THE FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF one TYPE
or WOMEN‘S SPORTSWEAR FROM
woo “E0 1953 IN THE UNITED STATES

TIN“! Ior ”1:0 Dogs-u of M. A.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Elaine Autumn Durst

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Date NarCh 1, 1960

 

 

 

THE FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF ONE TYPE OF WOMEN'S
SPORTSWEAR FROM 1900 TO 1958 IN
THE UNITED STATES

by

Elaine Autumn Durst

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the College of Home Economics
Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Textiles, Clothing, and Related Arts

‘7

.. 1959
Approvedi I??? (him [I )1- ([11,4ij 1m. ,1 .

ELAINE AUTUMN DURST ABSTRACT

The following study concerns the functional aspect
of women's swimwear in the United States, from 1900 to 1958.
Specific criteria were established for functionalism and
the style and design of bathing suits for this period were
evaluated on this basis.

Investigation was also conducted in history and
sociology with specific emphasis on the general conditions
of the country, technology, women in the labor force, the
changing role and status of women, and their increased
leisure time. These factors were influential in the change
in style and design of swimwear and the functional aspect
of this particular garment.

It was concluded that over a period of fifty-eight
years swimwear had become more functional due to better
performance on the basis of style and design, the application
of more suitable and durable fabrics, and better construction.
By 1958, bathing suits had three functions: they were appro-

priate for active swimming, sunning, or lounging.

THE FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF ONE TYPE OF WOMEN'S
SPORTSWEAR FROM 1900 TO 1958 IN
THE UNITED STATES

by

Elaine Autumn Durst

A THESIS

Submitted to the College of Home Economics
Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Textiles, Clothing,and Related Arts

1959 ,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express her appreciation to
Dr. Marion A. Niederpruem who acted in an advisory capacity
for this thesis; Miss Hazel B. Strahan, Head of the Clothing,
Textiles and Related Arts Department, for her encouragement;
and Mrs. Mary L. Rosencranz for her helpful advice and sug-
gestions.

Further gratitude is expressed to the following:

To Dr. Thomas A. Staudt, Head of the Marketing,
Transportation Administration Department in the School of
Business, for his encouragement.

Tb Dr. Mary L. Gephart and Miss Margaret E. Werner
for their aid in outlining this study.

To Mrs. Sawyer of the Chicago Historical Society
Library for her assistance in research.

To Miss Alice Klingensmith for the art Work con—
tained herein.

To Mr. Robert Reising and Mr. Jerry Sanford for
their helpful editing advice.

To the many librarians and retailers for their

assistance and suggestions.

11

LIST OF
Chapter
I.
II.
III.

IV.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PLATES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

INrI'R-ODUCHON O O O O O O O C O O O
METHODOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . .
REVIEW OF LITERATURE. . . . . . . . .

General Conditions Prior to 1900 . . . .
Technological Developments and Advancements
Women in the Labor Force. . . . . . .
Changing Role and Status of Women.
Leisure and Leisure Activities. .
Swimming as a Sport for Women . .
Women' s Swimwear . . . . .
Functionalism in Women' s Swimwear.
Glossary . . . . . . . . .

1900 TO 1918 . . . . . . . . . . .

General Conditions of the Period
The Textile Industry . . . .
Women in the Labor Force. . .
Changing Role and Status of Women
Leisure and Leisure Activities.
Swimming as a Sport for Women .
Swimwear for Women. . .
Functionalism in Women' s Swimwear
Glossary . . . . . . . .

1919 TO 1929 . . . . . . . . . . .

General Conditions of the Period .
Women in the Labor Force. . .

Changing Role and Status of Women.
Leisure and Its Source . . . .
Swimming as a Sport for Women . .
Swimwear for Women. . . . . .
Functionalism in Women‘s Swimwear.
Glossary . . . . . . . . .

iii

Page

15
15

24
33

40
A7
52
62

63
63

67
70
75
76
79
8b.
96

97

97
100

102
1011
105
106
109
116

Chapter Page
VI. 1930 m 1945 o o o o o o o o o o o 117

General Conditions of the Period . . . . 117
Women in the Labor Force. . . . . . 119
Changing Role and Status of Women. . . . 122
Leisure and Its Source . . . . . . . 124
Swimming as a Sport for Women . . . . . 126
Swimwear for Women. . . . . . . . . 127
Functionalism in Women's Swimwear. . . . 131
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

VII. 1946 TO 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . 147

General Conditions of the Period . . . . 147
Women in the Labor Force. . . . . . . 149
Changing Role and Status of Women. . . . 152
Leisure and the Leisure Market. . . . . 153
Swimming and Swimwear for Women . . . . 155
Functionalism in Women's Swimwear. . . . 160
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . 170

VIII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . 172
Summary 0 o o o o o o o o o o o 172
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 177
RecommendationS. . . . . . . . . . 179

APPENDICES . O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O 181

BIBLIOGRAPHY C O O O C O O O O O O O O O 191

iv

Plate

II.
III.
IV.

.4

VIII.

IX.

XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.

1868

1870-1890.
1902-1908.
1910-1913.
1917-1918.
1918-1919.
1920-1922.
1924-1928.
1930-1935.
1937-1938.
1938-1942.
1942-1945.
1952-1955.
1956-1958.

LIST OF PLATES

Page
59
61
89
91
93
95

113
115
138
140
142
144
167
169

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Statement of Purpose

 

The following study concerns the functional aspect
of women's swimwear from 1900 to 1958 in the United States.
The purpose is to ascertain the existence of functionalism
in women's swimwear and to evaluate the design of women's
swimwear on this basis. Investigation has been conducted
in history, sociology, and historic costume. Because of
the extensive time period covered this study may be regarded

as a general survey.

Justification of Study

 

Before the American woman attained recognition in
tfimafields of economic and political endeavor she strived
for individual rights and equality with men by persistently
participating in various sports with members of both sexes.
Her fight against the action-inhibiting mode of dress of
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries paralleled
her change in role and status. It has been said that
. . no greater change in all time has taken place
than in the lives of women during the last half-

century, and nowhere has this change found more
obvious and outward expression than in the clothing

2
they wear, which has done so much to free them
from the bondage of absurd and ridiculous con-
vention.

In most phases of present day dress the modern
woman enjoys functional garments, with freedom of movement
due to natural lines, shorter skirts, and less material,
as compared to cumbersome and restricting garments worn
fifty to seventy-five years ago. Many such factors today
are directly attributable to the early influence of the
'"sports" costume.-

Today there is more intelligent appreciation of
the values of real sport and there are more people of
average ability participating in sports than ever before.

For these reasons,‘"Women's Sportswear in the
United States from 1900 to 1958" has been selected for
study. This topic will be limited in scope as discussed

in the following paragraphs.

Delimitation of Study

 

This topic has been limited to the sport of
swimming, because it is regarded as one of the more popular
sports for women today. It is also one of the first sports
in which women participated at the turn of the century. To
date, no study has been made concerning this particular

topic, although a wealth of information is available.

 

1Frederick W. Cozens and Florence Scovil Stumpf,
Sports in American Life (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1953), p. 132.

 

3

Various sociological factors of this period which
may have influenced the functional aspect of women's swim-
sear will be discussed, with emphasis on;

1. Changing role and status of women

2. Increase in number of women in the labor force

3. Increased leisure time
Some of the technological advancements in the field of
textiles including fiber content, finishes, and fabri-
cation applicable to swimwear will also be discussed.

The following terminology will be used throughout
succeeding pages as defined.

Sports refers to'"that which diverts, and makes
mirth; pastime; diversion. A diversion of the field, as
hunting, fishing, racing, games, especially athletic games,
M1

etc.

The word sportswear will be limited to any item of

 

apparel worn by an individual participating in sports.

The author is cognizant of the broad area of apparel which

this term encompasses in the field of retailing today.

However, the term in this instance will be taken literally.
The sport of swimming, according to Cummings, is

.n2

-"the sport of self-propulsion through the water. The

 

lWebster's Collegiate Dictionary (Sprin field,
Massachusetts: 7G} and C. Merriam Company, 1946?, p. 963.

2Parke Cummings, The Dictionary of Sports (New
York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1949), p. 444.

 

21
word itself is a derivation of the old English word
‘"swimin," and it was due to the British that this sport
was introduced into America.l
Swimwear refers to any type of garment worn for
the sport of swimming. The swimming suit and bathing suit
are two terms used interchangeably by most people, and are
thought to be synonymous. Technically, the former term
is applied to a suit used in competition, as distinguished
from one for casual bathing, referred to as a bathing suit?
The author will make no distinction between these two terms
throughout the thesis, but will employ the general term of
swimwear.
Leisure, which is expressed as "the opportunity
for disinterested activity," easily becomes confused with
'"amusement" or'"recreation." The last two terms can be
thought of as sub-topics under the word leisure since they
are both a means of utilizing leisure time.3 Leisure
should be taken in its most inclusive sense and, for the
purpose of social analysis, the concept is usually both
narrowed and broadened to mean "freedom from activities

centering around the making of a 1ive1ihood.‘"AL

 

lFrank Menke, The New Encyclopedia of Sports (New
York: A. S. Barnes and COmpany, 1947), p. 905.

 

2Cummings, op. cit., p. 445.
3"Leisure," Encyclopedia of Social Science (New
York: Macmillan, 1933), Vol. V, p. 5.

uIbid.

 

5

For the purpose of this study the various parts of
leisure must be distinguished. "All time outside of work
time may be divided into that part of life in which the
basic needs are met, and that part in which entertainment,
enjoyment, or 'luxury' are sought."1 This paper will deal
with the latter definition.

An attempt will not be made to discuss the "eco-
nomicscxfleisure" but rather the change in social custom,
in the tone of human intercourse, and in the type of
prevalent character and outlook of the individual woman,
which have helped to mold a new way of life. Such socio-
logical factors are pertinent to this study.

Functionalism in conjunction with clothes, refers

 

to the utilitarian nature of a garment-—the fact that a
garment is so designed and constructed to be readily

adapted to the specific purpose for which it was intended.2
As new building materials have given rise to new building
techniques, so within the past half century have new fabrics
been produced to meet the demand for simple,"functiona1"
clothes. With the diversification of activities in the
lives of women, clothes have been designed for a specific

purpose. Any applied decoration which interferes with

 

1
C. Delisle Burns, Leisure in the Modern World
(New York: The Century Company, 1932), p. 14.

 

2James Laver, Clothes (New York: Horizon Press,

1953), p. 7.

6
that purpose is to be condemned. Construction inappropriate
to the fabric or purpose of the garment is likewise to be
condemned.
As this thesis progresses, less important definitions

will be given either in the footnotes or the text.

General and Specific Objectives

 

The primary objective of this thesis is to study

 

the functional aspect of women's swimwear in the United
States from 1900 to 1958.

There are three specific objectives. The first, is

 

to secure information concerning functionalism in swimwear
on the basis of the following general requirements for
‘"good design: a) performance, b) application of materials,
and 0) construction appropriate to the material.'"1 The
second objective, is to ascertain certain sociological
factors of this period which may have influenced functional—
ism in swimwear. The following factors are to be examined:
(a) number of women in the labor force, (b) changing role
and status of women, and (0) increased leisure time.
Thirdly, the author will attempt to determine some of the
technological advancements in the field of textiles which

have influenced dress for this particular sport.

 

lWalter Sobotka, The Principles of Design (Pitts-
burgh: School of Retailing, University of PittSburgh,
n. ch). p. 13.

 

CHAPTER II

METHODOLOGY

An analysis of some of the sociological and tech-
nological developments and trends influencing women's
swimwear from 1900 to 1958 in the United States has been
based on readings from these areas. Information regarding
the number of women in the labor force and their status
has been derived from government bulletins and publications.

The method of investigation relevant to the
objectives of the study is divided into the following
steps:

1. To establish clear definitions or nomencla-

 

tggg.l The first tool necessary for any analysis is an
appropriate language: '"one which was capable of describing
the precise outline of the facts, while preserving the nec-
essary flexibility to adapt itself to further discoveries,
and above all, a language which was neither vacillating nor

ambiguous.“2

 

lMarc Bloch, The Historian's Craft (New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1953), p. 157.

 

2Ibid.

8

2. To investigateyprimary and secondary historical

 

sources for thisperiod.l Primary sources are those which

 

give the first information attainable of the fact or event
investigated.2 These have consisted mainly of periodicals.
Secondary sources are derivations from primary sources
which are known to exist or are discovered throughout the
course of research.3 This type of research has been em-
ployed in the following instances as recommended by Dr.
Gottschalk: (a) to derive the setting into which the con—
temporary evidence can be placed, (b) to obtain additional
bibliographical data, (0) to acquire quotations or
citations from contemporary or other sources when not
available elsewhere, and (d) to derive various interpre-
tations of the problem at hand.“ The main sources falling
into this category are general survey history books.

According to Rev. H. B. George in his book,

Historical Evidence,‘"everything conveying information is

 

evidence.“5 On this basis the author has endeavored to

glean as much evidence as possible, to weight it carefully,

 

1C. G. Crump, History and Historical Research

670280n: George Rutledge and Sons Limited, 1928), pp.

 

2lbid. 3Ibid.

uLouis Gottschalk, Understanding History (New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1950), p. 116T*

 

5Rev. H. B. George, Historical Evidence (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1909), p. 14.

 

9

and to ascertain the truth through primary and secondary
historical cross references.

3. To survey pertinent literature dealing with the
l

 

general social and cultural conditions at this time. A

 

considerable amount of material has been covered to gather
not only the facts, but to determine sociological influ-
ences pertinent to the topic.2
A distinction can be made between sociology and

history:

Sociology is concerned with the constant and

repetitive element in human affairs, past and

present, while history is concerned not only with

the constant element but still more largely with

the unique and individual element; with the

elements which can never re eat themselves or be

arranged in a neat pattern.
Both sociology and history are pertinent to changes in
costume. Various sociological factors such as the change
in role and status of women, their leisure time and activi-
ties, have affected the type of clothes they need and wear.
Such elements have existed in the past and have continually

repeated themselves to the present date. Historical events

in'the United States have affected the nation's economy,

 

1Ibid., p. 148.

2Gottschalk, op. cit., p. 233. Note: The term
“Influences" refers to a“ persistent shaping effect upon
the thought and behavior of human beings, singly, or
collectively."

3Allan Nevins, The Gateway to History (New York:
D. C. Heath and Company, 1938), pp. 309-310.

 

10

standard of living, and way of life. These effects have
likewise been reflected in costume.

The principal sources of information on social and
professional activities consist mainly of the following

periodicals: Collier's, Good Housekeeping, Ladies' Home

 

Journal, and Woman‘s Home Companiop.

 

4. To further categorize this period into four

 

chronological periods of time, An arbitrary division into

 

these periods has been based on significant social and

historical events in the United States. Such events greatly

affected the changing role and status of women and their

participation in the field of sports which ultimately led

to a change in their sports attire. The four periods are

as follows:

l900—l9l8--a period of transition for women; their

fight for equal rights and status; World
War I and the influx of women in the

labor force.

l919-l929~—the'"roaring twenties"; period of
prosperity.

l930—l945-—depression days through World War II.
l946-l958--post World War II period.
In presenting the analysis for each chronological period,
some of the social and technological advancements and trends
are discussed first to serve as a framework for the result-
ant fashions and styles of the period.

5. To obtain gpvernment census data showing the

 

percentage of women in the labor force. This information

 

11
has been advantageous in determining the changing role and
status of women from 1900 to 1958. Increased leisure time
could also be determined on this basis. Census figures
concerning women in the labor force have been obtained
directly from United States government bulletins and publi—
cations. The increased importance of leisure throughout the
years and the changing role and status of women have been
obtained from secondary source materials.

6. To delineate some pertinent technological advance-

 

ments during thispperiod in textiles applicable to women's
swimwear. Emphasis has been placed on the following:

(a) fiber content, (b) finishes, and (c) fabrication.
Because historic costumes are unobtainable for this period
the only basis for an analysis lay in publications such as

Sears, Roebuck and Company mail-order catalog and the

 

Delineator. Fibers, fabrics, and finishes have undergone

 

continual changes throughout the last half-century. Although
the same name or term may be applied to a fabric today as in
1900, it does not necessarily mean that the fabrics are the
same. For this reason a glossary can be found at the end

of each chapter to aid the reader in understanding the
terminology employed.

7. To establish specific criteria for the judgment
of illustrative materials on the basis of the three require-
ments for functionalism. Information pertaining to the
aspects of functionalism has been secured from secondary

sources, and its exemplification in women's swimwear is

12

described on the basis of the three general requirements
for "good design" as previously cited under the specific
objectives. The criteria for these requirements has been
difficult to establish due to the technological and social
changes which have taken place during the past half—century.
Out of necessity, partial fulfillment of this objective had
to be done on a subjective basis. Attention has been given
to available fabrics at a specified time in history, and to
dressmaking and manufacturing techniques. The aspect of
functionalism is evaluated for the individual periods in
history as selected, and is also cross—evaluated with all
periods to give an over-all picture from 1900 to 1958.

The author's perspective of costume history has been

influenced by many periodicals, of which the Sears, Roebuck

 

and Company mail-order catalogs is particularly represen-

 

tative of the fashions and styles actually worn by the
'"average" American woman.1 Picture files in the Art Room
of the Chicago Public Library containing artist's sketches
and drawings, photographs, neWSpaper and magazine clippings,
advertisements and articles, have been consulted.

To establish specific criteria for the judgment of
illustrative materials on the basis of the requirements for

functionalism has likewise been a difficult task. A general

 

1David L. Cohn, The Good Old Days (New York: Simon
and Schuster, 1940), see Introductory chapter. Note: The
'"average" American woman refers to those in the upper—
middle, lower-middle, and upper—lower social strata.

 

13

survey had been made before the selection of illustrations.
The following factors have been considered in the selection
of materials: (a) various fabrics employed and the style
or design used in the employment of these fabrics, (b)
styles which were worn by the'"average" American woman-~not
'"high" fashion, and (c) illustrations embodying the above
two points which showed the evolution of women's swimwear.

The critical process has been employed in the eval-
uation of all research. This process consists of both
external and internal criticism of all materials gathered.
The external process is used to determinethe authenticity
of the materials, taking into account when and where the
evidence originated, the author, and his source of infor—
mation. Internal criticism questions the trustworthiness
or probability of statements. This can be checked only
through cross references.1

Through study and use of this process as advocated
by historians, the author has attempted to keep the degree
of error to a minimum. The evidence herewith presented is
by no means infallible. Human neglect in exact adherence
to the rules of evidence is possible. This could readily
be caused by personal ignorance or superficiality of

evidence.2

1John Martin Vincent HistorieelpResearch (New York:
Henry Holt and Company, 1911), pp. l9-22.

 

2lbid.

14

The next five chapters are taken in chronological
order. Chapter III discusses various conditions prior to
the turn of the twentieth century, and is designed to give
the reader a better understanding of developments which
took place from 1900 to 1958. Chapter IV starts the main
body of the thesis and covers the first period from 1900 to
1918. Chapter V covers 1919 to 1929; Chapter VI, 1930 to
1945; and Chapter VII, 1946 to 1958. Each chapter is
divided into approximately eight sections as follows:

1. General conditions of the period

2. Technological advancements

3 Women in the labor force

4. Changing role and status of women

5. Leisure time

6 Swimming as a sport for women

7. Women's swimwear

8. Functionalism in women's swimwear
Chapter VIII will summarize the previous chapters and con-
clusions will be drawn on the functional aspect of women's

swimwear.

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

General Conditions Prior to 1900

 

First Decades of the Eighteenth Century

 

During the first few decades of the eighteenth
century only a handful of colonies existed along the
Atlantic coast of the United States. Eventually, settle-
ments began to spread inland over the Allegheny mountains
and into the Ohio valley. They increased rapidly in popu—
lation because of the continual immigration of European
peoples. At this time approximately three million inhabi-
tants resided in the thirteen colonies, Boston being the
largest single city in the country, with a population of
thirty thousand.l Nearly ninety-five per cent of the
populace lived in rural areas. It was difficult for these
people to get together because transportation was limited

to foot, horse, and boat.2

 

l
Emmet A. Rice, A Brief History of Physical Edu—
cation (New York: The Ronald PPess Company, 1958), p. 175.

 

2Ibid.

15

l6

Desires and Goals of the Early Colonists

 

Despite the fact that there was difficulty in con-
gregating, the colonists were bound together by common
desires, the most important of which concerned freedom.
Fearful of unfriendly Indians, French conquest, and unjust
demands from the British Empire, the early settlers felt
their only source of peace lay in the formation of a new
government.1 Through earnestness and perseverence they
were able to endure the many hardships of colonial life and

eventually attain this goal.

1830-1870

 

This strong desire for peace and freedom served as
a magnet in drawing more and more people from Europe to the
United States. Between the end of the Revolutionary War
and 1830, the population increased from three million to
ten million.

Westward expansion was forced by the tremendous
influx of immigrants to the country. The discovery of gold
in California, in 1848, served as an impetus in drawing
people to the Pacific coast. The completion of the first
transcontinental railroad in 1869 was a definite asset and
influence in the settling of the West. Trade and trans—
portation of materials between the East and West increased.

Railroads permitted faster travel than coach or horseback.

 

lIbid.

17

Ideas and ways of life were more quickly conveyed, thereby
uniting the various settlers.1

The West was primarily a mining area and industries
were sparse. The East, being the oldest settled portion of
the country and being closely allied with Europe, soon
yielded to industry. Those who had been previously engaged
in agriculture turned to factory work, thereby materially
changing the physical development and recreational needs of
the people. This change was regarded as being desirable
because a factory position assured the individual of a
steady job with regular hours, in contrast to farm work
with its fluctuating crop production and long, irregular

hours.

1870 to 1900

 

The United States soon acquired the reputation of
the "melting pot" of the nations due to the diversification
of nationalities, religions, and occupations of its inhabi-
tants.2 A new person evolved--the American. Europeans
looked upon the American way of life with envy, and many
decided to make the United States their home. By 1870, the

population had jumped to 38 million; by 1880 to 50 million;

 

1Rose Netzorg Kerr, 100 Years of Costume in America
(Worcester, Massachusetts: David Press Inc., 1951): p. 15.

 

2Rice, op. cit., p. 212.

18

and by 1900, to 76 million.1 Over thirteen million immi-
grants had been admitted to the country between 1865 and
1900. Factory work became more popular, even with the
immigrants. In 1880 the rural population constituted
seventy-one per cent of the total populace, but by 1890,
only sixty—six per cent of the people were engaged in making
their living from the 8011.2

By this time there was evidence of the century to
come. Cities were pressed for space because of the influx
of immigrants and families from rural communities. Urban
areas expanded to form suburbs, and the age of the commuter
evolved with the invention of the electric trolley. The
automobile, telephone, electric light, and typewriter were
but a few of the inventions which came into prominent use
during this period. Railroads formed a spider web pattern,
with Chicago as its center, and radiated to virtucally all
sections of the country.

Such were the general conditions at the beginning
of the twentieth century. The United States had come a
long way since the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth Rock.
Transportation, communication, and trade systems had been
established within the country; industrialization had set
in; a new government had been formulated; and economic

stability prevailed.

 

lIbid.

2Robert W. Smutz, Women and Work in America (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1959), p. 4.

 

l9

Technological Developments and Advancements

 

Status of the Textile Industry in 1790

 

According to economic beliefs of the eighteenth
century, monopoly rather than cheap production was the key
to success.1 0n the basis of the above beliefs, Great
Britain refused to share her industrial secrets with the
American colonists. Consequently, the United States was
forced to develop her own technology and industry, utilizing
her own resources. In the following paragraphs some of these
technological developments and advancements will be dis-
cussed.

One development of great significance was recorded
in the year 1790, when fabric was first produced in mass
quantities. A group of small hand-loom weavers was employed
by William Almy, and proved capable of producing approxi-;
mately eight thousand yards of material a year.2 All work
had to be done by hand, since no successful power spinners
were in operation in the United States at this time.

The need for machinery within the textile industry
became evident. To aid the industry, an organization known
as the Pennsylvania Society for the Encouragement of Manu—
facturers and Useful Arts was founded. In 1789, Benjamin

Franklin negotiated with this society to offer a prize for

 

lAllen Johnson (ed.), The Chronicles of America
Series (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1921), pp. 84-85.

 

2Ibid., p. 86.

20

any invention which would be a boon to the textile industry.1
Samuel Slater heard of the rewarding of inventive genius in
the United States, and migrated from Milford, England, with
the intention of capitalizing on his talents. This he
succeeded in doing. By the end of 1790, Samuel Slater had
devised, and put into operation, carding, drawing, and
roving machines. Confronted with the problem of making the
machinery run, he decided to utilize the power furnished by
the waterwheel of an old mill. Thus, was the birth of the

spinning industry in the United States.

Development of Factories

 

The first textile factory was built in 1793. By
1809, there were 62 spinning mills in the country with
31,000 spindles and 25 more mills in the process of being
built.2

Yarn was sold to housewives for domestic use and to
professional weavers to be made into cloth for sale. This
has often been described in history as the "domestication

of the factory system."3

Invention of the Power Loom

 

The power loom was invented to facilitate the con-

version of yarn to cloth. In 1814, at Waltham, Massachusetts,

 

lIbid. 2Ibid., p. 88.

w

3Edith Abbott, Women in Industry (New York: D.
Appleton and Company, 1926), p. 63.

 

21
Frances Cabot Lowell, Nathan Appleton, Patrick J. Johnson,
and Paul Moody succeeded in establishing a mill which uti-
lized this invention.1 All operations necessary to convert
raw fiber to fabric were contained within this mill. Such
an enterprise was greatly needed because the War of 1812
had cut off the major portion of textile imports. To pro-
tect and aid the textile industry, Congress inaugurated
tariffs in 1816, whereby a minimum duty of $0.065 a yard

was levied on all imported cottons.2

Growth of Mills to 1850

 

In December, 1821, Jackson, Moody, and Appleton
(Lowell died in 1817), executed the Articles of Association
for the Merrimac Manufacturing Company. It was through
this enterprise that women were to find themselves as part
of the labor force.3 Great numbers of young girls from the
rural population of New England were hired as mill hands.
Since they had left their homes to work in the mill, housing
provisions were made close to the factory. The first mill
was started on this basis in September, 1823, and within
two years three more mills were in operation in the same
area.

The efficiency of the New England mills was extra-

ordinary for its day. James Montgomery, an English cotton

 

lJohnson, op. cit., p. 90.

2lbid. 3Abbott, op. cit., p. 47.

22
manufacturer, visited several mills in the United States.
At the end of his tour, he claimed that he had never wit-
nessed the production of such a great quantity of yarn and
cloth per spindle and loom in any other factory throughout
his world travels.l This statement would indicate that the
United States textile industry was definitely "holding its

own" with other leading countries.

-Development of Garment Manufacturers

 

Turning to the actual construction of garments
during this period, only a few small workshops existed in
the United States wherein a number of tailors and seam-
stresses would congregate and laboriously sew garments by
hand. This work was primarily performed by wives and
daughters of farmers and sailors in and around Boston, New
York, and Philadelphia. In other cities garments were cut
and distributed among the poor to be sewn. As early as
1832, a shirt factory was established in New York City.
California settlers, and Southern slaves and their families,

provided an excellent market for ready—made garments.

Invention of the Sewing Machine

 

The development of the garment manufacturers forced
increased development in technology. Mass production of
clothing could not be done solely by hand. Various attempts

were made to invent a sewing machine. The principle of the

1Johnson, op. cit., p. 96.

23
chainstitch had been invented and abandoned because it was
wasteful of thread and could easily be raveled. Elias Howe
succeeded in making a lockstitch machine. Although it was
capable of sewing "more rapidly than five of the swiftest
needle workers,” it was far too expensive for either the
dressmaker or the manufacturer to buy.1 This machine lacked
versatility and was not mechanically sound. Howe‘s second
model was a great improvement and a patent was issued to
him in September, 1846.

In 1851, Isaac M. Singer patented a machine which
was more durable than Howe's. Several valuable features
had been added: a presser foot held down by a spring, and
a "treadly" or treadle, which allowed freedom of both hands

for the operator.2

First Pattern for Garment Construction

 

Ready—made garments became'more popular with the
invention of the sewing machine. Until 1871, no patterns
had been used in the cutting of garments, but in this year

one Ebenezer Butterick designed and made a pattern for a

3

-'"Garibaldi" suit for a young boy. Although this pattern

was made for one specific type of garment and for only one

1Ibid., p. 101. Note: This machine was being sold
for $300.00.

