x 3'?qu 0? “ma RELATBNSHW a? magma 'E‘EMPEEA‘MRfi mm mm m “ma AWEENOQN mg? a? cama‘am 3?: {ma iéiCiiiGAi‘é 3mm COLLEGE. NURSERY scam; Them fer iha Beg?“ m’ iii. .3 MIGHEGAN ETATE GQLLEQE ? ' 7 fl : ’ "' P‘ ”v ' «' s ."‘ ‘ '° ’ fr! if flags: gulmaaein wmpmn Ill)!INHIHHIII“I”INN“!H"HIM!!!”IIUNHIIHHHI mass ‘ 1 193 01793 2159 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF HUMIDITY: TEMPERATURE, AND LIGHT TO THE AFTERNOON SLEEP OF THE CHILDREN IN THE MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE NURSERY SCHOOL presented by Helen Elizabeth Campbell has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _M____. s. _deg,ee in Child Development Shufid;q_\flnuwmeuw~ major professor Date—WI M-795 "' .c‘ ' - 3 . 7- nfi-fir‘ ., . if” .‘a —. _. .,. -, #‘JEnQLK-G'v‘. 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O A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF HUMIDITY, TEMPIEMIURE, AND LIGHT TO THE AFTERNOON - SLEEP OF CHILDREN IN THE MIGHIGAN'STATE COLLEGE NURSERY SCHOOL ***$*#***¥**$* ***¥****** ****** t¥ By Helen Elizabeth Campbell A.THESIS Suhmitted to the Greduete School of Michigan State College of Agriculture end Applied Science in pertiel fulfilment of the requiremente for the degree or MASTER.QF SCIENCE Department or Heme unneeenent end Child Development Division of Home Eoonqnioe June 1947 THESIS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The writer wishes to express her sincere appreciation to Miss Shirley Neesom for her never failing interest throughout this study, and for her assistance and criticisms during the preparation or this thesis. 14.];ng commas cgéggss I. INTRODUCTION.................................... II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE........................ General Findings Findings on Total Sleep............... Duration of the Afternoon Nap......... Presleep for the Afternoon Nap........ Presleep at Night..................... factors Influencing Sleep Individual Sleep Patterns a. Age as a Factor in Presleep..... b. Sex Differences in Children's SIGOPOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO c. The Relationship of Total Sleep to Intelligence...... d. Postural Habits During Sleep.... variations in the Daily Routine Which Influence Sleep a. Relationships of Night Sleep to Day SIOOp............uo b. Influence of Play Activities.... c. The Effect of Food Eaten Before Sleep............... lhrironmsntal Factors Influencing Sleep a. Number of Children in the Room.. b. Temperature, Humidity and Seasonal Variations........ ’d oasis N oqab 10 ll 18 13 14 14 15 16 17 CfiéggER §AQ§_ III. PROCEDURE Description of the Nap Situation.......... 20 Preparation for the Nap................... 21 Preliminary Study......................... 21 Record Keeping............................ 25 Statistical Method........................ 24 IV. RESULTS OF THE STUDY V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX LIST OF TAHLES “EARL! 1L” I. Afternoon Sleep in.Minutes..................... 7 (A.summsry of the other studies) II. Afternoon Sleep in Minutee..................... 8 (A summary of the other studies) III. Initial Analysis of variance................... 25 IV. Analysis of Covariance (Formulae).............. 86 V. Presleep Averages for Each Day of the weakOO00.000.000.000...OOOOOOOOOOCCOOOOOCO 28 VI. Afternoon Sleep Averages for Each Day or the WOQkOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0 31 VII. Sleep Averages for Each Child.................. 31 VIII. Summary of the Analysis of variance and covarianOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 35’ CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION When young children stay at a nursery school or child care center for a longer period of time than two or three hours, it is necessary to plan facilities for sleeping. very few nursery schools have space enough to provide each child with a separate room for sleeping, therefore. most of them.arrange for a group nap situation. nursery school naps tend to be shorter than naps at home, according to Foster (9), although some children revive the nap habit which has been dropped at home. Authorities advise that fresh air, cool temperature, and comparative quiet are important factors in putting children to sleep. For example, Rose Alschuler (1, page 67) tells us that: “Shades should be drawn so that light is .subdued. Good ventilation without draft is important..... The temperature of the sleeping room should be between fifty and sixty degrees. Individual cots should be placed sufficiently far apart so that one child cannot touch the bed of another. Light but werm.blankets are desirable." In.most nursery schools, the actual practice varies considerably from.the suggested measures. Same rooms for sleeping are difficult to darken satisfactorily. These schools using canvas cots find it necessary to maintain a higher temperature than that advised. In many cases the space is too lumited to place the cots the desired distance apart and therefore screens are used between the cots to reduce the social and visual influences. Canvas cots, be- cause of ease of storage, are used in nursery schools that have to use the nap room for other purposes, but some have small beds with mattresses. With many factors influencing group naps, it is very difficult to determine which ones are important in giving Optimum.conditions for sleep. Previous studies give inform- ation as to positions and motility during sleep, the influ- ences of group nap versus sleeping in rooms alone, the effect of food on sleep, and age in relation to sleep duration. It is the purpose of this study to investigate the relation- ship of temperature, humidity and light in the sleeping room to the duration of presleepl. and afternoon nap of young children. 1. Throughout this study the tens 'presleep' refers to the interval elapsing from.the time the child gets into bed until he falls asleep. CHAPTER I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE General Findings Children's sleep has long been an object of concern among parents, pediatricians, and authorities on child care. Since it is such an important factor in the health and.well- being of an individual, a number of studies have been.made to investigate the function of children's sleep and the factors involved. For many years authorities have been advancing theories on the various aspects of children's sleep, but it has been only during the last twenty-five years that careful studies have been.made of the sleep of preschool children in order to check the validity of these recommendations. Several methods of investigation have been used, one of which is the analysis of records kept by parents. This method enables investigators to study large numbers of children in their regular sleep situation, but has the disadvantage of possible inaccuracies because of the depend- ence upon untrained observers. Another way of securing data on sleep is by direct observation of children