t ‘ “h.% V _ _ _.'_. . 9-‘fir u : 9.11. . ‘ A THE DEVELOPMENT AND CRiTICAL 3URVEY OF MODERN TRENDS IN FURNITURE AND FABRICS N THE UNITED STATES 1925-1945 Thai; for the Degra- of M. A. MICHlGAN STATE COLLEGE Ruth Estella Hawthorne 1949 1llfltmml'mmlwrmmmmnMRI 3 1293 01107 06 :if sffih 5.517.}. This is to certifg that the L-C. ”15;". thesis entitled . {33313, ‘ n _' 5. THE 13mm AND CRITICAL ‘~ ,' SURVEY OF MODERN TRENDS IN m ’ i". ’ NITURE AND FABRICS IN THE UNITED ' STATES ; . presented by Ruth Estella Hawthorne has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for ML.— degree in Mn. h ‘ . ‘ . F o 0-169 r 1‘ . J .5“ . ' ' . {I , ' ~ £395 .g‘ I. do, I: .3, . All!» 3“» THE DEVELOPMENT AND CRITICAL SURVEY OF MODERN TRENDS IN FURNITURE AND FABRICS IN THE UNITED STATES 1925-1945 By Ruth EBtella Hawthorne W A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts 1949 THESIS TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF PLNTES.................................................. 1 LIST OF FIGURES.,............................................... ii INTRODUCTION.................................................... 1 Statement Of Pro'blemeeeeooooooooooo.oooeeoooooooeoooeoooooo 1 N mrPOSGOOOCO0.0...0...0.0.0...O...0..OOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOC ProcedurOOOOOOOOOOOO09.0.00...I.000......O'COOOOOOOOOOODOOO 2 PART I - HISTORICAL BACKGROUND f Chapter I Modern.Architecta Create a New Philosophy..... 4 Chapter II Revolts Arise Against Tradition in the Minor ArtBOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCCC 26 Chapter III The Paris Exposition.Awakens the United States 37 PART II - MODERN TRENDS IN THE UNITED STATES Chapter IV 1925-1929...................................., 42 - Chapter V 1930-1934?°°"'°'°°°""°°"""°"""i'°"'9 51 Chapter VI 1955-1939..,.................................. 59 Chapter VII 1940-1945..OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.OOOOOOOOOOOOOC 69 SUI‘ID’IARYOIOOOOO0.0.0.0....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00......IQOOOOOCOOOOOO 84 CONcmSIOlICOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.00.0...0......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOC 92 BIBLIOGRAPHY.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOO00.... 97 LIST OF PLATES PLATE _ PAGE I House in Palo Alto, California, by Frank Lloyd wright... 19- II Exterior of the Walter F. Bogner House.................. 20 III Floor Plans of the'Walter F. Bogner House............... 23 IV Interior of the‘Walter F. Bogner House.................. 24 V Interiors typical of the early Twentieth Century........ 28 VI An Interior in the Art Nouveau Style.................... 32 VII Interior from Paris Ekposition.......................... 88 VIII ‘An Interior in the Classic Modern Style................. 93 IX An Interior in.the.Fantastic Modern Style............... 95 I An Interior in the Functional Modern Style.............. 96 -1- B. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. LIST OF FIGURES Tubular Metal Chair by Harcel Breuer, 1925.............. Simplified Metal Chair by Marcel Breuer................. Upholstered Chairs in the Modernistic Style............. Bed in the Art MOderne Style............................ Skyscraper Bookcase by Paul T. Frankl................... Tubular Metal Chair, 1933............................... Chair in the Classic Modern Style....................... Upholstered Chair in the Contemporary Style............. Chair of melded Plywood by Alvar Aalto.................. Swedish Modern Chair'with Exposed'Wbod‘Frame............ Music Corner on Exhibition at the New York'World's Fair, 1939.............................................. Chair by Saarinen and Eames, 1941....................... "Free Form? coffee table with glass top................. Sectional Units by Ediel Saarinen....................... Diagram.of the Widdecomb ”Flezi4Units“.................. Lacquered Chest of Drawers in the Chinese Modern Style.. -11.. PAGE 34 36 47 50 53 55 57 6O 62 67 71 74 76 7B 82 INTRODUCTION Statement 93 Hoblem The modern movement in the beginning was developed primarily as a movement in opposition to the prevailing eclecticism of the nine- teenth century. In the arts thinking men rebeled against the con- tinued use of stale classicism and determined to create an expression characteristic of their own time. The prophet of modern architecture in America, Frank Lloyd Wright, as well as certain Eiropean architects , developed the new philosophy which has become the basis for the whole modern movement. While modern furnishings have been largely accepted in contemp- orary living, there is a question as to how many of the owners or pros- pective purchasers of modern furnishings really understand what lies behind the material evidence of the modern movement. It is only with a knowledge of the background of the movement that one can judge contemp- orary styles to distinguish the truly modern from the bogus imitation. Themodern movement in the United States was initiated through the influence of the Paris Exhibition in 1925. Obviously, the influ- ence of this event indicated the necessity for thoroughly exploring all information concerning the subject. To understand the development of the modarn trend in the United States, the furniture and fabrics (which are the most representative expressions offeriy style) were studied from 1925 to 1945 in relation to the factors and influences of the times. No study has been made concerning this problem. The information obtained from such a study is of value and interest to students of home furnishings. -1- Purpose: The purposes of this thesis are: First, to study early twentieth century architectural developments so as to understand better the philosophy of contemporary architecture and design. Second, to study the various modern.movements and their effects in order to understand modern interiors. Third, to survey the furniture and fabrics expressive of this new movemEnt in interior decoration between 1925-1945 inclusive. Fourth, to review critically the furniture and fabrics of these years as to quality of design and function and to select pictures and drawings of furniture and interior furnishings that are most represent- ative of these years. Procedure: Books and periodicals were obtained from the'Michigan State College Library, the State Library of Michigan, the Library of the University of Michigan, the New York City Library, and the Library of the museum of Mbdern Art. They were examined for material pertinent to the problem. The work and writings of the pioneers of modern architecture and inter- ior design were studied so as to understand better the thinking of these leaders and the philosophy of this era. All available material concerning the Paris Exposition was studied so as to gain an insight into this event of major importance and influ- one 6. A study was then made, by five year periods, of the modern trends in furniture and fabrics between the;years 1925 and 1945 inclusive. The study was made by examining each issue of the volumes of the following periodicals: House Beautiful from 1925 to 1945 inclusive House and Garden from 1925 to 1945 inclusive Architectural Forum from 1925 to 1945 inclusive The Architectural Record from 1925 to 1945 inclusive as well as the trade publication, Retailing, Home Furnishings Edition for the years from 1952 to 1945. (The volumes _7, 13, 15-16, and 18-19 were incomplete and at the same time volume 14 was not available.) Fran this study conclusions were drawn as to the influences and characteristics of the furnishings from 1925 to 1945. Photographs that were pa'tinent to the development of the problem were selected. Line drawings were made to illustrate the information obtained. -3- PART I HISTORICAL BACKGROUND CHAPTER I Iodern Architects Create A New Philosophy Architecture, the art and science of building, has for centuries provided the background for daily living. The diversity of styles appar- ent from a survey of historic structures resulted from the various influ- ences at work at the time these buildings were constructed. Notable vari- ations were the result of climate, tepography, religion, transportation, and social customs. As these factors influenced the philosophy and daily living of the people, they were reflected in the contanporary architec- ture. In its turn architecture, as’it assimilated new ideas and techniques, became an influence on daily living. In order to haveany real understand- ing of the architecture of any period, it is necessary, therefore, to be, conscious of the attitudes and influences contemporary with thebuilding. Until the nineteenth century all styles were modern in the sense that the architecture was developed to suit the needs of that day. With the nineteenth century came the era of revivals due, in part, to the industrial revolution with its quantities of machine made goods and the increasing influence exerted by the middle class. In spite of technical progress the art expressions of the nineteenth century proved it was a backward-looking era. Late in the nineteenth century there appeared in the United States a man named Louis Sullivan who was an extraordinary architectural thinker. He was one of the first men to build the simple slablike office buildings that were the prototype of the modern skyscraper. Sullivan was inter- ested in the possibilities of new building materials. He had evolved an unorthodox idea that architecture should be constructed from the inside out, expressing the purpose for which it was designed. His work danon- strated his formila that "form follows function". Louis Sullivan and some of the bolder architects of the Middle West were known as members of the Chicago School. The Chicago School employed a new type of construction-~the iron skeleton, which became known as "Chicago construction". The modern business and administration building was the creation of the Chicago School. To Louis Sullivan goes much of the credit for these buildings. Sullivan was the most important archi- tect of the Chicago School, and his influence left its mark upon the next generation of architects in the Middle West. The greatest architect in our country and one of the greatest archi- tects of all time is Frank Lloyd Wright, who began building at the turn of the outury, and whose writings as well as his buildings have influ- enced architecture all over the world. Frank Lloyd Wright, born in Wisconsin in 1869, attended the Univer- sity of Wisconsin where he studied civil engineering because there was no School of Architecture at the university. In 1887 heleft the univer- sity' before completing his coarse of study and went to Chicago, where a year'later he was working in the drafting room of the great pioneer of modern architecture, Louis Sullivan. Here he worked for six years. Sullivan, who has been fondly referred to as "der liebemiester", is the only architect to whom Wright has ever admitted a debt. Wright's phil- osophy was markedly influenced by his association with Sullivan and he adapted Sullivan's formula 'onrm follows function". However, whm Wright began to work independently, he did not continue directly in the manner -5- of the Chicago School. "He did not carry over the use of the new mater- ials, the iron skeleton, and the great glass surfaces of the office buildings into his own sphere-~housing."1 In describing his early building efforts Wright has written: Already, when I began to build, commercial machine standardi- zation had taken the life of handicraft. To make the new forms living expressions of the new order of the machine and continue what was noble in tradition did trouble me. I wanted to realize genuine new forms appropriate to the old (natural) and to new (synthetic) materials but I should have to so de- sign them that the machine (or process) that must make them couldzn'ake than better than anything could possibly be made by hand. In his lectures on mod nrn architecture, which were given at Prince- ton University, Frank Lloyd Wright presented these objectives in explain- \ ing his building: 1. To reduce the number of necessary parts of the house and the separate room to a minimum, and make all come together as en- closed space--so divided that light, air and vista permeated the whole with a sense of unity. 