21bid., p. 105.

3Arthur Train, The Story of Everyday Things (New
York: Harper and Brother, 1941), p. 326.

 

24
size, it was a definite step forward in the field of
construction.

The main characteristic of advanced technology is
the continual gain in ability to produce more in a given
time. This gain began in the United States with the
Industrial Revolution in the late eighteenth and early nine-
teenth centuries.l When the early textile mills gave men
and women the opportunity to work at Spinning jennies, and
later at power looms, they were able to produce a greater
amount of yarn and cloth, at a given expenditure of labor
hours than the hand Spinners and weavers, thereby forcing
them out of business.

Thus, it can readily be seen that by the turn of
the century the textile industry and garment manufacturers
were well established and advancing rapidly. Having found
their own ways and means for industrial and technological
gains, Americans were forging ahead and were recognized by

other countries, as being outstanding in this field.

Women in the Labor Force

 

“Work outside the home has been a salient aspect of
a broad and continuing effort to secure for women greater
equality and freedom in all spheres of life.“2 Woman's

changing role and status, and especially her employment,

 

lGeorge Soule, Time for Living (New York: The
Viking Press, 1955), p. 5.

 

2National Manpower Council, Womappower (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1957), p. 9.

 

25
have become an integral part in the basic ways of American
life. To clarify the many factors applicable to this
change in women's lives in the United States would require
numerous volumes covering the entire history of the country.
,A few of the factors contributing to the revolution in
women's employment in the last century are as follows:
growth and change in American economy; scientific and tech-
nological advancements; decreasing rural and expanding
urban and suburban populations; education; the role of the
government as an employer; crisis situations caused by
wars and depressions; social attitudes; values and desires;
marriage patterns; childbearing; and life expectancy. It
is the purpose of this section to briefly discuss some of

the above mentioned factors.

Definition of "Work"

 

One distinguishing feature of working women, counted
as members of the labor force by the United States Census
Bureau, is money--they are only counted if they work for
pay or profit.1 The definitions for the word ”work" vary
considerably, but for the purpose of this thesis the author
will employ the definition as established by the Census

Bureau. All other definitions will be ignored.

Transition from Unpaid to Paid Employment
The transition from unpaid to paid employment is

but one aspect of the continuing revolution in women's work.

 

1Smutz, op. cit., p. 2.

26
The change from paid work within the home to paid work out-
side the home also is significant. With the advent of mills,
garment shops, printing offices, and the invention of the
typewriter, women found themselves spending more time out-
side the home working for money. Their main purpose for
working was the same as that of the men--to support them-
selves and their dependents.1 Working was also a means for
the younger woman to attain a small degree of independence
although she was still expected to financially subsidize

her family. (See Appendix B.)

Legislation and Unions

 

When women entered the labor force they worked long
hours, under hazardous conditionsand for little pay. Women's
union organizations and interested citizens attempted to
erase these conditions through legislation. When women
first entered the ranks of industry,unions were influential
in the struggle for economic equality and security. Two
examples of their efforts are: a "tailoress" union strike
in 1825, for higher wages in New York, and a similar strike
in 1834, of cotton mill operatives in Massachusetts.2

Women‘s labor reform organizations were active in textile

industries throughout the Civil War period.

 

lMabel A. Elliott and Frances E. Merrill, Social
Disorganization (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1941), p.
358-

 

2U. S. Department of Labor, Bulletin of the Women's
Bureau, women Who Work (Washington: U. S. Government

Printing Office, 1939), No. 161, pp. 27-29.

 

27’

In 1867, women were admitted to men‘s labor groups,
the first being the cigar makers' union. Two years later
women obtained membership in the typographical union.

Shortly afterwards they founded a women's shoemaker union
called the Daughters of St. Crispin, a national organization.
The Knights of Labor, founded in 1878, was the first men's
organization to recognize equal pay for equal work for

women. This group reached its peak in power between 1880
and 1890, but was soon supplanted by the American Federation

of Labor, established in 1881.1

Occupations

 

The Census of Occupations report of 1880, listed
2,647,157 women as being gainfully employed.2 In the same
report, 78.7% of the males of working age were classified
as gainfully employed, as opposed to 14.7% of the women of
working age.3 Female workers constituted 15.2% of the total
number of people engaged in gainful occupations during this
year.

Nearly one-half of all American women still lived

5

on farms in 1890. For those who lived in more urban areas,

 

1Ibid., p. 30.

2National Industrial Conference Board Studies,
Women Workers and Labor Supp1y (New York: National Indus-
trial Conference Board Inc., February, 1936), No. 220, p. 5.

 

3Ibid., p. 9. Also see Lorine Pruette (ed.), Women
Workers Through the Depression (New York: The Macmillan
Company, 1934), p. 54.

41bid., p. 11. 5Smutz, op. cit., p. 6.

 

28

the most popular way to earn money was to take in boarders.

 

According to Census reports, sewing placed second in order
of importance as a source of income at home. Even the
smallest towns were able to support at least one dressmaker
and milliner. In a day when budgeting was a necessity and
thrift was of prime importance, women tried to make money,
as little as it may have been, by mending and making over
various garments. The clothing industry at the time was
undergoing a state of transition from the domestic to the
factory system. Although this was a growing competitor for
the many dressmakers, there were still thousands of women
who preferred individual seamstresses with their "person-
alized touch."

There were many other ways in which urban housewives
earned money during the 1890's. Among these was domestic
service, which was probably one of the oldest occupations
pursued by women outside of the home.1 Because this was a
type of work which required no new skills other than those
which they had been taught from an early age in their own
homes, positions were not difficult to obtain.

The largest portion of women workers outside the

home was divided between unskilled and semi-skilled factory

 

employment. With the growth of the factory system in the
New England states, it was soon discovered that both women

and young girls were well suited for factory work which

 

1Ibid. The Census reported at this time almost 1.2
million women engaged in domestic services.

29
required dexterity, speed, and precision, as well as
patience. From that day, women have become an essential
element in the manufacturing labor force.
The only other large group of employed women during

this era was the schoolteachers, who numbered almost one

 

quarter of a million.1 At one time men were considered the
only capable teachers, but as early as 1830, women invaded
the field of education. By 1890, they outnumbered male
teachers almost two to one.2 Most teachers, like women
employed in other occupations, were young and single. The
majority of communities refused to employ married women.
The following statement was declared in the New York City
by—laws at this time: '"Should a female teacher marry her
place shall thereupon become vacant.“3 Although this policy
created a constant turnover of teachers, it was generally
felt that a single woman was able to devote more time to
her position.

The field of nursing has always been a woman's
occupation, but in 1890, it was not a paid occupation.
Of more than 40,000 nurses and midwives recorded in the
Census of 1890, only a few hundred had graduated from
nursing school. Their training was inadequate, and conse-

quently, their knowledge was negligible. During the 1890's,

 

lSmutz, op. cit., p. 19.

2Ibid.

 

3"Women as Teachers," Educational Review, 11 (1891),

 

P. 391.

30

there were only three nursing schools in the country
specifically intended for women. These schools had a total
enrollment of three hundred and sixty. In the latter part
of the decade, three medical schools, originally intended
for men, broke the barrier and accepted female applicants.

A similar situation prevailed in the field of leg.
By 1890 there were over two hundred women lawyers who had
been admitted to the bar.1 It had taken twenty years for
law schools, designed for men, to open their doors to the
fairer sex.

At one time, men constituted the entire realm of

commerce and white-collar workers. Following the Civil War

 

women began to enter the field. By the end of the nine-
teenth century they could be found in virtually all offices
and stores.

The previous paragraphs have discussed classifi-
cations of occupations as listed by the United States Bureau
of the Census. These do not include all occupations in
which women were active, but are merely general categories.

It is evident, that even during these few years,
the entire structure of the female labor force in respect
to occupations had changed. White-collar work had risen
in importance in contrast to unskilled and semi—skilled manual
labor. By the end of the last decade of the nineteenth

century, one out of every one hundred women gainfully

 

lSmutz, op. cit., p. 21.

31
employed had a white-color job; one out of every five was
an agricultural worker; eight out of ten women who were
not employed on farms found work in domestic service,
teaching, or in the clothing and textile industries.1 This

was the occupational status of women in the labor force at

the turn of the century.

Education and Work

 

Most young girls were required to help their mothers
around the house, but since this could be done after school
hours, many were permitted to finish high school. In 1890,
female graduates from public high schools outnumbered male
graduates almost two to one. The majority of boys, unless
they pursued a specific trade or vocation, were forced to
drop out of school at an early age to work, thus supple-
menting the family income.2 A few women continued their
education for professional training. The more highly edu—
cated became characterized by their "disrespect for con-
vention and determination to override all obstacles."3 The
feminist revolt for equal rights was due mainly to the

efforts of these women.

 

lNational Manpower Council, Womanpower, op. cit.,

 

p. 10.

2U. S. Office of Education, Biennial Survey, 1951-
1252 (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1954),
Chapter V.

 

3
Smutz,,op. cit., p. 50.

32
Marital and Age Status

 

A study conducted by the Bureau of Labor within the
United States government in 1887, revealed three-fourths of
the 17,000 female factory workers in large cities to be
under twenty—five years of age, and only four per cent to
be married.1 On the basis of these figures it is obvious
that the female labor force in the last decade of the nine-
teenth century was composed almost one hundred per cent, of
young, single women.

By the end of the nineteenth century there were four
million women in paid employment, accounting for nearly one-
sixth of the total working population. Out of every ten
women who worked, seven were single, and five were under
twenty—five years of age. Fifty per cent, or one-half of
the adult women at the turn of the century never entered
the field of employment. The remaining fifty per cent

worked an average of eleven years.2

lease

In 1891, C. D. Wright was delegated to investigate
women's status in the labor force in respect to wages
received. His survey included twenty-two cities and his

findings were submitted in the Fourth Annual Report of the

 

1U. 3. Commissioner of Labor, Working WOmen in

Larger Cities, Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor
(Wasfiington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1889), pp.
62-6 .

 

2National Manpower Council, Womanpower, loc. cit.

 

33
United States Bureau of Labor entitled Working Women ip

 

Larger Cities.1 On the basis of this study, Mr. Wright

 

declared the average age in starting work to be fifteen
years and four months. Salaries varied from $4.05 per week
to $6.91 per week for skilled labor, with an average wage
of $5.24 per week.2 These salaries were fifty per cent
lower than men's wages at the time.

Thus, at the turn of the century women could be
found in many occupations. The fact that they were not
treated on an equal basis with men incited the feminist
revolt. This struggle became more intense as women desired

greater freedom and equality.
Changing Role and Status of Women

Early Nineteenth Century

 

According to common law in the early days of the

nineteenth century, "husband and wife were one and that one

the husband.“3 A married woman was said to be "dead in law.

Men had absolute power over their wives and children. They

 

1U. S. Commissioner of Labor, loc. cit.

2Ibid. Note: The following wages for women were
typical: Atlanta, Ga., $4.05; New Orleans, $4.31; Boston,
$5.64; Chicago, $5.74; New York, $5.85; St. Paul, $6.02;
and San Francisco, $6.91. For further figures see Helen
Campbell, “The Working Women of Today," Arena, IV (August,
1891), p. 332.

3Mary Foulke Morrisson, "Votes for Women,“ Woman's
Home Companion, No. 67 (November, 1940), p. 4.

ulbid.

 

4

34
could collect and spend their wages, control their property,
and legally beat them. On the whole, women in America were
well treated. However, there was no legal action which
could be taken against brutal husbands who took advantage of
their wives and their property. Under these conditions, it
was inevitable that women would revolt and lay claim to

certain rights and a status more comparable to that of men.

Feminist Movement

 

The Feminist Movement was a primary factor in the
changing role and status of women. The main objective of
this movement was the attainment of a status more comparable
to that of men. One phase of this movement concerned the
change in traditional dress of both sexes. A primary cause
of fashion reform lay in hygiene.1 In 1860, the National
Dress Association was organized in Boston for the purpose of
teaching women the physical laws which pertained to their
mode of dress. These laws concerned bodily injuries, which
they were causing, themselves, due to the wearing of improper
garments.2 Both Elizabeth Phelps and Julia Ward Howe, who
were active in the reform movement, believed that restrictive

clothing hampered the intellectual development of women.

——

1"Fashion and Medicine," MD, ‘Vol. 11, No. 9 (Septem-
ber, 1958), Pp- 72- ‘80

2Bernard Rudofsky, Are Clothes Modern? (Chicago:
Paul Theobold,1947),p. 182.

 

35

Julia Howe associated "constraint of the body" with'"enslave-
ment of the mind."1

Many new garments were posed to the public during
these years which were thought, by the reformers, to be more
hygienic and functional than the traditional mode of dress.
Although most of these suggested garments were not appealing
to women, they were a step in the right direction towards
more functional dress.

These attempts and their influence on the functional
aspect of dress will be discussed in greater detail in the
section entitled ”Functionalism."

At the same time a rustle of discontent was heard
throughout America concerning women's clothes, excitement
was caused by a few women who dared to speak from a public
platform in behalf of causes in which they believed, such

as anti-slavery. Angelina Grimke, Abby Kelley, and Lucretia

 

Mott were among those women who madelaliant attempts to bring
about a change. In 1840 delegates were sent to an anti-
slavery convention in London. Eight years later, at a
similar convention in Seneca Falls, New York, a woman's Bill
of Rights was passed. (See Appendix A.) Embodied within
this Bill of Rights were the desires and goals of women at

this time.

 

1Margaret L. Brew,'"American Clothing Consumption,
1870-1909" (unpublished Ph.D1 dissertation, University of
Chicago, 1945), p. 53.

36

One of the desires of women during the latter portion
of the nineteenth century was the right to vote. Between
1850 and 1860 National Suffrage Conventions were held almost
every year. Women temporarily dropped their suffrage move—
ment with the commencement of the war in 1861, and did
admirable work on behalf of the United States. Dr. Elizabeth
Blackwell returned from England where she had done work
under Florence Nightengale, and organized in this country,
the Sanitary Commission-—a forerunner of our present day Red
Cross.1 Josephine Griffing established the Freedman's
Bureau in an effort to cope with the problem of Negro
refugees.

Although it was through the efforts of women that
Negro refugees were aided, it was this group which first
received the right to vote. About 1860,the fourteenth amend-
ment was passed to the Constitution which, for the first
time, defined the rights of "male” citizens.2 This amendment
closed the doors on women as voters and opened them to
Negroes, the majority of which were still in the complete
ignorance of slavery. Protests were unavailing. By 1896,
only four ststes had adopted universal suffrage. In 1869,
the Territory of Wyoming gave women the right to vote. The
Territory of Utah followed in 1870. Party splits in Colorado

in 1893, and in Idaho in l896,gave women suffrage in these

 

lMorrison, loc. cit.

21bid., p. 122.

37
states. By the turn of the century interest had declined
in this movement and did not gain momentum until the second
decade of the twentieth century.

Women in America had taken several steps forward in
their goal towards greater equality with men. By the end of
the nineteenth century although such achievements were
seemingly insignificant as compared to those of the early
twentieth Century, they were important, since they marked
the beginning of the change in role and status of women in

the United States.

Leisure and Leisure Activities

 

Colonial Days

 

People of colonial days spent their leisure time in
recreation with useful labor. 'Quilting parties, corn
huskings, house and barn raisings are but a few examples.
Even though the stern hand of the church was strongly felt
throughout the colonies, the pious, who considered anything
not connected with work or worship as a waste of time, could
consciously join in fun and recreation.

A leisure class developed around the large plantations
of the southvfiwmxathere were slaves to do the work. Fox-
hunting and extravagant balls filled the leisure hours.
British soldiers quartered in Philadelphia, in 1627, brought
to that community a form of old English pageantry--the May-
pole dance. Almost all the colonies, except those strongly

controlled by the church, developed a form of festival, fair,

or pageantry.

38
Shortly after the Revolutionary War, the Methodist
church, fearing thetrends of the day, issued the following
statement on play for students attending schools under their
management:

. . . we prohibit play in the strongest terms. .
The students shall rise at five o'clock . . . summer
and winter. . . . Their recreation shall be gardening,
walking, riding, and bathing without doors, and the
carpenter's joiners and cabinet-maker's business
within doors. . . . The students shall be indulged
with nothing which the world calls play. Let this
rule be observed with the strictest nicety; for those
who play when they are young, will play when they are
old.

Early Nineteenth Century

 

As the early colonists conquered the wilderness
they settled down to establish homes and form communities.
A division of labor arose from group living which produced
some semblance of leisure time. ‘Only those still pushing
westward had the hard life of the early colonists. New
forms of physical activities developed to claim the attention
of the people.

Recreation took on a new form with the coming of

the steamboat and railroad. The Neg York Herald in 1838,

 

advertised round-trip boat excursions to Coney and Staten
Islands and Hudson River trips with dancing and band con-
certs.2

The Industrial Revolution had thrown many women out

of jobs, depriving them of their vocational and creative

 

lRice, op. cit., p. 181. 2Ibid., p. 188.

39
roles. Since many had no release for their energy along
useful or socially valuable lines, they consumed their
leisure with useless or damaging activity. Such expenditure

of effort was social waste.l

Ag Leisure Class

 

A leisure class evolved in the United States due to
increased wealth and suburban living. Thorstein Veblen,

in his book entitled The Theory pi the Leisure Class, dis-

 

 

cussed the idea of "conspicuous leisure."2 This was not

leisure for its own sake, but leisure which could be con-
trasted with the hard work of others-~leisure occupied in
such showy ways that it set off the ”privileged" from the

“common”

person.

‘"Conspicuous leisure" prevailed in the eastern

states of America during the latter portion of the nineteenth
century, and had a definite function: to provide a motive

for the struggle for wealth.

Summary

Leisure time was new to most people during the nine-
teenth century. As the working day grew shorter, and tech-
nological and industrial advancements brought more conveni-

ences into the home, people began to have more time to

 

1Note: This does not imply that leisure time was
necessarily wasted, but merely that few used it creatively.
See Elliott, op. cit., Chapter xxx1, "Leisure."

2Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class
(New York: Random House, 1931), Chapter VII.

 

4O
themselves to do as they pleased. Women utilized this
extra time in many ways. The spare hours were filled with
new work within the home, such as interior decoration, per-
sonal care, et cetera, volunteer work for health, welfare,
and other community agencies, recreational and social
activities. Recent social movements, of which the Woman's
or Feminist Movement is an example, have developed largely
because of the extent of leisure time.

Physical recreation, however, has probably been one
of the primary sources for the utilization of leisure time
within the last half century. Sports have become a release
for energy and tension and have proven a source of accomplish-
ment and pleasure. The following section will discuss one

phase of the sports world: swimming.

Swimmipg_as a Sport for Women

 

Origin of Swimming and Seabathing

 

The art of swimming is almost as old as the human
race, but the entrance of women into this sport is relatively
recent.1 Prior to the eighteenth century it never occurred
to anyone to bathe in the sea, except by accident. Fisher-
men and boat builders were the only ones who went to sea.

No one frequented the seashore for the sake of pleasure.

Homes along the coast were built with their backs to the sea

 

1W. S. Rossiter, "Swimming," Tribune Book of Open
Air Sports, ed. Henry Hall (New York: The Tribune Assoc.,
1887), p. 285.

 

 

41
and residents regarded it as a necessary evil connected
with an occupation.

In 1750, Dr. Russell, of England, established a
Latin treatise on the uses of seawater, for internal and
external application.1 Four years later, he built a summer
house at Brighton, England, facing the sea. This was the
first step toward seaside resorts. Once established, they
developed rapidly.

By 1770, swimming had become fairly popular in
England, and resorts were'"all the rage."2 About this time
a man named Benjamin Beale invented a bathing machine. An
awning extended over the back of this machine or wagon and
partially concealed the blushing bathers while entering and

3

leaving the waves. Bathing machines became abundant in
England and later experienced a brief period of popularity
in America. the following account gives a detailed descrip-
tion of such a machine:

. . . Veryrich and fine women enter these machines

up by the promenade, and having horses hitched to

the vehicles, are dragged down to the water's edge.
Other women and men enter the machines whenever they

 

1James Laver, Taste and Fashion (New York: Dodd,
Mead and Co., 1938), p. 217T

 

2"The Origin of Seabathing," American Review of
Reviews, No. 74 (October, 1926), pp. 439-440.

 

3See Plate I.

42

find one unoccupied, change their clothing in it
and walk to the water. The bathing machines I saw
in England were of wood, but most of those in
Trouville are merely framed with wood and covered
with canvas, that in turn often being hidden under
painted or printed advertisements. A Trouville
bathing machine is nothing but a box eight feet
long and six feet high, with a roof like a barn,
all perched upon four wheels. Within are seats and
clothes hooks or pegs, and sometimes a mirror and
comb and brush. Either before you dress for the
water or while you are in the surf a woman brings a
great wooden pitcher of fresh water to the machine,
in which you find a pail to use as a washbowl.l

Since few women knew how to swim, then, or for years after—
wards, the'"guide" was an important adjunct. He would hold
or submerge the individual as desired, and for a reasonable

price, guarantee them from being drowned.

American Heritage of Sports

 

American heritage of sports, a significant feature
of American life, comesalmost entirely from the English
people. Brought to America by the early colonists, this
British love of sports has been carried down into modern
times. Benjamin Franklin, as an individual, influenced
the popularity of the sport of swimming. As a young boy
he had become deeply interested in the skill of swimming
and investigated various physiological effects of this
sport. He became such an expert swimmer that when still a
young man, he gave an exhibition of swimming in London.

Franklin later gained an international reputation as an

 

1Julian Ralph,'"At Trouville," Harper's Weekly, No.
34 (November, 1890), p. 850.

 

43
authority on the art of swimming because of a treatise he
had written which had appeared in various magazines and
papers prior to 1790.1 One publication, entitled "Proposals
Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania,“
advocated participation in various sports, including swim-
ming, for both sexes.2 The fact that Franklin had at one
time been a swimming instructor, together with his treatise,

added dignity to the sport.

Establishment and Develppment of Swimming Pools

 

The first swimming pool in America was built on the
banks of the Schuylkill River, in Philadelphia, in 1791.3
During the l790's,baths were established throughout the
countryside where people could bathe or swim. In the early
180043 Philadelphia boasted of floating baths similar to
those in France and England at the time. They were located
in the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers and, according to
Watson,'". . . lay upon the water like low houses with white
and yellow sides and green Venetian shutters with boatmen
at hand to convey bathers to the establishment.‘"l‘L The walls
of these houses had openings through which the river water

ran to make the pools. Some were elaborate, possessing

several galleries and bathing chambers.

 

1Robert B. Weaver, Amusements and Sports in American
Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939), p. 189.

2Thomas Woody, Educational Views of Benjamin Frank-
lin (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1931), pp.149-182.

3Rice, op. cit., p. 182. “lbid.

44
Similar pools were established in all cities of
importance at the time, including Boston, Salem, Hartford,
New York, Philadelphia, Richmond, Washington, Charleston,
and Savannah. Some of these pools were spacious, covering
almost four thousand feet. Men and women were usually con-

fined to separate compartments.

Sea-bathing and Summer Resorts

 

Sea—bathing was also practiced, and many people
went to summer resorts where swimming was a healthful and
delightful recreation. In 1810, New Yorkers journeyed by
carriage to Far Rockaway Beach to sun and bathe themselves.
Long Branch, along the New Jersey shore, was established
for Philadelphians. With the construction of new hotels
after the War of 1812, Cape Mary and Atlantic City gained
outstanding reputations as excellent "watering places."l
Sarasota Springs, New York, and White Sulphur Springs,
Virginia, were exploited and their restorative properties
were widely advertised after 1815.2 The first Atlantic City

Boardwalk was completed in 1870, and added a new attraction

to the lengthy list of fashionable seaside resorts.3 Thus,

 

1
J. A. Krout, Annals of American Sport Vol. XV:

Pageant of America (New York: Derrydale, 1931), p. 289.

 

 

2lbid.

3Chicago Sunday Tribune, August 23, 1959, Part 6,

 

45
by the end of the nineteenth century, sea-bathing was well
established in the United States. During the warm weather
people flocked to the seashore to bask in the sun and

refresh themselves in the ocean.

Swimming for Women

 

In a few instances records have been found of women
participating in the sport ofEMimming as early as the first
quarter of the nineteenth century. By 1850, this was still
not recognized as an accepted sport for a lady. The
following recommendation was found in the August, 1858 copy

of Godey's Lady Book:

 

Swimming was recommended for girls and women partly
from the standpoint of cleanliness. Cleanliness,
however obtained, was known to keep the pores of the
skin open, thus bathing it in the sea was to an extent
made desirable because of its effects upon the skin.
The proper hours for swimming were indicated as those
just preceding breakfast or supper, but if swimming
must be done in the middle of the day the swimmer

is urged to choose a shady spot and wear a straw hat.
Corks, bladders, inflated life preservers, ropes or
poles, were often used for beginning swimmers, altho
the most approved method was that of having the
teacher wade out into the water as far as possible
and there support the learner in swimming position.l

Swimming, at this time, was not advocated as a source of
pleasure, but a source of good health. This trend of thought
was maintained until the last quarter of the century. With
the advent of numerous pools and seaside resorts, women

began to participate in the sport and regard swimming as a

 

1L. A. Gode , Godey's Lady Book, Vol. 57 (Philadel-
phia: August, 1858 , p.‘123.

46

source of enjoyment and pleasure. Many women believed that
by participating in such a sport as swimming, which had here-
tofore been regarded as a‘"man's sport," they would force
themselves to be accepted and would achieve a more equal

status with men.

Swimming and Education

 

Aquatic activities spread to colleges and univer-
sities during the nineteenth century. As early as 1837,
Mt. Holyoke Seminary in Massachusetts offered a physical
education program, which included swimming. The first
swimming pool to be built by a college was opened in 1848,
at Girard College in Philadelphia. Harvard University put
in the second college pool in 1880. In 1891, Bryn Mawyr
(women's college) united its various sports clubs into one
organization, giving birth to the first Women's Athletic
Association. Goucher College constructed the first swimming
pool for women in 1888, but did not list swimming as an
activity for students until 1904. Vassar built the second
pool in 1889; Smith installed a-"swimming bath" in 1892,
which could be used by two to five students at a time and
was in use for over thirtyjears; Bryn Mawyr built its pool
in 1894,and by the end of the century Radcliffe College

had a swimming pool for women.1

 

1Rice, op. cit., pp. 245-246.

47

There were no swimming pools for women or men in
any coeducational college of this era. Although many pools
had been built in large cities, the physical education pro-
grams within large colleges and universities were not suf—
ficiently developed so as to warrant swimming pools.

By the turn of the century the sport of swimming
was recognized as being respectable for women. Educators
became cognizant of the importance of a physical education
program for students, and for this reason the private
women's colleges of the East included swimming in their
physical education programs. Although few women in America
actually knew how to swim, they frequented seaside resorts
and bathing pools as a source of relaxation, pleasure, and

recreation.

Women's Swimwear

 

There iS little evidence for the forms of bathing
dress prior to 1800. It is difficult to say when they were
first created.

During the first fifty years of the nineteenth
century bathing suits were voluminous, consisting of large
pantaloons and a thick loose dress with long sleeves.
Nothing went uncovered. The dress extended from throat to
ankles. Shoes, hat,, and gloves were worn. The costume
was weighted with decorative flowers and ruffles which,
when wet, made it heavy and next to impossible for the

wearer to indulge in any active water sports.

48

This style remained in "fashion" until 1865, when
'"the Zoave Marine" swimming suit was introduced.1 This
costume had a body and trousers cut in one, which gave more
freedom of action while still concealing the figure. Its
chief rival was a loose-buttoned blouse and knicker—bockers
of stout brown Holland or blue serge trimmed with brightly
colored braid.

The bathing dress gradually became "streamlined" in
America as shown by the models in Plate I representative of
the late 1860's. Fancy oil skin caps replaced hats, gloVes
were abandoned, and it was permissable, yet daring, to
allow the ankles to show.

