‘33’1LL1AM MORRIS AND THE REVOLLTEON C TASTE Eric-555 {or the Degae—c cf M. I“, MIC MEGAN STA'E'E COLL? G jean Em mm W amen €944 \30 \«11 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 31293 01841 3488 . WIUWIHI‘lllUlilHlllllllllU'llWIHWIIHIIHIIIUI WILLIAM MORRIS MW.) 1H8 H'W‘"IUTI ON 0? TASTE! by JEAN SHITH WARRM A THESIS Submitted to the Graduate School of Michigan State 60110950 of Agriculture and Atmliod Science in Inertial fulfilment of the regatta-manta far the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of 33:51 ish 1944 W’TfiC‘! It in not the purpose of this study to tell the whole ctory of a career or a life. It is not the biography of a man. nor the ' history of e. peonle. But rather it in an account of the taste- of a permle as they were changed. guided. and directed by one man: Will i'am Morris. artilt, craftsmen. and Socialist. A study of the Victorian era reveals that the tastes of the neonle. from the highest aristocrat to the poorest laborer, under- went a change. It was a revolution affected to a great extent by the advent of machinery, but aleo by the work of Norrie and his Comany, who were the eoiritual antitheeee of inmetrializetion. It has boon the numose of this study to diecover the immrtance of Morris" work in the light of this revolution. I an chiefly indebted to the author of worria' official Mongol-1y, J. W. i'ackail. whose work was need repeatedly to verify fact and to establish background for the more imortent work of the hem-r. Also. of grvat use 9K'el'e the vorkl of Halter Crane, Aymer Val‘lanCe, and Lewis Day. As a source of bibliograohical mterial. the work of E‘hrszm. Daily. and Smith was indispensable. I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Ben mum, who aided in the oreparation and final presentation of the thesis. J. S. W. East Lansing. Michigan Sen tember 1, 1944. ii INTROIIICTION "Versatile Hr. Harris.“ he is called: Hester Craftsman and supercraftsman. His name was a household word in America at the turn of the century: his life an examole of all that is great and good in work and the strngrls for happiness. Intricately woven in- to the. pattern of his art is a social philosooh: derived from Ruskin. the great artist-reformer. In this paper an attempt has been made to set aside Hr. Norris. the Socialist and scan-box orator. to see more intimately Morris. the artist and designer, the nan who changed the tastes of his own countrymen as well as times of his neirhbors across the several seas. In order to armreciats fully Uorris' part in the Revolution of Taste. it is necessary. first. to see his life in nrosmactivs. The first part of this never is. therefore. biographical. Second. we shall examine his literary works. lot all of them can be dis- cussed for there are twenty-two volumes. and only a small part deal vi th our subject here. Third. we shall discover exactly what orecti- cal work was done by Harris and 00.. Harris individually. and by the Societies and Schools which he helned to establish. It will also be necessary to establish the fact that a change in taste did occur. and that will be done ty tracing the history of taste through the Vic- torian era. Finally. it will be possible to establish Iillian Morris as the leader of the novemait which brought to the English homes of the time new ideas of art. architecture. design. color. and. decoratim. It was indeed a revolution! iii T'ABL? O? CORT-‘1 T3 Part 1 Biography...... ...... ...........,....... ..... 1! Literary Work...................s...»..-......... Ill Ion-Literary Work..............s................. IV The Revolution of Tests.......................... 7 Conclusion..................... ....... ........ ..... VI Bibliography...ssssssssoosssssssosossosssssssson 56 6? Part I BICGRAPHT Someone hee eeid that Villin lorrie wee the perfect Vic- torian, He wee the perfect embodiment of all the ewetpneee that e. lifetime passed in the Victorian age night he expected to bring to e nerfectly unspoiled end receptive man. Norrie wee purebred Vio- torian bourgeoie. and he escaped the new ineidioue bourgeoie cul- ture (l). Harrie attempted to eecepe much of what England offered during hie lifetime. and in the eeceoe liee the root of the movement which shall be called here the “Revolution of Taste! Milieu: Horrie wee born at Ielthaneton on Hatch 24. 1984. He wee the son of a promeroue basin-we mu whoee fortune furniehed capital for tho hueinoee of lorrie end Gummy eone yoare later in the century. he e child Harrie liked to roee through the woods of Epning toreet near hie home. and often referred in hie writiege to the beauty of thie untrmeled hit of nature. Hie feeling for Gothic architecture and art. like thetof the neiureliet for thinge of netnre. wee evidenced early in hie life end” he never fleet it. In fact. thie deep intereet which went fer beyond that of the mere arch- eologiet. the antiquarian. end the rouaticiet. wee embodied in every pert of hie work. He could no and live beyond the confinee of hie own age. In the middle egee men were humor in their work and their work wee beautiful: the beauty of the great churchee that he eew in 1 Harold J. Meeeingham. The Great Victorians. p. 291. childhood. of Oxford in hie youth. and of Westminster in his later years. But to project his life into the past while living amidst the ravages of England in the three. of industrialiel no not an easy task. The life of Willie. Morris. Craftsmen and Socialist. it the etor;r of a never-ending etruggle to bring art (beauty) to hie fellowmen. At thirteen Harrie wee enrolled at Marlborough School where the newneee of the institution and ite lax discipline fostered the growing spirit of e led who bed to be busy. He roamed the forest. enter trained hie fellows with story-telling. and kept hie hnnde buey ae well. He went from there to Ereter College. Oxford, where he in- tended to take Orders. Oxford offered little in the fore of friendship and inspire-— tion until Burne—Jonee node hineelf known to Morris. Attractor! to each other through e mnmon interest in the (march. the friendship broadened. and the real bond became that of poetry. artistic and literary aspiration. Through the Pembroke friende of Burne-Jonee. Merrie got the society he needed. He continued to educate hineelf and drew about him a notable group of young men. who were later brought together as the Hogarth Club ad the Brntherhood. Merrie found in Ruskin'e m 9_f_ Venice. publiehed during the year. the written emreeeion of a feeling not unlike hie own for Gothic art. The vacation period brought en Opportunity for an extended tour of France with wieite to its fanoue churchee end ite art galleries. In the same year Norrie inherited a yearly income of 900 pounde. end it wee not long before he and Borne-Jones gave up their plane to found e Ioneetery and to take Ordere. Maesingham eeys. '53 "When you really knew eomething about Gothic. and were capable of imagining moet of whet you did.not know. the reel adventure woe to build a cathederel not to preach in one (2).” Hie echool felloww had discovered the poet in him. and hie proee romancee were regular- ly contributed to the EESEESMSEQ Cambridge Magazine during this tine. Merrie wee fond of Oxford. with ite medievalieM«ond hie‘life there in the Brotherhood was a happy one. In January 1856 before graduation. he began hie apprentice- ship under Street. then a well 6known architect of the Gathic re- vival. with officee on Beaumont Street. In the office. eleo. wee Philip fiebb. who woe to build the famoue ”Red House.” Norrie was beginning now in hie snore tine to practice more than one handicraft - clay-modelling. carving in wood and etone. and illuminating (3). A meeting with Roeaatti served to etrengthen hie intereet in art. and long weekends were enent in the commany of Burne-Jonee end the more famous artist at. Chelsea during; flmee nonthe. It was Roeeetti'e- in- domitable determination that all ma ehonld be vain tore which finally brought horrie to leawe Street'e and to go to London to paint. So Norrie and BurnepJonee were now more cloeely than ever allied with ehat Rossetti bhliewed to be the new birth of’crt. the Pro-Raphaelite Brotherhood. The etrong influence of the poet-nainter upon Norrie can be seen in theee worde of hie to Burne-Jonee: “I have got beyond that: I went to imitate Gabriel ee much ee I can (4).“ How roome were taken at.Red Lion Square. and here it wee that the firm of Karrie and Co. had ite informal incention. Thin took the form of drawings for furniture. decorative objects. end houeehold 211515.. p. 294, (SJ. W. Mackail. The Life 25 William Merrie. Ihid.. p. 111 articles which a near-by carpenter executed. Heckail says. “Thus the rooms in I>ec1 Lion Square were gradually provided with ‘intnnsely medieval furniture.’ tables and chairs like inoubi and succubi (5).“ Here on the bane-ls of the settle and of the chairs were execu ted the "Love between an and Moon.“ the “the ting of Dante and Beatrice in Florence." and subjects from Herr is' own poems. Already evidence of his unusual ability in pattern-designing was showing itself. Morris am lied himself diligently to drawing and painting. The offer to mint the wells of the Unionat Enter College. which came to Rossetti. gave the young painters their first real 101:. Morris set to work with his usual energy. The subject is what we might expect: scenes fro. the £2532'gf £53225: Of florris' little success as a painter not such need be said. flame-Jones was the artist. Norris had much diffiwlty pleasing Rossetti. although oerhaps his fine craftsmanship more than comnensated lack of skill in figure drawing. hiring the non ths which followed. back in London Morris was feeling his way in other arts and handicrafts: clay-modeling. drawing and coloring design for stained-glass windows. Here. too, was aroused his interest in the decayed art of embroidery, and. as was tynical of all his work in the crafts. he was Int satisfied until the craft had been revived in every particular: a trans was made from an old patiern and the worsteds were specially dyed for his work. 1133 Defence 9.: Guenevne.‘ his first great poem. came out of these years. also. At this time Morris made the acquaintance of Nils Jane 5 Ibid., 1). 