Code No. :1. Head Start Center // " "./:' ”1" Date ‘2'— " ,4" - '4 Play Situation Voluntay or "Urged" Response Response (Check one) - I, r" 1st card selected F""(’/ 1st responses .1 ('94:; . f I let response ‘J ,f-f C .‘r‘7 "I 3rd card lst response 1 "/7/ 1 ’ «:7 ("3" card “GIECtGdM lst response] 515’. :/// ' 5th card selectedM lst responséA’ -124! /;/_ 21):! card lst response . 2nd respons " 22 I u. 10. 11. 12. 13. l“. 15. 16. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bossard and Bell, "Personality Roles in the Large Family," Child Development, 1955, 26:71—78. Breckenridge, M.S., and Margaret Murphy. Growth and Development of—theHYeung Child, W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, 1963. Crow, L.D. and Alice Crow. Child Psychology, Barnes and Noble, Inc., N.Y. 1960. Chap. 13, pp. 181—197. Green, E.H., "Friendships and Quarrels among Preschool Children," Child Development, 1933, M: 232-252. , "Group Play and Quarreling among Preschool Children," Child Development, 1933, u: 302-307. Hilgard, J.R., "Learning and Maturation in Preschool Children," Journal of General Psycholggy, 1932. Jenkins, G.G. et a1. These are Your Children (expanded edition), Scott Poresman Co., N.Y., 1953. pp. 3-110. Lambert, W.W. Handbook of Research Methods in Child Development, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., N.Y., 1960 Chap. 20. Landreth, Catherine. The Psychology of Early Childhood, Alfred A. Knopf, N.Y., 1962. Chap. 7, pp. 215—236. Marshall, Helen and B.E. McCandless, "A Study in Prediction of Social Behavior of Preschool Children," Child Development, 1957, 28: 1H9-159. McCandless, B.R., Bilous, C.B. and H.L. Bennett, "Peer Popularity and Dependence on Adults in Preschool-age Socialization," Child Development, 1961, 32: 511-518. McCandless, B.R. and Helen R. Marshall, "A Picture-Sociometric Technique for Preschool Children and its Relation to Teacher Judge- ments of Friendship," Child Development, 1957, 28: 139-199. Mead, G.H. Mind, Self and Society. In A. Strauss QEd.) The Social Psychology of George Herbert Mead. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1956. pp. 128-29u. Mussen, Paul H. et a1. Child Development and Personality - The Pre- School Years, Harper and Row, N.Y., 1963. Chapters 8—10, pp. 233-236. Northway N. and L. Weld, "Children and Their Contemporaries; What has been learned from Sociometric Studies, "The Bulletin of the Institute of Child Study, 1956, University of Toronto, 18: 8-16. Straong, Ruth M. An Introduction to Child Study. Development Dur- ing Preschool Years, MacMillan Co., N.Y., 1967. Chap. 9, pp. 135-17”. 23. "7'71 TINT! Will ’1'“