By the mid-seventies the bathing dress had become
more stylized. A knee-length dress was worn over trouser—
1ike bloomers reaching to the mid—calf, or below. There
was no significant increase in decolletage, but slightly
shorter sleeves. The entire suit was trimmed with braid
and ribbons and was usually accompanied by a peculiarly
shaped straw hat.

In 1880, bathing costumes, on the whole, were neat
in appearance. The typical costume consisted of a loose
blouse with elbow length sleeves, a collar,and wide drawers
or bloomers reaching to the ankles. The suit could be worn

with or without a skirt. The following year the first

 

lCecil Willett Cunnington, The Perfect Lady (New
York: Chanticleer Press Inc., 1948), p. 37.

 

49
sleeveless bathing suit appeared, revealing the bare arm.
Trousers still extended to the ankles, concealing the lower
limbs. (See Plate 11.)

About 1886, women's swimwear acquired a one-piece
look with detachable skirt over knickerbockers. Although
such a design was more advantageous for swimming, the suits
were impractical due to the heavy fabrics used.

There were always some women who wore more daring
attire at the beach. In the summer of 1886, a young
Southern woman vacationing at Narragansett Pier, Rhode
Island, wrote the following letter to her cousin. This is
a friendly, but'"catty" letter giving an accurate descrip-
tion of one instance of the display of a "shocking" bathing
costume.

Dear Cousin,

I am snatching a few moments from the daily rush
to again urge you to join Me . . . With the idea of
enticing you, I will attempt to give a fleeting
glimpse of the passing show.

During the bathing hours at high tide . . . the
beach and hotel verandas are crowded with onlookers.
An hundred or more bathers--men and women-—afford us
no end of entertainment. Charlie Dudley is here and
as you know, one permits him to say outrageous things.
The combination of his charm and daring humor are
disarming. He sat beside me today while all eyes were
rivited on one Mrs. Gissing from Chicago. She is
supposed to be beautiful. I make a guess that her
auburn tresses have been assisted and her figure is
described by Charlie as being roBUST and HYPnotic.
Some say "divorcee", others ”grass-widow." Well, no
matter. In any case it would take a horse race to
keep up with her. I, of course, know her only by
sight, and sight she is! The men buzz around her like ’
bees and gather about the bath rooms to see her pass,
en route to the waves. She always 1011s on the sand
a bit before making a kittenish dash--she's Surely in

50

the thirties if a minute. Her costume and antics
this morning were paramount to anything yet.

Black silk bathing suit--very short skirt-~very
low neck. NO sleeves--transparent silk stockings.

On her arm a gold bracelet, if you please! After

she had done building sand hills (childish aspect)
with several male bathers, she referred to the billows.
Catching hands with a favored gentleman, they made a
grand rush and Sprauled. From then on, where her
corset began and left off was very apparent.

Mrs. G., with one exception, is the only good
female swimmer, yet, with an arm around the man's
shoulder, his arm around hers, swimming with one hand
apiece, they made good headway to the deep water raft.
Not satisfied with this, she mounted his back and
pitched off head foremost. Some women seated next to
me got up and left. I didn't feel that way about
Mrs. Gissing. For all I care she may be as brazen as
she likes.

Charlie Dudley watched the whole performance
through his field glasses--such remarks: He leaves
next week for White Sulphur . . . All said and done,
what a charming and entertaining man he is--wicked
thing. . . .1

Both Charlie Dudley and the author of the letter were tradi-
tional in their thinking. Throughout the nineteenth century
it was customary for men to watch women bathers through
binoculars. It was likewise customary for women to deplore
immodest bathing suits on other women. The description
given in this letter is an exception to fashion at the time
rather than the rule. It does illustrate, however, the
concept of immodesty in swimwear. Only the bravest of

women dared appear in such a manner. The majority who
participated in swimming retained their knickerbockers or
bloomers, sleeves to the elbow, high collars or necklines,

and skirts to the knee or slightly below.

 

1Cohn, op. cit., pp. 391-392.

51
The following account of swimwear in the 1890's
was extracted from an American magazine:

The unbecoming appearance of many lady—bathers has
led us to ask the particulars of the toilet of one
whom we have remarked as looking equally well dressed,
when in the water and on the shore. She first dons a
thin woollen undergarment, and over this she wears a
corset with most of the 'bones' removed. She then puts
on a pair of black stockings and the bathing dress,
which should have an upper skirt reaching almost to
the tops of the bathing shoes, which should be of
white canvas. The bathing dress should be dark, blue
or black, as it makes the figure look better than a
light one. The details should be left to taste, but
a few white embroidered anchors or a little white or
red fringe will give lightness. She plaits her hair
beneath a close-fitting bathing cap, but in order to
avoid the unbecoming appearance which this lends to
the head she fixes a false plait, pinned on below the
hair, to fall below the bathing cap behind, and a few
little curls, arranged in a neglige fashion, are ewn
inside the bathing cap to fall over the forehead.

In general, the bathing costume of the last half
of the nineteenth century became more brief as the years
progressed. The neckline became more decollete, sleeves
became shorter, skirts were shorter or were totally absent,
and knickerbockers and bloomers rose from ankle to knee
length. Stockings, usually black, were worn with the
bathing costumes, as were bathing shoes. Hats or caps
adorned the heads.

The majority of bathing suits prior to 1900 were
hand made. With the advent of the sewing machine in the

1860's, machine stitching could be used, making the seams

 

1'"The Art of Social Bathing," Spectator, No. 73
(August 11, 1894), pp. 172-173.

 

52
of bathing suits more durable. Since women were not overly
active in this sport at the time, such a factor was not of
great importance. The most popular fabrics used were wool,
alpaca, cashmere, cotton, linen, serge, Turkey
Twill, and some silk. Trimmings of braid, tassels, ruching,
and ribbons bedecked the costume, as well as embroidery and
silk ties.

There had been no radical change in style over a
period of fifty years, nor in use of fabrics. With the
advent of women in sports and the increased popularity of
swimming, bathing suits were destined to change in the

future decades.

Functionalism in Women's Swimwear

 

Idealistically, a woman's garment should be prac—
tical and healthy and not hamper her movement. Dress
reformers of the mid-nineteenth century continually advocated
such garments, but to no avail. Training and voluminous
skirts, tight waists and sleeves-~were all detrimental to
satisfactory movement.

Abba Goold Woolson wrote of dress reform from the
aesthetic standpoint.

Though it be as perfect in outline and ornament as
classic taste can make it, as simple and serviceable
as the most energetic worker can desire, a costume

has no business to exist, is indeed an embodied crime,
if it deforms or weakens or tortures the body it
intends to serve. For that should be sacred: it is
God's handiwork. He made it as He wished it to be;
capable by wonderful mechanisms, or swift and easy
motion; shaped in the contours which artists despair

53

of reproducing; and so responsive to our will, so

varied in its capacities, so lightly moved from place

to place, by its own powers, that in its perfect state
the soul which inhibits it is almost unconscious of

its existence, and knows it only as a source of help

and pleasure. A dress which prevents this human body
from ever attaining its natural size and comeliness

is not simply unhealthful; it is also inartistic,

since the highest aspiration of art is to copy and idealize
nature. The desired improvement in women's dress which
art enjoins will surely come in time, if we can
patiently wait for it. Such a general knowledge of
beauty's laws, and such a deference to their behests as
it implies, must be a slow growth; for it is nothing
short of the enlightenment of the whole people as to what
constitutes grace of form, harmony of color, and
adaptability to conditions of life.1

This statement reveals the beginnings of a very
disturbing influence which took place in the middle 1870's,
the Aesthetic Movement.2 In a material form this movement
appeared as a rebellion against the restrictions of fashion
together with a demand for greater physical freedom. The
Aesthetic Movement lasted for nearly a half a century,
while the "modern young women" unconsciously attempted to
change the fundamental concept of the art of costume by
introducing the new notion of greater mobility.3 On the
whole this reform was a failure due to the drastic sugges—
tions of reformers for a new mode of dress.

It was not until the 1890's,that the idea of func-
tionalism was promoted on the basis of design and freedom

of movement.

 

ers. Charles A. Hall, From Hoopskipts to Nudity
(Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton PrintersILtd., 1938), p. 51.

 

2Cunnington, op. cit., p. 46. 3Ibid., p. 35.

54

The simple invention of the bicycle brought to an
end the tyranny of the corset, bustle, and trailing skirt,
and started the wheels turning on the road to more func-
tional garments.l Once the freedom and comfort of new
sports clothes had been experienced, neither newspaper,
ridicule, masculine disapproval, adverse legislation,rkn?
ecclesiastical prohibition could stop women from adopting
new fashions.

Various committees were established during this
decade for the promotion of functional garments. Some com-
mittees were organized for a particular type of socio-
economic group, such as women working in industry. Frances
E. Russell in an article appearing in the grepg in 1891,
expressed a desire for the working girl to have garments
which would give her "freedom of lungs and limbs.“2
One committee, under the auspices of the National Council
of Women, in 1893, expressed favor for an "improvement in
women's dress which willgive her the free use of the organs
of her body when working or taking exercise."3

Thus, women prior to 1900, were working towards a
more practical design of garments, applicable to both every-
day dress and sports attire. Because they had entered the

sport of swimming and had found enjoyment and relaxation

 

lGilbert Seldes,’"Dress and Undress," Mentor, No.
17 (November, 1929), pp. 56-60. ‘“““"

2Frances E. Russell,’"Woman's Dress," Arena, No. 3
(February, 1891), pp.352-360.

3Frances E. Russell, '"Freedom in Dress for Woman,"
£3222: NO- 8 (June. 1893), pp. 70-77.

55
through this sport, it was only natural that they would

desire clothes which would give them more freedom of move-
ment. Active participation in swimming was still frowned
on to some degree in the last years of the nineteenth cen-
tury. Modesty, of course, was of prime importance. The
fact that women were not in possession of equal status with
men was also influential.

There are three general requirements for good
design, and it is on these bases that the principle of
functionalism is exemplified: (1) performance, (2) appli-
cation of materials, and (3) construction appropriate to
the material.

1. Performance.--Plates I and II are illustrative

 

of bathing suits prior to 1900. It is evident from these
figures that women's bathing suits were cumbersome and im-
practical because of the voluminous amount ofnaterial em-
ployed. It is understandable that women could not swim

in garments of this nature, but merely confine themselves
to wading in shallow water or strolling along the beach.
Attempts were made on the part of women to actively parti-
cipate in this Sport. Certainly they never became experts,
since the long sleeves, skirts and bloomers or knicker-
bockers impeded their strokes. Superfluous decorations,
tight waists, undergarments, and corsets were also detri-
mental to movement.

2. Application of materials.--The most popular

 

fabrics used in swimwear were wool, cotton, linen, Silk,

56
alpaca, and cashmere. Wool and alpaca were employed most
frequently. Although both are good for warmth, they are
not quick drying. They also become very heavy when wet,
and when eight to ten yards constitute a bathing suit, one
wonders how a woman could possibly swim under such a
tremendous weight. Cashmere and silk were used mainly for
decorative purposes, although many women of the upper
classes possessed bathing suits made entirely of silk. At
this time silk was the most expensive fabric available and
was regarded as a "luxury" item. Linen lends itself readily
to tailored garments, but like wool, is very heavy when wet.
To take cotton by itself, one would say that this was a very
practical fabric for swimwear. In the light of the styles
of that era, however, it was impractical because it revealed
the female figure, and, consequently, was in violation of
the prevailing code of modesty.

3. Construction appropriate to the materialr-The
majority of bathing suits prior to the turn of the century
were hand made. With the advent of the sewing machine in
the 1860's, machine stitching could be used by dressmakers.
Through use of this invention, swimwear became more durable,
This factor was not of great importance, however, because
women were not overly active in the sport. Dressmaking
techniques, which consisted of sewing entirely by hand,
were employed. With this type of labor, as inexpensive as

it was, it was not uncommon to find many ruffles, frills,

57

ribbons, and ruchings on the garments. This fact, in con-
junction with the heavy materials used, the quantity of
material used, and the restricting style of garments, tended
to make bathing suits, prior to 1900, unfunctional and im-
practical.

To properly understand function in sportswear at
this time in American history, consideration must not be
given solely to the tools and requirements of design,
materials,and technology. The emotional satisfactions of
women as manifested in their drive for equal rights and
status were of comparable importance. It was impossible
for women to have functional garments when the dictates
of society frowned on their active participation in Sports.
Anything which detracted from the lady—like qualities
expected of women during this era, was condemned. Having
once achieved social, political, and economic equality,
women sincerely believed they would also attain freedom

of mind and body.

58

PLATE I

Figure l ——- Costume of purple flannel with trimmings

of white flannel. Bodice fastened with
white buttons and white band and buckle.
Bathing cap of oilskin, trimmed with red
worsted braid.

Blouse and trousers of red flannel,
trimmed with white. The blouse is orna-
mented with a ruche of white cashmere,
and a cashmere scarf is tied around the
waist forming a long sash in the back.
Bathing cap of oilskin.

Bathing suit of white and lilac striped
flannel. Blouse trimmed around bottom
with border of white flannel, and caught
up on each side with a tab of the same
material. The collar, wrist, and waist-
bands are also white. Bathing cap of
oilskin, with a pinked ruche of striped
flannel.

 

Figure 2 —--
Figure 3 ---
. Source:
delphia: L.

L. A. Godey, Godey's Lady's Book (Phila-

 

A. Godey, Vol. 66, July, 1868), n. p.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6O

PLATE II

Figure 1 --— 1870 : A daring bathing suit of the day--
arms bared with the exception of the large
sailor collar extending over the upper
portion of the arm. Bustle effect to
skirt. Shirring around base of skirt and
bloomers. Made of light weight grey wool
worsted.,

Figure 2 ~-— 1880 : Checked gingham bathing suit with
black trim around neckline, ruffled collar,
and at base of bloomers. A more daring
suit of the day showing bloomers without
an overskirt. Black stockings and bathing
slippers.2

Figure 3 —-- 1890 : Typical suit of this year in blue
serge trimmed with bands of white wool
worsted. Large puffed sleeves extended
almost to elbow and skirt over full-
1ength bloomers to knee. Canvas laced
bathing slippers.3

 

lIllustration taken from November, 1958 issue of
Esquire Magazine.

 

2"Yes, My Darling Daughter; Styles 1870-1944,"
Saturday Evening Post, No. 217 (August 5, 1944), pp.
24—25.

3Chicago Sunday Tribune, Magazine section, June 8,
1952, p. 12.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

62

GLOSSARY

CASHMERE - fabric made of extremely soft wool of the Indian
Kashmir goat.

FLANNEL — an all-wool fabric woven of woolen or worsted
yarns, with a softly napped surface. Can
also be made of cotton or synthetics.

GINGHAM - a yarn—dyed, plain-weave, cottonfabric with woven
in stripes, plaids, or checks.

HOLLAND CLOTH - linen or cotton fabric in plain-weave;
usually has heavy sizing or is glazed.

OILSKIN — fabric which has been soaked in boiled linseed
oil and dried. Process makes the fabric
waterproof and fairly pliable.

SERGE - a twill-weave fabric made of wool yarns with a
characteristic forty-five degree diagonal
wale on both sides of the cloth. Can also
be made of cotton or rayon.

SILK - the natural fiber from the cocoon of the silkworm
woven into fabric.

TAFFETA - a fine, plain-weave, stiffened fabric, smooth on
both sides, usually with a sheen to its sur-
face. Can be made of silk, rayon, cotton,
or synthetic yarns.

TURKEY TWILL - atwill—weave cotton dyed a brilliant red.

VELVET - a pile fabric made of silk or snythetic fibers in
which extra warps form the pile; usually
made by the wire method.

WOOL - fibers from fleece of sheep which are spun, then
woven, knitted, or felted into fabric.

WORSTED - worsted yarn is smooth-surfaced, spun from long
staple, evenly combed wool. Worsted fabric
is made from worsted yarns, and is tightly
woven with a smooth, hard surface.

 

5844'... I-

CHAPTER IV

1900 TO 1918

General Conditions of the Period

 

The two decades prior to World War I were ones of
striking social and material advancement.1 By the turn of
the century the United States was rapidly becoming an
industrialized nation. Urbanization took hold and cities
grew in size. People had settled in all parts of the
country. The population was steadily increasing-—mainly
due to immigration. Education flourished and children spent
more hours in school and went to school for a longer duration
of time. Social life outside the home was abundant. Tele-
phones, electricity, automobiles, and motion pictures were
rapidly transforming American way of life.

The narrowing gap between rich and poor was one out-
standing characteristic of twentieth century America which
started at the beginning of the century.2 There was a con-
stant rise in the standard of living for a greater number of

people, an increase in the availability of public education,

 

lHarvey Wish, Contemporary America (New York:
Harper and Bros. PubliSher, 1945), p. 3.

 

2Cozens and Stumpf, op. cit., p. 19.
63

. (till I

64
a standardization of dress and fashion, and the democrati-
zation of sports through various media. These factors
tended to erase some of the long standing marks of class
distinction.

The growth of newspaper and periodical publication
and circulation brought knowledge of other ways of life to
America, stimulating the average American to achieve those
things which could be characterized as "the good things in
life:"

American foreign policy during this era reflected
the strong feeling of nationalism evident in internal
affairs. The nation developed the idea of international
stewardship, and assumed an active position in the movement
for world peace. International peace conferences were
held--but to no avail. Europe became tense under the
‘growing race for armaments. Hostilities finally broke in
August, 1914. The first reaction of the American people
was one of shock and horror. A state of neutrality was
declared by the United States government, but in time it
became more and more difficult to maintain. The first
crisis in German and American relationships came with the

sinking of the unarmed Lusitania on May 7, 1915. Protests

 

were registered but remained unheeded. The Allies made con—
tinual appeals to the United States to join their ranks in
an effort to bring the war to a close. In April, 1917,
America conceded, although totally unprepared to meet this

challenge. The government immediately organized industrial

65
resources to supply the Allied troops, and created overseas
transportation. The crisis was met. When the armistice was
signed on November 11, 1918, the United States emerged as

one of the great powers of the world.

The Textile Industry

 

At the turn of the century the United States textile
industry manufactured cotton, linen, silk, and wool. A com—
bination of linen and cotton was made which passed for
linen on the basis of appearance and texture. One-fifth
of all existing cotton spindles in the world were possessed
by United States manufacturers. Americans consumed virtually
one-third of the world's production of cotton. It was also
the only fabric, at this time, which the United States ex-
ported. Most of the wool made in this country was poor in
quality, and consequently, finer grade woolens were imported
from England and elsewhere. Two-thirds of the nation's
total consumption of silk goods were manufactured within the
country, and it was established that the United States used
more silk than any other country in the world.1

As early as 1904, experiments were conducted on
water-proof finishes for fabrics. The process employed at
the time, was not attended with practical success. It had

been hoped that an ordinary cotton fabric, so treated, would

 

lnThe Textile Industry in the U. 5.," Current Liter-
ature,No. 33 (November, 1902), p. 548.

 

66

become impervious to water, but this process was not per-
fected for several years.1

Turning specifically to the field of swimwear,
there is evidence of the establishment of the Jantzen Com-
pany in 1909.2 Their first attempt in the manufacturing of
this type of garment was heavy rowing trunks, designed and
made for a rowing team in Portland, Oregon. These were knit
with a rib stitch much like that found on the cuffs of a
sweater. The same knitting stitch was later applied to
bathing suits.3

In 1916, the first American design contest for
women's wear, promoted by Woman's Wear pai1y, was held at

the Art Alliance of America in New York City.“ This fact

 

illustrates the progressiveness of the fashion industry at
this time.
Technological developments and advancements caused

the expansion of the textile and garment manufacturing

 

l"A New Kind of Water-Proof Fabric," Scientific
American Supplement, No. 57 (January 30, 1904), pp. 23471-
23472.

 

2Dorothy L. Wallis, The Jantzen Story (New York:
Fairchild Publications, Inc., 1959), pp. 7-11. Note:-
Although the firm was established at this time it did not
cater originally to the manufacture of swimwear. The
original products made were hosiery, heavy sweaters, knitted
jackets and gloves. It was not until 1916 that the name
‘ Jantzen" was adopted by this firm.

 

31bid.

4Katherine Morris Lester, Historic Costume (Peoria,
Illinois: Charles A. Bennett and Co., 1942), p. 234.

 

67
industries. New fabrics, finishes, and weaves appeared on
the market. American women demanded versatility and their

demands were met.

Women in the Labor Force

 

The question arose at the turn of the century as
to exactly what constituted support.1 For the wage-earning
class support in the weekly or monthly stipend was paid by
the employer. Young women sought jobs outside the home
until their own marriage gave them an opportunity for
domestic employment.

Increase in Women Workers Compared to Increase
in Female Population

 

 

The increase by decades in the number of women
gainfully employed gives clearer evidence of trends when
compared with the increase in female population.2 The
greatest increase during any ten year period after 1900
was during the first decade, with 47%. At that time, the
female population of those sixteen and over increased only
24%. Between 1910 and 1920 female employment decreased by
16%, close to the 17% decrease in the female population.
The retardation is accounted for in part by the cessation

of immigration.

 

1
W. L Bonne , "Women and the Wage System,‘ Arena,
No. 26 (August, 1901 , pp. 172-177.

2U. S. President's Research Committee, Recent Social

Trends in the United States, Vol. I (New York: MCGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc., 1933), p. T2.

 

 

68

The growing importance of women in occupations
outside the home is strikingly shown by figures indicating
the proportion which they constituted of all occupied
persons.1 In 1880, women constituted 14.5% of the occupied;
1900, 17.7%; 1910, 19.8%; and 1920, 20.1%. It is apparent
from these figures that women were gradually beginning to
assume a greater share of the responsibility for carrying

on the work of the country.

Occupations

 

During and after the war there was a significant
decrease in the amount of domestic work done by women.2
The war opened many new pursuits for women. Between 1910

and l920,women in the manufacturing and mechanical indus-

 

tries increased by 110,084; the traneportation field went

 

from 106,596 in 1910, to 214,262 in 1920. With the in-
vention ofthe typewriter and labor saving office machines,
calculating machines, comptometers, multigraphing, and
other machines, increase in clerical positions for women
between 1910 and 1920, was 140%. Women constituted 34% of
all persons employed in clerical occupations in 1910, and

45% in 1920.3 The progress of women in professions during

 

 

11bid., p. 713.

2Lorine Pruette,Women Workers Through the Depres-
sion (New York: The MacfiIllan Co., 1934), p. 54. Note:
At this time there was also a decrease in female immigration.

 

3Sophinisba P. Breckinridge, Women in the Twentieth
Century (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1933):7p.

177.

 

69
this period sinks to insignificance beside her progress in
industry and especially in business.1 As the machine age
advanced it was paralleled by an increase in women workers.
By February, 1919, approximately 1,413,000 women
had replaced men in the labor force.2 At the end of 1918,

there were 4,700,000 women employed replacing 1,550,000 men.

Unions and Wages

 

Several women's unions were established during this
period but had little voice in labor policies.3 In 1903,
the National Women's Trade Union League was organized for
the purpose of aiding women in their fight for improved
conditions.

State laws established minimum wages, allowed for
industrial homework, permitted industrial night work, and
restricted the number of hours a woman could work. The
Supreme Court of the United States sustained the law of
California establishing an eight hour day for women in cer-

tain occupations. To date (1915), this was the most

advanced law on the subject of working hours.4

 

lInez Haynes Irwin, Angels and Amazons (New York:
Doubleday, Doran and Co., Inc., 1934), p. 303.

 

2
George, op. cit., p. 15.

3
Elliott, op. cit., Chapter XV.

4"W0men Who Work," The Independent, No. 82 (April 19,
1915), p. 96.

 

70
Marital Status

 

According to census figures the number of married
women in employment increased from 769,000 in 1900, to
1,891,000 in 1910. In 1900, 43.5% of the single women and
5.6% of all married women were gainfully employed. The
latter constituted approximately 15% of all working women.1

By the end of the first two decades of the
twentieth century women had entered many fields of employ-
ment which had previously been restricted to men. World
War I was the main factor for this sudden change. The
advent of women in the labor force during this era gave

them more confidence and independence and greatly affected

their role and status. (See Appendix C.)

Changing Role and Status of Women

 

Under the common law there was no distinctbn
between the unmarried adult woman and man in 1900.2 The
difference of legal capacity for the married woman, however,
was great. Her activities were mainly connected with the
domestic organization, as wife, mother, daughter, and
sister, or as a hired assistant in tasks of a domestic
nature. With the development of the factory system and
increased production, work was removed from the home. Both

women and children were employed under new conditions.

1U. S. President's Research Committee, op. cit.,
Vol. I, p. 715.

2
Breckinridge, op. cit., p. 99.

71

Formulation of Clubs and Organizations

 

It has been said, that "the woman‘s club has been
the gateway by which women in large numbers have passed
into civic life."1

One of the first organizations of importance was
founded in 1903.2 This was the National Woman‘s Trade
Union League of America. Its membership consisted not only
of women representatives of Trade Unions, but also women of
leisure interested in its purposes. The first objective
of the League was as follows:

To assist in the organization of women wage earners

into trade unions and thereby help them to secure

conditions necessary for healthful and efficieng

work and to obtain a just return for such work.
In 1904, at a meeting of the American Institute of Homeo-
pathy, the Woman's Homeopathy fraternity was founded for
social purposes. This was the first national organization
for women in the medical profession.4 The first women's
athletic club was established in Chicago under the leader-
ship or Mrs. John Astor in 1905.5 The YWCA was founded in

1906. The year 1908,saw the beginnings of the American

 

lMabel Potter Daggett,‘"The New Chapter in Woman's
Pfiogress;" Good Housekeeping, No. 56 (February, 1913), p.
l 9.

 

2Breckinridge, op. cit., p. 27. Note: This was
actually organized at the .F.L. convention in 1903.

31bid. ”Ibid., p. 27.

5Bertha Damaris Knobe, "Chicago's Women's Athletic
Club," Happer's Bazaar, No. 39 (June, 1905), pp. 538-546.

 

72

Home Economics Association, the initial purpose of which
was:

. . . to bring together those concerned in developing

the art of right living by the application of system—

itized knowledge to the problems of the home and the

community.
The above mentioned organizations are but a few of those
established during this time. Prior to 1917, the member-
ship in such organizations was mainly composed of domestic
women, married women whose club activities provided an
escape from household and family cares. Following the
entrance of the United States into World War I, the first
of a group of five "service clubs for business women" was
established.2 These clubs gave gainfully employed women the
opportunity of spending their spare time relaxing and

associating with other women in comparable fields.

Woman Suffrage

 

Turning to the field of politics and the question
of woman suffrage, only four victories, with the right to
vote, could be claimed by women prior to l910,despite a
great improvement in their general status and the obvious
justice of their claims.3 The reason for so few victories

lay in the fact that individual state constitutions, which

 

lBreckinridge, op. cit., p. 28.

2Ibid., p. 37.

3Morrisson, op. cit., p. 122.

73
were difficult to amend, established their own qualifi-

cations for voters. A constitutional amendment was the
only means for achieving full woman suffrage in the United
States. Such an amendment required the assent of the leg-
islatures or state conventions of three-quarters of the
states.1

In New York state, between 1909 and 1917, women
were continuously campaigning for the right to vote. Six
years were required for an amendment to be submitted and
passed. The passing of this amendment did not come until
forty-seven years after the passing of the fourteenth
amendment. According to Mrs. Catt:

To get that word "male" out of the constitution
took 52 years of pauseless campaign, 56 campaigns
of referenda, 480 campaigns to get Constitutional
Conventions to include woman suffrage, 277 cam-
paigns for planks in state party platforms, 3O
campaigns for planks in national party platforms,
19 campaigns with 19 successive Congresses for

the submission of the federal amendment and the
final work of ratification. Millions of dollars
were raised, mostly in very small sums, and spent
with economic care. Hundreds of women gave their
entire lives, thousands gave years of their lives,
hundreds of thousands constant interest and such
time as they could. It was a continuous, seem-
ingly endless chain of activity. Young suffragists
who helped to forge the last links were not born
when it began. Old suffragists whoforged.the first
links were dead when it ended.2

 

1'"The Present Status of Woman Suffrage,"

Harper's
Weekly, No. 51 (October 5, 1907), p. 1443. ' ”

2Morrisson, loc. cit.