2. To associate the building as a whole with its site by exten- sion and emphasis of the planes parallel to the ground. 3. To eliminate the room as a box and the house as another by making all walls enclosing screens. Make all house proportions more liberally human, withless wasted'space in structure, and structure more appropriate to material, and so the whole more livable. 4. To get the unwholesome basemmt up out of the ground. 5. To harmonize all necessary openings to “outside" or to "in- side" with good human proportions and make them occur naturally in the scheme of the whole building. The room as such was now the essential architectural expression. ISigfried Giedion, Space; Time and Architecture (Cambridge: The Harvard University Press, 1941), p. 519. zFrederick Gutheim, editor, Frank Lloyd Wright on Architect- 33.9. (New York: Duell, Sloan—and Pearce, 1941), pp. 785-186. -5- 6. To eliminate combinations of different mterials in favor of mono-materials so far as possible; to use no ornament that did not come out of the nature of materials, to make the whole building clearer and more expressible as a place to live in, and give the conception of the building appropriate revealing emphasis. 7. To incorporate all heating, lighting, plumbing so that these systems become constitumt parts of the building itself. 8. To incorporate as organic architecture-~50 far as possible- furnishings, making than all one with the building and design- ing than in simple terms for machine work. Again straight lines and rectilinear forms. 9. Eliminate the decorator. He was all curves and all efflores- cence, if not all "period". Wright's first house was built in 1895. The loose planning, the block-like forms, and the horizontality of his style were already con- spicuous. The young architect from this time forward showed himself to be a greater innovator and a greater architect than his master. The Willet house built in 1901 is a notable example of Wright's early work. In the Robbe house, built in Chicago, the architect has expressed the functional plan in a three dimensional organisation of planes that was absolutely unprecedented. This house marked the climax of Wright's period of Prarie Architecture. In the early years of the twentieth century whai every house large or snall was covered with ingenious jigger work, the product of the scroll saw and the turning lathe, Wright's ideas of house planning were little short‘of revolutionary. Wright's houses look as if they belonged to the earth; the plan had been brought down and broadened out into spaciousness. He wrote of his early plans: 3Frank Lloyd Wright, Modern’Arphitecture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1931), pp. 73-75. So I declared the whole lower floor as one room, cutting off the kitchen as a laboratory, putting servants' sleeping and living quarters neoct to it, for certain domestic purposes-- like dining or reading, or receiving a formal caller. There were no plans like these in existence at the time....Scores of doors disappeared and no end of partition. The house be- came more free as "space" and more livable, too. Interior spaciousness began to dawn. It was not easy for Wright to carry out his original plans in the actual building for on every hand he met opposition. After completing the Winslow House, his next client said that he "did not want a house so different that he would have to go down the backway to his morning train to avoid being laughed at."5 There were many other difficulties. Bankers refused to loan money on the queer houses and so friends had to be found to give financial assistance. Mill men upon reading the name of the arch- itect quickly returned the drawings, remarking that they were not hunting for trouble. Contractors, unfamiliar with the architect's innovations, more often than not failed to read the plans correctly, so that frequently much had to be left off the building. By this time the buildings had strayed from the original plans, nevertheless, the clients usually stood by interested and excited, but unfortunately when they moved into their new house quite frequently they had no money left and had to drag their old furniture into their new world. The matter of money too frequently crippled the original scheme in which all the furnishings and the heating 6 and lighting systems were incorporated with the architectural plan. 4Frank Lloyd Wright, 32.4 cit., p. 72 5Frederick Gutheim, editor, 22. cit., p. 187. 61bid., p. 187. -8- By 1910 Wright had achieved a flexibility of open planning that was heretofore unapproached; in other countries at that time the flex- ible ground plan and the flexible molded interior and exterior were almost unknown. ”Wright's realization of a flexible treatment of the inner space of a building is probably his greatest service to architect- ure. It brought life, movement, freedom into the whole rigid and be- numbed body of modern architecture."7 Now, at forty years of age, Wright had completed a body of work which-was both great and influential enough to assure him his place in histcry. Ironically enough, it was. not in his own country that Wright's work was acclaimed, forin America he lived almost as an exile. To his Ameri- can contemporaries, he seemed to be thelast representative of a lost cause. Actually the cause was not lost, but for a while it became over shadowed by Classic and Gothic revivals. While in America Wright was not understood by his countrymen, the important thinkers in Eirope realized what he had achieved, and especially in Holland and Germany his work was most influential. Thus, in Eirope, Wright, after a short time, was accepted and under- stood by the pioneers of the modern movement in architecture. His book "Augerfuhrte Bauten und Eitwurfe Von Frank Lloyd Wright" was published in Germany in 1910 and has not since been approached in comprehmsive- ness. This book was supplemented a year later by a smaller work on the same subj set. This, too, enjoyed a very wide circulation and influence. 7Sigfried Giedion, 313. cit., p. 327. -9- Berlage, an important Dutch architect, came under the influence of wright when in.1912, he visited the United States and became imp pressed by the work of wright. The lectures of Berlage on the work of Frank Lloyd‘Wright and the books written by Wright and published in German were a strong influence on the younger students of Berlage, the most notable of these being J. J. P. Oud. In the early years of the twentieth century, only a few individuals consciously broke with the nominal discipline of the revivals. Such men ‘were Berlage,'wagner, and Behrens. Each architect broke in his own way with the immediate past, each sought in his own direction the positive elements which have been combined in the last decade. But there was no styl- istic integration.until after the war.8 In Vienna, Otto‘Wagner attempted to break away from.traditional architecture. He believed that a new style in architecture arose from an old one as a result of'new materials, new technical processes, and new sociological problems. These were the elements of the neW'style: steel and reinforced concrete, the new materials; factory manufactured building instruments, the new technical processes; and the baffling prob- lems of rapidly growing industrial cities, the neszocial conditions. Josef Hoffmann, a student of Otto Wagner, has, perhaps, become more widely recognized than his teacher.’ Hoffmann studied under'Wagner at the'Vienna.Academy of Arts and in.Hoffmann!s work there can be seen a reaction against the formal coldness of Wagner's buildings. Hoffmann's chief interest was in the minor arts and under his leadership bril- liantly decorative ornament was developed. From.the field of handicraft BHenry—Russell - Hitchoobk,The International Style: Architecture Since 1922 (New Yorkz'W.'W. Norton and commm’ Inc.’ 1932), PC 24. -10.. ill'- ‘ which was Hoffmann's first interest, he altered the field of architect- ure. In his architectural designs his early interest in ornament is reflected to an extent that has prompted Henry-Russell Hitchock to re- mark that the architecture of Hoffmann "is too often fine only on account of the exquisitely executed ornament and not as in many works of Berlage or Wright, despite crudity of detail."9 One particularly fine example to Hoffmann's work was the Austrian Pavilion at the Ecpositions in Rome and Cologne just before World War I. Peter Behrens in Germany began executing buildings at the same time as Josef Hoffmann and under somewhat the same influences. Behrens stud- ied as a painter in Karlsruch, mssledorf, and Munich. His architectur- al work was sound and vigorous, perhaps due to the influence of Van de Velde who was director of the Weimar Art School. Behrens, also came under the influence of Hermann Muthesius, an architect who had spent some time in London making a study of English housing. Upon his return to Germany, Muthesius wrote a book, "Des mglische Hans" which was pub- lished in 1905. Behrens'became the architect of the German General Electric Com- pamr in 1907. He built power plants and factories of monumental impres- siveness by using modern construction methods. Such buildings were necessarily of utilitarian character; consequently, little ornament was used. Behrens consciously transformed the factory into a dignified place of work. In his industrial architecture before the war, Behrens, through extreme simplification, created the effect of volume to replace the gHenry-Russell Hitchock, Modern Architecture; Romnticism and Reintegration (New York; Payon and Clark—Ltd” 19297, p. 132. -11.. traditional effect of mass. Behrens's industrial architecture was free from the compromise with tradition.which characterized his houses. "While his houses and apartments lack the grace and delicacy of the Austrian and the fantasy and humor of the Dutch, they have a sobriety which represents the honesty and the grandeur of the conception of the new tradition."10 The work of these men, Berlage, Wagner, and Behrens, was not re- lated or integrated to any sense except by the fact that each man was working independently with the techniques and materials at hand to create a truly contemporary architecture. To the next generation fell the task of combining and crystallizing the various aesthetics and technical re- sults of the experimentation of their elders.11 These postdwar archi- tects, Gropius, Le Corbusier, Oud, and Van der Rohe, were the leaders of modern architecture in mrope; their work comprised the international style. Sincethese men were the creators of modern architecture and of the modern.movement, the principles of their architecture should be com- prehended to understand the modern movement as a whole. Walter Gropius was the nephew of a great German architect. He stud- ied in Berlin and Munich; in 1908 he went to the atelier of Peter Behrens where Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe alsocame to work. Two years later he established his own office in Berlin. Gropius has become well known as both an architect and an educator. In 1914 he was appointed loHenry-Ruesell»Hitchoo'cl,c,hiodern Architecture; Romanticism and Reintegration (New York: Payon and Clark Ltd., 19297, p. 137. 