in either of two situations, one being a twenty-four hour child care institution and the other the afternoon nap in nursery schools or child care centers where the children attend during a six to eight hour day. Since group care of nonmal young children in a twenty-four hour institution is decreas- ing, most studies have dealt with the afternoon sleep in nursery schools. While both of these situations permit observation by trained observers and some control of the variables, the number of children that can be studied is limited. There is the advantage of observing children in a group sleeping situation, thus enabling the study of the effects of the children upon each other. The findings of studies on this aspect would be of little value to parents but are of real interest to nursery school teachers who conduct group naps. Some phases of children's sleep that have been studied include the duration of sleep (both day and night); length of presleep; factors affecting sleep such as age of the children, sex differences, intelligence, routine habits of the children, and such environmental influences as the number of children in the room, teachers in charge, temperature, humidity and light, all of which.msy affect sleep in varying degrees. A.large number of studies have been.made of these various factors, but conclusive information about some of them.is yet to be obtained. Findings on Total Sleep A.number of early studies have compared the recommend- ations of authorities regarding the amount of sleep needed by children at various age levels with the amount actually taken by them. Quoting authorities at the time of their study (1928), Anderson, Foster and Goodenough (2 p.802) said: ‘ "Between the ages of two and three, various .standards given are: fourteen hours (McCarthy), fourteen (Reed), twelve (Lucas),.......... Between the ages of three and four McCarthy recommends thirteen hours, Lucas twelve, Reed fourteen. Between the ages of four and five the standards given are: twelve to thirteen hours at night and half an hour to one hour in the daytime (McCarthy), eleven hours (Lucas), and thirteen hours (Reed)." "It appears obvious that the mother who desires -to rear her child according to scientific methods will find it very difficult to resolve these conflicting standards into any sort of useful guide." Langdon (13), writing in 1931, said that a child from two to three years of age should have fourteen to sixteen hours of sleep out of twenty-four, and a child three to five years of age needs between 11 to 14 hours of sleep. An early study done by Ravenhill (1908) which might have been available to these authorities would have in- fluenced their conclusions. This study, quoted by Kleitman (12). was done in England and involved 6,000 children from three to thirteen years of age. It was found that the average sleep for three to five year' olds was about eleven hours which is less than the findings of some more recent studi es. Erwin (7), whose study was published in 1934 analysed records kept by parents and found the daily sleep average of two to five year olds to be 12 hours and six minutes. Reynolds and Mallay (17), studying the children whose mothers were attending the Euthenics Institute at vassar, found that two to five year olds slept about eleven hours and thirty-six minutes. In this study, observers recorded day sleep and the mothers kept records of the night sleep in the dormitories where they slept with their children. The findings from all of these studies showed on the average that children were not receiving the amount of sleep that ’ was recommended for them by the early authorities. At the present time studies have changed the cpinions of authorities and recommendations are more in keeping with the amounts of sleep actually taken by children. Duration of the Afternoon Nap Quite a number of studies have investigated the length of the afternoon nap in nursery schools. A.variation of almost a full hour within one age grouping is seen when examining the data reported by the different authors. A summary of these findings is given in Table I. Probably many factors caused the differences in these figures, one of which may have been the routine schedule in the nursery schools where some of the children may have been wakened to go home, thus limiting the total afternoon sleep picture. Table I AFTERNOON SLEEP IN MINUTES (Ranked in order of duration) W or AGT’” moxcggm _ CHILDREN 2 - 5 g}; - 5 g - §i Shinn (Honolulu) 79 . 52.7 Chant .na Blats 13 65.0 Shinn (Vhssar) 27 72.27 Dales 128 75.3 Scott 27 73.5 Reynolds 77 74.3 Beckmnn 18 74.4 Staples 30 75.8 Boynton and 56 79 Goodenough Sherman 22 89.0 Iagner 30 97.6 {lemming 78 114.9 Presleep for the Aftennoon Nap Most studies of the afternoon sleep of children included a record of the length of time required to go to sleep. The data reported by these investigators varies in a range of about fifteen.minutes which is reasonable considering the differences in the conditions under which these studies were done. A.summary of these findings is given in Table II. In Reynold's study (16) it was found that all of the children required more time to go to sleep than the twenty minute time limit set by the authorities of that time. The fallacy of this time limit is easily seen upon examining the figures quoted in the studies, all of which exceed the twenty minute time limit in their averages. Thble II AFTERNOON PRESLEEP IN MINUTES (Ranked in order of Duration) W INVESTIGATOR CHILDREN :3 - 5 it - g Wagner 30 24.14 Staples 30 29.6 Beokman 18 29.6 Shinn (Honolulu) 79 31.0 Reynolds 77 33.0 Boynton and 56 34.8 Goodenough Shinn (Vhssar) 27 36.8 Scott 27 38.2 Scott (18), studying the afternoon sleeping habits of twenty seven children at Vassar College Nursery School, found no significant relationship between presleep and length of nap. This is in agreement with the findings of Beckman (3) and Chant and Blats (5). Presleep at Night A few studies have considered the presleep time at night. In general the results indicated that most children take longer to go to sleep at night than.they do in the afternoon. The night presleep of Reynold's (16) two to fiveryear olds averaged one hour as compared to the half- hour presleep at nap. Shinn(20) reported a range of presleep at night of 25 to 75 minutes at Vassar, and 5 to 25 at Honolulu as compared with nap figures of 25 to 45 and 15 to 45 respectively. Wagner recorded presleep at night to be 43.9 minutes to 118.6 minutes as compared with 30 minutes in the afternoon. Factors Influencing Slegp Among the many factors believed to be directly related to the sleep of children that have been studied are the individual factors such as age, sex, intelligence, and habits of the child. Another group of factors thought to be influ- ences on sleep are the daily routines, for example, the amount and kind of food eaten, the length ofsleep at night as well as in the daytime, and the type or activity in which the child