74

In 1910, and 1911, the states of Washington and
California, respectively, yielded to woman suffrage. In
1912, the Progressive Party was formed with its suffrage
plank. These advocates of woman suffrage asserted the
following:

1. The ballot would put women on an equality with
men in education, wages, and the like.

2. It would purify politics, drive the saloon out
of power, and clean up the coarser vices.

3. As women want it, and have a right to iti there
is no reason why they shouldn't have it.

Several other states slowly Joined the "band
wagon." Finally, in May, 1919, the United States Senate
capitulated an amendment. On June 4, 1919, the Susan B.
Anthony amendment (the nineteenth) was passed, granting
women the right to vote.2 Ratification required four

years, but at last, women were able to vote on an equal

basis with men.3

Social Effects of World War I

 

The war had a disturbing effect on women's organi-
zations in at leasttwo ways: it provided the opportunity
for the development of new organizations with a patriotic
motive, and with an influx of women in the labor force

brought about a widening of their interests. The war meant

 

1"What is the Truth About Woman Suffrage?," Ladies
Home Journal, No. 29 (October, 1912), p. 24. "‘”"

 

2Irwin, op. cit., p. 391.

3Ibid., p. 406.

75
a dislocation in family life, in industry, and in the

government. What it meant for the woman as an individual
can only be suggested.

Increased urbanization made women more individual-
istic and independent. This attitude was reflected in the
increased divorce rate and decreased birth rate of the era.

Economic pressure, the desire to fill the empty
hours and ofttimes the empty minds, the liberating effects
of the war--all worked to produce new mores, new standards,

and a new type woman.

Leisure and Leisure Activities

 

In an article entitled'"Women of Leisure" written
in 1900, the author conveyed the feeling that due to the
increase of women in the labor force they would no longer

1 It was thought at that time,

have any "leisure time."
that a woman who worked for a living, especially a married
woman, would have so many things to do in the home after
working hours that she would not have time to relax. The
leisure time of the working girl was limited. However, for

her own peace of mind and health, it became necessary for

her to have some time for physical exercise and pleasure.2

 

1"Women of Leisure,"

Century, No. 60(August, 1900),
pp. 632-633.

2Lenore Hanna Cox, "The Value of the Woman of
Leisure," Journal of Home Economics, No. 8 (August, 1916),

pp. 407-413.

 

76
Lenore Cox encouraged women t0'"use their leisure,
not in mere time devouring pleasures, but to stimulate and

increase their mental grasp.‘"l

Miss Cox believed that a
woman could attain this goal and prove herself by her work,
conversation, and most of all, by her voluntary activities.
Smaller families, smaller homes or apartments,
numerous gadgets simplifying housework, commercial laun-

dries, and shorter working hours meant more leisure for

women and turned their interests outside of the home.

Swimming as a Sport for Women

 

Virtually all American sports were beginning to
emerge fromswaddling clothes in 1900.2 There were many
influencing factors which affected the sports, play activi-
ties, and over-all recreational life of the people. The
majority of these were found in the realm of the social
institutions within the American culture.3 One or two of

these factors are given in succeeding paragraphs.

Ecclesiastical Influence

 

The majority of church groups within the United
States, regardless of denomination, underwent. a tremendous
change in attitude concerning sports during the last half

century.

 

lIbid.

2John Durant and Otto Bettman, Pictorial History of
American Sports (New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 19527jp.102.

 

 

3Cozens and Stumpf, op. cit., p. 14.

77
In 1900, most churches completely disapproved of

vigorous physical activity. The church was not aware of
the increase in standard of living and leisure time, which
made it possible for more people to participate in recrea—
tional activities. Gradually the awareness came. The
church realized that it was in competition for the time,
thoughts, and energy of the individuals, and was therefore

forced to change its attitude.

Governmental Influence

 

The government became more powerful and more cen-
tralized with the acceleration of industrialization and
urbanization. One of its duties was to look after the
welfare of the nation, as a whole, and to find solutions
for any major problems which might affect the welfare of
the people and the country. World War I forced the United
States to recognize a need for increased recreation and

1

physical education. Of those men drafted for service in

the armed forces, almost thirty-three per cent were rejected

as physically unfit to serve.2

Realizing the significance
and possible future consequences of such a situation, the
government expanded recreational facilities for both men

and women and increased educational and recreational staffs.

 

lDouglas Gorsline, What People Wore (New York: The
Viking Press,l952), p. 243.

 

2Rice, op. cit., p. 294.

78

Commercial Recreation

 

At the opening of the twentieth century there were
three popular forms of commercial recreation: the amuse-
ment park, the trolley park, and the exposition.1 Various
forms of sport and physical recreation could be found at
each of these enterprises.

The amusement park was perhaps the most popular
source of pleasure and recreation to Americans. This
unusual pastime drew many comments in newspapers and
periodicals in the United States and Europe. Richard 1e

Galliene wrote in the Cosmopplitan in 1905, of the “Human

 

Need of Coney Island," calling it the "tom—tom" of America?
In attempting to analyze its relationship to American cul-
ture and life, he decided that "every nation had its need
of orgiastic escape from respectability from the world of
what—we-have—to—do into the world of what—we-would-like-to-
do."3 Another writer described the scene as follows:

Here on the beach, wading,smimming, leaping, diving

and shouting, was a myriad of human beings of all

ages, forgetting everything but the joy of the

riotous water, the battle with the lifting, toppling
surf, the wild stimulus of the flying foam.21L

 

lCozens and Stumpf, op. cit., p. 35.

2Richard 1e Galliene, "Human Need of Coney Island,"
Cosmopolitan, No. 39 (1905), pp, 237-245.

 

31bid.

uAlbert Bigelow Paine '"The New Coney Island,"
2223221, No. 68 (August, 19045. p. 529.

79

Thousands of summer resorts and vacation Spots
also offered alluring playgrounds to Americans. In 1911,

Good Housekeeping magazine published an article on "Where
.1! l

 

to Go. Estes Park in the Rockies was recommended for
mountain climbing and hiking. The Isles of the Sea, three
miles from Boston, was advocated for swimming, boating,

fishing, and sailing. Several resorts on the west coast

were also recommended for similar sports and recreation.

Swimming for Women

 

Swimming was recognized as a good sport for women
and was recommended by medical doctors.2 According to
medical authorities of this era, it was felt that the
excellent health of college girls and young women was
mainly due to their participation in athletics and other
forms of recreation. No longer was a girl frowned on or
acclaimed as being immodest, indecent, or unfeminine, for
donning a bathing suit and plunging into a pool or the
surf. By the end of the second decade of the twentieth
century, both men and women fully participated in, and

fully enjoyed the Sport ofswimming.

Swimwear for Women

 

Beachwear held more interest for more people than

any other type of sportswear. It is no wonder that

 

1"Where to Go," Good HousekeeEinE: NO- 52 (June,
1911), pp. 749-754.

2Dudley A. Sargent, M.D., "Are Athletics Making
Girls Masculine?," Ladies Home Journal, No. 29 (March,l9l2),
p. 11.

 

 

80

styles in this field are so interesting and have undergone
so many changes.

The bathing suit of 1900, was of heavy wool serge.
One of the most popular styles of this period was the
sailor dress, originally designed by Peter Thomson.l

In 1904, Sears,Roebuck and Company offered bathing
suits with attached bloomers and detachable skirts. All
three suits illustrated in their catalog of this year bore
sailor collars. Fabrics were alpaca, brilliantine, and
flannel. Soutache or Hercules braid in red or white were
used as trimmings. This provided a sharp contrast to the
dark and conservative fabrics. Bathing caps were cotton
sateen with pure rubber linings. The opera length hose,
usually worn with this costume, were black wool or Egyptian
cotton.

The sailor suit remained in style for many years.
Bath robes followed the same design and were made of all
wool eiderdown or ripple eiderdown and trimmed with satin.2

Granite cloth was featured for bathing suits by
Sears, Roebuck in 1909. Bathing slippers were constructed
of canvas with fiber soles and usually laced up the front.
Bathing caps were made of rubber coated percale, sateen, or

satin.

 

1Women's Wear Daily, Fifty Years of Fashion (New
York: Fairchild Publications, Inc.;fil950), p. 23.

 

2"Bathing Suits," Life, No. 19 (July 9: 1945):
pp 0 55—58 °

81

According to the July, 1910 issue of Woman's Home

 

Companion, women were advised to wear dark colored suits--

 

preferably brown, blue, or black. It was felt that the
foundation should be kept dark and any bright color be
introduced through trimming. The same magazine advertised
a bathing suit pattern which was accompanied by the
following description:
Easily slipped on and no danger of waist and skirt
separating at the belt as both are attached to it.
The suit fastens at the left side of the panel and
opens from the square cut neck to the bottom of the
skirt. And the skirt, though allowing plenty of
room for the wearer to swim in, is not bulky around
the hips as the plaits are attached to a yoke depth
in quite a tailor made effect. Then there are two
tucks in the waist, which also allow ease and com-
fort for the swimming girl. And last, but oh not
least, the cap sleeves.l Can unbutton them to make
them free for swimming.

Fabrics recommended for this particular pattern
were a water—proof taffeta-Silk, brilliantine, and silk
trimming. (See Plate IV, Fig. 1.)

In 1910, Annette Kellerman, the first famous woman
swimmer, became more famous for her rebellion against the
existing fashions for this sport. She discarded ruffles
and corsets. She adopted and popularized a one-piece knit
suit which originated in Australia. This set a pattern for

the design and style of swimwear to come.2

 

1"The Sea Shore Girl," Woman's Home Companion, No.
37 (July, 1910), p. 54. This pattern also included instruc-
tions for bloomers. The pattern was cut for 32, 36, and 40
inch bust measurements-~small, medium, and large. The
quantity of material required for the medium size or 36 inch
bust, was ten yards of 22 inch material or 7 yards of 36 inch
material with 1 yard of contrasting material for trim.

 

2Women's Wear Daily, loc. cit.

82

Mohair bathing suits came into the realm of fashion
in 1913. Skirts were raised slightly above the knee
revealing bloomers, usually made of a closely woven cotton
fabric. The first account of arrest on the basis of im-
modesty occurred in the summer of 1913, at the Jackson Park
beach in Chicago. Women were arrested for detaching their
Skirts from their bathing suits. Protests went unheeded.
Signs appeared in all dressing rooms at this beach, stating
the following:

1. Women bathers should be supplied with skirts.
2. The manager of the beach has the right to request
people to stay away from the beach.

Essentially, there were no style changes until the
war years. By 1917, the third year of the war, a woman's
bathing suit consisted of a heavy wool chemise, the skirt
of which reached to the knees, or slightly above, partially
concealing the bloomers. Shoes and stockings were removed
by a few.

V-neck, loose-fitting,slipover suits in wool, mohair,
and light and heavy weight wool or cotton knits became
fashionable toward the end of 1917. Colors were stressed,
the predominent ones being red, blue, and green. The
favorite bathing cap was the jockey style, made of pure
rubber in brilliant colors. This cap, with its full crown
and visor, was deemed serviceable, practical, and good

looking.

 

1Rosalee M. Ladova, "About Bathing Suits," Harper's
Weekly, No. 58 (September, 1913), p. 11.

83
The year l917,marks the first year of specific

costume regulations as posted by police and beach author-
itieS. . The following rules were posted in bath houses
in Chicago and Cleveland:

Blouse and bloomer suits may be worn, with or without

skirts, with or without stockings, provided the blouse

has a one—quarter arm sleeve or close-fitting armholes,

and provided bloomers are full and not shorter than

four inches above the knee. Jersey knit suits may be

worn with or without stockings, provided that suit has

skirt or skirt effect, that one-quarter arm sleeves

are used or close-fitting armholes, and trunks not

shorter than four inches above the knee. The bottom

of the skirt must not be shorter than two inches

above the bottom of the trunks.

All white or flesh-colored suits are prohibited.

Any suit that exposes the chest lower than a line

drawn level with the arm pits must not be worn.
These rules were embodied in a set of twelve rules;a1so in-
cluded were regulations on smoking, profanity, men's
costumes, loitering, conduct of employees, and beach hours.

In 1918, skirts were shortened by one or two inches.
Long stockings were completely discarded and replaced by
cotton knit hose rolled slightly below the knee. Suits
were mostly of jersey knit-~either 100% wool or 50% wool
and 50% cotton, Surf satin, a deep, rich lustered, good
wearing,cotton fabric was also used. Suits were predomin-
ently of the slipover type with a sash or gathering at the
waist. Sleeves were likely to be missing. Collars were

of whimsical sizes and Shapes. Trimmings consisted of

coarse linen or silk. Straps or pipings of rubberized silk

 

1“Bathing Suit Regulatinns of 1917," American City,
No. 61 (August, 1946), p. 137.

 

84

were featured as a novelty. Corsets had been abandoned.
Undergarments and trunks were no longer stitched to the
suit itself, but were made separately. The Sears, Roebuck
catalog of 1918, featured a "Bather's brassiere," which
extended to the waist. This garment had an elastic web
back and an "open mesh sanitary front," and closed in the
front with hooks and eyes.1

By the end of World War 1, women's swimwear had
assumed a loose, chemise Silhouette. The slipover suit
replaced those with front openings. Skirts and bloomers
had become shorter. Sleeves disappeared. Long hose were
replaced by knee length stockings. The more daring woman
went bare legged. More fabrics were employed and knitted

suits became popular.

Functionalism in Women's Swimwear

 

In 1900, the term "bathing" was applied to the water
sport which, today, is referred to as swimming. This term
was actually quite appropriate because the costumes of the
first decade of the twentieth century were far too cumber-
some to allow much physical freedom of movement.

J. Paret in the Woman's Book p£_Sports stated the

 

following:

It is particularly important that nothing tight should
be worn while swimming, no matter how fashionable a
dress may be for bathing. The exercise requires the

 

¥Sears, Roebupk and Company Mail Order Catalog,
No. 136 (Summer, 1918), p. 881.

85
greatest freedom, and a swimming costume should never
include corsets, tight sleeves, or a skirt below the
knees. The freedom of the shoulders is the most im—
portant of all, but anything tight around the body
interferes with the breathing and the muscles of the
back, while a long skirt--even one a few inches below
the knees-- binds the legs constantly in making their
strokes.l

Annette Kellerman urged both girls and women to
swim, since She felt that it was both a "pleasurable and a
beneficial sport.“2 She recommended no more clothes than
necessary to be worn, giving freedom of movement for active
participation in the sport. In her opinion, many of the
bathing costumes seen along the Shore were inspired more
by vanity than modesty.

During World War I, the trend was for simplicity
and freedom of dress. This was mainly due to the fact
that women had taken over men's jobs in the labor force,
and consequently, desired "functional" clothing which would
allow them complete freedom of action.

In cut, conservatism was the keynote because econ-
omy, at this time, was an essential factor in all ways of
life.3

The following analysis for functionalism in women's

swimwear for this period can be made:

 

1J. Paret, Woman's Book of Sports (New York: D.
Appleton and Co., 1901), Chapter IV:

 

2Annette Kellerman, "Why and How Girls Should Swim,"
Ladies Home Journal, No. 27 (August, 1910), p. 11.

 

3"Conservation Rules the Waves," Good Housekeeping,
No. 67 (July, 1918), p. 87.

 

86

1. Performance.——By the end of World War I, the

 

design of swimwear had become more functional. Skirts had
been shortened, knickerbockers and bloomers gave way to
shorts, Sleeves were discarded, necklines were slightly
lowered, and long stockings were either completely dispensed
with or were replaced by knee length stockings. There was a
constant tendency to follow the main lines of contemporary
dress. Looseness of garment was advocated and less material
was employed. Women could actually swim in the new styles
of swimwear which had evolved.

2. Application of materials.--Cotton and light

 

weight wool were the most popular fabrics for bathing suits
during the first decade of the twentieth century. These

were great improvements over the heavy wools and serges of
previous years. By the end of World War I, knitting machines
had been invented and jersey knits came onto the fashion
scene. These were of wool, cotton, or wool and cotton blends.
Taffeta and silk, although still thought of as "luxury
fabrics," were used mainly for trimmings. Materials during
this era were appropriate for this type of garment. Women
attained more freedom of action with the use of lighter
weight fabrics and reduced yardage.

3. Construction appropriate to the materials.--

 

Dressmaker suits had been popular prior to the war. During
the war machine made jersey knits came on the market. At
first, these knits were unable to withstand strenuous move-

ment and had a tendency to snag and run. In time, the

87

knitting process was perfected and the knit suit acquired
popularity. This type of swimwear was destined to remain
in style for years to come.

Swimming had become a popular sport for women by
the end of this period. More women were in the labor
force as a consequence of the war, and therefore turned to
sports as a source of recreation and relaxation. Women
had gained greater freedom of movement and action in their
sports attire. They were still limited in degree of
activity, but it was not as difficult to move about. Within
twenty years swimwear had become more practical. Women were
no longer encased in ten to twelve yards of draped material.
Styles and designs had become more suitable. This is,
perhaps, the first time in the history of swimwear that the

term "functionalism" can be applied.

88

PLATE III

Figure l —-— 1902 : The'"S curve" can be seen in this

Figure 2 ---

 

figure diSplaying a bathing suit of bril-
liantine. Note short sleeves, bloomers
slightly below the knee, and a skirt
reaching from mid—knee to slightly above.
Stockings in ornate patterns were worn at
this time.1

1904-1908 : Sailor suit of navy blue wool

 

serge with a short skirt reaching to mid-
knee, concealing the still shorter bloomers.
Trimmed in white flannel and boasting a
sailor collar and red cotton tie. Dark
stockings and bathing slippers.2

 

lFigure copied from illustration found in files in
the Art Room, Chicago Public Library.

2Ibid.

 

 

19044908

@1213:

 

 

 

 

 

 

m

Figure l —--

Figure 2 ---

Figure 3 ---

9O

PLATE IV

1910 : Pattern No. 1565 featured by Woman's
Home Companion. Slipover suit opening from
left side of front panel, from square cut
neckline to base of skirt. Tucks or darts
in waist and shoulder for additional fit.
Recommended fabrics were water-proof taffeta
silk with a checked or striped silk trimming
in black and white, or red and white, or
brilliantine, which was less expensive.1

 

1911 : Navy blue cotton bathing suit with
skirt extending to mid—knee, concealing
bloomers. Short puffed sleeves and square
cut neckline trimmed with white braid.
Front bodice pleated.2

1913 : Black mohair suit trimmed with red
and white silk collar and cording down
front and around waist. Skirt extended to
mid-knee revealing ribbed cuffs of bloomers.
Polka dot Sateen laced bathing shoes.3

 

lu

2Sears,

The Sea-Shore Girl," Woman's Home Companion, No.
37 (July, 1910), p. 54.

 

Roebuck Catalog No. 122 (1911) p. 215.

 

3

lpig., No. 126 (1913), p. 260.

 

(I

' 1' $3
(7)
LJ 3

tc‘f

.
D
1353

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure l ---

Figure 2 ---

Figure 3 ---

92

PLATE V

1917 : Navy blue, V-neck, heavy wool slip-
over chemise bathing suit. Neckline, arm-
hole, pockets, base of skirt and bloomers
trimmed in white wool. No stockings or
shoes worn.

1917 : Mohair bathing suit trimmed with
black and white silk and green buttons.
Belted waistline with tuckings above and
below belt. Loose cap sleeve effect at-
tained with silk trimming. Bloomers
extended over knees.2

1918 : One—piece light weight wool jersey
knit suit. Loose-fitting chemise style,
with large sailor collar, laced front, and
low sash or bel . Knitted underpiece
sewed to skirt.

 

l."

Bathing Suits, 1917-1945," Life, No. 19 (July 9,

1945). pp. 55-58.

2Sears, Roebuck Catalog_No. 134 (1917), p. 927.

 

3Ibid., No. 136 (1918), p. 880.

 

 

94

PLATE VI

Figure l ——- 1918 : Sleeveless, loose—fitting satin suit
trimmed with whimsical silk collar and
fringed sash. Stockings discarded and re-
placed by silk hose rolled below the knee.1-

Figure 2 -—- 1918 : Loose, slipover suit of navy blue
linen. Deep V neckline accented by pointed
collar. Suit buttons to belted waistline.
Decorative buttons down side of skirt.

Figure 3 --- 1919 : Pattern No. 1714, as featured by the
DEIIneator. Slipover suit which could be
closed at shoulder line. Skirt ended
slightly above the knees, and separate bloomers
hung loosely over the knees. Recommended
fabrics for this model were surf satin,
taffeta, serge, brilliantine, jersey cloth,
foulard, or flannel.

 

 

l'Conservation Rules the Waves; In Color Bathing
Suits are Conservative," Good Housekeeping, No. 67 (July,
1918). p. 87.

 

2Ibid.

3“Bathing Suits Follow Land Styles--The Straight
Effects and the Peg-top," Delineator, No. 94 (June, 1919),

p. 93.

 

 

A
a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

96

GLOSSARY

ALPACA — long, lustrous hair from a mountain animal native
to Peru and Bolivia; a pile fabric with
cotton warp and alpaca filling.

BRILLIANTINE - smooth, fine, wiry fabric in plain or twill
weave; cotton warp, worsted or mohair
filling.

COTTON - soft fiber from the seed pod of the cotton plant,
spun into yarn and thread, woven and
knitted into fabrics.

EIDERDOWN — Name derived from the down of the eider duck.
A light weight, warm, knitted fabric made of
slackly twisted yarns; napped on one or
both sides.

FOULARD - originally alight weight printed silk. In later
years this was a highly mercerized cotton
fabric, rayon fabric similar to silk, or a
light, soft, twill-weave worsted fabric.

GRANITE CLOTH - a hard finished woolen or worsted fabric
with a pebbled surface Obtained by a
certain twist of the yarn.

HERCULES BRAID - a heavily corded, worsted braid used for
trimming, varying in width from 1/2 to 4
inches.

MOHAIR - a smooth, glossy, wiry fabric of mohair (hair from
the Angora goat) filling and cotton warp.
Often called BRILLIANTINE.

POPLIN - durable fabric in a plain-weave with fine, cross
ribs made by having the warp threads finer
than the weft or filling threads. Can be
of rayon, silk, cotton, wool, or a com-
bination of these yarns.

RIPPLE CLOTH - woolen fabric with a nap of long, silky hairs
on one side.

SATIN - a type of weave; fabric usually ofedlk with a cotton
filling, which has a smooth surface, a lus-
trous face, and a dull back.

SOUTACHE - narrow, rounded braid in a herringbone effect—-
used for trimming.

CHAPTER V

1919 TO 1929

General Conditions of the Period

 

As the 1920's dawned a new generation came on the
scene and a new era began. This period calls to mind the
era of the'"flapper," with boyishly cut short bobbed hair,
short skirts, smoking and drinking, beaver coats, the

‘"charleston,"

gay times, and parties. During these years
America was also characterized by unparalleled industrial

expansion and a seemingly limitless prosperity.1

Economic

World War I was followed by a period of readjust-
ment. The years 1920 to l922,witnessed a recession—-an
inevitable consequence of wartime price rises. Many firms
were forced into a state of bankruptcy. The government
took hold and attempted to tighten the economy. By 1923,
the economy had become more stable and there was a tremen-
dous boom in business. More firms were established and

the largest became monopolistic. The stock market was

 

lFoster Rhea Dulles, TwentiethACentury America

(New York: Houghton Mifflin co., 19457, p. 259.

 

97

98
continually on an upward trend and reached its peak in the
later years of the twenties.l
Crime became big business in the early l920's,and
was seemingly as necessary to the economy as was industry.2
It was illegal and unethical, but profitable. The mood of
the American people had changed, and likewise had their

folkways. They wanted to relax, enjoy themselves, forget

the past, and make a great deal of money.

Political

 

Immediately after the war two important reforms
were swept into effect: (1) women's suffrage, and (2)
prohibition. The eighteenth amendment to the Constitution
(prohibition amendment) aroused no organized opposition in
the beginning since it was idealistic in nature. Once it
went into effect, however. (July 16, 1920), the country
began to rebel. Efforts were made to have this amendment

repealed.3

Social
The American people were tired of war, reSponsibi-

lity, idealism, regulations, and duties. The barriers of

1Agnes Rogers and Frederick L. Allen, I Remember
Distinctly (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1947), p. I03.

 

2Lloyd Morris, Postscript to Yesterday (New York:
Random House Publishers, 1947), p. 68.

 

3Paul Sann, The Lawless Decade (New York: Crown
Publishers, Incorporated, 1957), p. 27.

 

99
tradition and custom were being broken; government, business,
and people were no longer inhibited by the past. The youth
of the country rebelled against the older generation. This
rebellion was against both Puritanism and sentimentality.l
Literature became hard and realistic; movies, radio, maga-
zines, and other means of communication emphasized jazz and
sex. The latter, formerly a'"taboo" topic, was freely dis—
cussed during this era by Freud. The word neck ceased to
be a noun and soon became a verb. Closed automobiles
replaced the open car in popularity. According to a Muncee,
Indiana judge of a juvenile court, "the family bus had

‘"2 The church

become a house of prostitution on wheels.
progressively lost its hold on the younger generation and
they could not be kept from‘"running wild."3 Smoking,
drinking, wild music and dance, night clubbing,joyriding in
cars, necking and petting were all a way of lifeibr
America's youth.“
This revolution in manners and morals was due to

the following causes:

1. cynicism about old standards which followed the war.
2. the rapid urbanization of a former rural society.

1Oliver Jensen, The Revolt of American Women (New
York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1952), p. 157.

 

2Morris, op. cit., p. 69.

3Frederick L. Allen, The Big Change (New York:
Harper Brothers, 1952), p. 137.

 

 

uStanley Walker, The Night Club Era gNew York:
Blue Ribbon Books, Incorporated, 1933), p. 7 .

lOO

limiting of social classes.
increase in wealth and leisure.
the substitution of scientific for religious
authority. 1

6. the growing independence of women.

Ul-IT-"UJ

By the end of the decade drastic changes had taken place:
morals and manners had changed, and long established values
and ideals had collapsed. The new generation created a new

way of American life.

Women in the Labor Force

 

Women were happy to know how keenly they were
needed during the war.2 They respected themselves for
being workers-~a sentiment which, as a class, had not been
entertained before. They showed both perseverence and
spirit in the labor force at this time.

Of approximately three million women who had gone
into war work, five in every one hundred had previously
been employed.3 Women who had experienced economic inde-
pendence wanted to continue working after the war, and
herein, lay a big problem.

In 1920, of five hundred and seventy—two occupational
titles listed by the United States Department of Commerce

Census Bureau, women were listed in all but thirty—five.u

 

lJensen, 10c. cit.

 

2V. Barbour '"Ladies of Leisure," Unpopular Review,
No. 11 (April, 1919), p. 294.

3Emily Newill Blair,'"Where areve Women Going?,"
Ladies Home Journal, No. 36 (March, 1919), p, 37,

”Joseph A. Hill, Women in Gainful Occupations, 1870-
1920 (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1929),
p. 46.

 

101

Between 1910 and 1920,there was a slight shifting

of occupations within the nine general occupational divi-

sions. The following list is ranked in accordance with the

number of women engaged in a specified occupation:l

KOOONCEUI J—‘JUJIDI-J

Domestic and personal servants
Manufacturing and mechanical industries
Clerical occupations

Agriculture, forestry, and animal
husbandry

Professional services

Trade

Transportation

Public service

Extraction of minerals

1920 1910

 

\OCDN ©0001 JEIDH

Several generalizations can be made regarding women

in the labor force in the 1920's:

1.

The number of women in gainful occupations
increased.

The number of occupations in which women could
be found, increased.

In some occupations the decline in the number
of men increased the proportionate importance
of women.

The large retention of women in employment fol-
lowing the war indicates their efficiency and

their future status in the labor force.2

 

1U. S. Bureau of Census, Abstract of the Census

(Washington:

 

U. S. Government Printing Office, 1920).

2Pruette, op. cit., pp. 78-79.

102

Changing Role and Status of Womeg

 

Effects of World War I

According to a survey made immediately following
World War I, the greatest gains of women due to the war,
were: (1) a sense of being equal to an emergency and to
large demands on short notice; and (2) the fact that every
woman, not just'"the best," had something to contribute to
the war effort, and was expected to do 80.1 Confidence,
independence, and satisfaction were gained by women through
working. These facts also brought about a complete change

in individual character.