11Henry-Russell Hitchcockflhe International étyle; Archi- tecture Since 1922 (New York: W. W. Norton, and Company Inc., 1932), P0 250 . -12- Director of the Exposition at Cologne and the same year, with Adolf Meyer, Gropius designed the factory at Alfred, which was completed be- fore he entered the service of World war I. This building stands alone as the only piece of architecture by a so called modern architect which was built before'Wbrld‘War I. After the war there was very little architectural production, par-_ ticularly in.France and Germany. Building ceased for even longer than the war years, and it was not until 1922 that building reflected the re- sults of the modern trend. When the new buildings appeared, they were to be found contemporaneously in.France, Holland, and Germany. It was not until 1925 that Le Corbusier's Pavillion de E'Sprit Nouveau at the Paris Ekposition ofDecorative Arts formally presented modern architect- ure to the general public. Although Gropius did not reestablish his private practice after the war until 1928, he was still closely allied with architecture and the modern.movament. ‘When.the war ended, Gropius was appointed Director of the Grand Ducal Art School and the Arts and Crafts School at Weimar. These two schools he amalgamated into a high school for design, Das Staatliche Bauhaus‘weimar. "At the Bauhaus under Gropius the effort was made to unite art and industry, art and daily life; using architecture as the in- termediary....The principles of contemporary art were there, for the first time, transplanted into the field of education." In 1925 the Bauhaus was moved to Dessau. The opposition had grown too strong for Gropius in‘Weimar, where he had been accused of teaching "architectural socialism”. The new building for the Bauhaus at Dessau 12Sigfried Giedion, 22. 213., p. 397. -15.. which Gropius designed is one of his most outstanding accomplishments. He designed the buildings for the conmunity surrounding the Bauhaus including homes for faculty, dormitories for students, and the school and workshop known as the Bauhaus. The school building was supported by steel and had walls of glass. The appearance of the building was like nothing that had ever been seen before. Gropius's greatest interest had always been in the field of low cost housing. He made many plans for low cost communities, some of which were carried out by the government. Frequently the buildings were not completed according to the plans, due to lack of funds, and as time went on the government did less andless building as political con- ditions became more‘unsettled in Germany. In 1984 Gropius moved to London and continued his work as an archi- tect there. Three years later he accepted a professorship in the Depart- ment of Architecture at Harvard University, and in 1938 he was appointed Chairman of the Department of Architecture. In the United States Gropius has been associated with Marcel Breuer, a young designer and architect. Breuer studied at the Bauhaus where he later became an instructor. In America Breusr has designed the furnishings for several of the projects undertaken with Gropius. "Breuer is considered the more imaginative and intuitive of the two architects, while Gropius seems the more logi- cal and precise."1:5 The greatest contribution which Gropius has made to modern architecture has been his innovations in technique. 13mins Block, editor, "Walter Gropius," Current Biography 1941 (NewYork: The H. W. Wilson Com- panyTl94lf, p. 101. -14.. Itwas Le Corbusier who rode the world conscious of the new archi- tecture. The influence of his books, projects, and buildings has been without equal since the end of World War I. Le Corbusier, the pen namd used by anuard Jeanerat, was born in.Switzerland and studied engineer- ing in the local school of Arts and Crafts. In Paris he worked under Perret and in Berlin under Peter Behrens. After travelling about in Europe for a year he settled down, as a painter in Paris. In 1920 with- Ozenfont, a painter, he founded the review, L'Bprit Nouveau. The in- fluence of Le Corbusier's writings has been extensive though the'number of his building projects has been relatively small. LeCorbusier's archi- tectural plans have been chiefly for country villas. His experiments in glass and concrete could be afforded only by the'wealthy while his tech- nical extravagances indicated that he would never be a sociological architect. Perhaps the designs of Le Corbusier reflect more of the artist than the builder. J. J. P. Oud, the leading architect in Holland, studied in the Amsterdam School of Arts and Crafts. From.the lectures of Berlage he became interested in the work and writings of Frank Lloyd‘wright. Cub- ism, the contemporary movement in painting, and the influence of ab- stract art were reflected in Oud's designs, which becams extremely simp ple, vigorous, and geometric. His early work was an exercise in free creation--an aesthetic experimmt. In 1918 Oud became the architect for the city of Rotterdam. He designed street houses for the Hook van Holland in 1924. These were executed three years_later. The buildings 'were technically excellent and rich in expression. Perhaps it is be- cause Holland is such a tiny country and so cramped for space that in -15- order to utilise space in the very best manner 01d was forced to develop his designs, for it is true that Oud's‘greatest contribution to modern architecture has been in his designs. Two years after Walter Gropius left the Bauhaus School at Dessau, Mies van der Rohe took over his position. Van der Rohe, who was born in Germamr, had designed furniture in the office of the interior de- signer, Bruno Paul, and had worked as an assistant to Peter Behrens. He established himself in Berlin as an architect in 1911. The German Pavilion of the International Exhibition in Barcelona in 1929 was his masterpiece. The building was a dramatic piece of work created through the use of modern materialsm-glass, shining metal, and slabs of marble in a free flowing plan. Van der Rohe is an artist of the plan, a decor- ator in the best sense. The creation of space through a free flowing plan was his greatest contribution to modern architecture. . These modern architects through experimentation and analizaticn developed the following concepts of modern architecture. The treatment of architecture as volume is the first principle. This new conception of structure‘as volume rather than mass, has been madepcssible by the technical advances in the building industry. Solidity, no longer an ess ential for sound building, has been replaced by lightness and poise. These advances in both theory and technology have made possible the flowing space plan which is the essence of the modern doctrine. Walls no longer necessary for support have become merely screens to enclose space. Windows, heretofore restricted in size at atime when walls were necessary for support, took on new proportions. This conception -16— of flowing space is not restricted to the floor plan alone but envelopes the outdoor living area to create a unified whole. The asymmetricplan is one of the distinguishing characteristics of modern architecture. The asymmetrical form is a result not of a con- scious effort to be new or different; but to express more realistically the functions of contemporary living. In the words of Louis Sullivan "form follows function". Whereas in the past the process of daily living had to be adjusted to fit into the square or rectangular box called home, the modern architect has reversed the process and designed the house to fit the activities of the family. Besides the functional aspect of the plan, a harmonious organization of the whole is necessary to express an esthetic design. The almost complete absence of ornament has set modern architecture apart from every other period. Following the introduction of themachine, the quality of the execution of ornament had steadfastly declined. The modern architect, faced with this situation, preferred instead to use the natural undecorated surface. While ornament cfthe traditional sort is almost wholly absent from the contemporary scene, there is no lack of interest and variety which is provided by the structure and materials of modern architecture. Texture, color, and patterns .of many materials make ornament in the traditional sense unnecessary. Buildings which were truly modern were constructed in the United States only afterthe philosophy and objectives of modern architecture were comprehmded. By the early thirties there were evidences of the influence of the'International Style. At last Frank Lloyd Wright was being recognized, and interest in his work grow. The revival of early -17... American architecture brought an appreciation of the straightforward use of material. This was the real beginning of modern architecture in America . In California modern architecture found early acceptance. The 'informal way of living and the mild climate seemed especially favor- able for the development of the new style. There appeared in Southern California the uncompromising modern style of Richard Neutra. William Wilson Whrster in the San Francisco Bay area was building livable 'wooden houses in the native tradition but with a look of the contempor- ary. The emphasis placed on outdoor living on the west coast due to the climate as well as the social informality is an important factor in the development of a characteristic sort of architecture. Other features of California's regional architecture are the sprawling plans and the extensive use of wood. ‘A particularly good example of the sprawling plan is evidenced in the Palo Alto house (Plate 1) designed by Frank Lloyd‘Wright. In this plan'Wright had continued to demonstrate his own.thesis that the house should lie close to the ground and become a part of the natural site. The distinctive regional style of California, wood construction and wide open planning, has been combined in this plan 'with the personal style of Wright. Nbdern architecture has taken root in New England too. Here it has adopted the traditional materials of white painted wood and New England stone to produce a regional style.- The home of Welter F. Bogner (Plate II) in Lincoln, Massachusetts is an example of New England re- gional architecture. -18... Est; sacs seat as 39.525 .32 Sea 5 38m H mafia -19- onsom nonwom .m gonad; on» we aouaopxm .f... I (.2. ul)’1‘.\\n‘g . r n s. .