engages. Then, too, sane environmental factors which may enter in are the number of children in the nap room, or the atmos- pheric conditions such as temperature, humidity and light. -10- Studies have been done on.most of these factors and the findings are conclusive in varying degrees. Individual Sleep Patterns Research on sleep reveals that most children have a regular sleep pattern though it may be recognizable only over a period of several days. Giddings (ll), studying older children between the ages of nine and fourteen, found that children have a definite sleep pattern rarely disturbed except through illness. Reynolds (16) reported that the amount ofsleep taken by preschool children varies considerably from.day to day, but there is a fairly constant average over several weeks' tune. "The data pointed to the conclusion that over .a longer period of time than 24 hours, most of the children maintained an acceptable consistency in the amount of sleep the took.. Daily fluctuations (in amount of sleep were great, but weekly, biweekly, and triweekly averages were in close agreement.” (l6,p.349) e as facto i res e and s e . Practically all investigators have noted a change in the amount of sleep taken by children as they grow older. The studies by Anderson, Foster and Goodenough (2), Dales (6), Erwin (7), Chant and Blatz (5) and others concluded that the total sleep actually taken by children decreases with advancing age. The decrease in the amount of sleep from thirteen or fourteen hours in the second year to twelve in the fifth -11- year is due mainly to the shortening, and later abandonment of the afternoon nap, according to Anderson, Foster, and Goodenough (2). Reynolds and Mallay (17) said the results of their study indicate that both night sleep and nap were responsible for the decrease in total sleep, not merely the nap alone. Chant and Blatz (5) and Flemming (quoted by Kleitman - 12) noted that afternoon naps decrease to one hour and then drOp out on the all or none principle as the age of the child increased. The studies of Shinn (20) and that of Reynolds and.Mallay (17) are in agreement with these findings. There have been very few studies done of presleep as it is influenced by age. Dales (6), studying afternoon sleep, reported that there is an increase in presleep as age increases. White (25), who studied presleep at night, found that two~to three~year olds required an average of twenty-seven minutes to go to sleep and that three to four year olds went to sleep, on the average, within twenty minutes. Shinn (20) concluded from her findings that the mean time to go to sleep at nap does not show any tendency to increase or decrease during the preschool period. Sex diggerences in children's sleep. It has long been felt that there are sex differences in the sleep habits of young children, but results of studies on this point are not conclusive. Garvey's (10) study of children in the University of Minnesota Nursery School showed that boys went to sleep more promptly and slept more quietly than girls. McCoy and Fowler (14) found no sex differences in the time to go to sleep, but did find that girls slept longer than boys. Scott (18) also found no marked dif- ferences between boys and girls in the time they required to go to sleep. Anderson, Foster and Goodenough (2), Chant and Blats (5), and Flemming (quoted by Kleitman - 12) found very slight sex differences at the preschool age level. Erwin (7) also found slight sex differences showing a ten- dency toward longer sleep for girls. The relatignship of total gleep to intelligence. Ac- cording to White (25) preschool children with higher intelli- gence quotients slept less than children with lower I.Q.s. Shinn's (20) study of the two groups of children of the same age, 30 at Vassar College and 136 in Honolulu, showed that the vassar children slept less, and their mental age was higher. She felt that the higher intelligence may have been a factor in the shorter sleep. Wagner (24) found a negative correlation between mental age and total sleep, which she felt indicated that the decrease in the amount of sleep as the child grows older depends more upon the increase in.menta1 age than upon the increase in chronological age. Kleitman (12) says that a negative correlation between intelligence quotient and total sleep is not true of older children. Postural habits during sleep. Some work.has been done on the study of postural habits of children.while sleeping. Beckman's (3) findings agreed with Boynton and Goodenough (2). They found that children whose positions during presleep were most uniform tended to go to sleep more quickly. Kleitmen (12) stated that young children are less completely relaxed while asleep than older children, but did not give any age range to clarify the limits of his statement. Sherman (19) reported that an habitual thumb- sucker cannot go to sleep unless his thumb is in his mouth. variations in the Daily Routine Which Influence Sleep Most persons feel that the quantity and quality of their sleep is directly influenced by their activities during their waking hours. Many of these influencing factors are not known, but among those recognized are the effects of routine habits. Children as well as adults respond differently when their routine is disrupted by changes in.meal time or place, and in bed time or place. Relatively few attempts have been.made to study these influences on the sleep of preschool children. Findings per- taining to these variables in relation to sleep are reported in the following paragraphs. Reygtionship of night sleep to day sleep. Few investigators have had the advantage of a twenty-four hour nursery school situation in which to study the night sleep in relation to the day sleep of children. Among those who did, Wagner (24) found that in the majority of cases there was a tendency for a longer nap to be followed by a shorter night sleep, or the shorter afternoon sleep to be followed by a longer night sleep. Erwin (7), using records made by parents, said that children who slept relatively long in the daytime, slept relatively long at night. Chant and Blatz (5) are of the cpinion that the afternoon nap reinforces the night sleep in early years of life, but later interferes with it. Anderson, Foster and Godienough (2), reported a slight neg- ative correlation between the length of the nap and the amount of night sleep taken by two to five year olds. Below two years the correlation was zero. Anderson, Foster, and Goodenough (2, page 214) say: ".....the slight tendency toward longer night Asleep in the case of children who sleep little during the day is not sufficiently marked to compensate for the loss of the day nap. In practically every instance there is a regular falling off in the total.amount of sleep with decrease in the amount of sleep during the day! The influence of play activities. How much does the variation and amount of the day's activities affect the '15- tctal sleep pattern? Several