11:5, 5 Birden. who in 1859 became Mrs. Villian Hort-is. It was for her. that she migit as a bride be surrounded by objects of beauty in contrast to tho ugly ones common to the time. that Morris built the Red House and set about designing its furnishings. It has already barn sentioned that Philip Wshb. prominent arch- itect and friend of Morris. was selected to build the house. Morris had had enough of 'hquare boxes“ with lids on top: this was to be of red brick. and Mackail says. “It’s planning was as original as its material.“ To this home with its beautiful oak staircase. its sim- plicity and grandeur of gardens. Morris took his wife in the summer of 1860. The story of Morris and Co. will be told later: but it must be said here that. because Morris could find no furniture or decorative pieces to suit his taste. the entire furnishings and interior decora- tion became the work of his friends and himself for months to come. The Red House became a center of great activity. Here uorris pursued the arts and crafts with a new found energ and interest. He became. an insnirat ion and driving force. Men of note gathered about him. followed his direction, and contributed their hit to the decora— tion of the Morris home. “The direction in which the Company turned its energies were to be determined, primarily. by the things which he wanted to make or to have as do for his own private use. and then by fire requirements. towards the purposes of their own professional work. of the rest of his associates (6).“ Among those who became actively engaged in the Company were Burns—Jones. Maddox Brown, who was in great measure responsible for its organization. Webb. and Fulkner. Each was an artist in his own right and way. Morris was the driving force and the financial surmort of the firm. Here was the nucleus of Harris‘ 61nd. , p. 145. great missionary effort to bring beauty into the every-day life of s11 the people. ire! the offices at 8 Red Lion Square were dis~ nensed the articles which in their way helped to bring about the Revolution of Taste. As for the Red House. by ’ebruary 1862 Burns-Jones writes. “Top thrives though handy. and is slowly trunking Red House the beautifullest place on earth (7).” Into this gay. youthful. and spirited household were born the Horris' two children. There were always guests. especially upon special occasions. such as Jane Alice's christening. The Marshalls. the Browns. and Swinburne were there: Rossetti. Faulkner, Webb. and Arthur Hughes were frequent callers. It is not difficult to visualise the gaiety and the con- panionehin of this group. discussing their favorite subJects and actually working upon some niece of fine furniture. a panel, or a piece of glass. The period of enjoyMent‘at the Bedgouse was short-lived. Burns-Jones' dream of a Joint hose with the Morrises was abandoned. Illness and lack of flinds forced both families to move to London and there attempt to reestablish the projects which had gotten underway. The dwelling at Qieén Square became in the autumn of 1865, not only the home of the Morris family. but the headquarters and work shops of Morris and Go. as well. Norris was continuously on the go and had it not been for his industry. the comnany night not have survived. The whole of prediction. and except in glass and furniture. practically the whole of the design was now in Morris' hands (8). However. he had been relieved of its management by Mr. George Warring- H 3 bid.. p. 159. bid., p. 175. m H 7 ton Taylor to whom much of its organisation and prosperity were now due. The popularity of the firm's work*wns rapidly spreading. and. sith increased business. Horris found he had more leisure. This he devoted to poetry. and principally to Ehg’Earthlz Paradiee. 'The Life and 093th of Jason.” a part of the longer poem first published separately. van greeted ouite favorably by the critics. despite its medievalism. The public failed to see it as other than another classical production. By the spring of 1868 upon the completion of seventeen or so of the proposed twenty-fem tales. the manner of publication be- came e problem. Burne-Jones was solicited to design wood-cuts. and he did as many no a hundred. Morris himself executed Inn: of them and thrcugh.diligent apolication soon did quite well. Here were anticipated the great and magnificent works of Morris' Kelmecott Press which he produced a quarter of a century later. Burne-Jonee now found it necessary to leave Kmeington, but he returned every Sunday. circumstances per-itting. to discuss the wont of the Company and to talk over new schemes. The next great period in nnrris' life is that in which time and energy and thought were devoted to the Icelandic sages. The friendship of Mr. Ellis had meant a great deal to Morris airing the uncertainties of book publication, and the two men now became clogs associates. In 1871 after much effnrt to escape the dirt and smoke of factory-fed London, Morris diecovered Kelmscott. It was located in one of the elecnieet and lonelieet sections of southern England. It far exceeded Morrie' emectations. the loving; description of the 8 hence end its surroundings are a memorable part of 193.! 3:93. Nowhere. A description of the tapestry roan will suffice here to illustrate how perfectly in tune with Morris' nature it really was. The tapestry room is over the big pannelled parlour. The walls of it are hung with tapestry of about 1600. representing the story of Samson: they were never great works of art. and now when the bright colours are faded out, and nothing is left but the indigo blues. the greys and the warm yellow browns. they look better, I think, than they were meant to look: at any rata they make the walls a very pleasant background for the living peonle who haunt the room: and. in spite of the designer, they give an air of romance to the room whidh nothing else would quite do. Another charm ehich the room has. that through its south window you not only catch a glimpse of the Themes clover meadows and the pretty little elm-crowned hill over in Berkshire. but if you sit in the preper place. you can see not only the barn aforesaid with its beauti- ful sharp gable. the grey stone sheds. sad the dove-cot. but also the flank of the earlier house and its little gables and grey scaled roofs, and this is a beautiful outlook indeed (9). It is little wonder that here. where love of nature and reverence for thenuedievel might have full sway, that beautiful work was accomplished. The greater part of 1871 Morris spent in Iceland. remrning to Kelmscott in late September. Upon his return he went to work again at illuminating. which had occupied much of his ties for our a year. As in all the other handiwork which Morris tried. he was not content with mastering Just one Operation. All the related activities were fields for exploitation. In this case. it scent ac- quiring medieval manuscripts for study. Ielmscott, at first shared with Rossetti. was retained as the Morris country home, but the house at Queen Square was fast be- coming, overrun by the business. Toward the end of 187?. the family Ibid., pp. 270-1. moved out that there might be space for more workrooas. a showrnnn. rnd a little dye shop. In 1873 Morris made his first trip to Italy. It gave him little satisfaction and only served to. strengthen his distaste for all Renaissance art. Another trip to Iceland in July of the same year was snore gratifying. low began the long—drawn out procedure of dissolving the firm which had become increasingly successful since its establish- went in 1861. Rossetti was mentally. as well as nhysically. ill. Many of the partners were dissatisfied with existing condi tions. and not all were of the same nind concerning the disposal of the company‘s aseets. Much unnleesantness finally resulted in Morris' retaining sole management under the shortened name. Morris and Co. Webb and Burns-Jones still contributed furniture and glass designs as before. The years 1875—1876 Morris devoted almost wholly to the lost art of dyeing. In order to carry out his work in tapestry and cloth prints to his sestisfaction. he found necessity and desire for the deep bright colors of the Middle Ages. The new commercial dyes were outrages upon the sacred vs tee of color. In 1876 he threatened to give up all part of the work which depended on textiles unless the company could set up its own dye workshfi). At first there were but few note. but Morris was absorbed in carpet-looms, silk looms. and up to his neck in designs for papers. chintsss. and carpets. Little by little Morris' interest in the crafts and the sharp contrast between his work and that of the factories brought lO I___i_d.. p. 2712. 10 him into public life. He had written and published an essay on the “Art of Dyeing." and now he became the founder of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. There was afoot in England and on the continent a move to “restore“ the ancient buildings and monuments which still existed. but were in a state of decay. To Morris restoration meant destruction and his Society was not alto- gather ineffective in preventing wholesale mutilation of these historic monuments. They certainly could not be restored bv covering the original beauty with the false art of comercial pro ducts and designs. At about the same time Morris was also admitted to ne'"bership in the Eastern Question Association. His interest here lay in a genuine hatred for commercialism. which he declared was raoidly lead- ing England into an unjust war. Vackail says of these years: “Morris' absorption in wider interests during this neriod was accomnenied by a fresh develomnent of energy inhis own nrofessional work. The dyeing and calico nrinting industry. still mainly carried on at Leek. was now established as an imortent branch of the business. and the desiging of patterns for Chintzes and figured silks was part of his daily work. leaving both in silk and wool had also taken its place alongside of dveing in his own worksth (11).“ On December 7. 