‘i . -20- As modern architecture was accepted in other parts of the United States, there appeared typical styles for each region. Traditional materials and plans were in some ways reflected in the modern home. Medern architecture is an adaptable style. ‘Wherever the modern home is constructed, it is always built for man. The modern house is not built merely to provide shelter but to provide an opportunity for un- hampered and gracious living. The plan will be developed from the in- side out. New forms will be developed as solutions to new problems and new materials. The beauty of modern is to be found not merely in the absence of ornament but in the abstract aesthetic forms and the nature of materials. The conception of volume as opposed to mass, the development of free forms and asymmetric plans, and the lack of ornament are the distinguishing characteristics of the new architecture. To illustrate graphically the principles of the modern theory the following plates illustrating the house of‘Walter F. Bogner were chosen. Professor Bogner, a member of therstaff of Harvard'University, designed his own home to demonstrate that modern architecture is not a luxury but a means of giving more to the owner for the same amount of money than would have to be expended on a traditional house. The traditional New'Ehgland building materials were used for the construction of this home, though there is nothing about the appearance of the house that hints of the traditional. The design quality of the plan is outstanding and is achieved through the use of various planes and emphasized through the use of materials--the pattern of stone, the tone of wood, and the smoothness of concrete (Plate II). The three dimen- sional feeling has given a quality of lightness as well as poise. -21- The design of the facade is but reflection of the well thought out plan inside. The fluid spaciousness is evident in the floor plan (Plate III) as well as in the relation of the house to the surrounding grounds. The living room and dining room, which can be thrown together at will, continues uninterrupted into the library (Plate: Fla and I‘fb). The living room on one side is separated from the outdoors only by a huge sheet of glass, while the dining room is separated from the terrace by the same sort of transparent wall. Even on the second floor the out- doors has been brought inside with the use of the porch. The whole plan has been oriented in such a way that the living areas will face south and thus receive the greatest amount of sunlight and the accompanying emotional stimulus. (Plate IVc). Professor Bogner has summed up the problem, "All our ideas for the house would have been of no value had it not been possible to execute them for a limited budget. All the way through I considered the import- ance of emotional reactions in addition to the functional reasons for the design."14 Modern architecture then seeks not style but substance, not orm- ment or ostentation but rational simplicity, not standard plans and facade but proficiency in exposition, not fitting the family to the house but the house to the family, not imitation but crea- tion. Ideally it strives to make its fresh approach to the prob- 1em of design by the study of the latest findings concerning the nature of man and of social trends. It seeks fresh achievement in construction by thorough understanding and mastery of new ma- terials and processes and of their potentials in use. It studies intensively the client and the members of the household, the site and its neighborhood, the available local organizations and 14Walter F. Bogner, “Why I Planned My House This Way," House Beautiful, 832102, April, 1941. lrllilli'l'liifllll‘l' ‘3 : ' ———————— ._._ ————_. O W ,., “ ‘ .................. “00' oven) ....... E’ :3wa . “1 it? 4/4 I I , j- I if “I q H E i?” 1 ’ V , 3 , ,_ l v ‘3" 5 C “LJ‘OO‘OVER ‘ c up ~. PLATE III Floor Plans of the'Walter F. Bogner House ‘ll‘l‘l'llil‘ I .Iill. IVa IVb IVc PLATE IV Interior of the Welter F. Bogner House -2 4.. materials for construction, and attempts an individualized synthesis which will perfect the adaptation of the dwelling to man. The resultant house is not a "machine for living" but a perceiving utilization of machine products to ease, facilitate, and even inspire each process of daily living for each master of the family.15 T5James and Kathrine Morrow Ford, The Modern House in America (New York: Architectural Book Pub- lishing Company, 1940), p. 10. -25.. CHAPTER II Revolts Arise Against Tradition In The Minor Arts Throughout history the development of furniture design has always been closely related to the evolution of styles in architecture. The furniture of any period when viewed against its contemporary archi- tectural background appears to be coordinated, consciously or uncon- sciously, with the setting. This continuity of style observed in archi- tecture follows through the designs for furniture and textiles to the smallest accessory and_seems to be a result of the contemporary philoso- phy or plan for living. While the basic philosophy that inspired modern architecture was the same philosophy that inspired modern interiors, there 'were some variations in the rate of progress in these two movements. This is not to say that the two movements were independent of each other, for actually each influenced the other to a marked degree. The early beginnings of the modern movement in the minor arts was recOgnized in the.Arts and Crafts movement in the latter half of the nineteenth century. This revolt against the backward-looking dogmas of the Victorian age led to a new if not entirely original concept of design. In the transition from.handicraft to mechanical production indus- try 1ost not only many of the men who were trained and able to think in terms of both form and function but alse’its traditional basis for appreciation of form.in relation to function, material and technique. The development of adaptable materials and the perfection of new production.methods capable of imitating the most complicated handwork at low cost removed most of the techni- cal liantations that had kept the craftsmen forcibly aware of the need for differentiation in design.1 1Art in Progress (NeW'York: The Museum.of Modern Art, 1944), p. 191. -26... Thus the proud traditions of handicraft were swept aside by the introduc- tion of the machine, the instigator of the industrial revolution. When the logical construction and honest use of materials heretofore employed by theartisan was superseded by mass production in imitative materials and techniques, the standards of good design dropped to a new low. This irrationality of machine made copies of manual designs, and, in addition, the hodge-podge character and drabness of the furnishings of hisown day (Plate V) caused the Elglishman William Morris to rise in revolt. William Morris was a poet, social reformer, and designer of the nineteenth century. He believed that the minor arts could be saved from the degradation of machine production by restoring the handicraft method of production. Morris was inspired by the history of life in the Middle_Ages, the guilds and crafts of those days were of special interest to him. In 1859 when Morris married, he had Philip Webb build a house to fit his requirements. When Morris attempted to furnish his home, named the "Red House", he could find no beautiful or even satisfactory furni- ture on the commercial market. It was then that Morris began to design and make his own furniture. He was not satisfied to have produced fur-e nishings in good taste for himself alone, for he felt art should not be the exclusive luxury of the few. Wanting to make available to a wide public all that he considered good art, in 186l, he opened a shop and founded the firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner, Fine Art Workman in Painting, Carving, Furniture, and the Metals. This organization marked the beginning of modern industrial art. He alone had understood that designing without a' live knowledge of materials and of how to work them was one of the Chief reasons of the futility of nineteenth century industrial art. 80, with ""--1~ .. ’ . #M “a e a lot .0. 4 .. e r PLATE'V Interiors typical of the early Twentieth Century -28- an infuriated energy he set out to acquire the technique of those branches of handicraft...with which he was not famil- iar. ...it is this direct intercourse with his materials that has saved Merrie from.becoming a more imitator of medieval styles, which his enthusiasm.for the Middle Ages otherwise might easily have caused.2 Not only were the accomplishments of William.Morris outstanding,but in addition the amount of work achieved by Morris was stupendous. A few of the techniques he learned were: wall paper printing (1861), stained glass (1862), dying (1875), damaskdweaving (1877), rug-tufting (1878), tapestry-weaving (1878), and cotton printing (1881). Morris believed that he was reviving the Middle Ages though actual- ly he was doing much more: In his attempt to create this harmony through arts and crafts, he initiated a movement of considerable vitality which, despite its direction contained elements of a true idealism.and honesty which are basic elements in contemporary design as well. For this reason it may be said that Morris is the first important figure in the modern movanent. It is due to‘William.Morris and his indefatigable creative energy that the revival of handicraft became a reality in England. The Arts and Crafts Movement, which his teachings had originated, extended to the Continent prdducing, in the industrial arts, far reaching results. For this reason the modern movement in interior design owes more to'William Merrie than to any other artist of the nineteenth century. The Arts and Crafts movement influenced the German designers who 'were creating curves inspired by nature. Their theories were set forth in a magazine, Jugend (1896), thus giving the name of "Jugendstil" to ZNiknlauso Pevsner, Academies of Art (Cambridge: The University Press, 1940), p. 263. 3Eliot Noyes, Organic Design in Home Furnishings (New York: The Museum.of MOdern.Art,11941), p. 5. -29.. their style. Several German designersand architects, among them, Peter Behrens, Hans Poilizig, and Bruno Paul, started outgas painters; then, influenced by the arts and crafts movement, they moved into the field of design. These men were later influencial in the development of Arts- Crafts Schools in Germany. When the Belgian painter Henri Van de Velde was married in 1892, he searched for suitable furnishings for his home, but he was no more suc- cessful than William Morris in finding furnishings that were pleasing to him. Consequently he designed everything for his home from cutlery to door knobs. Then to house these things in the proper setting Van de Velde built his first house, and thus began his career as an architect and designer. In Belgium, Van deVelde had sought to develop a suitable contemporary manner of furnishing. He was much influenced by Morris but achieved an evm greater success with simple rational forms that were de- void of decoration. Henri van de Velde, a tireless artist and evangelist of the new style, carried his version of his findings from Brussels to Paris in 1896 and then to Germany the following year. Van de Velde's im- portance was not gained from the development of a new style for this he did not do, but in his ability to envision in his findings, the germ of a more logical style which was later to become the basis for all functional modern design. Van de Velde was called to Paris to installfour rooms for the German art dealer, Bing, in his Nhison de 1'Art Nouveau. In France the imitators of Van de Velde experimented with new forms and materials while the Art Nouveau movement became more widely developed. While Van de Velde had initiated the break with tradition, the rationalism which had lmt ~30- validity to his Art Nouveau as to the medevialism of‘William.Morris was quite forgotten by the French designers. In their desire to avoid traditional forms, standards of good taste were cast aside. Now, a chair was no longer a chair but a bunch of lilies or a sheaf of wheat that could be sat upon. "In spite of the revolutionary intentions be- hind its fight against the use of historical styles, it succeeded only in.matching shape against shape. It was essentially an 'anti" move- ment, and this may explain.its comparatively short life."4 Having de- veloped almost entirely as a form.of ornament, the.Art Nouveau style is characterized by swirling curves and naturalistic design. The "whiplash" curve was a favorite