The Woman as an Individual

 

The 1920‘s witnessed an accent on youth. In a

sense this could be Classified as a "pleasure loving"
decade. The status and attitude of women underwent a com-
plex and abrupt change. Having broken the bonds of tradi-
tional mannerisms, they became individuals and proceded to
enjoy their social and intellectual freedom. These changes
were reflected in their appearance. There were three
characteristic types of women during this era: the sophis-
ticate, the flapper, and the career woman. Each represented

striking impulses: the desire to be worldly, quest of

 

I

lMary Austin, "Woman and Her War Loot," Sunset,
February, 1919, p. 13.

103

sheer pleasure, and the ambition to attain personal success

in a business or a profession.1

Rights of Women

 

By 1922, many rights had been attained by women.
They were permitted to make their own wills, own their own
clothes, collect their own wages, testify in court, own
and operate their own business, speak in public, acquire
as much education as desired, enter a chosen profession,

hold office, and vote in political elections.2

Women in Politics

 

During the twenties, women were more than just a
mere influence in politics. They were Capable of exerting
a power more nearly equal to that of men.3 On the whole,
they were appreciated and respected by the opposite sex for
their work during the war. Once they began serving on a more
equal basis with men in the world struggle, they were able
to acquire equal suffrage.

If the ten year period following the passing of the
Suffrage amendment to the Constitution is to be judged

solely by the number of women in political office, it must

lAgnes Rogers, Women are Here to Stay (New York:
Harper and Brothers, 1949), p. 94.

 

2Carrie Chapman Catt,'"Tbo Many Rights, Ladies Home

Journal, No. 39 (November, 1922), p. 31.

 

3Gifford Pinchot, "The Influence of Women in Poli-
tics,” Ladies Home Journal, No. 39 (September, 1922), p. 12.

 

104
be admitted that such a figure would be largely disap-

1 Many Women were active, but in proportion to

pointing.
men, their political activities were negligible.

Women had changed considerably during this era.
This was partially due to the change in society, norms,
way of life, and thought. The unity of home life became
unbalanced. Marriage no longer provided the only means of
security, and consequently, the divorce rate was high.

Women were confronted with a choice of interests, activi-

ties, and work opportunities.

Leisure and Its Source

 

In 1924, the Supreme Court of the United States gave
all the states of the union the power to enact laws limiting
the working hours of women. Eight hours were deemed as the
minimum legal working day with a forty-eight hour week.2
A shortened working day and week gave women more time to
spend in leisure activities.

The 1920‘s was a "pleasure loving" period in the
history of America. It was during this era that the parti-
cipation in sports and social activities reached an all
time high. Much of the newly acquired leisure time, how-

ever, was wasted. In 1927, Susan F. West wrote an article

 

 

1Frederick L. Collins ‘"The New Woman," Woman's Home
Companion, No. 56 (June, 1929), p. 12.

 

2Florence Kelleg‘"Leisure by Statue for Women," The
Woman Citizen, N0. 8 (May 17, 1924), pp. 16-17.

 

105

in the Journal pg Home Economics advocating an "educated
.n l

 

leisure. According to her, this should consist of the
following: (1) a greater appreciation of the best in

music, art, and literature; (2) a better preparation for
political responsibility and community service; (3) training
for self-support; and (4) training for parenthood and home-
making. Few women followed such a program, but many con—

tinued on in the "happy—go-lucky" way of life of the

twenties.

Swimming as a Sport for Women

 

Increased leisure time brought about increased
participation in sports activities, especially that of
swimming. By the second decade of the twentieth century
women were completely free to do and act as they pleased.
They were no longer looked down upon for their partici-
pation in sports.

Women swimmers won their place during the war as
life guards when many of the expert male guards were in
service.2 Casual bathing became a relaxing and favorite
summer pastime.

Swimming enjoyed a rapidly growing popularity due

to the increased use of pools and beaches. Between 1905

 

1Susan F. West,‘"The Education of Women for Leisure,"
Journal of Home Economics, No. 19 (September, 1927), pp.

 

2Commodore W. E. Lon fellow, "Women Life—Savers,"
Ladies Home Journal, No. 37 June, 1920), p. 45.

 

106
and l923,the attendance increased six-fold, and between

1925 and 1930, it doubled.1

Swimwear for Women

 

At the close of World War I, bathing suits were
more form-fitting but still did not reveal the female

figure. The June, 1919 Delineator showed bare legs, tights,
2

 

and stockings to mid-calf. Slip-over chemise styles were
still popular and in some instances a vestee was intro-
duced. (See Plate VI, Fig. 3.)

Fabrics featured for swimwear in 1919, were satin,
foulard, taffeta, mercerized cotton, serge, brilliantine,
surf satin, flannel, and jersey knits.

The bathing cap, as we know it today, had made its
appearance. However, it was not yet made of rubber and was
not meant to be immersed in water.

The flapper era began with the shocking tight-
fitted knit suit. The neckline was lower, the skirt shorter,
and knitted knickers or tights extended to the knee. These
tights worn under the suit were referred to as "Annette
Kellerman's"--after the Australian swimmer who had
originated them. (Plate VI, Fig. 1.)

In 1921, ruffles and frills were introduced in

order to eliminate the boyish styles. The June issue of

 

1Weaver, op. cit., p. 190.

2'"Bathing Suits Follow Land Styles," Delineator,
No. 94 (June, 1919), p. 93.

 

107

Ladies Home Journal featured a suit of blue taffeta edged

 

with orange linen and white cotton braid, and buttoned down
the back with white pearl buttons.1 (See Plate VII, Fig.
2.) 0ther'"luxury" fabrics such as tussah and surah silk
were also used. Caps had become fancy and ornate, bearing
flowers and ruffles in all colors and proportions.

Bathing suits soon reverted to more conservative
styles although bright colors, such as kelley green, red,
copenhagen blue and orange were popular.

The year 1924, was a big year for the Jantzen Com-
pany. Their red diving girl insignia appeared on wind-
shields of 3,000,000 cars in the United States. Models
comparable to those of l922,were featured by this firm.

The cape soared into popularity and was often buttoned to
the suit at the shoulder line. (Plate VIII, Fig. l.) The
particular example illustrated is extreme in contrast to
those suits illustrated for the previous two or three years.
Nonetheless, this was a common style for the more conser-
vative woman. This dressmaker suit, patterned by Butterick,
required four and three-quarter yards of fifty-four inch
material for a thirty-six inch bust measurement. Wool
jersey, surf Satin, and surf silk were recommended fabrics
with white pique or linen trimming. A boat motif was ap-

pliqued to both the cape and turban.2

 

1"You are Sure to Look Well in these Bathing Suits,"
Ladies Home Journal, No. 38 (June, 1921), pp.48-50.

 

2"Costumes for Seafaring Maids," Delineator, No.
104 (June, 1924), p. 40.

 

108

The shapelessness of daytime dress for the period
was reflected in swimwear in the mid 1920's. Suits were
tighter and more revealing because of their tubular sil-
houette. The year 1925, marked the advent of printed
fabrics in swimwear. Brightly colored silks, foulards,
and chintzes were used. The length of the skirt remained
the same and cuffed bloomers showed at the knee. (Plate
VIII, Fig. 2.)

The last three years of the 1920's witnessed a
drastic change in style. In 1927, Cole of California
startled the entire bathing suit industry by lowering the
backs of knit swimsuits by eight inches. Sleeves were com-
pletely omitted and the armhole became deeper. Front neck-
lines were lowered. Skirts were discarded and only tightly
knit trunks, extending to six or eight inches above the
knee, were Visable. Chartreuse, fuchsia, and teal blue
were acclaimed aS'"high fashion" colors during these years.

The Change in American way of life was reflected
in swimwear during the 1920's. As women became more daring
in their mannerisms, they likewise became more daring in
their mode of dress. Modesty was no longer of great im-
portance, and consequently, bathing suits became tighter
and more revealing. Compared to the previous decades they
were very brief. Swimwear was at last being designed for
a specific purpose—-active participation in the sport
itself.

109

Functionalism in Women's Swimwear

 

By the end of World War I in 1918, swimwear could
be labeled aS'"functional." This statement is made on a
comparative basis with the previous decades. Swimwear was
destined to become more functional as time elapsed. Re-
bellion on the part of the youth of the country against
manners and morals of this era was strongly reflected in
bathing suits. Women had become more independent and had
adapted mannish ways. Bathing suits at the beginning of
the second decade of the twentieth century were straight
in line and revealed more of the female figure. Between
1919 and 1929, necklines were lowered, armholes were in-
creased in size, and skirts and trunks were shortened.

An evaluation of swimwear for functionalism can be
made on the following bases:

1. Performance.-—With the continual decrease in

 

the amount of material employed in swimwear during the
1920's, women were given greater freedom for increased
activity. In some instances a superfluous amount of fabric
in the form of ruffles and frills was used which tended to
hamper physical movement. Tight cuffs at the base of
bloomers or trunks were also restrictive. However, by
1928, bathing suits were form-fitting and provided more
physical freedom.

2. Application of materials.--The most popular

 

fabrics for swimwear during this period were jersey knits

of wool and cotton, mercerized cotton, light weight wools,

110
taffeta, and printed silk or cotton. Of those fabrics
mentioned, the jersey knits were the most practical and
suitable for the prevailing styles. Silks and taffetas
were "luxury" fabrics and were not meant to be immersed
in water. Bathing suits tended to fade in color due to
the use of poor dyes. With the introduction of bright
colors in swimwear it was soon discovered that the hot
and intense sun, plus seawater, were detrimental to the
preservation of color within the garment. This proved
especially true with print materials-~not only did they
fade, but the colors ran. Prints were a novelty in 1925
and did not gain popularity until the late thirties.

3. Appropriate constructiontp the materials.--Few

 

suits were home made during the twenties. It was only at
the time of the depression, in the first few years of this
decade, that women attempted to save money by making their
own bathing suits. These were usually made of cotton or
light weight wool. They were, of course, machine made, as
opposed to hand made.

By this time several swimwear companies had been
organized and their manufactured garments appeared on the
market. Jantzen and Cole of California were perhaps the
two main manufacturers in the country at that time. Their
specialty line consisted of jersey knits. For the chemise
silhouette suit a tubular jersey was used. It was not a
firm fabric and the Seams had a tendency to split easily.

Jantzen Company originated the idea of a heavy ribbed

111

jersey knit. This proved to be a sturdier and more durable
fabric for swimwear.

Although bathing suits became more brief, thereby
allowing greater freedom of movement, they did not afford
a good fit for the average female figure. From shoulder
to waistline there were no darts, tucks, gathers, or pleats,
and consequently, the suits were ill-fitting and unflattering.
When wet, they naturally clung to the body.. Because of
excess material they had a tendency to bag, and did not
give a smooth appearance compared to previous decades.

Swimwear was more functional in respect to style,
material, and construction--but improvements were yet to be

made in forthcoming years.

112

PLATE VII

Figure l --— 1920 : All wool worsted bathing suit in
Hunter's green with royal blue trim.
Skirt above knees revealing ribbed cuff of
bloomers. High laced canvas shoes in black
and white.

Figure 2 --— 1921 : Blue taffeta suit trimmed with
orange linen. Sleeveless, scooped neck,
blouson top buttoned down back. Short
skirt composed of two rows of ruffles and*
revealing puffed bloomers with a tight
cuff around the knee.2

 

Figure 3 ~-- 1922 : One-piece slipover bathing suit
of high luster, black surf cloth, piped
in white, green, red, or copenhagen blue
silk.‘ Concealed buttons at shoulders
provide open ng. Tights worn underneath
short skirt. '

 

lSears, Roebuck Catalog: NO- 140 (1920): p. 973-

2"You Are Sure to Look Well in These Bathing Suits,"
Ladies Home Journal, No. 38 (June, 1921), pp. 48—50.

3"Ready-Mades for Your Vacation," Woman's Home
Companion, No. 48 (June, 1922), p. 64.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1122.
5533-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

@azzjm:

Figure 1 —--

Figure 2 ---

Figure 3 —--

114

PLATE VIII

1924 : Butterick pattern No. 5194, featured
in the Delineator. Slipover chemise suit
buttoning to waist in front. Low hip-line
belt. Loose skirt to knees revealing ruffled
bloomers. Cape buttoned on to suit at
shoulders. Boat motif on both cape-and
turban. Recommended fabrics were wool or
jersey, with pique or linen trimming.l

 

1925 : Butterick pattern No. 6014, illus-
trated in the Delineator. Two-piece costume
worn with handkerchief hat or turban.
Straight, tubular overpiece of printed surf
silk, satin foulard, or Chintz, extended to
knees. Separate bloomers in a solid color,
with deep buttoned cuff over knee.

 

1928 : All wool, one-piece, tight-fitting
bathing suit. Tailored band trimming around
deep neckline, armholes, and legs. Decora-
tive tabs across lower hip—line and down
front of bodice.3

 

In

2

Costumes for Seafaring Maids,
104 (June, 1924), p. 40.

" Delineator, No.

 

Delineator, No. 106 (May, 1925), p. 38.

 

3Sears,

Roebuck Catalog No. 156 (1928), p. 396.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

116

GLOSSARY

CHINTZ - originally a printed cotton or calico fabric from
India. Usually is glazed, and may be em-
bossed or quilted.

JERSEY - elastic knitted fabric in stockinette stitch. Can
be made in either wool, cotton, rayon, nylon,
or a combination of these with other fibers.

JERSEY TUBING - jersey fabric made on a circular knitting
frame; no seams.

LINEN - natural, vegetable fiber obtained from the flax
plant. Strong, lustrous yarns used in fabric
of plain, twill, Jacquard, or dobby weave.

MERCERIZATION - a physical and chemical process which renders
cotton permanently more lustrous, stronger,
more absorbent, more susceptible to dye, and
holds color better than untreated cotton.

PIQUE — a fabric with warpwise wales made of cotton, rayon,
silk, or synthetics. Honeycomb design known
as "waffle pique"; diamond pattern called
"birdseye pique."

SURAH - soft, twilled silk, rayon, or acetate fabric woven
in p1aids,stripes,smflid colors, or prints.
The diagonal of the wale has a flat top and
is often described as a satin-faced twill.

SURF SATIN - heavy quality of satin.

TERRY CLOTH - cotton fabric covered with loops on one or
both sides, made by using two sets of warp
threads and one set of filling threads.

TRICOLETTE - knitted fabric resembling jersey cloth, but
' made of rayon, silk, or cotton.

TUSSAH - a silk fabric, the filament of which is derived
from wild silkworms. It is coarse, strong,
uneven, tan in color, and difficult to bleach.

CHAPTER VI

1930—1945

General Conditions of the Period

 

A wave of prosperity had permeated the country
during the middle and later years of the 1920's. Americans
were confident of the future of the United States. Trade
was flourishing, industry was expanding, wages were high,
and surpluses were being accumulated within the United
States Treasury. People refused to believe that the foun-
dations of the new found prosperity were weak and on the
verge of collapsing. The fever of speculation spread to all
classes. On October 29, 1929, the stock market broke and
people flocked to their brokers in an attempt to sell what
stocks they possessed before they should drop any lower in
price.

By 1930, it was evident that the United States was
in the worst state of depression in its history. The buying
power of the people was paralyzed. Factories had closed by
the hundreds, the lines of unemployed had lengthened, banks
had closed, mortgages were foreclosed, and the prices of
various commodities dropped sharply.

In January, 1932, President Hoover signed a bill

establishing a Reconstruction Finance Corporation in an

117

 

118
effort to alleviate the economic situation. This corporation
was given the power to extend loans to banks, building and
loan associations, railroads, insurance companies, and agri-
cultural associations.

In 1934, currency was devaluated for the purpose of
raising prices of goods and helping foreign countries to
purchase United States products with a cheaper currency.

The National Recovery Act was passed on June 16,
1933. There were six objectives to this program: (1) to
encourage co-operation and planning in industry, (2) to
maintain fair wages, (3) to eliminate child labor, (4) to
increase the number of jobs available by Spreading them out,
(5) to strengthen labor unions, and (6) to abolish unfair
methods of competition.

Farm relief programs were also devised in an effort
to raise the economy of the nation. Long term planning
based on the conservation of natural resources was evidenced
in such projects as the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA).

Signs of returning prOSperity could be seen by 1935.
During the first five years of this decade, Americans had
become more serious, more socially and more economically
conscious. The gay, frivolous life of the 1920's had been
greatly subdued.l

Because of the situation within this country at the

time, the government had paid little attention to foreign

 

l
DulleS,op. cit., p. 454.

119
affairs. Hitler had risen to power in Germany. Japan had
started an undeclared war against Nanking in 1937. Bombing
in China endangered the lives and property of foreigners,
and for this reason the United States registered several
protests against Japan. These protests were to no avail.
On December 7, 1941, Pearl Harbor was attacked by Japan.
The United States was once again at war.

Conditions within this country immediately changed.
Factories were converted to war plants, more women entered
the labor force, big business thrived, and farmers became
wealthy. Americans experienced similar circumstances to
those of World War I.

World War II lasted for several years. The final
surrender and signing of terms took place on September 2,
1945. Untouched by war on the home front, the United States

emerged as a rich and powerful nation.

Women in the Labor Force

 

Between 1930 and 1945, there were drastic shifts in
the employment of women. This was a consequence of the
depression and World War II. Taken on a comparative basis,
there were more women working in 1930 than in 1870 or 1900.
However, due to the depression, positions for women were
difficult to acquire. With the advent of the second world
war, women by the millions were again cast into the labor

force.

120

Women Workers in Relation to the Tbtal Number of Women

The number of gainfully employed women, sixteen
years of age and over, increased from 1,701,000 in 1870, to
10,546,000 in 1930. This increase of nearly six-fold in
sixty years assumes greater significance when compared with
the slightly less than four-fold increase in the female
population of the same age. During the 1930's, female em-
ployment increased 29%, as opposed to an increase of 22%
in the entire female population. In 1930, of all gainfully
occupied persons within the United States, 21.9%, or one

out of five, were women.

Marital Status

 

Between 1910 and 1930, the total number of women em-
ployed doubled. However, the number of employed married
women increased four-fold. The ratio of married women who
worked, compared to the total number of married women within
the country, had doubled. Census figures revealed 5.6% of
all married women in 1900 as gainfully employed as compared
to 11.7% in 1930. This increase was six times that of
Single women for the same period of time. In 1900, 43.5%
of the single women were gainfully employed and 50.5% in

l930--an increase of only 16% as opposed to an increase of

more than 100% for married women.

lRecent Sogial Trends, op. cit., pp. 711-715.

121

Changes in Women's Employment During the War

 

From 1940 to 1944, the female population expanded
4% (women fourteen years of age and over). The proportion
employed in 1940 was 22%; in 1944, 31.5%.

The heaviest net increase in employment for this
period occurred in the manufacturing and clerical groups;
each showing an addition of more than two million women.
During this period there 'was also an addition of 460,000
women in the sales group and 390,000 in the service group,
other than domestic. The exodus of 400,000 from domestic
service is indicative of the unfavorable attitude of women
workers towards this particular type of employment. The
manufacturing industries differed greatly as to source of
workers. In war industries, 49% of the women came from out-
side the labor‘force, and 26% from other industries. In the
essential supply industries only 37% of the women came from
outside the labor force and 54% were in the same industry
as before the war. The war industries obtained almost equal
' numbers of women from home housework and from other industry
groups--mainly trade, the domestic and personal services,
and the essential supply industries——whereas, the supply
industries obtainedtheir women from home housework and the

schools. (See Appendices D, E, and F.)

Postwar Employment

 

By the end of the waxy over 20,000,000 American women

were working.1 Women in policy-making posts and other

*

lCecil Brown,‘"What's Going to Happen to our Women

122
executive positions had increased in number. More women,
ranging from technical workers in laboratories to accountants,
were employed in professional jobs than previously.

Age and marital status were no longer discriminating
factors in the securement of employment. However, women had
still not achieved equality with men in the labor force
Since their salaries did not keep pace with their positions.
According to Josephine Skinner, the success of women Could be
measured in three ways: (1) same salary advancement as men,
‘(2) companies willing to employ women at all levels, and (3)
an evaluation of the successfullness of the employment of

1
women.

Changing Role and Status of Women

 

The 1930‘s, was a decade of profound disallusion for
women. They become less frivolous and more practical and
feminine. A need for security and stability was urgently
felt. To fulfill this need, women placed greater emphasis

on family life and work.

Emancipation of Women

 

Women's emancipation produced new problems in their
political and social lives. Ten years of voting merely

showed that women behaved much like men in politics. Although

 

 

Workers?," Good Housekeeping, December, 1943, p. 42.

lJOSGPhine Skinner,‘"Postwar Emplo ment of Women,"
Independent Woman, No. 23 (September, 194A , p. 278.

 

123
they failed to keep their initial promises of "cleaning up"
politics,p sixty-seven per cent of the women in the country
believed that women should hold public office.1
Concerning the emotional and social lives of women,

Pearl Buck once said,

American women do not, as a group, seem happy,

priviliged as they are . . . . Women are not wel-

come outside the home except in subsidiary positions,

doing on the whole, things men do not want to do.2
According to one survey at this time, 22% of the women in the
country claimed to be superior to men; 15% admitted men were
more intelligent; 63% agreed relative intelligence of men and
women was equal; and 89% said women deserved the same salary
as men-~farm women (93%)being quite emphatic on this issue.
These figures were derived from a cross-section of opinion
of the United States' thirty-seven million women citizens--
married, single, widowed, and divorced--of various income
levels, and of all races and creeds. The statistical method
employed in the forecasting of the Roosevelt-Landon presi-

dential election of 1936, was used for this survey.3

Women and W0rk

 

The Chief obstacle of equality was economic—-not

political."L Women continually fought for higher wages. In

1Henry F. Pringle, "What Do the Women of America
Think About the Double Standard?," Ladies Home Journal, Nov-
ember, 1938, pp. 22-23.

 

2Ibid. 3Ibid.

 

""Ten Years of Woman," Collier's, May 17,1930, p. 94.

 

124

some instances a few women felt that since the men were the
'"breadwinners" for families, they should be given a higher
salary. However, because of the increased independence of
women as attained in the 1920‘s, many single women and di-
vorcees were totally self-supporting. For this reason, they
fought to be given an equal wage for equal work.

During the war, women had experienced the sweet
power of financial independence, achievement, and satisfaction.
They were reluctant to leave the labor force when soldiers
returned to claim their old positions. The question then
arose, as to who should be given the job: men or women.
This often became a highly argumentative question, with valid
reasons given on both sides. Women had definitely been an
integral part of the war effort and were recognized and ap-
preciated by men for their outstanding work. They wished to
retain their careers or jobs which had given them financial
independence. Men, on the other hand, felt that women should
return to femininity and once again assume a domestic role.
The issue, of course, was never settled, and in some instances,

is still debated today.

Leisure and Its Source

 

"Leisure," according to Dr. Frank H. Vizetelly, ‘"is

freedom from necessary occupation; spare time; time available,

as for some particular purpose."1

lAnna Steese Richardson, "Leisure for Women,"

W8
Home Companion, October, 1930), p. 22.

 

125

Leisure can be acquired through Simplified living,
relaxation, recreation; through a machine age with labor
saving devices; through some mechanical device or readjust-
ment in management.

The main source of leisure time during this era lay
in the shortened work week. This reduction has not been a
straight line trend. The decline after 1900, was at a much
greater rate than in the previous half century. In nonagri—
cultural industries the hours of work declined by almost ten
hours between 1850 and l900—-from sixty-six hours per week
to fifty-six. The rate of decline appears to have been much
greater between 1850 and 1870, than 1870 and 1900. In the
next four decades, reduction in the work week was much
sharper than in the previous half century. Between 1900 and
1940, the work week in nonagricultural industries declined
from fifty-six to forty-one hours per week, an average of
almost four hours per decade. The work week increased
sharply during the war years, reaching its peak in 1943. By
the following year, hours were once again being shortened.

There were several factors affecting trends in the
working week:

1. During the nineteenth century state laws were
passed protecting the health and welfare of women and child-
ren workers.: Early trade union activity also helped to
shorten the working week.

2. Beginning in the twentieth century, increased

income was paralleled by an increased standard of living.

126

3. Reductions in the work week would have resulted
in reduced output, rather than a rising productivity.

4. During the 1930's, the word "share" became the
worker's philosophy. The forty hour work week became stan-
dard for much of industry at this time.

5. The number of part-time workers in industry has
continually increased because of the number of older people
being employed.

6. The 1930's also produced the trend of dual job—
holding.

7. Paid vacations, holidays, and sick leaves gained
impetus during the second World War.

These factors concerning working conditions were the

basis for increased leisure time.

Swimming as a Sport for Women

 

Following the 1920's, there were several significant
changes in sports. With paid vacations and holidays, in-
creased leisure time was being spent in active participation
in sports. Sports had become so popular, and the tempo had
increased so much, that many of the old games were unrecog-
nizable. There was little that anyone could do to change
the Sport ofswimming, However, new strokes and dives were
introduced, as were water ballet and "Aqua Marine" shows.

The mid-twentieth century opened with 25% of all
high schools and 1.2% of elementary schools in cities of

over 100,000 population, equipped with swimming pools.

127

Cities with populations of 30,000 to 100,000 had pools in
23.9% of high schools, and 1% of the elementary schools;
towns of 10,000 to 30,000 people had 14.8% of their high
schools equipped with swimming pools; and cities below
10,000 people had no school pools. By 1937, there were
700 Y. M. C. A38 in the United States that had swimming
pools with 98% of them built since 1900, and the other two
per cent built between 1885 and 1900. By 1940, there were
8,000 pools in the country, half of them outdoor and half
indoor, with 50% of them built since 1925. Construction
was at a standstill during the 1930's because of the
depression, and during the 1940's, because of the war}

Swimming was included in the majority of colleges
throughout the country. It was, at this time, recognized

as being a healthful and pleasurable Sport.

Swimwear for Women

 

Since 1930, United States bathing suit manufacturers
have made money by cutting something more off their suits
each year. Neither sermonsrnr ordinances, nor arrests,
could slow the steady progress from bloomers to one-piece
knit suit, to bra and briefs.

Tightly knit, man—like suits were featured the first
year of this period. Front necklines were lowered and sun
backs were introduced. A heavy, elastic ribbed stitch was
employed with all wool worsted yarns. Most suits had

colored bands stitched across the chest line. The more

 

1Rice, op. cit., pp. 346-347.

128
popular colors were buff, Harding blue, jade green, and
jockey red. (See Plate IX, Figure 1.)

The first really "slinky" bathing suit appeared in
1933, called the "maillot," The one-piece maillot is, by
definition, a "tight fitting, one-piece swim suit."1
American concept of this term is taken from the French word
'"maillot," meaning'"tights," This suit had been borrowed
from the Riviera and was much more brief than those featured
in the United States. Police had to control crowds when it
was first displayed in New York clothing stores.

By 1934, the skin-tight, low—cut maillot had been
adapted in this country for popular use. It consisted of
a tight fitting body with a low back and adjustable shoulder
straps. (See Plate IX, Figure 2.)

In 1935, the maillot consisted of a halter top
attached to high-waisted trunks in the front. This con-
servative suit was the forerunner of the two—piece bathing
suit. (See Plate IX, Figure 3.) Latex bathing caps had
been introduced and were labeled as possessing fine quality
rubber with great strength.

3 Cole, of California, invented Matletex, in 1936.
This was the first application of Lastex yarns used as a
shirring in a cotton fabric.2 Light weight fabrics with

Matletex were featured by manufacturers. Styles remained

 

lMary Brooks Picken, The Fashion Dictionary (New
York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1957), p. 218.

2Lastex is the regiStered trademark for an elastic

129
similar to those of 1935, with halter tops being the most
popular. Midriff, or two-piece suits had entered the
market but generally were not accepted.

The year 1937, witnessed the introduction of many
new novelty stitches, of which zephyr wool in a ripple
stitch was the most widely produced. Suits were form-
fitting and for the first time, shirring was placed at the
bustline for a better fit. (See Plate X, Figure 1.)

Manufacturers experimented with synthetics and
blends in 1938. Rayon-satin and satin with lastex yarns
were the main fabrics used. This was also the year of the
clammy, easily torn rubber suit. Swimwear for women was
form-fitting. Molded bra tops and pantie linings of light
weight jersey were featured in almost every suit. The
Sears, Roebuck catalog advertised strapless swim foundations
and pantie girdles to be worn underneath the suit.