1877. Morris gave his first public lecture, which he said was somewhat of a sucrose (12). It was later oublished under the title, ”Lesser Arts." The next craft moon which he focused his attention was that 11 Ibid.. 0. not. 12 IN. Do 850. ll of high-warp weaving. He had long cherished a dream of sometins re- viving this work and it now looked as though it night he realised. However. Mrs. Norris and the girls had spent the winter in Italy. and he had made arrangements to meet then there. He. also. had to find a new home to be occupied noon their return. Yhis he located in Hammersnith and named it Kelmscott House after the Manor on the Thames. One of the first things to be done was the establish- ment of a taoestry roots. Here was another “Red House“ waiting for his now skilled hands to make it livable and beautiful. Unon his return from Italy. his time was filled with a thousand odd things. but his chief concern was setting up a Jacquard tapestry loom in his own bedroom. Here he spent nary uninterrupted hours executing his own designs in fine tapestries. The work went on at the sane energetic once and. though Morris become somewhat discouraged and no little confused in his mind con- cerning his nosition in the now thoroughly industrialized world. the years 1880-1831 brought forth his best lecture on art and social re- form. It also became necessary to change the location of the Company again. Merton Abbey now was the center for the different works in which this “noetic'uoholsterer' was engaged. Hackail lists these as follows: 1. Painted glass windows. 2. Arras tapestry woven in the high warp loom. 3. Carpets. 4. Embroidery. 5. Tiles. 12 6. Furniture. '7. General house decoration. 8. Printed cotton goods. 9. Paper-hangings. 10. Figured woven stuffs. ll. Velvets and cloths. 12. Upholstery (1:5). This is a. somewhat formidable list when one considers that Harris himself directed all the work and had a very great pert in each activity. Morris was not content with desigflng only: he be- lieved there was a not-to-be—broken link between design and execution which always determined the quality of the work done. Here. however. it became increasingly'necessery thst‘he delegate more and more of'the work to his trained assistants. These men were skilled artists who worked under horris' careful guidance. He was ever at hand to encourage and criticise and no work left the shon without his final apnrowal. than the great Craftsmen had mustered one art comnletely. he went on to another. but he never 10ft the former one ontirely. His great achievement was in the printing of‘books which he began late in life and carried to a triumphant conclusion. It continues to mess on who know the story of this can that into one short life could be crowded so such of’reel workman- ship end fineness. The great Icelandic scans were an ordinary life's work. but to Horris they were but 1 small part of what he could give to a world fast losing sight of true hoopiness and pleasure in a vein clanber for wealth. Of the ultimate effect of Morris' great work more not be said later. ”ma” Vol. II. p. 37. 13 In 1884 Horris formally associated hinself with the Socialist party. and it is through his “soap-box“ speeches to the poor slaves of’modern industrialien that we receive a clearer view of the man and his social-artistic views. The success of the Merton Abbey works was sorely threatened when it see-ed that flhe water power night he completely shut off. At the sane tine Morris was distracted and unnerved by a recurrence of his daughter's illness which.” seemed. nigzt at any tine prove fetal. Tb concentrate noon the business at hand was a difficult task; it looked as though a life's work was facing ruin. Things soon took a turn for the better. and on the 13th of January in that yner, Morris was made an Honorary l'ellow of his college at Oxford. This was a distinction usually reserved for old members who hed.ettained the highest official rank in their profession. It was a coveted honor. for. though Morris was well known. this was the first official recognition he had receiVed. 81s works of art travelled far and were recognised for their excellence and fine crafts- manehip. He was a recognised poet. snd.in short. not far from famous. The next;yesrs were crowded with Socialist activities: Sunday afternoon speeches. demonstrations. and ”at riots at Trafalgar Square and in London Parks. He was never reluctant to tell willing listeners of his views concerning the conditions of the poor. sechine-slavery. and of the need forts great change which even now was beginning to take forn in the ninds of some nen. That he had noney never lessened his interest in those who had none; Rather. it allowed.him greater onnortunity to aid those whom he considered worthy: the laborers who were chained by commercialism to ugly machines. Had he not been financially indenendent. the work which he did in both the arts and 14 crafts would have been impossible. Morris' last great literary pieces. the prose romances and some noetry. are the work of a seasoned.artist. Slowly Thee was creepingHup on the Master Craftsman. He was thinking of death now fhr the first time. not to fear it. but to wonder. He saw that the time had.cone when it was best to finish up the old things. He was still absorbed in the work'of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings and attended one of its nest- ings for the last tine in‘Jenuary. 1896. He made a final trip to Iceland but was unhenny. longing to remrn to the quiet and rest of Kelmscott. He reached London on the 18th of August and there spent his last days. He did not see his be- loved pardens and noedows again. But being William ”Orris even these days could not be idle ones. He dictated the last lines of “The Sundering Flood“ on the 8th of Septeiber. and less then a south later ended a life which had been filled with more workrthan those of ten men combined. Of his passing Mackail writes: ”He might seem. now the en- tanglement of life was snapped. to have resused his place enong the lucid ranks that. still sojourning yet still moving onward. enter their aopointed rest and their native country unannounced. as lords that are certainly exnccted. and yet there is a silent Jay at their arrival (14).” 14Ibid.. p. 350. 15 Part II LI'P'RARY ‘rJORK The Revolution of Taste with which we are concerned here was affected by Willie- uorris through several channels in varying degrees. The most obvious. of course. was through the actual pro- duction. sale. and distribution of oroducts which did not conform to the pattern of the day. through lectures on art and industry which became intricately involved with his social philosoohy. and through such writings as News from nowhere and mean of: John Ball. no small influence was wielded. In this section no attempt will be nude to deal with the practical activitiee. for the Arts and Crafts Movement deserves soecial attention. The discussion of the literary work. that is. Morris' theories of art. must of necessity involve some account of the Pre—Haphaelite Brotherhood of diich Harris was a part. and of John Ruskin. who Morris says was his master. For publication the lectures have been divided into two groups. as such they will be discussed here: 3322 321 3.5253. £93; 21 and. Lectures o_n_ 31 m Industrz. In addition to these. various shorter essays will be mentioned. To point out the difficulty with which Morris. character may be analysed in relation to his work. look for a moment at the following statements. “Morris was above and before all else a noet. a practical ooet - and this emlains his whole work (15).” “He lived two liv=s. and he was a craftsman before he was a ooet (14." 15 Walter Crane. William Morris 23 Whistler. '0- 4- 15am. pox-r1, and H1. Wallpapers," Literary World. Vol. XXVII. n. 345. ‘16 Vallanoe says. ”He was a noet. an artist. and had the poet's and the artist's point of view. Yes. hit inhis eyes art was indisaolubly bound up with Socialism and derived from that very connection a higher purpose than he bed flat imagined for it before (17).“ when John nnskin in Modern Painters failed to give even the smallest place to the traditionally great. he embarked noon a career of art criticism and social reform that eventually engulfed all England. Chambers in 1133 Hietorz 91 2.39.3.9. says this book “served up to the public the tastiest norsel in its menory (18).“ Ruskin's aesthetics makes a clear distinction between content and form. or as he says. thought and language. Thought in everything: language is valuable only as far as it is the adequate expression of thought. In M 91 it he says. "Fine art is that in which the hand. the head. and the heart work together... .Pine arts lust always have emotion ruling their mechanism (19).'I In other sords. Ruskin believed that the subject matter and its moral aspect determined the essential quality of any picture. ' The chanter in Ruskin's book. 23.9. 23233391 M. entitled “The Nature of Gothic.“ became Horris' gospel. Here for the first time he found one who thoroughly agreed with him concerning the de- cadence of the Renaissance. and who looked. as he. to Nature. for all lessons. Heretofore. the artist's taste had been to improve upon Nature and to secure. at any and every cost. perfection. Porn and not content was the basis of the art Ruskin and then Morris. in his turn. at tacked so vehemently. Ruskin believed and preached that 7 Aymer Vallance. Will iam 52222. El; 32. ii; Writinag. £1; Public Life to. 364. 8 “Frank P. embers. In.» History 9; Taste. 1). 2:51. 19 John Rusitin. “Unit“ of Art“ in Two Paths. pn. 54-5. 1? nature'- worst is better than the artist's best. so the noblest sub- Jsct for any art is Nature. Ruskin and his followers were Openly and bitterly attacked by the critics and traditional artists. Their work was declared to be deficient in drawing and comoletely devoid of grace. However, Ruskin's form of art became extremely nonular: his oainting of a landscane occasioned artists all over England to do likewise. These men were interested primarily in the effect the oicture produced. noon the idea. not the form. The Pre—Ranhaelites saw in history the essence of reality and truth. In all things ancient there were lessons to be learned. but they were not things to be merely cooled. me architecture of the Middle Ages was reversed by these artists as the enitome of all that was beautiful and true and glorious in art. 'Ruskin saw it as “an art for the Dennis. ... for their houses and hones....an art tor the world: and above all. not an art of form or tradition only. but an art of vital practice and enamel renewal. an art which had life and growth (20).