motif of the period (Plate VI). Naturalistic fol- iage was used in a manner to simulate actual growth with considerable reminiscence of rococo style, as well as a continuance of'the.Japonism of the eighties. A superficial and ornamental style at best, Art Nouveau passed quietly out of existance and was soon forgotten having added no real substance to the modern movemmt. Hermann Mhthesius, an architect who had spent seven.years in London as a special attache to the German embassy in order to studymglish housing, was also influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement. [After re- turning to the continent, he founded the Deutsche'Werkbund, in Prussia, in 1907. In an effort to bring about cooperation between the best art- ists and craftsmen on one hand and trade and industry on the other, Muthesius was seeking a synthesis between.machine production and the Arts and Crafts movement. He called Peter Behrens to Dusseldorf and 4Sigfried Giedion, §pace, Time andpArchitecture (Cambridge: The Harvard University Press, 1941), p. 225. PLATE'VI An Interior in the Art Nouveau Style Hans Poelzig to Breslau to reorganize the two academies there. Bruno Paul became principal of the Kunstgewerbeschule in Berlin. With the appointment of so many of the pioneers of modern architecture and de- sign to leading parts in art schools and education, the forms of the neW'style spread rapidly and a truly contemporary spirit was secured for the coming generation. The workbund during the first years of its activity strengthened this new attitude considerably by bringing architects and manu- facturers together to advocate a sound contemporary styles“ Hand work was not excluded from the production of workbund members, but the stress lay, especially after 1914, on improved standards of machine art. The most essential step which raised Germany beyond the stage reached by England was that only by accepting the machine and designing in accordance with its properties could a universal' style, as opposed a mere fashion.amongst the rich, be created. The Bauhaus, one of the foremost schools of industrial design, was organized in 1914 by‘Walter Gropius. “The Bauhaus workshops were really laboratories for working out practical new designs for present day arti- cles and improving models for mass production.7 The primary aim.of the school was to give the student a grasp of life as a whole. Here, the curriculum combined imaginative design and technical profiency. After one year of study at the Bauhaus, each student began his specialization, with textiles and furniture design included in the major fields. Each student was trained by two teachers, an artist and a master-craftsman. fiENikolaus Pevsner, 22. cit., p. 270-1. 61bid., p. 260. 7Walter Gropius, The New.Architecture and the Bauhaus (London: Faber and Faber,‘Ltd., n. d;), p. 37. -32a- Students learned the use of tools in addition to studying design, art organization, and esthetics. Prdblems involving realistic as well as abstract solutions were considered. After full scale models were made of all designs, the positive test, that, of actual use was made. manufacturers not only began to submit their products to the Bauhaus for analysis by the students, but also bought the designs of Bauhaus» students. Ultimately the students"work was accepted without change, manufactured, and sold to the public. Here, at the Bauhaus, for the first time the machine was accepted and designs were created suitable to its properties and limitations. At last, the machine had been.mastered. 'William Kerrie, who had advo- cated the return to handicraft, would have no trade with it, but as the intensity of machine production increased, it became evident that man was not the master but the slave of the machine. Now, at the Bauhaus, the importance of good design.was considered as well as the practicality of mass production in the new designs being created. Machine made prod- ucts were therefore no longer merely imitiations of hand processes but had developed in their own right into something that could truly be called "machine art". The Bauhaus was moved from weimar to Dessau in 1925. By this time there had arrived a new generation of teachers, former students of the Bauhaus. Perhaps one of the best known of these is Mercel Breuer, a professor and former student. Breuer, the instructor in the carpentry shop, had been experimenting with new designs for chairs. In 1925 the metal chair (Figure l) be constructed marked an.important point in the developmmt of modem furniture. In the years that followed Breuer was -33.. FIGURE I 1925 Tubular Metal Chair by Marcel Breuer, -34.. able to simplify his original design (Figure 2). The use of metal, a new material, in an absolutely unprecedented manner was the first of endless experiments in new types of seating contrivances. Breuer's real achievement was not alone in the use of metal which was relatively unknown so far as home furnishings were concerned but in the manner in which he manipulated his material. He did not cut up the metal tubing and then put the pieces together again in the manner of wood construc- tion but rather after exploring the properties peculiar to metals, he went about utilizing them to produce this revolutionary design. While the various countries of Edrope were participating in these many movements in revolt against traditional furnishings, the United States was completely unaware of this activity. Instead, the people of the United States seaned intent upon securing for themselves some sort of cultural background by borrowing heavily from traditional Elropean furniture even though these second or third hand copies of art treasures were rarely fine pieces. The California or mission furniture was the only attempt at design- ing in the United States. This furniture was based on that which was used in the early Spanish missions of the Jesuits. Consequently the pieces, simple, solid, and severe, were called "plank stuff" because of the straight lines and the complete lack of curves. Even though the style became drab because the makers had little feeling for texture, color, or material, it remained in vogue until about 1915. With the coming of World War I, there was little time to think of furniture so mission or golden oak was as satisfying as any other kind of furniture for people were concerned with other interests at this time. FIGURE 2 Simplified Metal Chair by Varcel Breuer .CILAPTm III The Paris Exposition Awakens The United States The year 1925 marked the beginning of the modern movement in the United States. It was the Exhibition des Arts Decoratifs at Indus- triels Modernes that really awakened the United States. This exhibition held in Paris during the summer of 1925 was an international showing of the modern tendency in the arts of architecture, decorating, landscap- ing, and the various allied crafts. The interior furnishings in the Paris exhibition were absolutely new and different. According to the entry rules, no exhibit could be based on traditional lines, for this was an exhibition of modernism, as the French authorities conceived it. There was a total elimination of the styles, lines, contours, designs, and colorings that have been associated with historic periods in furni- ture design, landscaping, decoration, and the crafts (Plate VII). England and all the European countries contributed to the Paris Ekposition. When the United States was invited to participate in the exhibition, the secretary of commerce, Herbert Hoover; was forced to decline the invitation, because designers in the United States had noth- ing to contribute. Since in.America the minor arts had never amounted to much more than copies of traditional European pieces, the United States was represented only as a visitor at the Paris Exhibition. Thus, we were brought to the realization, somewhat to our em- barrassment, that, although we considered ourselves, and'were generally considered, the most progressive country in the world; we were actually lagging behind other countries in the‘develop- ment of a new and distinctive decorative art.1 1"The Modern Style of Interior Design," The American Architect, 133:39, January 5, 1928. -57- neauamomxm magma Scam uoaaoch HHb metime required less care since these woods do not show dust as quickly as the dark woods. Sec- tional furniture (Figure 11) which could be used in various rooms in the house were now on the market at moderate prices. At last modern had be- come.American and designers in the United States were creating furnish- ings and fabrics for the American people. The scientific attitude in con- temporary life was reflected in the interest in serviceability of fabrics. The Wbrld's Fair of 1939 in New York was the event that climaxed this period. Here was shown a collection of the products of therarts and industries of all the countries of the world. The exhibitions were housed in the most modern structures and furnished with the latest modern -66- we 'b.‘.. . -57- FIGURE 11 NUsic Corner on Exhibition at the New York world's Fair, 1939 appointments. The theme of the fair "The World of Tomorrow" was signifi- cantly forward looking. The theme, while providing impetas to the de- signer and exhibitor, proved provocative to the beholder. “The impact of the fair as a whole will surely bend the col- lective Arnerican mind to a much more wide spread acceptance of the modern idiom--in architecture, decoration and land- scaping. For modernis the thane throughout."1 The some of the modern trend in the late thirties was expressed in the theme of the World's Fair, “The World of Tomorrow". 1"Trends of Tomorrow", Reuse and Garden, (July, ~68- CHAP'I’E? VII 1940-1945 The years from 1940 to 1945 were years of war for the western world. As the»war in Europe cut off former sources of design and dec- oration for American designers, they began.to look at home for their inspiration. However, since there was a great deal of interest in modern furnishings at this time, the Mhseum.of Mbdern Art, to give added stimulus to American designers, in 1941, sponsored an industrial design competition for furniture, fabrics, and lighting. There were competi- tors from twenty-one republics in North and South.America. Bloomingdale's department store in New York collaborated with other stores throughout the country in presenting the resultant merchandise to the public. The purpose of the contest was to create a useful and beautiful environment for today's living in terms of furniture, fabrics, and lighting. Flexi- bility of use was a point that was stressed. While many excellent de- signs were submitted, several plans which were good insofar as the de- sign quality was concerned had to be eliminated because the product in the manufacturing process would have proved to be above the moderate price level. Eero Saarinen and Charles 0. Eames of Bloomfield Hills 'were the winners of the competition for living room furniture. Ann Hat- field and martin Craig were the winners of the competition for a one room.apartment, while Oscar Stonorov and‘Willo von Mbltke of Philadelphia were awarded first prize for their bedroom furniture and honorable men- tion for their living room furniture. marli Ehrman of Chicago was the wdnner of the competition in woven fabrics as was Antonin Raymond in printed fabrics. -69- This "Organic Design" exhibit was sent for display to one store in each major city to explain the most recent developments in modern design for home decoration. The work of Saarinen and Eames was revolu- tionary in both design and manner of production. Their chairs simpli- fied in construction.used a neW'type of spring. The usual wood