Dressmaker suits once again claimed popularity.
These were made of fast-colored, pro—shrunk cotton twill.
Fashion dictated the accompaniment of a beach coat of a
similar or contrasting fabric. Front, rust-proof zippers
were often used in the suits giving a tight fit across
the midriff. Short skirts were paneled, pleated, or flared.
(See Plate K, Figure 2, also Plate XI, Figure 1.)

Similar skirts were featured in bathing suits in

1940. Gores were piped, and ric-rac braid and rubber

 

yarn developed and manufactured by the United States Rubber
Company. For further definition, see Glossary.

 

 

130
flowers were attached as decoration. (See Plate XI,
Figure 2.)

The year 1941, saw the pronounced entrance of the
two—piece bathing suit. The particular model illustrated
in Plate XI, Figure 3, shows a well out uplift bra accom-
panied by pleated and flared culotte shorts. Brief jersey
knit panties were attached to the inside of the shorts.
The bra was molded by boning.

The typical one-piece maillot, of 1942, was made
of rayon bengaline woven with Lastex yarns. This was a
smooth, princess line style with flared skirt and snap—in
nylon bra. The suit was lined throughout with a cotton
knit fabric. (Plate XII, Figure 1.)

Bathing suit styles were much the same in 1943 and
1944. Two-piece midriff styles shared equal popularity
with the one-piece maillot. Such fabrics as rayon-satin,
bengaline, and cotton Seersucker were used. A rainbow of
colors was available in prints, stripes, polka dots, and
checks.

The year 1945, witnessed a slight change in the
standard maillot. The basic design remained the same, but
two different fabrics were used: one in the front, and
another in the back. Boning was inserted in such a manner
that the suit could be worn without straps. (See Plate
XII, Figure 3. )

During this period, 1930 to 1945, women's swimwear

became more negligible as to size, and more important as to

131
style,design,and construction. The three main suits of this
era were the dressmaker suit, the one-piece maillot, and
the two-piece suit. Dressmaker suits were patterned after
prevailing styles of evening dress.1 They maintained
identical neck and shoulder lines and similar Skirt effects
in an abbreviated form. The maillot was very popular and
was destined to remain for years to come. Two-piece suits
made their entrance on the fashion scene and were immedi-
ately accepted. Many new synthetic fabrics and novelty
weaves came on the market and were featured by various man-
ufacturers. It was no longer common for women to have only
one bathing suit, but many. Swimming had become a favored
pastime, and women selected their costume for this sport
with as much care as they selected a daytime or evening

dress.

Functionalism in Women's Swimwear
The three main types of women's swimwear, the dress—
maker suit, one-piece maillot, and two-piece bathing suit
will be evaluated as follows:

1. Performance.--Style and design are the main

 

factors contributing to the performance of a particular
item of apparel. Style encompasses silhouette, fabric,
trimming, decoration, and accessories. Design, more

Specifically, entails the line and cut of a garment. The

 

lAileen Riggen, "In the Swim," Collier's, N0. 87
(May 9. 1931). p. 16.

 

4‘

132

three predominent styles of this era have already been
mentioned and are worthy of individual analysts The
silhouette of the dressmaker suit followed the natural line
of the body giving freedom of movement. The natural
Shoulder line was retained, as were the hip and bust lines.
This silhouette closely followed all body curves. Light
weight wools and cottons were used in the manufacture of
swimwear, and few trimmings and decorations were applied.
Because of this, there were no superfluous materials,
ruffles, ribbons, et cetera, to hamper physical movement.

The one—piece maillot is a tight fitting bathing
suit which may be of different fabrics and of various
designs. Thestyle of the maillot and one of its variations,
the two—piece suit, continually changed, while the basic
design and cut of the garment remained the same-—following
the natural line of the body. Most bathing suits had a
skirt with a slight flare introduced by panels, gores,
pleats, or gathers. This design quality was usually more
flattering to the female figure than a form fitting bathing
suit with a brief skirt. As long as the flare was not
excessive, it gave sufficient freedom of movement. However,
when a skirt was too full, it tended to hamper activity.

The upper portion of all three types of swimwear
mentioned was form fitting and was often re-enforced with
boning. This gave additional uplift and support to the
bust and provided a better fit of the garment. Because

halter or shoulder straps were used, there was no fear, at

133
this time, of losing a bathing suit in the water or while
playing on the beach.

During this period, women were able to participate
actively in swimming provided bathing suits had a suffi—”~
cient amount of ease,boning was properly placed, they gave
a comfortable fit, and no decorations or trimmings were
applied to hinder physical movement.

2. Application of materials.-—A greater number of

 

fabrics were employed between 1930 and 1945, than any
previous periods in the history of swimwear. Materials
ranged from luxury fabrics such as velvets, taffetas, and
various silks and satins, to the more common fabrics of
cotton, wool, and rayon, particularly poplin and broadcloth.
Jersey knits decreased in popularity and were replaced by
bengalines and failles. Possibly the only fabric, if it
may so be called, which was regarded as a complete failure,
was rubber. Although waterproof and impervious to most
stains, rubber tore easily and was most uncomfortable to
wear. Synthetic fibers were comparatively new in the field
of textiles and had not yet been perfected. Research proved
that theseiibers were very strong, durable, harsh, and non-
receptive to most dyes. It was discovered that yarns made
by combining synthetics fibers with natural fibers could

be woven or knitted into fabrics which would be durable

and would also possess a'"soft hand." A problem of dyeing

these blended yarns existed. Advancements had been made

134
within the textile industry, but unfortunately, synthetics
had been placed on the market too soon.

The creation of elasticized fabrics gave an impetus
to the styling and volume of the swim suit industry. Lastex
yarns were the first elastic yarns fine enough to be used in
the needles of a knitting machine, and in the shuttle of a
loom. Prior to the introduction of Lastex, form-fitting
bathing suits had been made of a knitted fabric. Although
pliable, the latter fabric lost most of its fitting quality
when wet. Lastex yarns improved knitted fabrics and
imparted a more permanent elasticity-to the fabric making
it ideal for waterwear.

Shirred and embroidered fabrics have also been an
asset to the swimwear industry. Both fabrics have been
developed for form-fit and dressmaker styling. Elastic
Shirring, in particular, has improved the fit and function
of bathing suits.

Almost all fabrics used in swimwear at this time
were appropriate to this particular type of garment. The
luxury fabrics were employed in more expensive swimwear,
and although they were in many cases made water-repellent,
they were not really intended for active swimming. Most
women possessing bathing suits of velvets or taffetas
merely sunned themselves on the beach or took an occasional
dip! in a swimming pool. Less expensive and more durable

fabrics were used in bathing suits for the average American

 

135
woman. Materials were suitable, long-wearing, comfortable,
and required little care.

3. Appropriate construction to the materials.--
This period witnessed the firsttrue fitting of swimwear.
Bathing suits were molded to the figure by darts, tuckings,
gathers, pleats, and curved seams. Boning was employed for
the first time and was stitched to the inner portion of the
bra giving an uplift to the bust. Incorrectly inserted,
boning could be painful, and this was often the case since
the idea was new. Separate brassieres could be worn under-
neath a suit, if desired, but were sometimes uncomfortable
and failed to give a smooth line. One—piece suits were
usually lined throughout with a light weight wool jersey
or cotton knit fabric. Thfisadded lining gave warmth to the
wearer when emerging from the water and since it was
stitched directly to the inside of the suit, it gave greater
comfort. Seams were re-enforced on most fabrics, especially
the synthetics giving greater strength and durability to
the garment.

Boning,darts, re-enforced and curved seams were all
factors of importance in the construction of swimwear.
Appropriate manufacturing techniques were employed during
this period which gave a better fit to bathing suits.

Swimwear, at this time, upheld most of the prin-
ciples of good design. Styles were functional providing

freedom of movement, appropriate materials, on the whole,

136
were used, and methods of construction had improved. A
woman could at last purchase an attractive and becoming
bathing suit and be assured of a durable garment with a

good fit, comfort, and freedom of action.

137

PLATE IX

Figure l --— 1930 : A popular, man-tailored suit in
heavy, elastic ribbed all wool worsted.
Belted shorts with separate shirt trim-
med in contrasting bands of wool.1

Figure 2 --— 1934 : One hundred per cent all wool
zephyr yarn in elastic rib stitch knit.
Sunback cut to waist with adjustable
straps.

 

Figure 3 —-e 1935 : All wool Zephyr, two—piece effect,
backless and skirtless bathing suit.
Striped, lined upper portion attached to
high-waisted tr nks. Tie around waist
serVes as belt.

 

 

1Sears, Roebuck Catalog No. 160 (1930), p. 367.

2Ibid., No. 168 (1934), p. 50.

3Ibid., No. 170 (1935), p. 60.

‘—

 

139

PLATE X

Figure 1 -—- 1937 : Tight-fitting suit of zephyr wool
with ripple stitch. Shirred bust fpr
additional fit. Adjustable straps.

Figure 2 --— 1938 : Dressmaker bathing suit and beach-
coat of fast colored, pre-Shrunk cotton
twill in bright Tropical print. Promenade
coat flares gracefully from fitted waist-
line. Suit has Skirt effect over wool
jersey tights.2

Figure 3 --— 1938 : Skirtless style of satin lastex
(woven of rayon, lastex, and cotton, with
crosswise stretch for figure control.

Note sectioned bra for better fit. Suit
lined with light weight cotton throughout.3

 

lSears, Roepuck Catalog No. 174 (1937), p. 93.

 

2Ibid., No. 176 (1938), p. 77.

3Ibid., No. 176 (1938), p. 78.

 

 

 

09\ n .342:

 

 

 

l937 -

_ 56;:

 

,/
./..

6501.215

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1 ---

Figure 2 ~--

Figure 3 ~--

141

PLATE XI

1938 : Dressmaker style in colorfast,
Fruit—of-the-Loom cotton. ‘Quick fastening,
rustless, Talon zip-in front. Waistline
darts for tighter fit, graceful pleated
skirt for freedom of movement.

1940 : Suit of rayon sharkskin woven with
lastex and backed with cotton. Skirt is
gored, flared, swing style, with each gore
piped with decorative braid. Rubber flowers
on shoulder strap.2

1941 : Two-piece, midriff style of rayon
satin and lastex backed with cotton. Well
cut uplift bra with halter straps. Culotte
Shorts are pleated and flared.

 

1

Sears,

Roebuck Catalog_No. 176 (1938), p. 78.

 

2

3

Ibid., No. 180 (1940), p. 50.

Ibid., No. 182 (1941), p. 83.

Figure l ——-

Figure 2 ---

143

PLATE XII

1942 : Elasticized rayon bengaline woven

with lastex yarns in princess-line, one-
piece bathing suit. Print trim of lustrous
rayon and cotton satin. Separate nylon snap-
in bra. Knit cotton lining throughout suit.1

1944 : Jacquard bengaline (rayon and cotton)
in two-piece, open midriff suit. Flared
skirt buttoned in back and bra tied in back
and around neck.

Figure 3 ——- 1945 : Front portion of one-piece maillot

in rayon jersey print. Back in rayon and
cotton knit. Lastex yarns woven around
base of leg for snug, trim fit.3

 

1Sears, Roebuck Catalog-No. 184 (1942), p. 189.

 

2

Ibid., No. 188 (1944), p. 95.

31bid., No. 190 (1945), p. 97.

 

 

 

 

 

 

FMS
%? 5-

 

 

(Kata '_X//.-

145

GLOSSARY

ACETATE - a man-made, textile fiber derived from cellulose.
Acetate is resilient, has poor absorbency,
is not receptive to dyes and resin finishes,
and is sensitive to heat.

APPLIQUE - decoration in which material is cut out and sewed,
embroidered or pasted on another material.

BENGALINE - a fabric similar to faille, only heavier, with
a fine weave and widthwise cords. May be of
silk, wool, or rayon warp with worsted or
cotton filling.

BOUCLE — fabric woven or knitted with a looped or knotted
surface. May be all wool, rayon, cotton,
silk, linen, or a combination of fibers.

CELANESE - registered trade-mark for textile products of the
Celanese Corporation of America. Common
trade name for acetate.

CULOTTE - informal trouser-like garment having leg portions
that are full and fall together to simulate
a skirt.

FAILLE - soft, slightly glossy fabric in a rib weave, with a
light, flat, crossgrain rib or cord made by
using heavier yarns in the filling than in
the warp. Can be rayon, acetate, cotton,
wool, nylon, or a mixture of these fibers.

FRUIT OF THE LOOM ~ trade name for finished products of cotton
and rayon under license from Fruit of the
Loom, Inc.

JACQUARD WEAVE - a type of weave which makes intricate pat-
terns. The Jacquard loom is employed and is
so constructed that each warp can be raised
or lowered to make the patterns.

KNITTING - the process of making fabric by interlocking series
or loops of one or more yarns.

LASTEX - a trade-mark of the United States Rubber Company for
its elastic yarn made by wrapping a filament
of fine, rubber thread with cotton, rayon,
nylon, silk, etc. Woven or knitted into
fabrics or applied by stitching to impart
stretch or create novel elastic fabrics.

146

LATEX - a milky fluid tapped from the bark of the Para rubber
tree used in making the elastic core of
LAS TEX .

MATLETEX - original LASTEX shirring in cotton bathing suits
made by Cole, of California.

NYLON - a man-made, polyamide fiber derived from coal, air,
and water. This fiber is strong, durable,
washable, quick-drying, elastic, and resis-
tant to mildew, and insects. Nylon can be
used alone or blended with other fibers to
form yarns and fabrics.

RAJAH SILK - trade name for strong, rough, compact silk
fabric of plain-weave.

RAYON — a manufactured textile fiber or yarn produced chem-
ically from cellulose by one of three pro-
cesses: viscose, cuprammonium, or nitro-
cellulose.

RUBBER - substance made of the sticky, milky sap of the rub-
ber tree and processed for a specific purpose.
RUBBERIZED FABRIC is any fabric with a rubber-
ized coating on one or both sides making it
waterproof, resistant to most stains, etc.

SEERSUCKER - a cotton, silk, or synthetic fabric made by
alternating plain and crinkled stripes.
WOVEN SEERSUCKER is a crinkled, striped
fabric made by weaving some of the yarns in
tighter tension than others.

SHARKSKIN - originally, a wool fabric with a twill-weave or
of a herringbone construction. Yarns of two
colors, light and dark, which are alternated
lengthwise and crosswise to give its charac-
teristic coloring. Fabrics of rayon and ace-
tate in a dobby-weave with a smooth surface,
resembling sharkskin leather.

SNAKESKIN - a rayon and acetate print fabric resembling
snakeskin.

VELVA-SHEEN — trade name for a rayon and cotton fabric in a
boucle—like stitch; soft and deep napped with
a velvet appearance.

ZEPHYR WOOL - a finely woven wool worsted fabric.

CHAPTER VII

1946-1958

General Conditions of the Period

 

The first full year of peace following World War II,
saw little progress toward the re-establishment of normal
conditions at home. Pricesof food, clothing, and fuel rose
sharply. The administration in Washington, added to the
confusion by first relaxing, then re—imposing, and finally
removing all price controls.

To meet the rising cost of living, labor demanded
increased wages. Unions had become strong and were respon-
sible for many strikes, which, in some instances, crippled
various phases of industry. They were continually success-
ful in their efforts, and this made them more powerful.

In August, 1947, President Truman issued a report
stating that the United States had reached its peak of
economic prosperity. High prices were paralleled by a high
standard of living. By the end of 1948, Americans were pur-
chasing cars, radios, and television sets by the millions.

People of the United States had been sobered by
World War II. Although many had made a great deal of money
during these years, they did not spend as lavishly as did
people following World War I. Their attitudes and values

147

148
were beginning to shift. More emphasis was being placed on
the fine arts, education, religion, and travel.

Following the second World War, many efforts were
made for world peace. The United Nations was established
for this purpose. In an attempt to help war-devastated
countries, the United States and the United Nations offered
aid to Europe. Economically, materially, and industrially,
European nations had been weak, but through this aid, began
to display signsof life.

Over a period of years Russia had become a powerful
nation with strong convictions. She opposed Capitalism and
advocated Communism. The United States, felt it was impor-
tant to protect the Western Democraciesfrom Communism, and,
therefore, took an active part in the formulation of the
Marshall Plan and the Atlantic Pact.

Efforts for peace were to no avail. Russia, en-
deavoring to force her way of life on Korea, provoked the
Korean War. Appeals were made, and the United Nations
stepped forward, organized an international army, and
finally succeeded in establishing peace.

The United States had once again experienced war
but had been left untouched on the homeland. As has been
characteristic throughout history, a brief period of depres-
sion swept the land following the war, but was soon followed
by a period of prosperity. By 1958, the United States was

one of the most powerful nations in the world.

149

Women in the Labor Force

 

Number of Gainfully Employed Women

From each census period in the United States to
the next, the number of gainfully employed women has steadily
increased. Seventeen million women constituted 28% of the
total labor picture in 1948, three million more than 1940.
Over 50% of women employed were thirty-five years of age
or older. The census reports indicated women to be in all
but nine of the 451 occupations listed.lt Between March,
1940 and April, 1950, there was an increase of 5,500,000
women in employment. This was a 2,500,000 increase between
l948and 1950. In 1951, 615,000 more women were added to
the labor force due to the Korean War. By the end of this
year, the total number had risen to twenty million and

remained fairly constant for the next seven years.2

Marital and Age Status of Women

 

The most striking feature of this rising tide of
women in the labor force was the growing number of married
women who worked outside the home. In 1930, 11.5% of
women were gainfully employed. Ten years later this figure

had risen to almost 17%, and by 1950 it was 24%. Over 50%

 

lElizabeth Morrissey, "The Status of Women," Vital
Speeches, No. 15 (November 1, 1948), pp. 55—60.

 

2Alva Myrdal and Viola Klein, Women's Two Roles
(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Limited, 19567, p. 34.

 

150
of the female labor force in 1950,consisted of married
women. These figures can partially be accounted for by
the increase in marriage rate and decrease in marriage age
following the war. They are also due to the relatively low
rate of employment of single women and the increased em-
ployment of older women. lbejproportion of single and
married women employed between 1940 and 1950,was practically
reversed. According to the census of 1950, more than
5,500,000 wOmen over 45 years of age were working, the
median being 36.6 years. Taken by individual categories,
the median ages were: 25 years for single women; 47.7
years for married women living with their husbands; and
48.5 years for widows, divorcees, and women with absent

husbands.

Rural and Urban Workers

 

The difference between rural and urban areas was
significant and cannot be overlooked when average figures
are given for a country as vast and varied as the United
States. A relative lack of opportunities existed for em-
ployment in ruralereas which affected both married and
single women, but the disparity between the rural and urban
was more marked in the case of single women. Only 25% of
single women living on farms were employed as compared to
58% living in towns or cities. Percentages for married
women were 17 in rural areas and 26 in urban. These figures

do not imply that women living on farms were idle-~much work

151
was performed by women in family businesses and on farms
but was not counted by the census as employment because
there were no wages involved. (These figures were taken

from 1950 Government Census reports.)

Occupational Groups

 

In the United States, as elsewhere, the most con—
spicuous increase in the number of women employed in any
occupational group took place among clerical and kindred
workers. Women constituted almost 65% of all persons em-
ployed in this field in 1940. Within ten years, the number
had increased from 2,530,000 to 4,539,000; by January, 1953,
it had further increased to 5,288,000.

Clothing manufacturers employed the largest number
of women in industry, 20.7%. The textiles field claimed
12.6%, food--1l.4%, and electrical machinery,8.4%.

The largest number of women employed in 1950,were
in manufacturing, and retailing. Occupations, commonly
termed "feminine" because of the high percentage of women
engaged, were personal service (69% women) and professional
and related services (58%). Over 50% of all professional
women were teachers, and 25% were nurses.

In both absolute numbers and percentages, married
women outnumbered single women in almost all occupational
groups in 1950. There were, of course, some exceptions.
The main exception lay in the category of professional and

semi-professional workers. It would be unjust to deduce

152

by this statement that women were prone to relinquish their
careers upon marriage. This disproportion was a combined
result of the long training necessary to qualify for entry
to certain professions, and thelower marriage rate among
university women.

The number of women gainfully employed in the United
States in 1958, was greater than any other time in the
history of the country. This was mainly due to the percen-
tage increase of older women in the labor force. Jobs, on
the whole, were plentiful, and there were no age or marital
barriers to be overcome. The majority of women worked out
of economic necessity while the minority worked for the
love of working more than for money. Many problems for
working women had been resolved-~days and weeks had been
shortened, paid vacations were given, and hazardous working
conditions were abolished. Women still had several com-
plaints: in many instances they did not receive the same
wages as did men in similar occupations, they received fewer

promotions, and were not given high administrative positions.

Changing Role and Status of Women
By the end of this period in the United States,
women had achieved a status of equality more comparable to
that of men. They possessed as much freedom and indepen-
dence as men. Women could hold property, negotiate contracts,
will; et cetera, work in any position of their choosing,

vote, and hold public office.

153
Their efforts in the 1952 Presidential campaign gave

them increased reSpect as participants in party politics.
Declaring that he would use the contributions of women to
the fullest, President Eisenhower said: '"I will do my best
to find and appoint the individuals best qualified to serve
our country, regardless of whether they are men or women."1
He placed women in nine major posts during his first three
months of administration.

Women had come a long way in their struggle for
equal rights. They had often met with discouragement and
defeat but had continually forged ahead. At last, their
goals and desires were realized and women were granted

more freedom to live, act, and do as they pleased.

Leisure and the Leisure Market

 

The great mechanization of life in America in the
mid-twentieth century gave increased leisure to the people.
The fourteen to sixteen hour work day of the 1880's,had
changed to the six to eight hour day on a forty hour a week
basis.

Perhaps the most predominent fact about the postwar
leisure market is the growing preference for active parti-
cipation in Sports. Movies, for example, were no longer as

popular as they had once been. The intake from this source

 

1U. s. Department of Labor, The Status of Women in
the United States-1953, Women's Bureau Bulletin No. 249
(Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953).

 

 

154
of pleasure decreased some three hundred and seventy-five
million dollars between 1947 and 1953, while all items re-
lated to active recreational pursuits showed gains ranging
from the respectable to the spectacular.

The great trend in the leisure market from 1935 to
l955,had been foreshadowed by a 1934 report from the
National Recreation Association, a professional group con—
cerned primarily with standards of municipal parks and
playgrounds. This report entitled "The Leisure Hours of
5,000 People," was concerned with those things which people
liked to do in their leisure time, as opposed to that which

they actually did.1 The following orders of preference

 

 

were listed:2
What They Would
What They Did Like to Have Done
1. Reading newspapers and 1. Tennis
magazines

2. Listening to the radio 2. Swimming

3. Going to the movies 3. Boating

4. Visiting or entertaining 4. Golf

5. Reading fiction books 5. Camping

6. Automobile riding 6. Gardening

7. Swimming 7. Playing music

8. Writing letters 8. Automobile riding
9. Reading non—fiction books 9. Theater going
10. Conversation 10. Ice skating

This particular survey indicates that eight out of ten most
common leisure activities were sedentary, while all but one

of those aspired to, were active pursuits.

 

1Fortune Magazine (ed.), The Changing Americap
Market (New York: Time, Inc., 1955), see Chapter X,'"$3O
Billiph for Fun.”

 

2Ibid.

155

Three conditions had to be met before Americans
could satisfy their desire for active recreation: they had
to have time off from work, money, and facilities.

Paid vacations have probably been the biggest boon
to the leisure market. In 1937, 75% of all office and
retail employees had them, but only 40% of production and
industrial workers. During the war, this latter percentage
increased, and by 1958, between 90 and 95% Of all production
workers were granted a paid vacation of approximately two
weeks.

Throughout the years, gain in leisure time has come
from the reduction of working hours, the five-day week, more
holidays with pay, paid vacations, and the use of labor
saving devices in the home. Because women are found in
both the labor force and the home, on the basis of the
above statement, it can be said that they experienced an

increase in leisure time.

Swimming and Swimwear for Women

 

By the end of 1958, women were active in the sport
of swimming. No restrictions were imposed on them as to
their amount of activity in this sport, or the mode of dress
required. They were free to select any type of bathing
suit of their choice, and could swim almost whenever or
wherever they pleased.

. Between 1946 and l948,there were no significant

style changes in swimwear from those suits of the previous

156
era. However, various new fabrics were employed, among
which were broadcloth, lame, matelasse, and shantung.
These were made of wool, cotton, linen, silk, acetate, or
rayon yarns, or a combination thereof. Lastiques, failles,
and jerseys were also popular.

Emphasis in swimwear was placed on design with
length and cut being the prominent factors. Shoulders and
hips retained their natural lines, while the bosom and small
waistline were accented.

Most bathing suits could be worn with or without
straps. Suits were usually skin tight and cut with a deep
neckline in both front and back. Fagoting and nylon lace
inserts were used as a means of decoration. Bonings, stays,
built-in wire brassieres, stretchable shoulder straps, and
skirts which streamlined the hips like a girdle, were all a
part of swimwear in 1947.

Bathing suits from 1948 to l952,were predominantly
the same, with one exception: the bikini. This was
possibly the briefest suit inthe history of swimwear in the
United States. It originally appeared on the French Riviera,
but soon found its way to this country. This suit consisted
of an abbreviated strapless bra top and separate briefs
fastened below the hipline. The bikini was not a popular
suit for the average American woman, but was worn only by
the most daring. The majority of women, at this time,

preferred the conventional one-piece maillot.

157

Nylon made its appearance in swimwear about 1950.
This man-made fiber was usually combined with other fibers
such as lastex, or cotton. Nylon lace was often used in
more expensive suits for decorative purposes and also to
give a touch of femininity.

Colors were both vivid and subdued--one extreme or
the other. Royal blue, shocking pink, and Kelley green
were featured side by side with pastels. Solid colors were
preferred for synthetics and prints and polka dots for
cottons.

Plate XIII, Figure 1, illustrates a typical bathing
suit for 1953. Made of rayon satin with lastex yarns,
this suit was definitely form-fitting. A brief skirt effect,
gathered panels, and an elasticized band outlining a low
back and forming adjustable straps were featured.

Shirred panels were very popular. The placement of
these panels was most important and it was necessary for the
individual woman to decide which position was most becoming
to her figure. Hips or waistline could be emphasized or
de—emphasized, depending on the width and locale of the
gathers.

In 1953 and 1954, almost all bathing suits for women
were strapless. Similar styles of the previous five or six
years were fashionable.

Figure 2, Plate XIII, shows the use of nylon
fagoting in swimwear. Seams of this nature were originally

guaranteed to be durable and long wearing, but in time, it

158
was found that they had a tendency to rip and pull out.
Cuffed shorts, without an overskirt effect, were popular.
For most women this particular style was difficult to wear
because the cuffs tended to emphasize leg size. Women with
very thin legs found this style to be flattering.

In 1955, bloomer pants were introduced. (See Plate
XIII, Figure 3.) This suit was made of cotton chintz and
had a back bodice elasticized with lock stitches. It is
obvious from the model, that hips were emphasized. Because
of the style it was also possible to camoflage large hips.
However, when wet, this bathing suit would cling to the
body and lose its bouffant effect, thereby destroying the
original design.

Rayon and acetate were used by manufacturers of
swimwear in 1956. These fibers were made into yarns and
combined with elasticized cotton yarns after which they were
woven or knitted into fabrics providing a smooth and snug
fit when employed in bathing suits. Lace, ric-rac, or braid
were often stitched over the seams accenting the vertical
lines. (See Plate XIV, Figure 1.) Styles remained strap-
less and skirtless. Loose—leg shorts, which increased the
length of the suit by one or two inches, became fashionable.
Cotton panties were attached to the inside of the bathing
suit and were gathered with elastic around the leg. Boning
was also stitched into this suit, as it was in most suits

during these years. (See Plate XIV, Figure 2.)

159

During the latter years of this period, 1946 to
1958, dressmaker suits were revived. These suits were
usually made of glazed cotton fabric, lame, matelasse,
velvet or other luxury fabric, depending on the specific
purpose for which the bathing suit was intended. Many
women vacationing in Bermuda, Florida, California, or other
warm climates,purchased these suits for resort wear. Beach
jackets, skirts, and shorts were often made of the same
fabric and designed to accompany the bathing suit. A com-
plete Sportswear ensemble of this naturevas both popular
and practical. More expensive swimwear made of luxury
fabrics was sometimesercompanied by full length evening
skirts. Social life had become more informal and diversi-
fied, and required greater versatility in dress. These
bathing suit ensembles, the latter in particular, were more
the exception than the rule. The average American woman
still clung to some version of the maillot, provided she
had a good figure. For those who did not, the dressmaker
suit was more flattering.