“ This art strongly contradicted the modern practice of division of labor. fbr Ruskin believed that man and his materials cannot be separated. There-is no degradation in manual labor: the man who works with his hands is as thoroughly a gentleman as he who designs. Furthermore. the workman ought often to be think- in; and the thinker often to be working. The beautiful Gothic churches were made by men who were happy in their work. It was not perfect. because only God's work can reach perfection and satisfaction. but in 20 lbid.. p. 43. 18 its Very roughness and imperfection there is strength. naturelnees, and humility. Ruskin could not leave his view of art there. for bcautiful things could not be produced in an environment devoid of beauty and leisure. Here Ruskin becomes a social reformer. as well as an art critic. and the crusade is taken up by Morris es he puts into word and action all that the Gothic School embodied and all the hatred for industrialists which Ruskin also felt so keenly. Before Stones 2.: Venice was published in 1851!. Burma-Jones and Morris had done a. great deal of reading together and were familiar with Buskin's other work. How he became their hero and pro‘phet. In the following discussion of the lectures and the essays on art. this fact can only become increasingly evident. And that these ideas had some effect noon the minds of the pmle who heard and read then cannot be doubted; By the very noun-e of these attacks moon the accepted standards of the day. they were destined to arouse cpnosition, at least. if not inmediatc adherence. The lecture on the Lesser Arts was delivered in 1877. Harris' aim was to point out the put-nose of decoration. He would not divorce the lesser arts froo sculnture and painting. for therein the whole of Art suffers. but ornamentation has a distinct office to perform. This. he says. is "to give neonle pleasure in the things they met norforce mundo give people olcosure in the things they met her- force m (21)." Without these pleasures onr rest wcmld be vacant and uninteresting. our labour mere endurance. mere searing away of body and mind (22). He says the Stones 9; Venice emreases his idea 31 William Morris. “The Lesser Arts.” Collected won-53, n1. xxn. n. 4. ‘3 Ima.. p. 6. 19 of the pleasure of work. Ruskin says. 'Hothing can be. beautiful un- less it exoresses man's delight in God's work (23).“ In this lecture Morris traced the history of the arts as he saw it. At one time (the losser arts) were good and fruitful. that is. in Medieval times, but they grew into decay. The artist left the. handicrafts and they were without hope of elevation. Re. the artist. was without horse of intelligence. industry. or smathy. and both have suffered. the artist no less than the workman. But Harris had have that out of the decay something new night yet come. And this new art would h~=va the interest of the peoole behind it. and with it would come the birth of wiser. similar. freer says of life. The only hone for such a change lay in the artist himself. Every- thing that he does must be done well. He must study nature and ancient art: he must cooy nothing: especially he must avoid the “feeble work around us (24).” Though only a handful of artists heard. perhaps more read, his next attack on the world about him. in which he berated a civilization vi to its hideous streets. its brick and mortar. black smoke. and only the ghost of the great church at Westminster to re- mind one of a nest greatness. The slavery of commercial“. took away all pleasure of work: the factory system so widely separated the designer and the. workman that neither made any real contribution to the final product. Morris agrin and again in his writings attacked the sham and pretense of his ago. Art must be truthful to be beautiful. The oer- 23 ..ci. .48. 249’- -—-t ’p u rris, 32. cit.. o. 16. feotion of'nechine-nede goods was not real. The goods themselves were chase. and s barrier of luxury and show shut out the good and true art for whidl people must be willing to on! 0. fair orice. ”Simolicity of life. begstting sinolicity of taste. that is. s love for sweet and lofty things. is of all matters most necessary for the birth of the new and better art we crave: sin- plicity everywhere. in the palace as well as in the cottage (25)." In summary Morris said: That art will make our streets as beautiful as the woods. as elevated as the mountain sides: it will be a oleasure and a rest. and not a weight up- on the enirits to come from the onen country into a town: everyman's house will be fhir and decent. soothing to his mind and heloful to his work! all the works of man that we live amongst and handle will be in harmony with nature. will be reasonable and beautiful: yet all will be simple and insoiring. not childish nor enervating: for as nothing of beauty and zolendor that man's mind and hand may compass shall be wanting from our public buildings. so in no orivate dwelling will there be any signs of waste. pomp or insolence. and every man will have his share of the best (26)." In “Art of‘the Peonle.‘ horris has taken up Huskin's cry for an art which should come not from a handful of wen living in luxury. but from all. Art at the time was in a state of neglect. He says that the leaders of modern thought for the most hart hate and desnise the arts. and as the leaders are. so must the peoole be. Something was wrong. but it was not with art in the abstract: that is always good. The mass of’peOple Harris believed had been untoudhed by the art of the'PreéReohaelite. The revival of sound orincioles of architecture which had brought some improve— 25 Ibid.. p. P4. 95 Ibid.. o. 27. Pl sent in public buildings had no effect on nrivate dwellings. “Architecture has deteriorated. until houses have become a lay-word of contemot for their ugliness and inconvenience. Complaints of the dishonesty in the daily arts of life are in all men's months (27).” Horrie says this is all the neutral and inevitable result of the world in the hurry of the war of the counting house. and the war of the battlefield. Man has forgotten that pleasure in daily work which nature cries out for as its due. fine and again he says it met be ”an art made by the people for the peonle. as a hanpiness to the maker and the user (28),“ There must he honesty and simplicity in life. and it is impossible to Inparate art from morality. mlitics. and religion. One wonders how this new idea struck the peonle of England. whose hoses was cluttered with ornate furniture and knick— naclts. and whose minds were still somewhat steeoed in aid-Victorian smugness. There is ample evidence that some of the thoughts took root and finally bore fruit. This will cone into a later discussion. Morris was greatly absorbed in what he calls the ”beauty of life.” in fact. beauty of any sort was almost an obscession with him. He says the change in attitude which is now taking place was first represented by Blake and Coleridge, the early writers of the Romantic period. Norris believed that Keats was the last great English poet. and in company with Burns-Jones spent a great deal of tine reading from his works. Scott's interest in nedievalisa and his love of Gothic architecture attracted them. also. and they soon recognised in him a true master. Among these am there was a feeling for the (,3 O “The Art of the Peonle.“ Collected Works. vol. II”. P. 38. “' Ibid., 91:). 31-47. roaance of external nature Joined with a desire to know something reel of the lives of those who had gone before then. The Pre- Rephaelite group took up the crusade. and Morris says. “Art has been revolutionised by (then): never in the whole history of art did any set of men cone nearer to making something out of noth- ing (29).” In this same lecture. Norrie anneals to the peoole to do something about the smoke. the dirty papers. and the. posters which deface the beauty of their city. lothing can be done to imorove the lives of the peonle until they have some share in art. ”Have nothing in your houa e that you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful: all art starts from simolicity. and the higher art rises the greater the simolicity (30).“ In a later diecu ssion of Morris' activities and work in the crafts. it will be found that he out into practice the theories he so well expresses in “Making the Best of It.” Be wonders what can be done to make these strange dwellings - the basest. the ugliest. and the most inconvenient that men have ever hailt for thmnflves - livable and endurable. He sees the only hone in free men with fit work to do amid beautiful surroundings (31). This was the ultimate and lasting solution: something could be done by chang- ing the interior and the garden. relieving each room of sense of its useless and ornate draperies and furnishings. At the Red House. at Xelnscott. and at Hammeremith there was nothing that failed to bring 29 “Beauty of Life.“ Collected Works. Vol. XXII. p. 59. 30 mm. on. 76-7. '11 W118 the Best of It,“ GOIICCted works, '01. xXIIs “s Q?!- 23 unity and dignity and correctness to its surroundings. '1 don't advise you to paint your houses blood-red end chocolate with white facings as seems to be getting the fashion in some parts of London. nor to use that hot brownish red - ”cockroach color” - that scans to popular (32).“ 'He goes on to erolsin that the windoss in most houses are too large and too low: thq ere so heavily draped no light could possibly enter the to on. he floors are covered to their dustiest end crookedest corners with carpet. - good. bad or indifferent. and fireplaces are ornamented way out of existence as objects of use. Valls are covered with smooth hot- pressed honor. and everything is ads to look like something it is not (as). Horris' solution was, of coarse. to sinolify all things. and if it were not oossible to do away with sons of the atroci ties. at least. cover them with something rhich would make then less con- sbicious in their hideousness. In redecorating the house. Harris says such care must be taken in chasing, correct color end design. His suggestions follow. “Woodwork if it is of oak should ba‘ left as it cones from the plane. It should always be in tone darker than the walls end oainted over if it is not a good noble wood...lelloss and red are difficult colors to use and should be avoided. There is little pleasure in red un- lesn it is dean and full...Pink. though it is beautiful in coubina- tion. is not easy to use as a flat tint. Purple should be evoi ded. 32 33 Ibid. .p. 91. Kid. . 