frame was replaced by a laminated shell of wood veneers, and foam rubber was used instead of the usual stuffing. The chairs were constructed upon the principle of continuous contact and support with a thin rubber pad for softness at all points (Figure 12). In the case furniture by Saari- nen and Ehmes, the principle of standardization based on the eighteen inch module, was adopted. All units were eighteen inches square or a multiplerthereof; basesfor the units were thirteen inches high and long enough to hold two, three, or four units. Small rubber grips held the pieces in.place. The height of the base, which made it easy to clean under, avoided base plugs, heating registers, and the like and could be used alone as well as to support other pieces. Drawers were interchangeable; that is, two shallow drawers equaled one larger drawer. Standardization was carried out as far as was possible although this proved to be a more difficult task in wood than metal construction for metal is relatively stable whereas wood has a tendency to ewell during wet weather. "Organic design" was the name applied to this new and very different looking modern furniture. The philosophy that had produced modern archi- tecture was ncw'the basis for interior design. Ehch piece was designed for a specific purpose; it was designed from the inside out thus employ- ing the formula "form.fcllows function". materials were used honestly, -70- FIGURE 12 Chair by Saarinen and hmes, 1941 -71- and beauty was inherent in the design as well as in the material. New and strange forms resulted from this new approach to design. ”Free form” was the name applied to the abstract ameboid shapes that were to become symbolic of functional modern design (Figure 13). The'war brought a bit of humor into decoration and even a shade of fantasy for when.neW'furniture was not available, old pieces were rejuv- inated. A new coat of paint or new slip cover made many a period piece appear "at home" in an otherwise modern scheme. Dramatic effects with modern colors and refinished period pieces were achieved. Theatrical tricks were employed; the painting process called by the French "tramps 1'oeil" consisted of-painting objects on the walls or background in order to "trick the eye". Green plants, extra chairs, a luxurious swag, almost anything real or imagined could be painted to produce an effect or to dis- guise some unwanted architectural feature. The requirement of the government for certain.materials to success- fully carry on the war restricted the field of home furnishings in no small way. The number of different styles to be manufactured had early in the period been limited by the government, and the shortage of labor and materials provided an even more stringent limitation on production. By the end of the war years the home furnishings industries had reached a new low in production. I Furniture The woods in use during this period were predominately blond. There were bleached and natural oak and medium toned mahogany. The use of native woods was strongly anphasized since the supply of mahogany was -72- FIGURE 13 "Free Form" coffee table with glass top limited which, of course, seriously affected the manufacturing of tradi- tional styles. Modern, being little affected, continued using what was abundant and close at hand. There was more enamelled and lacquered fur— niture than before. A new finish called "gardsmanf gave furniture re- sistance to liquor, boiling water, hot dishes, mars, and scratches while it protected the wood grain and improved its appearance. Efliel Saarinen, the president and architect-designer of Cranbrodk Academy of Art, was selected to design a line of furniture for a Grand Rapids manufacturer. Saarinen.worked with his son, Eero, Robert Swanson, and Reuse Rutili. -The furniture which was designed for naxinum useful- ness had flexibility, adaptability, and style. The sizes were standard- ized and related, and at the same time scaled for medium sized rooms. It was made to fit together so that the pieces could be used together, grouped into composite pieces, or used separately and interchangeably in various rooms (Figure 14). American birch in a light natural finish was used on a laminated core. The pieces were finished on all sides so that they would look well free standing or against a wall. This line which also included sectional upholstered seats was moderately priced. The'Widdicomb Furniture Company of Grand Rapids introduced a line of sectional case goods and a year later, in.194l, terminated production of traditional pieces. The different pieces of furniture could be brdken down in moving and set up again in the same or different patterns. NeW'pieces could be added at any time. This sort of furniture seemed to be well suited to the transient sort of life many families were living during the war years. "FlexiAUnits" was the name of this sectional fur- niture. The units were made in bisque (blond oak), harvest, or cordovan -75- FIGURE 14 Sectional Units by Eliel Saarinen mahogany, and lacquered pieces in red, blue, green, white, brown, and black. There was a wide selection of cabinet units, shelf units, and drawer units which were made to be mounted.upon a base and capped with a top (Figure 15). There were three styles of bases and tops in the four previously mentioned finishes. There was a Chinese type base with an overhanging ledge top. The mahogany set had an Eighteenth Century feeling; the'blond oak was typically modern. The "FlexidUnit" line con- tained a wide selection of beautiful woods while the various combinations of units used to produce this furniture seemed almost endless. This was an example of functional modern at its best. Since open stock collections had proven sensational to furniture manufacturers, suites of furniture for individual rooms were passing out of existance so far as modern.was concerned. At the same time the popu- lar acceptance of open stock collections made it possible for manufact- urers to concentrate on fewer patterns required by a war time econonv. Hidden conveniences were being incorporated into the design of many pieces; for instance, shirt sized drawers, hosiery and glove compart- ments in dressers, space for glasses, serving trays, and silver drawers in.buffets. Liquorcabinets and record cabinets began to look more like pieces of furniture. For transient living Dan Cooper designed furniture which included folding chairs and double duty tables all of which were sectional and completely demountable. The newest furniture was made with- out springs or with wooden springs as the result of war time restrictions. Airfoam, the new stuffing for matresses and sofa cushions which‘was rub- ber beaten.up with air, had hardly been introduced when it was drafted into military service. metal pulls on furniture were banned by the -77- ‘FIGURE 15 Diagram of the‘Widdecomb "Flexi-Units". government; consequently, wooden and plastic pulls came into use. Fabrics In the field of upholstery materials, although leather continued to be popular, elegant textured fabrics were also seen. Meet of the new materials that appeared in 1940 were guaranteed washable, pre- shrunk, and of permanent finish, but such features disappeared rapidly as the need for wet materials took these goods off the consumer market. New machine made textiles closely simulated the hand woven textiles. Dorothy Liebes was emplqyed by the Goodall Company in 1942 to design fabrics that would be adaptable to the power loom. 'While the prosecu- tion of the war took off the market some very familiar fabrics, it eventually offered in their stead some new and amazing discoveries. Vinyon, which is made from.the vinylite resins, is a yarn that is permp anently water resistant and has great tensile strength. It is easy to clean and is non-absorbent. Synthetic rubber developed during the war was destined for use in upholstery. Coated fabrics, developed in.war research, combined beauty and style with functionalism.and wearability. Korseal, a synthetic plastic material, was used for furniture webbing and seat covers. Synthetic and natural fibers were coated with plastic which gave to the fabric added strength, made it fireproof, and easier to clean. Curtains made of "fiber glass” were also available. The trend toward an increased use of printed fabrics was intensi- fied by the wartime economy program. The number of looms designated for civilian production.was limited. Complicated patterns involving more than the minimum of time and labor were prohibitive; production -79- consisted mostly of plain flat weaves or uncomplicated twills. In order to create interest and variety these fabrics were printed. Fabric re- jected by the government for use in military service was printed as drap- ery material. Modern floral patterns in overscaled prints and flamboyant tropical designs seemed most evidmt. Stripes were also popular. In reality there was such an acute shortage of fabric during the years of the war that many of the conventional fabrics were replaced with synthe- tics or other substitutes. Much use was made of spun rayon while acetate rayon took the place of silk. Even cotton had developed a sense of sophistication. The shortage of wool for floor coverings made it necessary to experi- ment with other fibers for this purpose. Wool and rayon combinations were found in all price brackets. Some use was made of linen while cotton was used to make new looking floor. coverings. One style appeared in twelve sizes and fifty-four colors. Manufacturers were forced to reduce the num- ber of styles because of the lack of materials as well as the lack of man power. Color ranained the most important medium available in decoration during the war. The ”safe neutrals" were put away and color filled every room. Rooms were literally decorated with color; effects of formality or spaciousness were achieved through thoughtfully planned color schemes. This new conception of color affected not only modern decoration but fil- tered into traditional decoration as well, thus giving to the traditional style a contemporary air. Bright warm colors became especially popular :80- in California. This was undoubtedly due to the fact that more emphasis was put on outdoor living there. At this time, California was becoming a recognized design center. The oriental influence, which was being felt in the United States, was especially important in California. While modern interiors had been in- fluenced in the past by the orient, Chinese modern had now become a sophisticated version of contemporary decoration (Figure 16). Obviously, the use of lacquered furniture had been borrowed from the orient as well as the use of brass and bamboo. Chinese fret patterns were frequently adapted as design.motifs while the asymmetry of Chinese designs seemed especially expressive of the modern trend. Critical Analysis of_the Trends While shortages caused by the participation of the United States in the war seemed to stem the tide of progress in the deveIOpment of the modern trend, it obviously stimulated creation in other fields. In the field of furniture design, real progress had been made before the short- age of manpower and materials almost called a halt to various aspects of the industry. The results of the contest sponsored by the Mbseum.of Modern.Art did much to point out the direction for the development of con- temporary functional furniture. The production of beauty was no longer. an accidental by-product but a part of the process of design and as imp portant as functionalism. Notonly beautiful but extremely practical 'were the contemporary designs of sectional furniture, for this was the sort of furniture that made the architect's plan of flowing space a plausible reality. The increased use of wood brought warmth and -31- FIGURE 16 Lacquered Chest of Drawers in the Chinese Modern Style —R2- personality to the neW'style while at the same time color had given new life and vigor to the whole field of interior design. Improved textiles and neW'synthetics promised increased beauty and comfort for better living in the world of tomorrow. Modern furnishings with the emphasis on functionalism.had now become generally accepted. The furniture was practical, easy to care for, and adaptable. This was the sort of furniture that was demanded by defense workers and war brides. MOdern furniture had proved it- self; it was here to stay. Eben the restrictions of a war-time economy could not slow down its development, for as each limitation was impossed on the modern movement it seemed to rise as the phoenix to greater achievements. -83... SUI‘MARY In America,modenn architecture began with the work of Frank Lloyd ‘Wright. ‘Wright had, early in his career, worked under Louis Sullivan, who was one of the first men to build the simple slab-like office building that has become the prototype of the modern skyscraper. Sulli- van is remembered as well for the now famous phrase, "form follows function", which has been credited to him. 