investigators have studied the influence of outdoor activities on the length of the afternoon nap of preschool children. According to Sherman (19) there was no marked influence of the intensity of outdoor play on the amount or character of the nap. After indoor play, however, the children went to sleep more quick- ly and slept longer than after outdoor play. According to this study a direct relationship between the length of the presleep period and the intensity of the morning activity appeared. That is, the less the degree of activity the more quickly the child fell asleep. Staples (22) found little or no relationship between outdoor play and nap. The effect of fopd eaten begore sleep. The effect of food eaten on the sleep of children is rather difficult to measure. Staples (22), using calories consumed during the meal in relation to sleep, found that there was little if any interrelationship between the noon meal and the nap or presleep time. -Giddings (11) reports in his study of older children that a heavy night meal produced restlessness in the night sleep, and that warm milk taken at bed time re- sulted in quiet sleep. Also, a beverage containing three- fifths of a grain of caffiene taken at bedtime caused no more restlessness than did orange Juice. '16- Enzlropmental Facpprs Influencing Sleep There are very few studies on the environmental factors which influence the sleep of children. The one upon which most study has been done is the effect of the number of children in the naproom on the sleep and the number of naps taken. Another group of influences which have been studied are the atmospheric variables which are rather hard to measure and control.' Numbeg of chlldrep in the gppp, A considerable number of studies have been done on the influence of the number of children in the sleeping room, Reynolds and Mallay (17) found that it required nursery school children about the same length of time to fall asleep in a group nap as when they slept in rooms by themselves; and that more naps were taken when there were several children in the same room. However, the mean length of nap was greater when a child slept in a room by himself. Among younger children, the optimum.situation for sleep is in a room.with other children according to Erwin's (7) findings. Dales (6) recorded that whether children slept in a room with others or alone had little or no effect on the afternoon sleep. It is believed by the writer that the fact of adult supervision in the map, together with the type of rapport maintained by the teacher in charge of the nap room, have considerable influence when children sleep in a group and -17- may account for the variation in these findings. Staples (22, p.227) states that: "The particular adult in charge of the children during the afternoon nap may influence both the length of time re- quired by the children to go to sleep and the number of naps missed." Temperatppe, humidlty ppd seasongl_yariatipns. Rel- atively few studies have considered temperature and hunr idity in relation to sleep. Garvey (10) studied eight girls and fourteen boys between the ages of two and five years by means of kinetographs which recorded the motility of the children during sleep. The children slept in standardised beds in their own homes. The findings stated that room temperature read at the child's bedtime showed no relationship to the quietness of sleep. Renshaw, Marquis and Miller (15) studied 107 children, ages six to sixteen, at the Ohio Bureau of Juvenile Research. The beds were equipped with hypnographs to record the movements of the children during sleep. Although this study investigated many phases of children's sleep, the ones most pertinent here are the findings on the hourly motility in relation to temperature and humidity. They concluded that even within wide limits, temperature and relative humidity were not important factors in influencing hourly motility. Scott (18) recorded the temperature of the nap room and found little significant relation of temperature to -18- presleep or total nap time. The range of temperature in Scott's study was ee.5° F. to 82.50 F. Boynton (4), studying the nap of nursery school children, found that extremes of room.temperature were unfavorable for the continuity of sleep although the tendency was for longer sleep on cooler days. ' Shinn (21) found that variations in humidity did not influence the sleep of the children she observed. The humidity readings for this study were not made in the nap room, but were the readings taken by the weather bureau in New York City, 72 miles from vassar College where the experiment was conducted. Related to humidity and temperature are the studies done on seasonal variations and their effect on sleep. Dales (6) found little or no influence of seasonal variation on the duration of afternoon sleep. On the other hand, Erwin (7) found that night sleep was longer in fall and winter. At the time of this study the writer was unable to find reports of any studies having been done on the relationship of light intensity in the room to presleep and total sleep either in the afternoon or night sleep or preschool children. - 19 - CHAPTER IlI PROCEDURE The subjects used in this study were the children of the younger group in attendance at the Michigan State College Nursery School during the fall term.of 1946. At the beginning of the period studied, the ages of the six boys ranged from two years three and one-half months to three years seven.months, and the ages of the six girls ranged from.two years ten.months to three years six months. Although none of the studies of the nursery school nap situation previously reviewed gave any clue as to how long a period was allowed for the children in the study to become accustomed to their cots and to the nap routine, Renshaw, Marquis, and Miller (15) in their study of the night sleep of older children stated that five nights were required for the children to adjust to their sleeping con- ditions. The actual recordings of the present study were begun during the fourth week of the nursery school so that these children were well accustomed to the nap procedure. Even those who had been absent for a time had at least ten days in the nursery school nap routine before the actual readings began. The conditions under which this study was made were controlled only to the extent of establishing an optimum -20- sleeping environment in accordance with the recommendations of persons experienced in conducting a group nap situation. The variables of temperature, humidity, and light fluctuat- ed as the weather conditions influenced them. Dcpcrippion of the Nap Situatlpn The room.used for the afternoon nap in the nursery school was a playroom used by the four and five year olds in the morning and adapted for sleeping in the afternoon for the younger children by moving the toys to one corner and surrounding them with screens. Moveable wooden screens were used to separate the cots, which were