1). 92-4. 24 and light groans should be used very carefully. Blue is the “feet to use. but all colors ehould be used in moderation according to the materiel...30me soberneee of tone is absolutely necessary if you would not weary people till they cry out against all decora- tion...'1‘he oesiyn should be as bright an possible. as full of color as the nature of the work will allow it to be...‘!'here must be order and naming in design. and it must be original...Your convention must be your own. - make it your own by thoroughly understanding both the nature and the art you are dealing with (34).” m another lecture. “Some Hints on Pattern Design." be given the following criteria for the selection of decoration. You may be are that any decoration is futile ' and hae fallen into at least the fir-t step of degradation, when it doel not remind you of some- thing beyond itself. of something of which it in but a visible eymbol. It must be: (I) something possible for you to get. (2) eonething that in beautiful, (3) something which will not drive us either to unrest or into callous- {4) something which reminds us of life beyond itnelf, and. (5) something which can be done by a great many peeple without too much :21 fficulty and oleeeure (85). As a final thought Norrie repeat: what he has often said. before. ”There is no cheao art, a true artist deserves whatever is due as his share of art (36).“ The eerie: of lecture. on art and inductry contain mrny of the name theories as those already discussed. Morril has been at‘acked by many critics both of his day and of this for being: an 17-4 Ibid.. condensed from no. 97-107. :5 We Hint. on Pattern Designing,“ Collected WOPkI. v01. 1111.1). 179. 5 “Making the Beat of It,“ Collected 530131;, Vol. XXII, p. 115- \30 \‘i’l .(\ 25 ostrich: living in an age of machinery and refusing to recognize it as significant fact. for dwelling on the past. and for preaching socialism and art for the poor. when he had nlenty of money and was well establiehed in a business of his own. hit Harris practiced what he preached. and I do not believe that lini ting the activities of machinery was denouncing it. Morris could ea? its evils more clearly than its virtues. the workman's Utonia of News from Nowhere is a true poet's dream. but it was not beyond comoreheneion nor possible fulfillment as Marv is visualized it. It is truly an idealised world. but Harris arrived at it by logical thinking. and those thoughts were the ones he incorporated into his lectures and practiced in his own workshops. All the lectures are directed toward inorovoeent in the decorative arts. elm-cially as thq were armlied to the interior of homes. Some mention has already been node of the advice given in “Some Hints on Pattern Designs.“ but this is one of the most imoortant lectures and it will be well to oursue it somewhat further. The nhilORovher warns the oeoole that beautifying their homes cannot be accomplished without sacrifice. and adds that no sacrifice for beauty is too great. His admonitione to them follow: (I) Refuse altogether to use machine-made work, unless human suffering would accompany its execution. otherwise. (2) Understand the value of intell igent work: and take the rough rather than the unin- tell‘gent work of machines or slaves though it be delicate. (3) Have high standards in wares. do not accent makeshift, but rather go without. (4) Have no ornament merely for fashion's sake. (5) Do not live in an ugly and squalid olace like London Just for more excitement. but because duty demnds it. \3‘ 26 (6) Treat the natural beauty of earth as a holy thing. (7) Treat with utmost care what is left‘us of architecture from the tines of art (37). Nuch of Morris's other work dealing with.art and the crafts is technical and cannot be discussed here at length. Closely allied to his theory of art and craftsmanship is the social philoeoohy which he exoounded from the city square as well as the hall olatform. He loved the Eiglend of old as he saw it in 133' great Gothic buildings. as he felt the loveiof the craftsman for his work. and as he observed nature untouched by commercialism at his country homes. He wanted for all men the some love and test for life and its beauty: and he tried to raise them from their Victorian lethargy to claim their rightful heritage. His literary work has charm - whether one agrees with it in principle or not. Norris had an anneal which packed the lecture house whenever he was to speak. although nan: who came were not in- terested inlis socialism nor his theories of art. we certainly counot Judge Horris‘ 'liter’arv ability by the essays and lectures discussed here. but it is well to note that his art is considered when criticism is made. The Cambridge Historz 2E §nglish Literature says. "His vividly imagined detail flashes out again and again in phrases of nictureeoue color. He writes of med- ieval life with a contemporary insight and accuracy eel don emired by scholars and antiquarians (3.9)." Further on in his same article :17 In Collected Works. Vol. XXII. p. 204. 38 Sir A. i. Ward and A. R. Waller. 968.. Cnmbridge History of English Literature, Vol. XIII. p. 13.4 “His realism was more thorough than the realism which became sore and more a mere incident in Rossetti's verse and departed from his oainting. More than Rossetti. too. he was awake to the sense of struggle in life. which is the animating bower of the highest for. of narrative. In the “Life and Death of Jason.“ he anneared as s. master of romantic narrative. Chaucer was his master: his treatment was medieval. He lacks the constant touches of humor whidi link Chaucer with the modern world. but his sense of file nations of life is (leaner than Chaucer's (3.9)." 5:12 I: 3 Nowhere is full of lovely descriptivs'oassages. I say lovely. because only one deenly in love with the world about his. and utterly conscious of its absorbing beauty could have written the lines of this story. And how neatly through the narrative are woven the stone to man's emancipation from the cruel ugliness to which he is chained. The book reads like a fairy tale and has many of the sane qualities. It is difficult to remember as one reads slang that this is the answer to Bellemoy's Looking Backward. and. in the main. was intended to clarify horris' socialistic and economic philosoohy. 253141 9!. M gag is less annealing. but like the other has a definite lesson. One must call these moral tales. I suppose. be- cause it is remembered that art. according to Harris. has a moral quality. as well as a religious and oolitical one. 232.5325:2_Lesson is much shorter. but none the less realistic. I have called then "moral tales.“ but they are not didactic. Morris wanted the world to 39 Ibid, pp. 136-7. 28 be happy: his gospel was one with anneal. and if Sparling is correct in hie Judgment. he did not fail altogether in his effort to reach 319 3‘50“].6. He will be recogised for that he nae. one of the great men. and not for iron the greatest. of hie time. some of us think of all tile. He has not only bequeathed us an enormoue heritage of material and spiritual beauty. bit he. con- ditioned our thinking in matters of art to a degree comparable only to the conditioning of our mandate in matters of science by Herein (40). He understood - no one better - the interdeoendence of ideas, art. and affairs. and devoted that wisdom to making useful things b‘autiful (41). The creation of beauty was not a source of pride. but a eymotom of hapnineee: a proof that a certain external nreeeure we. removed and that a. man was free to exercise hit me choice and his om fancy. For his 'rOl'k and the tort: he encouraged and hoped for. he dfl‘mflnded the erect 017N331 te of prevailing induetriel condi time. Work muet not be Just good enough to cell! it aunt be original and honest. It must be work done with enjoyment. to bring pleasure. also. to its user. It must be carried on in beautiful and pleasant surroundings. if it is imitate thoee qualitiee. and it met be prover- ly rewarded. Morris' agitation for a heaple‘e art and his talk of beauty led directly to the Arte and Crafts “moment. and indirectly to a movement which culminated in fanatical aesthetic-ism. 40 H. Halliday snarling. 313 Kelmecott Press 5951 Iilliem Morris. D. 2. 41 Will Ransom, Private Praeee and Their Eooks. D. 4-4. 29 Part III NON-1.1T 5H ARI WORK It cannot be denied that by reason of his literary work alone Morris would have had a place in the history of his time. Add to this the lifetime of activity which he devoted to the decorative arts and handicrafts. and it is not surprising that his influence eoread even as far as the Continent and America. more seems to be some die- agreenent as to the extent and depth of this influence noon the tastes of the people. but it will be more apnrmyriate to Judge after we con- sider the work which was done. Morris had shown some interest in the crafts an a child. and seemed always to be busy with his hands. His interest in Nature beg-an when as a child he roamed the forest near his home. As early, also, he. eeneed something almost sacred, at least. human. in Gothic archi- tecture. He said. he could not remember the tile when he was unable to rent}. m g'Ar thnr had been like a primer to him, as had some of Scott's works. At Oxford all of these leanings were developed. As a member of the set. he read with the others. Chaucer. Tennyson. Ruskin. and the Vedieval Chronicles. He became interested in the Oxford "ove- nent. but abandoned the Church to take up Architecture. In 1855 when he entered Street's office. he was convinced that here was the onmrts.znity for which he had been waiting. He found. how- ever. that the practical aspects of the work were greatly disarmointing. and he left in 1856. Sometime before this he had met Rossetti and had Joined the small group of artists who clustered about him, driven always by his indomitable determination to make all can oainters. As has already been said. Norris fell under the spell and immediately set about painting the walls of the Oxford Union. In 1858 the Hogarth Club was founded with such men es Ruskin. Burns-Jones. l’ord Mada: Brown. and Philip Iebb among its members. However bad the He-Raphaelite paintings were. they were now welcomed at exhibitions. and some out- side intereet was shown in the work at the Union. Norris completed his assignment early. and began work on the ceiling. The others worked were slowly. and nerhans with more real talent for figure painting than Harris displayed. The work was never satiefnctorly comnleted and from lack of care so-~n disintegrated to such an extent that very little is extant. Upon leaving Street‘s office. Morris and Burns-Jones had taken up quarters in Rossetti's old studio at 17 Red Lion Square. Here Norris began desiming furniture to suit his tests! massive. rude. and comfortleae. A neighboring carpenter nude most of it for him. but the art work. decoration and designing. was all done by Morris end his friends. Rossetti contributed his bit by painting two chair backs with scenes from Horris' poems. "Gwendolen in the Tower.” and the “Arming of s Knight.