'Wright's first house was built in 1893. In this house as in succeeding projects his work was distinguished by the loose planning and imaginative use of materials. The open planning resulted from the emphasis upon the room, as such, rather than the room as a smaller component of the house. The use of materials to give variety and interest with the lack of ornament made 'Wright's work distinctive and prophetic. While, in America,‘Wright met opposition on every hand, in Europe he was recognized and accepted by the pioneers of the modern movement. Before‘World'War I there were a few'men in Europe, nameky, Berlage, wagner, and Behrens, who broke away from.the traditional style and ‘worked in their own way. The aesthetic and technical experiments of these early modern architects provided the background for the modern movement which got underway following world war I. It was the modern post-war architects whose work crystallized the modern.movement. ‘Walter Gropius, a famous educator and architect from.Germany, contributed much to the technique of modern architecture. Le Corbusier made the world conscious of the new architecture and is remembered for his phrase "the house is a machine for living". His writings more than his buildings -84- have brought him recognition. In Holland J. J. P. Oud influenced by Cubism designed buildings that were technically excellent and rich in expression. An architect and interior designer, Mies van der Rohe gained recognition for his free-flowing plans and dramatic use of mod- ern.naterials. Gropius, Le Corbusier, Oud, and Meis van der Rohe were the great leaders of modern architecture in.Ehrope. Through the;years, as modern architecture was developing, it assumed new'shapes and forms of expression. While it appeared to be constantly changing in appearance, the basic philosophy of modern architecture has remained the same. The basis of the new philosophy was the conception of architecture as volume. With this conception of volume as opposed to mass and walls no longer necessary for support, the floor plan.was opened up as a design in free flowing space._ Thus modern architecture is distinguished by emphasis upon the design, the properties of the ma- terials used, and the lack of ornament. By the early thirties there was evidence of the influence of mod- ern European architecture in the United States and at last Frank Lloyd wright was being recognized at home, and interest in his work increased. As modern architecture continued; 0 develop in America, thveork of the European modernists and the work of‘Wright were fused into an expression which could be called.American.modern. Since the United States is such a broad and expansive country, it would be impossible to expect one style of architecture to prevail over the whole country. Climate, topo- graphy, and natural resources were factors that architecture could not ignore. These considerations along with the basic concepts of the modern movement were the determining influences that brought about the regional forms of contemporary architecture. The development of furnishings for the home has always been closely related to the prevailing architectural style. The philosophy of modern architecture has been.adopted for the basis of the development of home furnishings as well. The revolt against eclecticism in the minor arts took place in the latter part of the'nineteenth century. The beginning of contemporary furnishings was initiated with the work of‘William. Morris and the Arts and Crafts movenent. Morris was a poet, social re- former, and designer who set out to savethe minor arts from the degrada- tion of machine production by restoring the handicraft method of pro- duction. It was through the work and teachings of Morris that the Arts and Crafts movement originated. From England.the movement extended to the continent. The style of Art Neuveau was originated in the desire to avoid the traditional forms, but in spite of its revolutionary inten- tions it developed almost entirely as a form of ornament. It was in Ger- many that the real basis for modern industrial design had its beginnings, for there the machine was accepted and wisely put to use. The machine, no longer despised as in Morris's day, was now looked upon as a tool to be‘used to further production. In the Bauhaus the first truly modern school of design students worked out practical new designs for present day living which were intended for mass production. In the Paris Exposition of 1925 the United States was made aware of the fact that a neW'style had been born. Until this time, America had been busy borrowing from the cultures of Europe to provide what was considered a proper background for living. The Paris Exposition was -86- news, and modern furniture became a new promotional line for the other- wise dull and sl w moving furniture trade. Thus modern was introduced to.America. In its eagerness to be different, early modern furniture was at all times arresting but only rarely beautiful. Rare woods were emplqyed in cabinet pieces with an obvious lack of ornament but intricate veneered patterns provided decoration for the plain flat surfaces. The furniture was known by the names "modernistic" and “Art Moderne” which were borrowed from the French as was the furniture. much of'theifurniture appeared to be rather clumsy and heavy. In 1932 at the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago the most typical furniture was that which was made from bent metal tubing. ‘With the development of this sort of furniture it was obvious that the French influence was negligible, now, evidenced by the fact that "modernistic" was taboo. During the thirties there developed a type of modern furniture which was known as Classic Modern. This furniture, classic in origin, was de- rived from.the style of the neo-classic period. The classic furniture was stripped of its historic ornament and in its simplicity and direct- ness became acceptably modern. This more graceful, more conservative classic modern style found wide acceptance. While classic modern continued to dominate the furniture field for the decade, functional modern had passed from the "bent pipe" era into the "packing case" stage. The sectional case and upholstered pieces developed during the later half of the 1930's were an.important step in the realization of the full meaning of functional design. AThe use of -87- light woods notable during the late thirties was due, in part, to the 'work of Russel wright. The influence of imported Swedish modern furni- ture as well as the introduction of a new technique of working with 'wood developed by the Finnish architect, Alvar Aalto, and exhibited in the United States in 1938, was notable in its effect on contemporary modern furnishings. Design in the years after 1940 was obviously influenced by World ‘War II. The war, while it cut off all influence from Europe, limited certain physical and economic restructions on the furniture trade. The Organic Design contest which was sponsored by the museum.of Modern Art for the purpose of stimulating the creation of furniture, fabrics, and lighting that would provide a useful and beautiful background for contemp- orary living presented the work of American designers. These designs were intended for mass production in a moderate price range.¥ The strange looking shapes of abstract, ameboid character that were known as "free form” shapes resulted from the application of the well known formula, "form.follows functionf. .Among the prize winners, the work of Eero Saarinen and Charles 0. Fumes was outstanding and proved to be both start- ling and provocative. The case pieces were developed on the module theory and a seating contrivance was based on the theory of continuous contact and support.§ At the same time the shortage of labor and.mater- ials due'to a restrictive war time economy caused the home furnishings industry to fall to a new low. ‘Wooden springs or no springs at all were used in.upholstered pieces. .Imported woods impossible to obtain were superseded by domestic woods. -89- Early modernistic textiles were imported from France. Two types were popular late in the twenties: textured fabrics (especially those of the pile variety) and flat printed designs in sharply contrasting colors and geometric patterns. By 1950 textured fabrics were being manufactured in the‘United States. Cotton and linen were used in a manner to suggest hand woven fabrics. Flat fabrics, both printed and plain, were expressive of the classic modern style. Leather, too, was popular. By the end of the decade there appeared to be more interest in the serviceability features such as fastness tosunlight and laun- dering, and resistance to shrinkage, mildew, and stains then in color and style factors. Those fabrics of proven serviceability were, of neces-p sity, wdthdrawn from the market by the wartime restrictions of the forties. Sometime later certain new developments in the field of synthetics were offered instead; vinyon, synthetic rubber, korseal and coated fabrics were employed as upholstery material. The acute shortage of fabric at this time coupled with a psychological need seemed to cause a quantity of colorful prints to appear. Rayon, which was first employed as a substitute for silk in the twenties, became widely used in glass curtains. Later it was combined wdth cotton and linen in drapery materials. Spun rayon was introduced in 1938. The use of rayon was much in evidence during the war years as a substitute for the more conventional fabrics. Floor coverings in general have followed the trends of the times. The exotic fur rugs of the late twenties were supplanted by textured floor coverings in the thirties. Carved, embossed, and nubby piles most often in pale shades or neutral colors were typical. The trend -go- toward texture continued into the forties although production of floor coverings was seriously interrupted due to the lack of conventional fibers and the necessity of experimmting with new combinations and syn- thetic fibers. Color which was starkly brazen or cooly neutral at the beginning of the modern movement quietly progressed and gained a degree of warmth by the end of the thirties. In the war years color burst into bloom every- where. It was employed scientifically'and with skill in some