Figure 3, Plate XIV, illustrates a Jacquard knit
maillot suit which became fashionable in 1958. Orlon, nylon
and Latex were combined in this snug-fitting, figure-
revealing bathing suit. Knit fabrics emphasize every
curvature of the body, as evidenced by this model. Vertical
lines were used to make the figure appear more slender.
Because of the softness of the fabric it was impossible to

use boning without having it bulge or show on the surface.

160

To take its place, an inner bra of pellon was introduced,
giving a smooth line with the necessary support.

The maillot, and its variations, and the dressmaker
suit were the most prominent styles in swimwear between
1946 and 1958.. Vertical lines were accented as designers
became more figure conscious. Inner supports and con—
struction were important because of the briefness of swim-
wear. New fabrics were introduced which had been chemically
treated for colorfastness, shrinkage, and water resistence.
In 1958, swimwear reverted to that of the 1920‘s and 1930‘s,
with a revival of knits, although the new knits were usually
synthetics, or blends of synthetic and natural fibers, rather
than wool jerseys. By the end of this era it appeared that
swimwear had reached its peak of briefness, unless manu-
facturers reverted to a two-piece version of the maillot

or the bikini.

Functionalism in Women's Swimwear

 

Swimwear for the last period of this study, 1946
to 1958, will be evaluated on the previously established
three point criteria for functionalism.

l. Performance.--Bathing suits of this era did,

 

for the most part, follow the basic lines of the maillot
and dressmaker suits of previous periods.

The three main variations of the maillot, wenathe
'"little boy shorts," bloomers, and the addition and later

subtraction of a brief skirt effect which extended tightly

161

across the lower front of the body. These styles followed
the natural line of the body, and being tight, were form—
fitting. Briefness in swimwear was an asset for activity,
but extreme tightness was detrimental. '"Little boy shorts"
were comfortable, did not restrict movement of the leg
unless a tight cuff was applied, and were of a modest
length. Bloomers were likewise comfortable, and gave free-
dom of movement to the wearer. Attractiveness of this
particular style was a debatable issue, and depended solely
on the individual figure. The abbreviated skirt effect
across the lower portion of the bathing suit could or could
not be binding, depending upon the construction of the
garment. In some instances it was binding and had a ten-
dency to ”ride up" when the individual was swimming.

Dressmaker suits were usually made of cotton with
elasticized bodices. These suits were particularly suitable
for the older woman or for sunning and resort wear. Verti-
cal lines were emphasized for a slenderizing effect and hips
and heavy thighs; were usually de—emphasized by the addition
of a slightly flared skirt. Boning was inserted but, because
of the lack of firmness of the cotton fabric, failed to give
much support to the bust. These suits were not extremely
practical for active swimming. The main purpose of dress-
maker suits was for sunning and lounging, and in this
respect they were functional.

With the advent of strapless styles, arms and

shoulders could readily be moved. Previous styles with

162

straps over the shoulders or around the neck became tight
and irritating to the wearer when wet. Strapless bathing
suits eliminated this discomfort. These suits were good
for sunbathing but were not functional forswimming. Manu-
facturers usually included straps (detachable) with such
suits because women who participated actively in the sport
of swimming discovered they were necessary-—otherwise they
ran the risk of losing their bathing suit when vigorously
exercising.

Many bathing suits were extremely tight and form-
fitting, to the point of hindering physical movement. To
overcome this problem, manufacturers introduced Shirred
panels which molded the figure but gave ease and stretch
under excessive strain. Elasticized yarns were also em—
ployed for increased durability and a better fit.

Perhaps one extreme in style which can be classified
as totally unfunctional for active participation in the
Sport of swimming, was the bikini. Actress Esther Williams
denounced these scanty suits as impractical: '"Why, they
come off in the water. If you can't swim in them what good
are they?"1 Seemingly the only purposes these suits served,
were to attract men by diSplaying the female form, and to
acquire an over—all sun—tan. It must be emphasized that

this particular style was not worn by the average American

 

1
'"Formal Swim Suits," Life. No. 24 (June 7: 1948):
pp. 155—1560

163
woman, but since there were a few women daring enough to
wear the bikini, and since it caused such a commotion in
conjunction with swimwear, the author felt it worth men—
tioning.

Women were able to be active in the conventional
maillot and dressmaker suits of this period which closely
followed the contours of the body, but which did not
restrict physical movement. Styles and designs of swim-
wear hadgreatly improved allowing women to swim, and dive
with freedom of motion. Bathing suits during this period,
assumed two new prominent functions which were mainly due
to a change in social life and an increase in leisure time;
sunning and lounging or relaxing. For all three functions
or purposes, swimwear was practical and suitable.

2. Application of materials.-—Many fabrics used
for swimwear between 1946 and l958,were blends of synthetic
and natural fibers. The most prominent fibers used were
cotton, wool, linen, nylon, orlon, acetate, and rayon.
These were woven or knit into lastique, failles,cm'other
fabrics. Elasticized yarns were often used to give the
necessary stretch and ease to synthetic yarns and fabrics.
With increased use of synthetics dyeing had become a prob-
lem. Manufacturers discovered that many man-made fibers
could not withstand the high temperatures required for most
dyeing processes. The problem was surmounted by heat
treatment before dyeing to shrink the fiber. Special dye-

stuffs also had to be developed for the new synthetic blends.

164
With these problems solved, man-made fibers and fabrics
were placed in quantities on the market, and were widely
used by swimwear manufacturers.

Most fabrics at this time were treated with chem-
ical finishes for water-repellency, colorfastness,
shrinkage, permanent criSpness or glaze, mildew resistency,
or crease or wrinkle resistency. Some of the trade names.
for the more popular finishes, were Everfast, Evershrunk,
Fiberset, Sanforset, Sanforized, and Tebilized. (For
definition of these and other trade names, see Glossary.)
These are special finishes and can be regarded as functional
since they contribute a specific, desired attribute to a
fabric.

The use of elasticized yarns, stronger and more
durable synthetic fibers and fabrics, better dyes, and new
finishes aided in making materials more functional for
swimwear.

3. Appropriate construction to the materials.--
Construction of swimwear was at its best during this period.
Due to the briefness of bathing suits some means of re-
enforcement was required. Boning and stays were used
throughout the upper portion of suits and were placed in
such a manner that straps were not required, but the bust
was still given the necessary support. Bonings were usually
stitched into vertical seams, which gave better support to

the figure and also served to re-enforce the seamlines.

165

Knit suits, which re-appeared on the fashion scene
in 1958, were much better constructed than those of the
1920‘s and 1930‘s. Course and wale counts in these fabrics
were much higher, thereby giving a tighter and closer knit
and a firmer fabric. Seams in these suits were also re-
enforced with extra rows of stitching to ensure strength.

When a soft, or thinly knit material was used in
bathing suits, stiffening fabrics such as pellon, replaced
bonings and stays. These newer bonded fabrics gave the
necessary support and retained a smooth line.

The use of bonings and stays, stiffened fabrics,
and re—enforced seams were all a part of better methods of
construction applied to swimwear during this period, which
aided in making this particular type of garment more func-
tional.

Swimming was a popular sport for women, and bathing
suits were as much a part of a lady‘s wardrobe as were
dresses and other sports attire. Functionalism in swimwear
was of vital importance. Women desired attractive and
becoming swimwear made of durable fabrics. They required
flattering designs, pleasing colors, novelty weaves, and a
comfortable cut to the garment giving a natural line, good
fit, and freedom of movement. These are the qualifying
factors for functional swimwear. Over a period of more than
fifty years women's bathing suits had finally reached a
point where they could meet with the requirements and

criteria for good design and functionalism.

166

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168

PLATE XIV

Figure 1 --- 1956 : One—piece, satin lastex bathing suit
(acetate, cotton, and rubber) with nylon
fagoted seams. Boning throughout upper
portion ofsuit. Zipper in back.

Figure 2 -—— 1956 : Elasticized faille bathing suit.
(Celaperm acetate, cotton, and rubber).
Loose leg shorts, about two to three inches
longer than conventional maillot.

Figure 3 --- 1958 : Jacquard knit maillot in orlon, nylon,
and rubber. Form-fitting suit with halter
top and low back. Pellon inner bra used
instead of boning.3 ‘

 

1Sears, Roebuck Catalog No. 212 (1956), pp. 90-91.

 

2Ibid.,

‘3gpig., No. 218 (1959), pp. 1064107.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.7
(Affair, ‘X/ If

17O

GLOSSARY

AQUA PERM - finish for wrinkle resistancy and minimization
of shrinkage and stretching.

AQUA-SEC - water repellent finish; also resists perspiration
and stains.

BROADCLOTH - plain-weave cotton or silk fabric with fine,
irregular, broken, crosswise rib; smooth,
rich-looking woolen with twill back;
plain-weave rayon fabric.

CELAPERM - trade-mark for acetate, "solution dyed" yarns
produced by Celanese Corporation of America.

CHROMSPUN — registered trade-mark for acetate yarns produced
by Tennessee Eastman Company.

DEFINIZE - shrinkage control for rayon and mixed fiber
materials.

DELUSTERED - process which reduces the sheen or luster of
rayon yarns.

EVERFAST - trade-mark for cotton and rayon fabrics which
carry a guarantee for colorfastness to light,
crocking, and washing.

EVERGLAZE - patented, resin finishapplied to cottons which
produces a more durable hand and glaze, and
also stabilizesthe fabric to a guaranteed
shrinkage of less than 2%.

EVERSHRUNK - trade-mark for a finish resistant to shrinkage
which will not exceed 2%.

FAGOTING - thread, yarn, ribbon, braid, etc., used straight
or criss-crossed in open seam to form
openwork trimming.

FIBERSET — trade-mark for stabilized finish on rayon fabrics.

FORTISAN - high-tenacity, rayon filament yarn produced by the
Gelanese Corporation of America.

LANASET - trade~mark for resin finish on woven or knitted
wool fabrics for shrinkage control.

171

LAME — a silk or rayon fabric woven in designs with flat
metal threads which form either the back-
ground or the pattern; most often done in
gold or silver.

LASTTQUES - fabrics in which elastic yarns are used.

LATON - trade-mark of the United States Rubber Company for
its soft, roving-covered elastic yarn made
in fine sizes and soft tensions.

MATELASSE - type of weave with a quilted or padded texture;
a soft, double or compound fabric in wool,
silk, cotton, rayon, nylon, or various
mixtures.

ORLON - Du Pont's trade-mark for its acrylic fiber possessing
a high strength, good resistance to abrasion,
sunlight, and weathering.

PELLON - a bonded fabric used as a stiffening agent in
garments.

SANFORIZED - a trade—mark indicating that a particular fabric
will not shrink monethan 1% in either length
or width, according to standard government
tests.

SANFORLAN — shrinkage control finish for wool; no more than
1% shrinkage in either direction.

SANFORSET - trade-mark on rayon fabrics or garments, signi-
fying that the fabric will not shrink more
than 2% in accordance with the government's
cotton wash test.

SHANTUNG - agiain-weave fabric woven with an elongated slub
filling yarn; made of all silk, rayon,
acetate, nylon, orlon, cotton, or wool, or
mixtures of these yarns.

TEBILIZED - crease-resistant finish; also increases weight
and strength of fabric when wet.

CHAPTER VIII

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary

One social achievement which has greatly affected
women has been their entrance into the field of sports, ac-
companied by freedom from the types and quantities of
clothing in which they had been imprisoned for years. The
American cultural ideal of woman hood, regarding gentility,
acceptable standards of modesty, and physical recreation,
have influenced sports participation and sports attire.

American culture and way of life can more readily
be understood when the sports life of the nation is examined.
Sociologists would consider a successfully functioning
culture to be one in which there is a balance between work
and play, between the things which must be done to sustain
life and the things people want to do to make life more
worth living. It follows that a knowledge of these factors
is of vital importance in the understanding of a given
culture.

Sports are but one index to the cultural character-
istics of the American people. The increasing popularity
”and growing importance of physical recreation and accompanying
leisure time have greatly affected the way of living in the

United States.
172

173

The most obvious proof of the revolutionary effect
of sports life on the modern woman is to be found in the
change in her manner of dress. Greater implications than
her outward appearance exist when consideration is given
to woman's change in role and status. If one examines the
daily realities of life which lie behind the social, polfia
ical, and economic events as recorded by historians, it is
evident that throughout the history of the United States
women have exercised a strong cultural influence. Prior
to the nineteenth century this influence was exhibited only
within the confines of the home and family life. With the
emancipation of women in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries this circle of influence has widened.

The cultural shift which brought women on a more
equal basis with men is cumulative, and is the result of
a gradual but constant movement of events by individuals
and groups of people, both men and women.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century,women
were regarded as being physically and mentally inferior to
men, particularly in sports, business, and the labor force.
There was a definite division of labors and of attitudes
between men and women. Both sexes had their specific
functions in society, the boundaries of which were estab-
lished by the existing standards and mores of the day. By
the second quarter of this century women began to voice
their opinions demanding greater equality in politics, edu-

cation, the labor force, and social life.

174

The era between the Industrial Revolution and the
First World War,witnessed the gradual liberation of women
in many respects. Women began to see freedom and equality
as the abolition of restrictions and inequalities. New
manners and customs, notions of propriety and virtue were
invoked by the establishment of a capitalistic and democratic
system within the United States. This also caused changes
in the ideal of femininity, woman's own behavior, her appear-
ance and attitudes. The function of the home receded as
rival interests grew. The prestige of the single woman was
raised. An expanding and rationalistic age had evolved
opening new frontiers to women. Their circle of social and
Ifeconomic life widened as they strived for equality through
politics and gainful employment.

Progressively, since the beginning of the twentieth
century, men, women, and Children have obtained more and more
' leisure time. Americans have developed a variety of ways of
spending this leiSure. Although political, economic, and
philanthropic activities have absorbed much of the time,
interests and energy of twentieth century peoples, men and
women still sought to enjoy themselves in such leisure time
as they had. The popularity of sports such as fishing,
swimming, tennis, golf, et cetera, has persisted and grown
and has, in time, taken the place of more sedentary forms
of recreation.

One sport which has drawn increasing multitudes of

people throughout the years, is swimming. Women first

175
entered this sport in the United States about the middle of
the nineteenth century. One hundred years later, swimming
was one of the more popular sports for women.

Swimming, along with other sports, required a parti-
cular type of dress. Sports clothes, which included the
bathing suit, shorts, slacks, shirts, et cetera, evolved,
and became symbolic of the new status of women.

It was the final proof of their successful assertion
of the right to enjoy whatever recreation they chose,
costumed according to the demands of Sport, rather
than the tabus of an outworn prudery, and to enjoy
it in free and natural association with men.

The evolution of women's bathing suits is unique in
one respect: instead of following the erratic course common
to other trends, verring aimlessly along, regressing, or

glrepeating itself, swimwear has followed one steady line
which has continually gone forward toward a single goal--a
brief, functional bathing suit. True, various types or
styles of bathing suits have been revived over a period of
years, but always in a more abbreviated and more functional
>form.

Between 1900 and l958,bathing suits may be classified
into four main categories: the dressmaker suit, chemise or
tubular suit, one-piece maillot, and the two-piece bathing
suit. Their popularity may be broken down by years as

follows:

 

lFoster Rhea Dulles, America Learns to Play (New
York: D. Appleton Century Co., 1940), p. 441.

 

176
l. Dressmaker suit: 1900 to 1915 predominently;
occasionally; revived until 1925; late
1930's and early 1940's; mid-1950's.

2. Chemise or tubular style: from 1916 through
1927.

3. One—piece maillot: about 1928 to 1958.

4. Two~piece bathing suit: late 1930's and
early 1940‘s to mid-1940's.

Over a period of almost sixty years swimwear has
evolved from full skirts extending to the knee or below,
accompanied by bloomers, full length hose, blouses originally
attached to the skirt which had full sleeves and high neck-
lines, to tight—fitting, one-piece bathing suits with low
necklines and backlines, and no straps. Swimwear had become
more brief, more form—fitting, and more figure revealing.

As women participated more actively in the sport of
swimming they desired functional swimwear. This aspect con—
cerns the utilitarian nature of a garment—-the fact that it
is designed and constructed in a manner that it is readily
adapted to the specific purpose for which it was intended.

Performance characteristics, mainly from the aspect
of style and design or cut of the garment are important for
'functional swimwear. Throughout the years swimwear became
more brief, constricting factors were eliminated, and bathing
suits were designed for comfort, fit, and freedom of physical
movement.

Proper use of materials is another determinent in
the functional aspect of a particular garment. Innovations

were introduced in swimwear which included various new weaves,

177
knitted fabrics, elasticized yarns in materials, synthetics,
blends, special finishes, and dyes.

Methods of construction had improved giving a good
fit, comfort to the wearer, and a more durable garment.
Bathing suits, by 1958, were relatively serviceable and
flattering to the female figure.

These functional aspects of women's swimwear from ~
1900 to l958,in the United States have been influenced
by significant historical events, technological developments,
and social changes, such as war and depression, the invention
of new textile machines for the processing and producing of
cloth, the development of new fibers, yarns, fabrics, and
finishes, the change in role and status of women, their
entrance into the labor force, and their increased leisure
time.

This study indicates a definite relationship between
these factors and women's swimwear. However, facts and
events are not the sole determinents of trends. Consideration
should also be given to intangible factors, such as female
attitudes and desires. Since these are rarely recorded, the
true feelings of any era and the resultant situations, events,

and social changes are not always clear or understandable.

Conclusions

 

An attempt has been made within this study, to give
some of the highlights of the evolution of women‘s swimwear

from 1900 to l958,in the United States, and some of the

influences within the history and society of the country

178

which have been pertinent to the functional aspect of women's

swimwear.

On

be drawn.

1.

the basis of this study several conclusions can

There have been definite,evolutionary changes in

women's swimwear between 1900 and 1958.

Functionalism in swimwear has evolved, and the

following statements can be made in this respect:

a.

Bathing suits have become more abbreviated
throughout the years, allowing greater free—
dom of movement.

They have become more form—fitting, closely
following the natural curves of the body,
thereby, giving greater comfort and ease of
action.

More durable and suitable materials have been
employed for greater practicality.

Fewer decorations have been applied,thereby,
eliminating superfluous materials which
might hamper activity.

Better methods of construction in bathing
suits, appropriate to selected materials,
have been used for increased durability and

serviceability.

Various historical events and social changes

within the country have influenced functionalism

in women‘s swimwear. The most important factors

179

are; general conditions of the country, women in
the labor force, change in role and status of
women, and their increased leisure time.

4. Technological advancements and developments in
the field of textiles have influenced clothing
for this particular sport. Some of these are
as follows:

a. Invention of new machines.

b. Development of synthetic fibers, yarns,
and fabrics.

c. Blending of various fibers and yarns into
fabrics.

d. New dyes and methods of dyeing.

e. Use of new, special, functional finishes.

5. Functionalism is an important aspect of women's
swimwear and is necessary, in a utilitarian
respect, for adaptability to the specific purpose

for which the garment is intended.

Recommendations

 

A wealth of information is available on this topic
but there is no evidence of any studies having been conducted
along these particular lines. It is therefore recommended
that further research be done.

Other aspects of women's swimwear could be investi-
gated, such as prices of swimwear and their relation to

various economic conditions within the country; psychological

180

aspects concerning consumer attitudes and purchasing moti-
vations; the manufacturing, marketing, and retailing of
swimwear; methods of construction as applied to specific
designs; a more detailed textile analysis; other sociological
factors.

This study has proved interesting and informative
to the author, and it is hoped that it will prove beneficial

to other students.

APPENDICES

181

APPENDIX A
DECLARATION OF SENTIMENTS--1848

When, in the course of human events, it becomes nec-
essary for one portion of the family of man to assume among
the people of the earth a position different from that which
they have hitherto occupied, but one to which the laws of
nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect
to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare
the causes that impel them to such a course.

We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all
men and women are created equal; that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among
these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that
to secure these rights governments are instituted, deriving
their just powers from the consent of the governed. Whenever
any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it
is the right of those who suffer from it to refuse allegiance
to it, and to insist upon the institution of a new government,
laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to
effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will
dictate that governments long establishedshould not be changed
for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experi-
ence has shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer,
while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by
abolishing the forms to which they were accustomed. But
when along train of abuses and usurpation, pursuing invariably
the same object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute
despotism, it is their duty to throw off such a government,
and to provide new guards for their future security. Such
has been the patient sufferance of the women under this govern-
ment, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to
demand the equal station to which they are entitled.

The history of mankind is a history of repeated
injuries and usurpations on the part of man toward woman,
having in direct object the establiShment of an absolute
tyranny over her. To prove this, let facts be submitted to
a candid world.

A He has never permitted her to exercise her inalien-
able right to the elective franchise.

He has compelled her to submit to laws, in the for-
mation of which she had no voice.

He has withheld from her rights which are given to
the most ignorant and degraded men--both natives and foreigners.

182

 

183

Having deprived her of this first right of a citizen,
the elective franchise, thereby leaving her without repre—
sentation in the halls of legislation, he has oppressed her
on all sides .

He has made her, if married, in the eye of the law,
civilly dead.

He has taken from her all right in property, even to
the wages she earns.

He has made her, morally, an irresponsible being as
she can commit many crimes with impunity, provided they be
done in the presence of her husband. In the covenant of
marriage, she is compelled to promise obedience to her
husband, he becoming, to all intents and purposes, her
master—~the law giving him power to deprive her of liberty,
and to administer chastisement.

He has so framed the laws of divorce, as to what
shall be the proper causes, and in case of separation, to
whom the guardianship of the children shall be given, as to
be wholly regardless of the happiness of women--the law, in
all cases, going upon a false supposition of the supremacy
of man, and giving all power into his hands.

After depriving her of all rights as a married woman,
if single, and the owner of property, he has taxed her to
support a government which recognizes her only when her
property can be made profitable to it.

He has monopolized nearly all the profitable employ-
ments, and from those she is permitted to follow, she
receives but a scanty remuneration. He closes against her
all the avenues to wealth and distinction which he considers
most honorable to himself. As a teacher of theology, medi—
cine or law, she is not known.

He has denied her the facilities for obtaining a
thorough education, all colleges being closed against her.

He allows her in Church, as well as in State, but a
subordinate position, claiming Apostolic authority for her
exclusion from the ministry, and with some exception, from
any public participation in the affairs of the church.

7 He has created a false public sentiment by giving to
the world a different code of morals for men and women, by
which moral delinquencies which exclude women from society,
are not only tolerated, but deemed oflflttle account in man.

He has usurped the prorogative of Jehovah himself,
claiming it as his right to assign for her a Sphere of action,
when that belongs to her conscience and to her God.

He has endeavored, in every way that he could, to
destroy her confidence in her own powers, to lessen her self-
respect, and to make her willing to lead a dependent and
abject life.

Now, in View of this entire disfranchisement of one-
half the people of this country, their social and religious
degradation-~in view of the unjust laws above mentioned, and
because women do feel themselves aggrieved, oppressed, and
fraudently deprived of their most sacred rights, we insist

184

that they have immediate admission to all the rights and
privileges which belong to them as citizens of the United
States.

In entering upon the great work before us, we anti-
cipate no small amount of misconception, misrepresentation,
and ridicule; but we shall use every instrumentality within
our power to effect our object. We shall employ agents,
circulate contracts, petition the State and National legis-
latures, and endeavor to enlist the pulpit and the press in
our behalf. We hope this Convention will be followed by a
series of Conventions embracing every part of the country.

Resolutions

 

WHEREAS, The great precept of nature is conceded to
be, that "man shall pursue hhsown true and substantial happi-
ness." Blackstone in his Commentaries remarks, that this law
of Nature being coeval with mankind, and dictate by God him-
self, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It
is binding over all this globe, in all countries and at all
times; no human laws are of any validity of contrary to this,
and such of them as are valid, derive all their force, and
all their validity, and all their authority, mediately and
immedately, from this original; therefore,

RESOLVED, That such laws as conflict, in any way,
with the true‘and substantial happiness of woman, are con-
trary to the great precept of nature and of no validity,
for this is "superior in obligation to any other;"

RESOLVED, That all laws which prevent woman from
occupying such a station in society as her conscience shall
dictate, or which place her in a position inferior to that
of man, are contrary to the great precept of nature, and
therefore of no force or authority.

RESOLVED, That woman is man's equal--was intended to
be so by the Creator, and the highest good of the race
demands that she Should be recognized as such.

RESOLVED, That the women of this country ought to be
enlightened in regard to the laws under which they live, that
they may no longer publish their degradation by declaring
themselves satisfied with their present position, nor their
ignorance, by asserting that they have all the rights they want.

RESOLVED, That inasmuch as man, while claiming for
himself intellectual superiority, does accord to women moral
superiority, it is pre-eminently his duty to encourage her to
speak and teach, as she has an opportunity, in all religious
assemblies.

RESOLVED, That the same amount of virtue, delicacy,
and refinement of behaviour that is required of woman in the
social state, should also be required of man, and the same
transgressions should be visited with equal severity on both
man and woman.

185

RESOLVED, That the objection of indelicacy and im-
propriety, which is so often brought against woman when she
addresses a public audience, comes with a very ill-grace
from those who encourage, by their attendance, her appear-
ance on the stage, in the concert, or in feats of the circus.

RESOLVED, That woman has too long rested satisfied
in the circumscribed limits which corrupt customs and a per-
verted application of the Scriptures have marked out for her,
and that it is time she should move in the enlarged Sphere
which her great Creator has assigned her.

RESOLVED, That it is the duty of the women of this
country to secure themselves their sacred right to the
elective franchise.

RESOLVED, That the equality of human rights results
necessarily from the fact of the identity of the race in
capabilities and responsibilities.

RESOLVED, THEREFORE, That, being invested by the
Creator with the same capabilities, and the same conscious-
ness of responsibility for their exercise, it is demonstrably
the right and duty of woman, equally with man, to promote
every righteous cause by every righteous means; and especially
in regard to the great objects of morals and religion, it is
self-evidently her right to participate with her brother in
teaching them, both in private and in public, by writing and
by speaking, by any instrumentalities proper to be used, and
in any assemblies proper to be held; and this being a self-
evident truth growing out of the divinely implanted principles
of human nature, any custom or authority adverse to it,
whether modern or wearing the hoary sanction of antiquity,
is to be regarded as self-evident falsehood, and at war with
mankind.

At the last session Lucretia Mott offered and Spoke
on the following resolution:

RESOLVED, That the speedy success of our cause de-
pends upon the zealous and untiring efforts of both men and
women, for the overthrow of the monopoly of the pulpit, and
for the securing to woman an equal participation with men in
the various trades, professions, and commerce.

The only resolution that was not unanimously adopted was the
ninth, urging the women of the country to secure themselves
to elective franchise. Those who took part in the debate
feared a demand for the right to vote would defeat others
they deemed more rational, and make the whole movement
ridiculous.

Source: Breckinridge, op. cit., pp. 415+.

PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION GAINFULLY OCCUPIED,

APPENDIX B

BY AGE AND SEX, 1890-1930l

 

 

Age 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930
Total population:
10 — 15 yrs. 18.1 18.2 13. 8.5 44.7
16 — 44 yrs. 57.1 58.3 61. 60.7 59.5
45 yrs. and over 52.3 52.1 52.0 52.3 52.2
45 - 64 yrs. 55.5 55.9 -- 58.2 58.0
64 yrs.and over 41.8 39.0 -— 34.2 33.2
Males:
10 ~ 15 yrs. 26.0 26.0 18.6 11.3 6.4
16 - 44 yrs. 90.6 91.4 93.3 92.4 89.2
45 yrs. and over 90.3 88.1 85 5 86.6 85.8
45 - 64 yrs. 95.2 93.5 -- 93.8 94.1
65 yrs.and over 73.8 68.4 -- 60.4 58.3
Females:
10 - 15 yrs. 10.0 10.2 8.7 5.6 2.9
16 - 44 yrs. 21.7 23.5 28.1 28.3 29.7
45 yrs. and over 11.6 12.9 14.8 14.0 16.1
45 - 64 yrs. 12.5 14.1 -— 17.1 18.7
65 yrs. and over 8.3 9.1 —- 8.0 8.0

 

1Department of Commerce, Age of Gainful Workers,
Bureau of the Census (Washington: Government Printing Office,
September 28, 1932).