arranged in a hollow square about the room. The cots consisted of a wooden frame over which a canvas was stretched and held in place by lacings. Each child used the same cot, placed in the same location in the room, every day throughout the study. The blankets used were furnished by the parents, and although they were not uniform for all the children, that used by each child was the same throughout the study. The tan treated-fabric shades in the room were drawn at nap time, admitting a dim.diffused daylight, the inten- sity of which varied according to the weather conditions outside. One-half hour before nap began , the room was sired by cpening the windows. The windows that remained cpen during the nap period had glass screens to direct the air upward into the room, thus preventing drafts on the .children. -21- The personnel in the nap room was the same throughout the study. Occasionally when a child needed Special at- tention an assistant sat near him to help him to relax, but at all other times the experimenter was the only adult in the room. She made readings of the instruments and recorded all of the necessary data with the exception of the time the children awakened on Tuesdays and Thursdays when the exper- imenter had to be absent after two o'clock. Oh those days the assistant recorded the time of the children's awakening. Prepppgtiop for the Nap In preparing for nap the children came upstairs from the dining room and went directly to the bathroom where they went to the toilet, rinsed their hands, and removed their outer clothing down to their undershirts and panties. Shoes and socks were removed and bedroom slippers were worn to the nap room. When ready for bed the children en- tered the nap room.quietly, went to their cots, removed their slippers and were covered by the assistant if they were unable to cover themselves without too much commotion. They came to the nap room as they were ready, and by one o'clock all of them were on their cots. The Ppelimipary Study For one week preceding the study, recordings were made to standardize the technique in handling the instruments. All of the readings were begun at 12:30 and the last readings were made at 2:00 o'clock. The dry bulb thermometer on the sling psychrometer was used for the temperature readings. This reading was taken at the level of the children's heads in the same central location in the roan each day. During the pres liminary study, readings were taken at ten and fifteen min- ute intervals and it was found that in the period of one and one-half hours the temperature did not vary more than two degrees. The average of the records taken at fifteen- minute intervals equaled the averages taken at the tenrmin- ute intervals. Since these preliminary readings varied so little, two temperature readings were made during the actual study, one at 12:30 and one at 2:00 o'clock. If these dif- fered, an average of the two was taken. The humidity readings were made by the use of a sling psychrometer, and the readings were then interpreted for relative humidity from.a Bulkley Psychometric chart. During the preliminary study these readings were taken at 30 minute intervals, rather than more frequently, because the operation of the instrument required considerable movement (it was necessary to whirl it for five minutes to insure accurate reading). Since no variation in relative humidity during the nap period was noted in the week of preliminary recording, only one humidity reading per day was felt to be necessary. 923- This was taken at 1:30 after most of the children were asleep and in a section of the room.screened from view. A Weston Illumination meter model 603 was used to take the reading of the light intensity. The readings were taken with the sensitized plates of the meter turned to the Optimum.source of light, the windows on the south side of the room. The meter was located in the approxi- mate centcr of the room.at about the level of the children's heads. In testing it was found that the light intensity in the different areas of the room varied as much as one foot-candle from one place to another. However, the light intensity in these different areas in the room was relative to the trial at the central location. As the light varied in the central location, the variation in the other areas ias in direct relationship. Care was taken to see that readings were made in the same place every day. In compar- ing the averages of readings made at ten and fifteen minute time intervals a variation of 0.08 foot-candles was noted. Therefore the light meter readings were made at fifteen min- ute intervals throughout the study, and the average of these readings was used as the light reading for the day. Record_Keepipg The time in bed, time asleep and time awake were record- ed daily for each child for a period of 34 days. All of the time records were made to the nearest five minute interval -2‘- because it was impossible to determine the exact minute that a child fell asleep or awakened. The criterion for sleep was the same used by all of the experimenters in previous studies, namely: eyes closed, cessation of body movement, and slow even breathing. Daily records of temperature, humidity and light were made as previously described. Notations of the amount of night sleep, as reported by the mother on the child's daily report from home, amount of outdoor play and weather conditions during the morning activity, any unusual occur- rences during nap or during the day which might have in- fluenced the nap were also recorded each day. Statlstioal Method The statistical method chosen for dealing with the data in this thesis problem.is that of analysis of variance and covariance. The data were recorded on charts (See Appendix A and B) and then sorted by means of evaluating the record according to the factors considered in the notation column on chart B. For example, on some days a child may have had a normal presleep, but this afternoon sleep was interrupted by sudden waking due to coughing, enuresis, loud noise or another uncontrollable factor. Therefore the presleep record was retained but the total sleep record was not retained for that day. Occasionally a child was removed from the room.because he was disturbing the others and then later returned to his cot, thus disrupting his presleep. His afternoon sleep was recorded unless it was felt that the incident disrupted both presleep and afternoon sleep, then both records were discarded. When the data were assembled, the variables of temper- ature, humidity, and light were the y’s and these were cor- related against the x's of presleep and afternoon sleep. In a group nap situation there is seen a considerable difference between individuals in the way in which they respond. This difference between children is a disturbing factor and should be eliminated. To prove the significance of these factors an initial analysis of variance was made of the presleep and afternoon sleep records. Snedecor's (21) F test was used. (See Table III.) TABLE III INITIAL ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Presleep ‘h _i .211. “ zzgfiv .m.s. “ Between Children ll 6,162.92 560.265 Within Children 500 5,555.75 17.845 r - si.ss** _ Total Afternogn Sleep__ V:Q,F. z;g_ M18. Between Children 11 5,892.7 535.7 Within Children _ 299 8,645.7 28.91 r - 18.53** We assume for each child that some relationship exists between sleep and the variable considered. However, individual defferences are so great that the relationship is clouded. Therefore, the analysis of covariance is used to remove the individual differences and obtain the "average" correlation of the group's response to the variable. Table IV shows the interrelationship of the formula used. TABLE IV ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE 2 7C a ny Z Z a 1' A.G ix’ - 21' —é:1Lfiz _(5 :2 ““P z 'n 7 7n Xi fa)“ .31 23; z I ’1 Between gs L_)+.... ,4, 4 51:1,»- C4): .924... 