instances; in others it was used to add warmth and personality which had been lack- ing heretofore. Whether it was usedllmowingly for its emotional value or for pure love of it, color had become a new medium of expression. -91... CONCLUSION In the twenty years following its introduction the modern move- ment had obviously been altered from a cold, determined, and rational style to an intimate, individual, and informal way of living. The sharp. geometric forms of the twenties were slowly transformed into graceful curves and "free form" shapes; cold neutral or harshly con- trasting colors were exchanged for harmonious, sun-lit tints and shades. From the beginning, an anti-traditional movement, modern had succeeded in developing through the years a philosophy for itself. Architecture, while it has always exerted a great'deal of influence on the interior design and furnishings of the period, was perhaps never before so significant, for the philosophy that produced modern archi- tecture had been adopted by the designers of modern furnishings. It would be a difficult task, indeed, to point out where architecture ended and interior design began. The close working relationship between archi- tecture and interior design is evidenced in more recent buildings where built-in furniture has, to a large «tent, made free standing furniture unnecessary as well as impractical. By 1945 contemporary modern furnishings had developed into three distinguishable moods: classic, fantastic, and functional modern. Clas- sic modern, which appeared early in the thirties, had become a widely accepted style. It was not such a radical form of modern, having been derived from the more familiar neo-classic style (Plate VIII). D16 to the fact that it had some roots in the past, this style could be com- bined equally well with modem or traditional pieces. This was the -92- PLATE'VIII An Interior in the Classic l’odern Style style most acceptable to the conservative modernist and the more timid experimenter. Fantastic modern, the most recent development in the modern.mood, was agdramatic, theatrical, sophisticated style created during the war years. Historic stylesand contemporary materials contributed to the synthesis of this style. Amusing, fanciful, at times surrealistic but never serious, this style does not seem to be destined for long life (Plate IX). Transient though it may be as a style, it is nevertheless important, to the modern movement as a whole, for in its daring and un- selfconscious attitude it has provided a new mood in decoration. The most genuine contemporary expression of today's living was to be found in the functional modern style (Plate X). Here, it was that the new conception of architecture was adopted to encourage the use of neW'techniques and new materials. Actually, the idea of functionalism was not new though it was a point of view that did result in a fresh approach to design. In the years since its introduction, functionalism had developed into something much more than the stark, realistic approach of the twenties. There came a realization that the need for beauty is as real as any other requirement in design. Neither science nor the arts has been neglected in an ever present effort to produce the simple, practical, and beautiful furnishings that provide the background for the confusion and complexity of contemporary life. -94.. :4 och noun 3 «nose on» cave oz mace 0 Row xH waeqm -95- f) .3); _' f 3* £0 . - ' . . < J I‘ “2‘ A-~l} .‘ i , I - 4-1:.‘1 "ri Qt, , x .. g -‘ ~ ~ An Interior in the Functional Modern Style -95- BI BLI OGRAPHY Books Aalto: Architectur§_and Furniture. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1938. Art in Progress. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1944. Barr, Alfred H., Jr., Henry-Russell Hitchcock, Jr., Phillip Johnson and Lewis Mumford, Modern_§:r.chitects. New York: Museum of Nod- ern Art and'W3 W} Norton cospaoy,‘1932. Bayer, Herbert, Walter Gropius and Ise Gropius. Bauhaus 1919 and 1928. New York: Maseum 'of Modern Art, 1938. Block, Maxine, editor, "Marcel Breuer," Current Biography. New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1941. Black, Maxine, editor, "Walter Gropius,“ Current Biography. New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1941. Block, Maxine, editor, "Eliel Saarinen," Current Biography. New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1942. Block, Maxine, editor, "Russel Wright,” Current Biography. New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1940. Bragdon, Claude, Architecture and Democracy. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1918. Brownell, Baker and Frank Lloyd Wright, Architecture and Modern Life. NeW'York: Harper and Brothers, 19$?i Burris-Meyer, Elizabeth, This Is Fashion. New York: Harper and Broth- 01.8, 1943. Cheney, Sheldon and Martha Candler Cheney, Industrial Design. New York: Whittlesey House, 1936. __ Cooper, Dan, Inside Your Home. New York: Farrar, Straus and Company, Inc., 1946. Gerard, Sanford 3., How Good Is Your Taste? New York: Doubleday and Com- pany, 1946. Faulkner, Ray, Edwin Zeigfield and Gerald Hill, Art Today. New York: Henry Holt Company, 1941. Ford, James and Katherine‘MorrowflFord, Design of modern Interiors. -‘New York: Architectural Book Publishing Company, Inc.,vl942. Ford, James and Katherine Morrow Ford, The Modern House In America. New'York: Architectural Book Publishing Company, Inc., 1940. Frankl, Paul T., Ferm.and Reform. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1930. Frankl, Paul T., New Dimensions. New York: Payson and Clarke, Ltd., Frankl, Paul T., Space for Living. New York: Doubleday, Doran and Company, Inc.,'l938. Genauer, Emily, Nbdern Interiors--Today_and Tomorrow. New York: Illus- trated Editions Company, Inc.,fil939. Giedion, Sigfried, Space, Time and Architecture. Cambridge: The Har- vard University Press,—194l. Gillies, wary Davis, A11 About'Modern Decorating. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1942} Gropius, Halter, The New Architecture and the Bauhaus. Translated from the German by P. Norton Shand; London: Faber and Faber Ltd., n.d. Gutheim, Frederick, editor, Frank Lloyd wright on Architecture: selected writings, 1894-1940. New York: Duéll, Sloan and'Pearce, 1941. Hamlin, Talbot, Architecture Through the Ages. New York: G. P. Putnam!s Sons, 1940. Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, Jr., and Philip Johnson, The International Style: Architecture SinCe 1922. First edition; NeW'York: Wk'W.’ ‘Norton and Company, Inc., 1932. Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, Jr., Ngdern Architecture; Romanticism.and Reintegration. New York: Payson and Clarke, 1929. Johnson, Philip, Machine Art. NeW'York: W} W} Norton and Company, Inc., 1934. Hahn, Ely Jacques, Design in Art and Industry. New York: Charles Scribner' 3 Sons, 1936. Lancaster, Osbert, Homes Sweet Homes. London: John morry, 1939. Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture. Translated from the thir- teenth French edition: New’YorE: ‘Payson and Clarke, n.d. -98.. Mock, Elizabeth B., editor, Built in U.S.A., 1932-44. New York: “useum of Modern Art, 1944. Mock, Elizabeth B., If You Want to Build a Houee. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1946. lmrrord, Lewis, Architecture.l Chicago: American Library Association, 1926. ' Mumford, Lewis, Sticks and Stones; a study of american architecture and civilization. KER Yonk: Norton,19$3. Mumford, Lewis, Teehnics and Civilization. New York: Harcourt, Brace and CompanyTl934. . Noyes, Eliot F., Organic Design in Home Furnishings. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1941. Pevsner, Nikolaus, Academics of AL?- Printed in Great Britian; Cambridge: The University stfl940. Pevsner, Nikolaus, _I:i_oneers of the Modern Movenent. London: Faber and Read, Herbert, Art and_Industry. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Com- pany, 1938. Richards, J. M. and Elizabeth B. Mock, eneIntroduction to Modern Archi- tecture. Revised edition; [New York: Penguin Books Inc., 1947. Robsjohn-Gibbings, Terrhance H. , Good-bye, Mr. Chippendale. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1944. Rockow, Hazel Kory and Julius Rockau, Creative Home Decorating. New York: H. S. Stuttman Company, 1946. Rothe,‘A.nna, editor, "Alvar Aalto,” Current Biography. New York: H. We Wilson COIHPOJW, 1949. Rothe, Anna, editor, "Dorothy Liebes," Current Biography. New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1949. Sullivan, Louis, The Autobiography of‘an Idea. New York: Press of the American Institute of Architects, Inc., 1926. Todd, Dorothy and Raymond, The New Interior Decoration. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1929. What is Modern Architecture? New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1946. 'Wright, Frank Lloyd, An Autobiography. Jew York: Duell, Sloan and wright, Frank Lloyd, Modern Architecture. Princeton: Princeton Uni- versity Press, 193 . Periodicals Arehitectural Forum, 42-83, January, l925--December, 1945. The.Architectura1 Record, 57-98, January, l925--December, 1945. Bogner, Welter F., "Why I Planned my House this way," Heuse Beautiful, 83:57-59, 102-3, April 15, 1941. DeVoo, Adeline, "The Rational in Modern Decoration," House Beautiful, 64:554-555, November, 1928. "Divorce from.Tradition," Architectural Forum, 81:63, July 1944. _ "Ebro Saarinen," Architectural Forum, 67:303, October, 1937. ”Gilbert Rohde,"‘erchitectural Forum, 67:265, October, 1937. Hamlin, Talbot, "The Roots of MOdern Architecture," House and Garden, 88:84-87, September, 1945. Heuse Beautiful, 57-87, January,1925--December, 1945. House and Garden, 47-88, January, 1925--December, 1945. "How to Judge Mbdern," House and Garden, 86:41-49, August, 1944. “How Modern Got this Way," House Beautiful, 88:256, December, 1946. "L'Art Nouveau," Interiors, 101:40-42, March 1943. Mhas, Carl, "The Design is modern," House Beautiful 88:22-3, 84, July- August, 1941. McEnroy, margaret, "Reviewing the New Furniture," Heuse and Garden, 63: 23-24, February, 1933. "Modern Design Becomes Contemporary American," House and Garden, 64:71, "Modern Gets a Break," Heuse and Garden, 80:27, October, 1941. -100- "A Modern Style of Interior Design," The American Architect, 133:39, June 5, 19280 Humford, Lewis, "modernist Furniture," The New Republic, 55:154-155, March 21,1928. New'York Times, June 17, 1944. Parsons, Frank Alvah, "An Analysis of Modernism," House and Garden 49:72-73,134,February1934. Patterson, Augusta Owen, "What is Happening to Modern?" House Beautiful, 79:37-39, 106-7, September 1937. Pevsner, Nikolaus, "Fifty Years of Arts and Crafts," Studio, 548:225- 228, November, 1938. "Pioneers in.MOdern," House and Garden, 79:67, April, 1941. Price, .Mhtlock, "The NeW'Art and the Designer," House and Garden, 54: 109, 140, October, 1928. Retailingy-Home Furnishings EHition, 4-13, 15-17, January 1932- December 1941, January 1943-December 1945. (Volumes 7, 13, 15-16, 18-19, are incomplete.) "Russel wright," erehitectural Forum, 67:283, October, 1937. Sargent, Winthrop, "Titan of modern.Architecture,” Life, 21: 84-88, 90, 93, 94, 96, August 12,1946. . Schroeder, Frances de N., "The Growth of American Taste 1888-1945," Interiors, 105:68-72, November, 1945. "Trends of Tomorrow," House and Garden, 76:75, July, Section I, 1939. Wright, Richardson, "The Modernists Taste," House and Garden, 48: 77- 79, 110-114, October, 1925. -101- I “A 3‘ '5" W “1“ 22 ”:0 A @71 (L ‘. , f, "27' “ti/I" - (3 065'53 «p g '54 W7] ’° W W WIPES maximum mm MI $3 . APR 2 3 '55 1 l, I May 1956 Jul 17 'm '14 Apr o9 12 Jun 59 WW -“4~Ab_‘fm- A _, t I ‘ \ IES “my MANIA/17’7””! @1717"