‘I Burns-Jones decorated the now famous wardrobe with scenes from the 'Priorese' Tale." Rossetti suggested that owls might be tent in the large but over one of the chairs! ihet an innovation this must have been. 1"the seemingly insignificant fact that these races were unfurnished prenared the way for a revolution in household decoration and household erts. For out of this small circumstance grew Morris' later won: as a manufacturer and decorator (42).“ 42 Hrs. Anna A. Phelen. The; .3°.__°___181 “110”“! 2£____'1111M "..01‘1'10. n. 14. \5" \m During the period of painting under Rossetti 's guidance Morris net Miss Jane Burden. who became Mrs. Morris in 1859. and for whom the fomed Red House was built. Mackail says. “While his whole work as a decorative manufacturer may not be'untruly said to have snrung out of this building and the furnishing of this hnuea. it would be almost eoually true to say that the house. first in idea and then in fact. sprung'out of his devoting himself to the practice of decorative srt and.requiring. as one might say. a can- vas to work noon (43).“ To say the least. the house and its furnishings were strik- ingly different. and. because they were. they did not go unnoticed. Morris abandoned comoletely the usual ”square box with a lid” typelthet he was to talk of in.his lectures. The house was planned in en‘L-shape and had a high pitched roof of red tile. He sbhorred the grey slate roofs so common in all England. especially on the houses of the poor. Ohexof‘his less ilportent lectures is devoted to a discussion of the most suitable roofing materials. Tb describe thethouse in detail would he s work in itself. so many intricacies did it possess. 0he+of the most striking things about it was the well house. and another the red brick from ehidh it took its name. The ex- ternal oortion was plain almost to severity and denPnded for effect upon its solidity and fine proportion. Inside. the most remarkable feature was the large drawing room sith the fine decorative work'shich occmoied Morris and his friends for several years. lee things were found on the market ehich would fit - Persian rugs and blue china for veees - all else was designed and much of it made by Harris and his 43 93. ci .. Vol. I. 1). 14:2. ” 2.2 friends. Chairs. tile for the fireplace. candlesticks. and even the wine Jug had to be reinvented to escape the flat ugliness of the store article. The plastered walls and ceilings were treated with simle de- signs in tempers. The hall and living rooms bad a richer more elabor- ate scheme of decoration. but all was simplicity ss cannered to the usual Victorian ornateness. Art. with its orderliness. dignity. and grace. replaced the haphazard stuffiness of the usual demrstion. The gardnns were as well planned. They. too. observed Norris' dictum that decoration must be useful. and above all else it must fit. The gardens “belonged.” the orchard trees were untouched when the house was built and their extending branches often drapoed fruit through the Open windows. if peeple not live amid beautiful things. as Morris believed. in order to be happy and to make beautiful obj ects. here was a veritable storehouse of potential art. Here Harris gathered about his a group of fellow craftsmen and artists. and it was not long before the old desire for some practical union took root again. In 1861 ”ado: Brown and Rossetti were instrumental in founding a company which for some years was to be known as Norris. Marshall. Faulkner. and 60.. Decorators. These men. already known because of their gatherings at the Red House. now set out in earnest upon “their practical protest against prevailing nodes and methods of domestic decoration and fursi ture. which had fallen since the greet exhibition of 1851 chiefly under the influence of the Second Envire taste in un- holstery. which was the antithesis of the new England movement (44)." 44 3. crane. 22. cits. p0 17' \5u V?! (Y‘ 33 The flat patterns which the Company turned out acknowledged the wall and expressed the proportions of the race. instead of trying to hide both under lunches of sketchy roses and vertical stripes. Slender black wood or light brass curtain rods and curtains to match the coverings. or carry out the color of the rooa. displaced the heavy mahogany and cruolu “battering runs“ with their fringed and festooaed upholstery (45). Simple paints did away with gaining and narhling. These new ideas were being illustrated in the Red House. and new the purpose of the comoany was to not then int) cosmercial practice. The first contract received by the Company was forthe decora- tion of two new churches. St. Martin's at Scarborough and 3t. Hichael's. Brighton. In the latter the chancel-roof was painted by Morris. Hebb. and faulkner. and the windows were executed from designs by nurse-Jones. The Tim‘s success in stained glass work was great enough to bring the criticism from conneti tors that they had really only retouched Medieval work. that modern artists could not promos such beautiful pieces. ihe Company's first circular advertised for work in glass. wall- papers. embroi dery. and Jewellery. Rossetti contributed a few designs for both glass and tiles. and Kershsll had sods acne designs for furn- ture and chair decoration. He also lads cartoons for glass, but other- wise took very little part. Harris furnished the capital and fro- the very beginning was the central figure. His energ and ability directed. all the work. The first real established: t was at 8 Red Lion Square where the first floors served as an office and show recs. The third floor ‘5 v. Crane. 'Villiam Norris.“ Scribners. Vol. nu. p. 96. \‘(7 .(Y' 34 and part of the basement were workshOps. a shell kiln for tiles and pottery was built in the other section of the basement. and about a dosm boys and men were hired to help. he foreman was Mr. George Garfield. who continued with the Company at Merton Abbey and stayed on after Morris' death. Weekly meetings were held to discuss plans and carry on necessary business. fine work of church decoration went on. and Harris never stopped perfecting what was already started and looking for new processes to conquer. Willie: Rossetti says of his. "Mr. Morris came nuch the foremost. not only by being constantly on the spot. to work. direct. and to transact. but also by his abnormal and varied aptitude at all kinds of practical processes (46)." 46 The second exhibition of arts held in 1862 was an incentive to produce. By this tine. though the de- signing of the work carried out by the lira was done by themselves. many other arti sts, including Albert Moore. willian de Bargain. and Simeon Solo-on. were making occasional contributions. Faulkner's two sisters Joined his: in painting tiles and pottery. hrs. Norris and her sister, Miss Burden. with several women working under them. elecuted embroidery on cloth and silk. Hrs. Burns-Jones. besides embroidering. painted figured tiles. Hrs. Campfield. the foreman's wife. helped to execute altar-clothe. The works became a small whirlpool of industry that sacked in erery one who came near them. Morris' own annual labor at every kind of work which the firs undertook was unreaitting. She payments for work credited to him in that year were more than to all the other six partners out together: and in later years the disproportion increased still further. At the Exhibition the firm had two stalls. one of stained glass. the other. entered in the catalogue as 'decorated furniture. tanestriee. etc.." represmting the begimxinge of demrativs work in new directions. The so-called tapestries were. of course. embroideries.’ it was not till many years later that En'orris took up the art of weaving. the work shown at the exhibition. though from the Jury it received only a colourless and rows annrobation. attracted nuch attention. both Yallance. 21).. cit.. p. 57. favorable and adverse. That it really made some im- pression on the public is shown by the fact that nearly a hundred and fifty pounds' worth of goods were sold from the stalls (47). Orders for glass work were taken. and Mr. J. 3“. aeddon con- niseioned the Gonnany to decorate a cabinet made from his own design. Following this. Morris was accen ted as a leader in decorative art and officially sssuled control of the Go. By this time the Conoeny's advertisement included aural de- coration. carving generally. as amlied to architecture. stained ‘12". metal work. and furniture. Morris had also begun work on designs for wall nape-rs. “Rose-trellis.“ “liq." and "Pomegranate" are among the most famous which were brought out at this time. Vallance says. "The 'Dsisy' is a marvel of supreme cleverness: and withel one of which the pooulerity declines not one whit as tine goes by. After so years it is still in demand “8)." In 1867 Taylor became manager of the Co.. and Morris found he had more leisure. which to him meant tine to do more things. The 00.. well established now. received a contract to decorate the Green Dining Room at South Iensington Museum. Host of the figure work on the panel ing was done by Burne-Jonee. but Morris contributed the back- ground sprays and plants. The work of the Firm continued. In 1870 the Earl of Cerlisle built his house at Palace Green from the designs of Mr. Iebh. and Morris and Co. were the decorators. Other contracts were secured, and. though the work was evpensive. it became increasingly oonular. People. were certainly conscious of horris'e views concerning 2; HfiCkail. 