13 Children (g my {2 2.x): -czna use)- L242 “ ’3le Q :41:- in 77/3» in __ Within difference difference difference 3 K’ C Children of of of .a __ abovi above Above 172x ”:7 j First the entire group was correlated, taking each child in relation of one of the variables. This gave 311 readings for the duration of the nap and 510 for presleep after elimin- ating the absences. The formulas in blocks A show the way in which the figures were computed. The next procedure was to compute the variances and covariances due to differences between children, that is, as child one differed from child two and three, etc. These were then subtracted from those of the total group (A - B a C) and the figures which remained represented the average in- dividual's reaction to the variable under consideration. This is known as the variance and covariance "within children” eliminating the effect of individual differences. The correl- ation coefficient was computed by substituting the data in blocks C for r. The significance for the correlation coefficient was interpreted from the table in Snedecor. (21, p.149) -28- CHAPTER LV THE RESULTS OF THE STUDY The findings of this study, the purpose of which was to investigate the interrelationships of presleep and afternoon sleep with temperature, humidity and light, are summarized in the following chapter. In addition to the findings on these interrelationships, there are some interesting comparisons and observations that can be gleaned from the data. The average presleep of the group of actual sleepers during the period of the study was 31.47 minutes, which seems to be in line with the averages of others who studied children's sleep. Although the averages from other studies varied from.24.l4 to 38.2 minutes, all of them, including . the present study, found the twenty minute norm suggested by some writers to be exceeded. See table II, page 8 which gives the summary of the findings of the other studies. Dales' study was the only one which considered presleep in relation to the day of the week. Table V. shows how the results of the present study compare with those of Dales. Table V PRESLEEP AVERAGES FOR EACH DAY OF THE WEEK Present Study Dales Monday 34.32 30.1 Tuesday 31.11 Wednesday 32.67 Thursday 29.43 Frigey_ g9.24 3915 - 39 - The longest presleep fell on Monday which was in keeping with the beliefs of others who feel that it is difficult to get children back into the routine of nursery school after a weekend at home. The fact that Fridays had the shortest presleep also bears out the reasoning that by Friday the children have become as- customed to the routine. It appeared to the writer that most of the children observed in this study had a certain position in which they fell asleep, and it has been her experience that encouraging a child to assume this position after getting into bed promoted his going to sleep in a relatively short time. This observation is in agreement with the findings of Boynton and Goodenough (2). It was also noted that one of the children had such a regular sleep pattern that, -regardless of other influences or variations in environment or routine, he fell asleep regularly within fifteen minutes after getting into bed, and always slept at least sixty minutes. This indicates that sleep pattern may be a defin- ite influence on the sleep of some individuals, outweighing the effect of other variables. The afternoon sleep average for the actual sleepers of the group was 76.03 minutes. Averages given by other investigators vary from 52.7 to 114.9 for two to five year olds. Dales (6), and Beckman (3) whose studies were done under circumstances similar to those of the present study -50- found the average afternoon sleep for their 2% to 3k year olds to be 77.3 and 78.2 respectively. Anderson, Foster and Goodenough (2), and Flemming (quoted in Kleitman - 12) who relied upon parents' records for their data, gave averages, for 2% to 3% year olds, of 109.4 and 131 minutes respectively. These children were sleeping in their own beds at home, had less adjustment to the environment to make than those who slept at nursery school, and thus slept longer. It is believed that the children in this study slept as long as they wanted to except in a very few cases when a child had to be wakened to go home. These children who had been awakened at three o‘clock to go home were usually ones who fell asleep late in the nap period. Thme whose presleep was relatively short usually awakened of their own accord before three o'clock. In comparing the averages of each day of the week there did not seem to be any consistent relationship of length of nap to the day of the week. See Table VI. In this study there did seem to be a tendency toward longer sleep on Thursdays, as is the case in the study of Chant and Blats (5), and that of Scott, all of whom found Fridays to have a lower sleep average than Thursdays. Dales (16) found no significant difference in the duration of the afternoon sleep on.Mondays and Fridays. Chant and Blatz (5) pointed out the importance of individual differences in relation to day to day variation. Table VI AFTERNOON SLEEP AVERAGES (IN’MINUTES) OF EACH DAY OF THE WEEK Present Study Scott Dales Chant and Blatz Mondays 7104‘ 74 74 e4 62 Tuesdays 76.66 75 67 Wednesdays 70.98 75 67 Thursdays 84.43 75 65 Iridays 78.47 73 73.06 64 W Although records of the total night sleep of each child were kept, the data were not considered reliable enough to use because many of the parents recorded the time in bed but failed to observe the time the child fell asleep. In the nap records of the children who made up this group a wide range of individual response was apparent. These individual differences are shown in Table VII. Pre- sleep averages varied from 11.5 to 43.3 minutes, and after- noon sleep averages varied from 58.3 to 95.0 minutes. Table VII ____TH§_§L§E§rAVERAGES OF EACH CHILD RECORDEQrIN MINUTES Average fit. Average Child _Age Presleep Totgl_Nap Eddie E. 3 yr. 7 mo. 31.7 56.7 Sandy S. 3 yr. 6 mo. 39.6 80.1 Rosalind