 

186

APPENDIX C

NUMBER AND PROPORTION OF WOMEN FIFTEEN YEARS AND
OVER GAINFULLY OCCUPIED, BY MARITAL CONDITION,

FOR THE UNITED STATES:

1920 -

1930l

 

 

Women Fifteen Years and Over

 

Gainfully Occupied

 

 

 

 

 

Year
Total
NUmber Per
Number Cent Per Cent
of of
Total Distribution
1910
Total 30,047,325 7,639,828 25.4 100.0
Single and unknown 9,001,342 4,602,102 51.1 60.2
Married 17,684,687 1,890,661 10.7 24.7
Widowed and
divorced 3,361,296 1,147,065 34.1 15.0
1920
Total 35,177,515 8,346,796 23.7 100.0
Single, widowed,
divorce and
unknown 13,858,582 6,426,515 46.4 77.0
Married 21,318,933 1,920,281 9.0 23.0
1930
Total 42,837,149 10,632,227 24.8 100.0
Single and unknown 11,359,038 5,734,825 50.5 53.9
Married 26,170,756 3,071,302 11.7 28.9
Widowed and ‘
divorced 5,307,355 1,826,100 34.4 I 17.2

 

 

 

 

 

lBureau of the Census, Occupation Statistics (Washing-

ton:

 

2This group was not subdivided in 1920.

187

Government Printing Office, JuneEB, 19327, p. 5.

 

APPENDIX D

 

 

WOMEN‘S EMPLOYMENT IN WARIIMEl
Number or
Item Per Cent
Employed in Dec. 1941, as reported
March, 1944 12,090,000
Employed in March, 1944 16,480,000
Increase over Dec. 1941 36
In labor force before attack on
Pearl Harbor 61
In the same occupation group as
formerly 50
In labor force in both periods 10,230,000
20 - 44 yrs. of age 69
single 42
married, husband present 30
Women who left labor force 2,180,000
45 yrs. or older 21
married,husband present 62
returned to housework 93
New entrants to labor force 6,650,000
20 - 44 yrs. of age 55
single 44
married, husband present 36
home houseworkers 14
in school 34
Women not entering labor force 33,260,000
45 yrs. of age or older 43
under 20 yrs. of age 14
married, husband present 65

 

1"Changes in Women's Employment During the War,"
Monthly Labor Review, No. 59 (November, 1944), pp. 1029-1030.

 

188

APPENDIX E

LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATES BY AGE FOR THE Y.S.
RURAL AND URBAN, 1950 AND FOR THE U. S. 1940

 

F‘.
\O
L-
O

 

Age 1950
Total 14+ 25.8 29.0
14 - 17 7.9 11.4
18 - 19 40.1 43.7
20 - 24 45.6 42.9
25 - 29 35.5 32.6
30 - 34 30.9 31.0
35 - 39 28.3 33.8
40 - 44 26.0 36.4
45 — 49 23.7 34.0
50 - 54 21.2 30.8
55 - 59 18.5 25.9
60 — 64 14.8 20.6
65 - 69 9.5 13.0
70 - 74 5.1 6.4
75+ 2.3 2.6

 

11940 Statistics based on 5% sample and 1950 statistics
3-1/3% sample. Source: U. S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of the Census, Population for 1950: Employment and
Personal Characteristics, Special Report No. 1A (Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1951).

 

 

 

189

APPENDIX F

LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN 35 YRS. OLD AND OVER,
AND PERCENTAGE HAVING PART-TIME JOBS,1ANNUAL AVERAGES:

1940, 1947, AND 1956

 

m L

 

Labor Force 1940 1947 1956
Number in labor force

(thousands) 5,755 8,373 12,878
% of female population in

labor force 21.9 27.7 35.3
% of labor force 10.3 13.6 18.3
% of employed women working

less than 35 hours x 23.4 26.4

 

1
x-—unavailable.

190

U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census.

BIBLI OGRAPHY

191

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Abbott, Edith. Women in Industry. New York: D. Appleton and
Co., 1926?

 

Allen, Frederick Lewis. Only Yesterday. New York: Harper
and Brothers, 1931.

 

. Since Yesterday. New York: Harper and Brothers,
1940.

 

. The Big Change. New York: Harper and Brothers,
1952.

Baetjer, Anna M. Women in Industry. Philadelphia: W. B.
Saunders Company, 1946.

 

 

Baker, Helen. Women in War Industries. Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1942.

 

Beard, Mary R. America Through Women's Eyes. New York:
Macmillan Company, 1933.

 

. Women as Force in History. New York: Macmillan
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Bloch, Marc. The Historian's Craft. New York: Alfred A.

 

Bogart, Earnest Ludlow, and Thompson, Charles Manfred. The
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Bragdon, Elizabeth. Women Today. New York: Bobbo-Merrill
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192

193

Cohn, David L. The Good Old Days. New York: Simon and
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Cozens, Frederick W., and Stumpf, Florence Scovil. Sports in
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1953.

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Cummings, Parke. The Dictionary of Sports. New York: A. S.
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Cunnington, Cecil Willett. The Perfect Lady. New York:
Chanticleer Press, Incorporated, 1948.

 

Dan River Mills, Inc., Dictionary of Textile Terms. Danville,
Va.: Dan River Mills, Incorporated, 1951.

 

Denny, Grace G. Fabrics. New York: J. B. Lippincott Company,
1953.

Dewhurst and Associates. America's Needs and Resources. New
York: The Twentieth Century Fund, 1955.

 

Dulles, Foster Rhea. America Learns to Play. New York: D.
Appleton—Century Company, 1940.

 

. Twentieth Century America. Chicago: Houghton
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Durant, John, and Bettman, Otto. Pictorial History of American
Sports. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1952.

 

Elliott, Mabel A., and Merrill, Francis E. Social Disorgani-
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Faulkner, Harold Underwood. American Political and Social
History. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company,I948.

 

Gorsline, Douglas. What People Worg. New York: The Viking
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Gottschalk, Louis. Understanding History. New York: Alfred
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Groves, Ernest. The American Woman. New York: Emerson Books
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194

Gruenberg, Sidonie M., and Krech, Hilda Sidney. The Many
Lives of Modern Woman. New York: Doubleday, 1952.

 

Hall, Mrs. Charles A. From Hoopskirts to Nudity. Caldwell
Idaho: Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1938.

 

Henry, Alice. Women and the Labor Movement. New York:
George H. Doran and Company, 1923.

 

Hess, Katherine Paddock. Textile Fibers and Their Use. New
York: J. B. Lippincott, 1954.

 

Hollen, Norma, and Sadler, Jane. Modern Textiles. Minneapolis:
Burgess Publishing Company, 1954.

 

Hurlock, Elizabeth. The Psychology of Dress. New York: The
Ronald Press Company, 1929.

 

Irwin, Inez Haynes. Angels and Amazons. New York: Doubleday,
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Jensen, Oliver. The Revolt of American Women. New York:
Harcourt Brace and Company, 1952.

 

Johnson, Allen (ed.). The Chronicles of America Series. New
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Kerr, Rose Netzorg. 100 Years of Costume in America.
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Kettunen, Marietta. Fundamentals of Dress. New York:
McGraw—Hill, 1951.

 

Lapiere, Richard T. Collective Behavior. New York: McGraw-
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Lapiere, Richard T., and Farnsworth, P. Social Psychology.
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Larrabee, Eric, and Meyersohn, Ralf (eds.). Mass Leisure.
Glencoe: The Free Press, 1958.

 

Laver, James. Clothes. New York: Horizon Press, 1953.

. Dress. London: John Murray, 1950.

 

. Taste and Fashion. New York: Dodd, Mead and
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Lee, Alfred McClung (ed.). Principles of Sociology. New
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195

“Leisure, Encyclopedia of Social Science. Vol. V. New York:
Macmillan, 1953.

 

Leonard, F. E., and McKenzie, R. Tait. A Brief History of
Physical Education. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger,
I923.

 

 

Lester, Katherine Morris. Historic Costume. Peoria: Charles
A. Bennett and Company, 1942.

 

Linton, Ralph (ed.). The Science of Man in the World Crisis.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1945.

 

Luetkens, Charlotte. Women and a New Society. New York:
Dull, Sloan, and Pearce Publishers, 1946.

 

Menke, Frank. The New Encyclopedia of Sports. New York:
A. S. Barnes and Company, 1947.

 

Moore, Doris Langley. The Woman in Fashion. New York: B. T.
Batsford, Ltd., 1949.

 

Morris, Lloyd. Postcript to Yesterday. New York: Random
House, 1947.

 

Muzzey, David Saville.l\History_of Our Country. Chicago:
Ginn and Company, 1952.

 

Myrdal, Alva, and Klein, Viola. Women's Two Roles. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1956.

 

McKelvey, Thelma. Women in War Production. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1942.

 

National Manpower Council. Womanpower. New York: Columbia
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. Work in the Lives of Married Women. New York:
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National Safety Council. The Woman on the Job. Chicago:
National Safety Council, 1954.

 

Nearing, Scott. Woman and Social Progress. New York: Mac-
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Nevins, Allan. The Gateway to History. New York: D. C.
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Nichols, Roy F., Bagley, Wm. C., and Beard, Charles A.
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Nixon, Eugene W., and Cozens, Frederick W. An Introduction
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196

Paret, J. Woman's Book of Sports. New York: D. Appleton
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Pegg, C. H. (ed.), et a1. American Society and the Changing

World. NewIYOFE: Appleton Century Crofts Incorpor-
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Picken, Mary Brooks. The Fashion Dictionary. New York:
Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1957.

 

Pruette, Lorine. Women and Leisure. New York: E. P. Dutton
and Company, 1924.

 

Pruette, Lorine (ed.). Women Workers Through the Depression.
New York: Macmillan Company, 1934.

 

Recent Social Trends in the United States. Report of the
President‘s Research Committee on Social Trends, Vol.
I. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Incorporated,
1933.

Rice, Emmet A., Hutchinson, John L., and Lee, Mabel A. (eds.).
A Brief History of Physical Education. New York:
The Ronald Press Company, 1958.

 

 

Rogers, Agnes. Women are Here to Stay. New York: Harper
and Brothers, 1949.

 

Rogers, Agnes, and Allen, Frederick Lewis. I Remember
Distinctly. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1947.

 

 

Rudofsky, Bernard. Are Clothes Modern. Chicago: Paul
Theobold, 1947.

 

Sann, Paul. The Lawless Decade. New York: Crown Publishers
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Schwendener, Norma. A History of Phypical Education in the
United States. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company,
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Seldes, George. One Thousand Americans. New York: Boni and
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Smutz, Robert W. Women and Work in America. New York:
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Soule, George. Time for Living. New York: The Viking Press,
1955.

 

Sumner, William G. Folkways. Boston: Ginn and Company,
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197

Sumpton, Dorothy. Sports for Women. New York: Prentice-
Hall Incorporated, 1940.

 

Temperley, Harold. Research and Modern History. London:
Macmillan and Company, 1930.

Train, Arthur. The Story of Everyday Things. New York:
Harper and Brothers, 1941.

Veblen, Thorstein. The Theory of the Leisure Class. New
York: Random House, 1931.

Vincent, John Martin. Aids to Historical Research. New York:
D. Appleton—Century Company, 1934.

. Historical Research. New York: Henry Holt and
Company, 1911.

 

Walker, Stanley. The Night Club Era. New York: Blue Ribbon
Books Incorporated, 1933.

 

Wallis, Dorothy L. The Jantzen Story. New York: Fairchild
Publishers Incorporated, 1959.

 

Weaver, Robert B. Amusements and Sports in American Life.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939.

Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. Massachusetts: G. and C.
Merriam Company, 1946.

 

Wendt, Lloyd, and Kogan, Herman. Give the Lady What She Wants.
Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1952.

Wilson, Carrie. Fashions Since Their Debut. Scranton:
International Textbook Company, 1945.

 

Wingate, Isabel B. Textile Fabrics and Their Selection.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice—Hall, 1955.

 

Wish, Harvey. Contemporary America. New York: Harper and
Brothers, 1945.

 

. Society and Thought in Modern America. New York:
Longmans Green and Company, 1952.

 

Women's Wear Daily. Fifty_Years of Fashion. New York:
Fairchild Publishers Incorporated, 1950.

 

Woody, Thomas. Educational Views of Benjamin Franklin. New
York: McGraw—Hill Book Company Incorporated, 1931.

 

Young, Kimball. Social Psychology. New York: F. S. Crofts
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198

Young, Kimball. Source Book for Social Psychology. New York:
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Articles and Periodicals

 

."

Allen, Frances Anne. "Fig Leaves, American Mercury, No. 13

(January, 1928), pp. 59-66.

 

Austin, Mary. ”Woman and Her War Loot," Sunset, No. 42
(February, 1919), pp. 13-16.

. "Women's Clubs Today and Tomorrow," Ladies Home
Journal, No. 38 (June, 1921),pp. 27, 172, 175.

 

Banks, Barbara. ‘"Ladies in Wading," Colliers, No. 121
(January 10, 1948), pp. 44—45.
Barbour, V. '"Ladies of Labor and Leisure,"

Unpopular Review,
No. 11 (April, 1919), pp. 294-301.

 

‘"Bathing Suit Regulations of 1917;" American City, NO- 61
(August, 1946), p. 137.

'"Bathing Suits,“ Life, No. 22 (June 23. 1947). pp. 68-74-

 

‘"Bathing Suits, 1917-1945." Life. NO- 19 (June 9: 1945),
pp 0 55-58 0

'"Bathing Suiusand Bathing Beach Regulations," American City,
No. 28 (June, 1923), pp. 569—570.

 

“Bathing Suits Follow Land Styles," Delineator, No. 94
(June, 1919), p. 93-

 

Bayles, James C. "Courage in Dress,“ Independent, No. 70
«(May 11. 1911). pp. 956-957.

Belmont, Mrs. O. H. P. ”Women as Dictators, Ladies Home
Journal, No. 39 (September, 1922), pp. 7, 44,

 

.H

 

.fl

Bigelow, William Frederick. ‘"Women are People, Good House-

keeping, No. 105 (October, 1937), p. 4.

 

Blair, Emily Newell. '"Where are we Women Going?," Ladies
Home Journal, No. 36 (March, 1919), p. 37.

 

Bonney, Mrs. W. L. “Women and the Wage System,"

Arena, No.

26 (August, 1901), pp. 172-177.

Brown, Cecil. "What's Going to Happen to Our Women Workersg“
Good Housekeeping, No. 117 (December, 1943), p. 42.

 

199

'"But Don't Go Near the Water," Woman‘s Home Companion, No.
46 (June, 1920). p- 84-

 

Campbell, Helen. “Working Women of Today," Arena, No. 4
(August. 1891), pp. 329—339. "““

Carpenter, Niles. '"Courtship Practices and Contemporary
Social Change in America," Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, No. 160
(March, 1932). pp. 38-44.

 

Catt, Carrie Chapman. '"Too Many Rights," Ladies Home Journal,
No. 39 (November, 1922), pp. 31, 168.

 

Chicago Sunday Tribune. August 23, 1959, Part 6, p. 4.

Collins, Frederick L. '"The New Woman: What She Wanted and
What She Got,“ Woman's Home Companion, No. 56 (June,
1919), p. 12.

"Conservation Rules the Waves; In Color Bathing Suits are
Conservative," Good Housekeeping, N0. 67 (July,
1918), p. 87.

“Costumes for Seafaring Maids," Delineator, No. 104 (June.
1924), p. 40.

 

“Costumes Worn by Bette Davis in the New George Arliss
Picture 'The Working Man'," Delineator, No. 122
June, 1933): p. 63‘

 

Cox, Lenore Hanna. '"The Value of the Woman of Leisure "
Journal of Home Economics, No. 8 (August, 1916),
pp 0 407-413 0

Currie, Barton W. "To Save Prohibition--It's Your Job,"
Ladies Home Journal, No. 38 (January, 1921), p. 28.

. '"Soft Morals," Ladies Home Journal, No. 40 (March,
1923). pp. 32. 154..

. ”When Women Earn Money," Ladies Home Journal, No.
38 (July, 1921), p. 20.

Daggett, Mabel Potter. '"The New Chapter in Woman's Progress,"
Good Housekeeping, No. 56 (February, 1913), p. 149.

. ”Wanted: Women Voters to Vote," Good Housekeeping,
N0. 79 (July, 1924). pp. 40-41, 183—187.

 

Dauncey, Enid C. ‘"The Function of Fashion," Living Age, Vol.
269 (1911). pp. 790-794.

 

2OO

Davenport, Eugene. '"You Can Change the World," Ladies Home
Journal, No. 39 (January, 1922), pp. 23, 129.

 

H

'"Diverting Beach Days in Divers Colorful Ways, Ladies Home

Journal, No. 48 (June, 1931), pp. 10-11.

 

Dix, Dorothy. '"The Girl of Today," Good Housekeeping, No. 62
(March, 1916), pp. 288-291.

 

Dunlap, Knight. '"The Development and Function of Clothing"
Journal of General Psychology, No. l (1928), pp.
64978.

 

Eastwood, Floyd. '"Playing in the Water," Recreation, No. 27
(July. 1933). pp. 169-171.

"Evolution of the Bathing Suit," Chicago Sunday Tribune,
Magazine Section, June 8, 1952, pp. IO—lI.

 

 

"Fashion and Medicine," M2, V01. 2, NO- 9 (September, 1958):
pp. 72-800

Feld, Rose C. "Yes, M Darling Daughter," Collier's, N0. 79
(June 25, 1927 , p. 11.

 

"Formal Swim Suits," Life, No. 24 (June 7. 1948): Pp- 155‘
156.

"Frostbite Medicine,“ Collier's, No. 125 (February 4, 1950).
p. 8.

 

Furnas, J. C. "Woman Power," Ladies Home Journal, No. 59
(November, 1942), pp. 20-21.

 

George, W. L. '"IS There a Change in Morals?," Good House—
keepin , No. 76 (February, 1923), pp, 78, 145, 147.

 

. "Women and Laborfi"

(April. 1919). pp.

Godey's Lady's Book, Vol. 57 (August, 1858), p. 123.

 

Good Housekeeping, No. 68
2-43. ,

 

Godey's Lady's Book, Vol. 66 (July, 1868), n. p.

 

Harper, Ida Husted. "The Woman Suffrage Movement " Harper's
Bazaar, No. 44 (March, 1910), p. 178. ’

Hurt, Helen Harrison. "Woman's Changing Role," Journal of
Home Economics, No. 40 (May, 1948), p. 263.

 

 

Kellerman, Annette. "Why and How Girls Should Swim," Ladies
Home Journal, No.27 (August, 1910), p. 11.

 

201

Kelley, Florence. '"Leisure by Statute for Women," The Woman
Citizen, No. 8 (May 17, 1924), pp. 16-17.

 

KOUGS, Helen (ed.). '"Fashion-Conservation Rules the Waves,"
Good Housekeeping, No. 67 (July, 1918), p. 87.

 

Koues, Helen. "Fashions: Sports Clothes," Good Housekeeping,
No. 84 (April, 1927), pp. l8—l9.

 

Knobe, Bertha Damaris. '"Chicago's Women‘s Athletic Club,"
Harper's Bazaar, No. 39 (June, 1905), pp, 538-546.

 

Ladova, Rosalee M. ‘"About Bathing Suits," Harper's Weekly,
No. 58 (September 13, 1913), p. ll.

 

Lape, Ester Everett. '"What do Women Want With the Vote,"
Ladies Home Journal, No. 37 (March, 1920), pp, 39,
91-92) 940

Larkin, Aimee. "Just for Sport," Collier‘s, No. 85 (June 28,
1930)) po 30.

1e Galliene, Richard. '"Human Need of Coney Island,"
Cosmopolitan, No. 39 (1905), pp. 237-245.

 

 

 

Longfellow, Commodore W. E. "Women Life-Savers, Ladies Home

Journal, No. 37 (November, 1920), p. 45.

 

Mead, Margaret. "What Women Want," Fortune, No. 34 (December,
1946), p. 6. "”‘

Moore, Carl. '"Splashl," Collier's, No. 51 (August 23, 1913),
p. 27.

Morrissey, Elizabeth. "The Status of Women," Vital Speeches,
No. 15 (November 1, 1948), pp. 55-60.

 

 

Morrisson, Mary Foulke. ‘"Votes for Women " Woman's Home
Companion, No. 67 (November, 19403, p. 8.

 

 

"New Freedom to Bask in the Sun," Literary Digest, No. 122
(August 29, 1936), p. 29.

'"New Kind of Waterproof Fabric," Scientific American Supple—
ment, No. 57 (January 30, 1904), pp. 23471F23472.

 

 

Paine, Albert Bigelow. '"The New Coney Island," Century, No.
68 (August, 1904), p. 529. ‘“““"‘

Park, Maud Wood. "Why is the League of Women Voters?," Good
Housekeeping, No. 76 (Mardh 1923), pp. 205-207.

202

Patten, Simon N. '"The Standardization of Family Life,"
Annals of the American Academy_of Political and
Social Science, No. 487(July, 1913), pp. 81-90.

 

 

Penfield, E. Hean Nelson. '"The 20th Amendment," Ladies
Home Journal, No. 38 (January, 1921), pp. 30, 102,
105.

 

Pinchot, Gifford. "The Influence of Women in Politics,"
Ladies Home Journal, No. 39 (September, 1922), p. 12.

 

Pringle, Henry F. "What do the Women of America Think About
the Double Standard?;" Ladies Home Journal, No. 55
(November, 1938), pp. 22—23.

 

Ralph, Julian. '"At Trouville‘" Harper's Weekly, No. 34
(November, 1890), p. 850.

 

Ray, Marie Beynor. ‘"The Sporting Thing," Collier's, No. 89
(January 30, 1932), p. 28.

 

"Ready—mades for Your Vacation," woman's Home Companion,
No. 48f(June, 1922), p. 64.

 

'"Recent Achievements of Women," World's Work, No. 6 (August,
1903). p. 335.

Richardson, Anna Steese. '"Leisure for Women," Woman's Home
Companion, No. 57 (October, 1930), p. 22.

 

 

 

Riggen, Aileen. '"In the Swim," Collier‘s, No. 87 (May 9,
1931), p. 16. '

"Rights for Women," Newsweek, No. 28 (July 29, 1946), p. 17.

 

Rinehart, Mary Roberta. ‘"A Home or a Career," Ladies Home

gggzggl, No. 38 (April, 1921), pp. 25. 54-54.

 

Robin, Toni. ‘"A Fine Figure of a Woman," Holiday, No. 5
(June. 1949), pp. 106-112. '““““

Russell, Frances E. '"American Dress Reform Movements of the
Past, with View of Representative Women," Arena, No.
6 (AuEUSt: 1892): Pp. 325"339.

. ‘"Freedom in Dress for Woman,

1893), Pp. 70-77.

. "Woman's Dress," Arena, No. 3 (February, 1891),

pp. 352-360.

Sanborn, H. C. '"The Function of Clothing and Bodily Adorn-
ment," American Journal of Psychology, No. 38 (1927),
pp. 1-20.

'" Arena, No. 8 (June,

 

203

Sargent, Dudley A. '"Are Athletics Making Girls Masculine?,"
Ladies Home Journal, No. 29 (March, 1912), p. 11.

 

Seldes, Gilbert. ‘"Dress and Undress," Mentor, No. 17 (Nov-
ember, 1929), pp. 15, 56, 60.

Skinner, Josephine. '"Postwar Employment of Women," Indepen-
dent Woman, No. 23 (September, 1944), p. 278.

 

'"The Art of Social Bathing," Spectator, No. 73 (August 11,
1894) J pp 0 172-173 0

 

'"The Origin of Sea-Bathing," American Review of Reviews,
No. 74 (October, 1926), pp. 439-440.

 

."

‘"The Present Status of Woman Suffrage, Harper's Weekly,
No. 51 (October 5, 1907), p. 1443.

 

'"The Sea Shore Girl," Woman's Home Companion, No. 37 (JU1Y:
1910), p. 54.

 

'"The Telescope on Next to Nothing," ESQuire, November, 1958:

'"Ten Years of Woman," Collier's, No. 85 (May 17; 1930): P- 9".

 

'"The Textile Industry in the United StateS'" Current
Literature, No. 33 (November, 19025, p. 548.

Thompson, Dorothy. '"The New Woman in the New America,"
Ladies Home Journal, No. 62 (January, 1945), p. 6.

"The Trouble With the Bikini," Life, No. 27 (September 12,
1949), pp. 65-66. ‘

"You are Sure to Look Well in These Bathing Suits," Ladies
Home Journal, No. 38 (June, 1921), pp. 48-5CT‘““‘

"Vacation Clothes Ready Made," Woman's Home Companion, No. 46
(June, 1920), p. 86.

Vogue, 108 (1946); 109 (1947); 110 (1947); 111 (1948); 115
“‘“- (1950); 117 (1951); 127 (1956).

West, Susan F. '"The Education of Women for Leisure," Journal
of Home Economics, No. 19 (September, 1927), pp. 491-
495-

"What is the Truth About Woman Suffrage?," Ladies Home
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'"Where to Go," Good Housekeeping, No. 52 (June, 1911), pp.
749-754-

 

204

Wills, Helen. '"Emancipated Legs Mean Better Sports," Ladies
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"Women as Teachers," Educational Review II, 1891, n. p.

 

"Women of Leisure,"

633.
"Women Who Work," Independent, No. 82 (April 19, 1915): p. 95.

Century, No. 60 (August, 1900), pp. 632-

 

‘"Yes, My Daring Daughter: Styles 1870-1944-" Saturda
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Government Publications

 

Hill, Joseph A. Women in Gainful Occupations 1870-1920.
Department of Commerce, Census Monographs IX.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1929.

 

U. S. Department of Commerce. Population—1950. Bureau of
Census. Washington: Government Printing Office,

1951.

U. S. Office of Education. Bienniel Survey, 1951—1952.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954,
Chapter 5.

 

 

U. S. Department of Labor. Women Who Work. Bulletin of the
Women's Bureau, No. 161. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1939.

 

U. S. Department of Labor. Working Women in Large Cities,
Fourth Annual Report. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1889.

 

U. S. Department of Labor. The Status of Women in the United
States—1953. Women's Bureau Bulletin, 249. Washing-
ton: Government Printing Office, 1953.

 

 

Zeisel, Joseph S. The Workweek in American Industry, from
the Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 81, No. 1 (January,
1958), pp. 23-29. Courtesy: U. S. Department of
Labor, Washington, D. C.

 

 

Miscellaneous

 

Women Workers and Labor Supply. National Industrial Confer-
ence Board Studies No. 220. National Industrial
Conference Board, February, 1936, New York, New York.
[Pamphlet]

 

205

Sears, Roebuck and Company Catalogs. Copyright by Sears,
Roebuck and Company, Chicago, Illinois.
Vols. 112 (1904); 114 (1905); 116 (1906); 118 (1908);
119 (1909); 122 (1911); 124 (1912); 126 $1913); 128
(1914); 130 (1915); 134 (1917); 136 (191 )3 138 (1919);
140 (1920); 142 (1921); 144 (1922); 146 (1923); 148
(1924); 150 (1925); 152 (1926); 154 (1927); 156 (1928);
160 (1930); 164 (1932); 168 51934); 170 (1935g; 172
(1936); 174 (1937); 176 (193 )s 1 8 (1939); 1 O (1940);
182 (1941); 184 (1942); 186 (1943 ; 188 (1944); 190
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Unpublished Materials

 

Brew, Margaret L. ‘"American Clothing Consumption, 1879-1909."
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Sobotka, Walter. "The PrinCiples of Design." Pittsburgh:
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'"Textile Developments;" Unpublished manual prepared by
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Oregon: Department of Clothing, Textiles and Related
Arts, School of Home Economics, Oregon State College,
Summer, 1947. (Mimeographed.)

i
J

. .-.me"1“1“‘ 196m

 

 

‘W‘Nam- ”Qua". '3‘ '-