T. 3 yr. 5 mo. 43.3 65.4 Linda D. 3 yr. 3 mo. 33.1 87.7 Kenny G. 3 yr. 3 mo. 42.6 91.6 Teddy P. 3 yr. 1 mo. 40.0 86.6 Beth B. 3 yr. 1 mo. 31.7 68.6 Libby A. 2 yr. 11 mo. 27.0 69.6 Thomas Re 2 yrs 10 mOe 2507 89.3 Julie B. 2 yr. 10 mo. 31.4- 58.3 John C. 2 yr. 5 mo. 40.9 74.4 AlpgpgR. _§fyr. 3 mo. _A gll.5 95.0 The six boys of the group had a shorter presleep and a longer nap than the six girls during the time of’the study, the averages for the boys behng 32.6 minutes pre- sleep and 82.27 minutes nap, and for the girls 34.35 min- utes presleep and 71.6 minutes nap. Scott (18) found no marked sex differences in presleep time. In.MoCay and Fowler's (14) study of night sleep the girls were found to sleep longer than the boys. The figures for the present study can not be considered conclusive as showing a sex difference because the number of children studied was so limuted. The findings indicated a relationship between the length of presleep or duration of nap and some of the variables studied. Table VIII gives a complete summary of these findings. Presleep correlated with temperature gave a coef- ficient of 0.071 which failed to indicate a relationship within the temperature range of 69° to 79° F. ‘When temper~ ature was correlated with afternoon sleep it gave a coef- ficient of 0.027 again showing no relationship. These findings are in agreement with those of Shinn (20), whose temperature range was comparable (66° to 82.5° F. at Vassar, and 74° to 80° F. at Honolulu). Boynton and Goodenough (2) stated that extremely low and extremely high temperature were alike unfavorable for the duration of sleep. The -33- temperature range for their study was 54° to 58° F. During the period.of this study the relative humid- ity in the nap room.ranged from.26 per cent to 60 per cent. The negative correlation of -0.106 found between presleep and relative humidity was not significant, but the tendency which it implies was toward a shorter presleep with in- creasing humidity up to 60 per cent. The correlation for relative humidity and afternoon sleep was 0.219 which was significant at the one per cent levell, indicating that a higher relative humidity (within the range of 26 to 60 per cent) was as conducive to a longer sleep. This finding differs from Shinn (20) who reported that humidity did not seem to influence the amount of total sleep in her study of nursery school naps at Vassar and at Honolulu. The humidity range was 56 to 94 per cent in New'York and 66 to 89 per cent in Honolulu in Shinn's study. Light intensity during the period of the present study varied from.0.1 to 4.4 foot-candles. The correlation coef~ ficients of light in relation to both presleep and nap were significant at the one per cent levelz, that for presleep being 0.180 and for nap duration -O.195.. This indicated 1' Snedecor. G.w., Statistical Mettha, (21) p.149. 2' Loc. cit. that subdued light or dark sleeping rooms encouraged a shorter presleep and a longer total nap, which has been the assumption but has not been reported as being tested in the literature reviewed. From the findings of this study it appeared that variation in temperature, within the usual range for comfort, did not seem to affect the presleep or length of nap of the children. Although the correlations between humidity and nap duration, light and nap duration, and light and presleep were significant,1they were low. This indicated that other factors existed which were probably of greater influence on the sleep duration than those that were studied. Since the amount of sleep taken by young children over the twenty-four hour period is so important to their health and well being, it seems wise to plan the best possible environment for promoting sleep. Therefore, it would seem.desirable to darken the nap room as much as possible, and to maintain a relative humidity as high as 60 per cent, in order to control these two factors which do appear to influence the duration of presleep and nap to some extent. 1' Snedecor, G.w., Statistical Methods, (21) p.149. Table VIII SUMMARY OF THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE AND COVARIANCE Temperature Correlated with Presleep .1. _ p 2: xi zx'v' _ g'z :- Total Group 11,516.67 311.71 2,784.10 .055 Between Children 6,162.92 70.20 29.57 Within Childrgn. 5L353.Z§:; 241.51 2,15 .43 .071 WW 1 a ism' 211' .1; Total Group 14,536.4 63.16 2,735.40 .010 Between Children 5,892.7 -67.80 27.89 Within Children 8,643.7 130.96 2,707.61 .027 Relative Hggggéty Correlated with Preslegp A {4' 2:51 (1' r Total Group 11,516.67 -1,261.63 24,989.68 -.O74 Between Children 6,162.92 - 43.01 433.28 Within Children 5,353.75 -1,218.62 24,556.40 -.106 Relative Humidity Correlated with Afternoon Sleep 2; £02 i—I'I' zjtz 1- Total Group 14,536.4 3,628.91 25,335.75 .189 Between Children 5,892.7 411.78 436.36 Nithin Children 8,643.7 3,217.13 24,899.39 .219 Light Correlated with Presleep £3512 1231' ix"? r Total Group ’ 11,516.67 207.65 240.00 .124 Between Children 6,162.92 3.50 2.24 Within Children 5,353.75 204.15 237.76 .180 Light Correlated with Afternoon Sleep £412 £491.! 11:2 1‘ Total Group l4,536.4 '302.58 239.63 -.162 Between Children 5,892.7 - 23.12 2.07 Within Children 8,643.7 “279.46 237.56 ‘.195 g CHAPTER V SUMMARY AN D CON CLUS IONS This study deals with.the relationship of such environmental factors as temperature, humidity and light to the duration of presleep and afternoon sleep of nursery school children. The study was conducted in the nursery school at Michigan State College for a period of 34 school days during the fall tern of 1946. The subjects were six boys and six.gir1s in the younger group of children with ages ranging between two and one-half and three and one-half years. The room.used for nap is a playroom during the morning and is rearranged for sleeping in the afternoon by placing cots and screens in a hollow square around the room. The shades are drawn and three windows with draft screens are Opened for ventilation. There was no attenpt to control the three variables studied except the usual procedures followed in establishing comfortable sleeping conditions. The variables fluctuated as the weather conditions influ- enced them. Records of time in bed, time asleep, and time awake were kept, from.which the duration of presleep and Sleep were computed. In addition, daily records were made of the temperature, relative humidity, and light intensity through- 237.. out the first hour and a half of the nap period. Notations were also kept of the morning activity and unusual occur- rences during the day which might have influenced the nap. Certain records were eliminated on the basis of un- usual occurrences or interruptions of the presleep or nap. The time records which remained were correlated with each of the variables by means of analysis of variance and covariance. 1. The six boys in this study had a slightly shorter presleep and a slightly longer nap than the six girls. no definite conclusions as to sex differences can be drawn because of the snail number of either sex studied. 2. Presleep was longer and total nap was shorter on Mondays than on.the other days of the week during the 34 days of the study. 3. Temperature, within the range of 69° to 79° F. was found to have no significant influence on the length of presleep or total afternoon sleep. 4. Although no significant relationship appeared between presleep and relative humidity, a significant, though low, positive correlation was found between relative humidity and the length of nap, which implies (within the range of 26 per cent - 60 per sent) some tendency toward the relative humidity, the longer sleep with increased relative humidity (within the range of 26 per cent to 60 per cent). A low positive correlation exists between light and presleep; and a low negative relationship between light and the duration of nap. This would imply that increasing the light within the range of 0 to 4 foot- candles has some influence toward shortening the nap and lengthening the time to go to sleep. BIBLIOGRAPHY l. 2. 4. 5. 6. 8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alschuler, Rose H. Children's Centers. National Commission for Young Children. Wm. Morrow, New York, N.Y., (1942). Anderson, John E., Foster, J. 0., and Goodenough. The sleep of young children. 1, Genetic Psychol., 353201-218, (1928). Beckman, W.B. Daytime sleep of nursery school children, Unpublished Theses, University of Chicago, (1932). Boyton, B., and Goodenough, F.L. The posture of nursery school children during sleep. Amer. 1, g£_Psychol., 425270-278, (1930). Chant, N., and Blatz, W.A study of sleep habits of children. Genetic Psychology Monographs., 4513-43, (1928). Dales, Ruth J. Afternoon sleep in a group of nursery school children. 1, g£_Genetic Psychology, 583 161-180, (1941). Erwin, Doris An analytical study of children's sleep. Pedegogical Sem. and {l Q;_Genetic Psychol., l§3199-226, (1934). Fisher, R.A. Statistical Methods for Research Workers. Oliver and Boyd, London, (1934). Foster, J., and Mattson, M. Nurseyy School Education, D. Appleton-Century Co. Garvey, C. R. Activity g£_Young Chil re nglpg_3leep. University of Minn. Press, 1939 . Giddings, G. Normal sleep patterns for children. J_’. g; Amerlcan.Medical Assoc., (1939). Kleitman, Nathaniel, Sleep and Wakefu ness University of Chicago Press, Chicago, (1939). Langdon, Grace, Home Guidance for Yo Children. John Day Go. New York, N.Y., (1931 . 14. McCay and Fowler, M.B. Some sex differences observed in a group of nursery school children. Child Development, 12:75-79, (1941). 15. Renshaw, Miller and Marquis, Children:§_81ee McMillan Co., New York, N.Y., (1933 . 16. Reynolds, M.M. The sleep of young children in a 24 hour nursery school. Ment. Hygiene, (1935). 17. Reynolds and Mallay, The sleep of young children. i, Q£_Genetio Psych., 42:43:322-351, (1933). 18. Scott, E. A study of the sleeping habits of twenty- nine children of presdhool age. Child Development 2:326-328, (1931). 19. Sherman, M, The afternoon sleep of young children: some influencing factors. 1, p£_Genetic Psych., 385114-126, (1930). 20. Shinn, A. V. A study of the sleep habits of two groups of preschool children, one in Hawaii and one on the Mainland. Child DevglgpmentJ 25159-169, (1932). 21. Snedecor, G. W., Statistical Methods, Iowa State College Press, Ames,Iowa, (1946). 22. Staple, R. Some factors influencing the afternoon sleep of young children. J} p;_Genetic Psych., glz222-228. (1932 ) . 23. Staples and Anderson, A.C. A study of outdoor play, Appetite, and afternoon sleep of young children. Child Developpent 4:191-195, (1933). 24. Wagner, Mary A. Day and night sleep in a group of young orphanage children. 1, g;_Genetic Ppych., 4&3442-459, (1933). 25. White, M. R. Some factors affecting night sleep of children. thld_Development, 25234-235, (1931). APPENDIX APPENDIX A - SAMPLBE SLEEP RECORD I I I . - I . ~ . I I ' . . I . I I , I I ' ' ‘ I ’ I p I . .. :I 2 Is I: :I s .5 I: I2 2 Is :5 5' g H ;g 0' 5* “I g I P ’ “‘ b I ‘ E 5‘ s I .... I .o' ID’ I I B’ . s .o- . s a .... 1 o is ;'< f I ’d :0 IP 9'4 I H m m :+ O I“ I Lu: 1' I“ I I H I n’ . c: . a: : II» ,- I :b' I U ' '3 "0 I I I b 2: ° :5: I' I I s I ° I 9 ° 5: .,, ' I. I I I0 I I I e d‘ I E I I i. I . I-3 I I” o . 4+ I I I I I I I ' I 2 I III --.:::_-.°..-<- .- 1-- 7.. -‘L'. .."t'. ‘7 ‘ ' ‘:i: .2..- -f ‘.’."_"".‘.’: _ .2 : 8) .1442: 2 12: 25 abs. 12. 4512: 55455. 112:5512: 5012: 4012: .5012: 25p. 3.3g; . 5 "——'1_ . 1: 001: 00 I I 0 3 I12: :2 0, : Asleep g; ,3 4 2: 5'51 «135;? I 2:15 1: 45 . 0 ' 2: 00 2: 00' 2: .25 1:50 ALI-ate 5.2 o __I_ "so 325 . I 20 ”25 3' 12:15pm 40 L 50‘; 50 08- ,2; ' 70 .55 ' . 75 .45 ,I g o I '75 , 40 385 I 55 141‘“ ; -... : I I 1 I‘“ L I fislgep L I :150 I110 ' 75 I100 II I 80 105' 95 £115! 110 1.1 .3 I . :-- ' I k .1. ' ...- 5)...- ...: .I abs.12:35I12:4Oabs.12:45112:45abs. I1: 05 12: 401: 00 I12: 4512: 5511:. he. I ' 12 55 I'IU ' I: 051: T1:00 1:40 I) 1: 1:31.351: 2 I '1—“2715 I2: 10 I 1:55 2. 20‘. FF 20 50 ':2 25 2. 50 2: 15 2:40 11:21.1:9 '._,I ‘5 L0 , I 20 20 I I 1’20 40 O 2:65"'Pres.j| ‘5' :80 260 g ' :50 '75 I . I95 ;85 ’70 o . e5 {Kiln- ” I”; ”- I < 5 I ; gar; I fioo I90 ° :95 95 . I105 105 110 T90 150 in mg: . I: - 1.4 .. .....‘Q.“.". :I" ... .. ’7.+. ..—_. - .. :°' '2‘ '1." . L._’. '.Z .2274..- . ”‘L- " -Z;’;.”.’;'-I ' . 453.12: 2512:50 abs 4012:25Iabs. 12: 4o :2 25 12: 5512: 2512: 2 In sec: : is: 3 (2:4??sz 0‘032 2:50 :15 1: 4mm: 55 34815011 is. ? 2:00; zzUO: fit J— ISeGG 2:1512°I5’2:1512:40 1‘11’8ke $1g} LI -30 I45 3: . 20 I25 I ' I55 89 '65 385 .85 IPres.%;g ‘_' I75 ’45 ‘ I ‘75 I55 ' ' I105 360 '45 I55 50 Min. $98 I . ; . L I . I ‘- 1151.5;‘10 g.- , g; I '95 105 ‘ . 95 3110 .i . I140 140 110 31401135 25:2 ‘5; .°.—_-:-:.—-.1L==-~°-;—-—-—-—-5-°-- - -~—-== i,_ ;_::.._°.-!° I12:5012:2:12:§5¢ébs.1“2“5: 0.12:40 abs. :TTo’fEa 2 33122-5512 551; Lg'd -. I 12:55 0 12:50 ' 12:50.1:50 ; I 0 12: 40L 0 12: 4512: 55.1.31ch HI I . . . . . "2:25 * I o 2:15; 0 2: 6512: 00 ..Icke s; Ian—7215 : :25 ' 20 0 ' L2:1 - 20 2:1 f 10 20 Pros. g 100 I o 350 I I70 I55 ' T 0 I 95 I o 280 :65 Win. 2: I I ,L I 1 5 “15.1.9813 ‘4 I .120 I110 105 ' 105 I05 I «95 3115 105 3100 100 3:310 I I ..‘1‘2‘:5012':5512.5Oabs 12:45‘“ abs. abs. 12': 4512: .5032. .4031'2'::I:512.50.1.l all T 3 127552300 s45: T‘ ,1 1: 00 i I l ‘6 jEZ :&1:15 1:20 1: 09 A33 c 5 L I . : :40L2:50I . 2.10 . I 0 2: 40 2: 10' 2. 40I 2: 00 TREE—fl . 5 ; 85 I '75 - I . 15 . . I 2:15 20 55 I45 ;50 'Pres.J.i 100 I 40 3 45 . 2 I70 . . I 0- '110 55 Leo geo “13° 8“ '. L I '1 ‘1 ' Asl'zeI 5“ ,5 . . - I . I _ f I1 ' Min. : :2 H105 I 125 z 120 ' I 90 I ' I ' 90 » 130 90 51-05111 Led I L9 I f aa-e- ‘-——-—1'-=-.~—.—- -, ‘.A— :L «1‘1 - ° ‘- <;:.:.;- .1- ..‘: ‘5‘“-‘1”:,.__---_:.:_'.°“' ’9; I 2;” f I I L 5* T I I IS I. ants I ' I I Teacher I . {I I B IL . :30 ' I I I : sat by I _’ I :3. II I I I i I QMYI I 3.3 I 2. . I ‘ I , . I : I as ' I' : - I I I I L I I I I I. '~ I 1. 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