92. c1£.. D100 154.5. ego-1' iii-... no 57. \5" \41. :16 their ugly homes. He was a powlar lecturer and an imposing person. His great hatred for the machine age and all its sordid ramifications became more intense as work nt the Company's establishment went on. His dream of making; every house a beautiful hone could not be realised for there were too many poor slaves chained to the chennness and horribleness of uniformity and false perfectionisn. The years from 1871 - 1874 may well be 0811 ed the naiod of illuminations. The architecture of the Kiddie Ages annealed to Norris. but that was only the beginning of his interest. The medieval nan- uscrints attracted him net-hens eVen more. He studied photogrenhie conics of than and imitated their Itylc in his own designs. ’ourteen or 15 yoars before, he had tried his hand at illuminating but quickly recognized the inferiority of his work. Rossetti said of this. “It is quite unriva led by anything modern that I know (49)!" ”or: is never really conied anything: the designs are his own: fine. compact. floral designs in delicate colors. They are pure decor- ation. more for the purpose of filling space then to set off the text. It is graceful. flowing ornament intended to quiet restlessness and to 'fill the nye.‘ in other words. to be beautiful and to bring nleasnre to maker as well as user. Among the other things which were occurying Morris' time dur- ing these years was dyeing. In ettemting to nuke carpets. tapestries. and cloth prints. it had been readily seen that the can-rent chemical dyes were unsatisfactory. Morris detested the insipid colors. He was determined to have his own dye works or to stay work in cemets end 49 Gerald Crow. William Harris. Desiger. p. 71. 37 textiles altogether. The firs was dissolved amid such hard feeling and legal folderol in 1875. Prom that time on Iorris' work was his own. his official none was Kerris and 60.. and he was sole owner and operator. He directed everything. i'he goat indigo dye rats were his special care. for. as he was: often heard to say. “The require special attention: a - little too much or too little spoils the whole thing. The experienced indigo-dyer is said to know wha the fermentation has reached its proper point by an acute sense of smell. where no more scientific tests are found to answer. if the preper soment is not seized. the vat be- comes useless. The setting of the blue vat is a ticklish Job. and re- quires. I should say. sore experience than any dyeing process (:50)." Harris could often be seen moving about enid the vats. adding. mixing. testing. always tousled and spattered, his own blue shirt flying. arms and hands covered sith the precious colors, he was making. "I's dyeing! I'm dyeing!” was the unal answer to a masons from any visitor. The new colors were bright and fullbodied, and they did not fade out into the mddy-dirty tints observed in the ordinary home. on walls. in cahoots, eniin dress. “As soon as he was able to set up his own dyehouse (which he did at lerton Abbey) he turned at once to the frank full hues of the permanent (hrs-stuffs - indigo blue, sadder red. weld yellow. etc. - and with these he produced the beautiful Hammersmi th carpets and the Merton tapestries and chintses (51).“ its perfection of these dyes node work in all textiles sore interesting and satisfying. A period of great activity in this field followed, 50 Mackail. go. 9_i__t_.. Vol. I, p. 317. 51 Ibid. Pa 312. which crowded out illumination and wallpaper designing. Norris had gone back to the Middle Ages for a dye formula and now he was to reestablish hand weaving on the high loom. a.pro- cess completely extinct in Ehgland and ranidly disappearing on the continent. In Herch 1877. a Lyons silk manufacturer came to ‘hgland and set up a Jacouard Loon fbr Morris at Ormand Yard. With his usual diligence and skill he worked long hours executing his own designs in silk and wool. work in the shops was devoted almost entirely now to printing on cloth: velveteen. cotton. and linen. Horris' chintses became famous almost instantly. Between 70 and 80 wall perer designs and 40 chintzes were invented and carried out by Morris. alone: and. if the sum total of his designs for never. chintz. woven tufts. sill: damaal's, velvet, crrnets, and tapestries were giVen. it would be a little short of 600. besides countless designs fbr embroidery. Bis nrinted cotton goods were more used than any of the oflhers, and Morris lamented that they were used for every nurnose except the one for which they were designed (52). Horris next became interested in Arres tapestry and Persian Rugs.l his task was to reestablish those procssses in England. The first was accomnlished in his own chap. but his influence was not great enough to bring a revival in England. though there wee a great dmnand for his work. He could not interest other craftsmen in the nrocess. Lewis Foroman Ehy. one of the younger followers of Morris. 52 c. 3. Clifford. Period Furniture. n. 292. 39 says that the Morrio tapestries held their own niflh the French at the Peri. Exhibition of 1900. In color and overall design they are ex- cuioite (53). Hunter aloe agrees that the Merton Abbey mmnoeitione are superior to those of Gobelin, The best, he says. are the Holy Grail set at Stanmore 39-11. Hiddlesex (54). The my, building into which the 00. had been moved in 187? .fi til had a large show room and much more space for work shops. Tapestry had replaced Morrie' interest in dyeing by 1878. and about this tine 1-91... . . he visited Perqie to learn the secret art of rug making. Unon his return he at’emnted to revive the method in 1Eingland. but he was not mcr'ess-‘fni. It became necessary in 1881 to again seek new lodgings for the work of the Conneny. A fine establishment at Merton Abbey on the Wendie was secured. It was an ideal location one! much of Morris' finest work was done here. In the same year a commission was given to the Company to decorate the Throne Room and Reception Rooms of St. Jam-3' Palace. ”There we. now almost no kind of furnishing or decora- tion 131 th which the Fire In. unable to grace either those intimate and reetful. very English small rooms. or the solenoid houses of their wealthy patrons (55).“ Morris at thin time was Itill a regular visitor and advieor at the South Kmeington Hueeun end the Royal School of Art Needlework. He had been acting somewhat as a Judge and critic at the former insti- tution since 1876. On October 1?. 1881, he delivered one of hie best 53 Laurie Foreman Day “0111192: Morris and Bio Decorative A__!_'__t " Living Age, Vol. CFXXXVIII, n. 105. 54 George Vunter, Decorative Textiles. '9. 273. “‘5 Crow, on. c113,, n. 78. \ w \‘W 40 lectures at the School of science and Art. which was connected with the 'edgesood Institute at Burslsn. In 1882. he was asked to testiiy before the Royal commission on Technical Instruct ion. and his contri- bution was to the belief that everyone should have some training in art. and that it sight be begun very sell by studying nature. beauti- on buildings, and life itself. 'i'his oust have fallen on receptive ears. for in 1890 a Code was adopted by the Government snaking drawing comulsory for elementary boys. The next large contract which the ’irn received was for the decoration of the entire house at Palace Green. Harris did the work throughout. The d1 ning room was extremely well done with greet cars and elaboratness. his set no: such great annroval that cheap imitations and machine-made copies of ilorris‘ work in chintses and decorative articles smeared throughout the country. In his desire to make ert available to all the people. Morris had failed to protect himself. He often gave his designs and ideas to persons who seemed interested. and sent them freely to the schools of art and cersfts for uhibi tion. Everyone was clamcuring for his articles. The money- minded commercialism were not long in taking advantage of their popularity. Other houses decorated by Harris were the Old Swan House at Chelsea. Stamre Hell. and Stannore. the county residence of U. I. D'Arcy. The latter had beautiful hand-mainted ceilings with delicate ferns and dainty colors “like embroidery on old whi to silk (56).“ Morris' less important activities included the stage settings for two plays in which he may have hm! a small part as an actor. also. 56 Vallence. g. cit... p. 96. 41 lleedle work had been a part of the Oomany's business since its in- ception. In fact. women had been euployed as early as 1859 to make pieces for the Red House. Iron 1873 to 1883. this work was under the direction of Morris' daughter. Hay. Norris end Co. was especially prominent in the revival of ecclesiastic embroidery. and many beauti- ful crannies of their work can still be seen at the Bishop of Eochester's House of Deaconesses at Claphan. Norris. also. did ornamenting for the publications of the Socialist League. and it lust not be forgotten that his own literary works were often illuminated and illustrated by his- self or by the wood-carving of Burns-Jones. The final and crowning achievement in the field of crafts was undertaken by horris late in life. and has perhaps brought hi- as much single fame as any other one thing. his was the revival of hand printing. The printing of the Kelscott Chaucer by liliien Morris was a monumental work. and though it may have boa far out of the reach of the neJori ty. its beauty and influence have touched many. Norris was dissatisfied wit the printing of his day which he felt lacked everything hit legibility. He set up his own hand nress, designed three different types. and. of cmrse. planned his own illustrations and page makeup. witics say that the nsgee are beauti- ful but not readable: that the books are fine for means nieces. Per- haps in a world crowded with ugliness and cheanness as Morris believed Ehgland to be. and obviously it was. the need was for smething of this very nature. Peoples souls were being crushed beneath the bur- dens of each inery: even such a work of art night bring some uleaeure and a measure of relief. I . u' 'nsnflhuB‘ 42 It almost scene that Morris was trying to find for the printed page an equivalent of illusinat ion. and match the sunshine of the manuscripts with the splendour of‘a night of stars. He awakened a general interest in the production of volumes beautiful in evary feamrs in- cluding an annronriate type and an insistence unnn well- prooortioned nargins....The debt of the very large sub- sequent number of private presses to his imems. if not to his tyoograohical example. is incontestable (57). The paper in common use did not suit Norris. either. so with the help of Emery Halker he set abmt making some which was more to his liking. Only good white linen rags were used. No orc- c~ss was beyond his reach if there was a need for its 'product. If England had no teacher of the craft. he Journeyed to the Nether-la ode, to Peraia. or to France to learn it from an arti st there. More than any other non of his day he lived for the purpose of hellowing labor by art. and he devoted to it an energy and a variety of gifts without emel since the-days of the Italian Ren- aissance (58). Morris‘ interest in Gothic architecture and his belief in the value of the cast lead to the founding of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. He was becoming increasingly a- larmed at the nooulsriiy of the movement to ”restore“ the ancient buildings in England and on the continent. He spoke to many of his friends and gained their interest and euphort. in 187'? the Society was organized. and from that tires on he devoted a great deal of time and energy to its activities. He was Honorary 3ecretary and a member of the society until his death. The society owed more to him than to anyone else both for its origin and its success. “Should all else he 57 Crow. 21’: cit. p. 96. Holbrook Jackson. The Eighteen Kinetics. to. 245. \5" \‘W (Y es erer did be reprobsted or forgotten. he could yet confidently rest his title to be held in grateful remembrance of posterity for this signal service alone: and it is hardly possible to lay too much stress on his department of Mr. florris' work. or to owerrate the importance he himself attached to it (59).“ His attention was first directed to the urgency of the matter r! by his study of Ruskin. who had tmght that there were valuable lemons to be learned from the cast. that they cmld be learned by Q“ .m*. careful study of its art and architecture. and that every comment belonged partly to its builders and partly to posterity. The 're- storatinn" which was going on was really destruction and fraud. “The first step. ”Rus‘dn says. “is to dash the old work to nieces: the second is usually to put up the cheanest and basest imitation which can escape detection. It is a lie hon beginning to end. We have no right to touch them (60).“ Morris cri ticized the control of church buildings which was in the hands of clerg who had the power to destroy. or tear down these monuments belonging to all the people. Comissions were formed under the auspices of the society which attmpted to arouse interest in the matter in England as well as in France. Germany. Italy. and the Netherlands. Vnen officials failed to heed communications from the Society concerning the “restoration“ of some buildings. it became necessary to resort to an appeal in the London papers. Nany tines Norris was the one who wrote out the. nrotests and made the nost urgent 59 Vallence. $3. cit” v. 267. bi 60 thed in d.. 13. 2'70. \3" \‘l7 appeals for nrotection. In Rosenber. 1979. news reached England that St. Hark's in Venice was about to undergo restoration. Morris sensed the urgency of the situation and its seriousness. He seised upon it as an o~~portunity to anneal to Englanders and to those resnonsible as well. The agitation stirred up in England hod a decided effect in new. The news of the movement afoot in hgland caused considerable shame and annoyance to the Itelisn authorities. Hohably fiillisn Morr‘is' protests halted ultimats destruction. although the matter was brought up again some tine la tsr. In order to defray the expenses of the Society. the more ill- nnrtant lectures of its members were published in e collected volume in 1882. Among them were several by Morris. others by Richmond. Poole, Povntor. and Hichlethwaite. ‘At the June 4 meeting. 1885. the Society discussed the pro- posed “restoring“ of Westminster Abbey. Communications to those responsible were written under Morr is' direction. He vi sited York to pro test the destruction which was going on there. and, lectured con- sistently throzgh 1889 and 1890. Be orntested that present-«flay archi- tecture was more euncrintendence of buildings: there was no fooling for its arts or its materials. Certainly Herris' name was not unknown. Unon the occasion of his arrest for Socialist disturbances. he said. ”I am an artist and literary mun. nrctt}: well known. I think throughout Europe.” His friend and ascociate in the Society. walter Crone. says. ”The importance of the work which Morris did with his society - the work which that \‘U society carries on - can hardly be overestimated (61).” Stimlated by Morris' interest in the crefte and the Prince Coneort’e subvert. the Arts and Crafts Hoveaent received new impetus and life as the years went on. The group of artists who had gathered at the Bed Raise. visited Kelmscott and Hammersmith had grown consider- ehly. The government had shown interest in the ideas of art which ‘ these men were fostering. although the Royal Acadesy had so its ] nrinciplo sin the enconregesr nt of oainting and its exhibitions did I not include any craft work. In 1384 the Art worker's Guild was ' founded for the gunmen of strenghening the nosi tion of the crafts- man. Ruskin was one of the first. it will be recalled. to sneak out in defense of the wcrknen. who. he believed. deserved as much credit for fine work as the desiger. li‘he organisation grew and increased ranidly. finally incor- porating “The Fifteen.“ which was at band of artists holding monthly meetings under the direction of Lews nay. 'Die obJect of the Guild was to encourage work in fine crafts by orectical exoosition of different ert methods. social gatherings. conversations. timers and small exhibitions. at which each artist would be given proper credit for his work. Harris became a Master of the Society in 1892. and afterwards ranked as a Past Master. Iron this beginning similar smaller organisations and schools sprang up all over 1sliglend. Morris vi sited some of them often to deliver lectures. rive encouragement. and to loan his designs. Because the Royal London failed to recognise craft work as artistic eccomlishment. Iorris and his fellow artists felt the need 5‘ $21.1"va- \3° \‘i’l {tin ‘..|M|Q4{I .klfll‘t 46 for some means of getting their work before the public. me South Keneington flusmn had been founded for this purpose and Harris was delighted when the nut-lie was allowed to view the art work there more than a few hours s week. Out of this need grew the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society. Norris. though not the orirrinator was a co-foundsr. waiter Grass says of the Society. “It's aim is to assert the claims of the decora- tive designer and the craftsman to the position of art ist. and to give everyone resnwnsible in any way for the artistic character of a work full individual credit (62)." Morris can one of those who guaranteed financial aid for the exhibitions. me first one held in the autumn of 1888 was a land mark in the progress of the decorative arts in England. Designs. as well as the work itself. were displayed. Woodcarving and furniture. embroidery. taoestry. and Other textiles. glass and pottery. wall naners. leather and netel work. Jewellery. book decoration. printing and birding. each had a place. and there'was not one that Iilliam Morris. Master Craftsman. had not tried and done well! An interest in the crafts was created which spread to the continent and to America. Societies of various kinds were founded for the main purpose of stimulating activity in the crafts. The Society in London net oncea year with erhibi tions at the New Gallery in 1889. 1890. 1893. and 1896. Norris was elected president in January. 1981. a position he held until his death. His interest and guidance were the inspiration and mainstay of the Society throughout his aseociation with it. 62 meted in Valianco. 22. cit" p. 350. 4'7 Two other imor tent art gatherings had their initial meetings in 1888. The first was a Society for the Advancenmt of Art in Association with Industry. and the otha‘. the Art congress in Edin- burgh. which was followed by other meetings at both Edinburgh and Birmingham. in the field of printing. Horris made a valuable contribution to the Bibliographic Society in his paper. "he Idea]. Book.” presented November 21. 1892. He was also a fellow of the s‘ociety of Antiquaries of London to which he was formally admitted on Rosenber 22. 1894 and i to which be contributed valuable and important items fromh is own library for its exhibition in 1896. Among the more innortant schools of art ehich were founded as a result of Morris’ work are. the Birmingham School of Art. Royal College of Art at South Iansington. London County Council Schools of Arte and Crafts. and many others. Local societies called Hone or Cottage societies were founded in almost every village. Of cmrse. all were not producing great work: in fact. some probably harmed the cause of art more than they helped it. but the people were beginning to show an interest. and in that lion-is reJoiced. He was beginning to see re- mlts from his long struggle against disinterest and neglect: His drama of an art for the peonl». a pleasure to the user and the maker. had not been in rain: the first steps to fulfillment had already been taken. Of ilorris' death Vallance says. “It seemed impossible to imagine how one could do without his to whom one always looked for guidance. as supreme authority in everything relating to the decorative arts. We had come to regard him. living. as the permanent possession of the world of art (63).” The Graphic said. “His whole life was a vivid. and in many rcspects a succesfl-ful protest against the equalor of modern inrmstriausm. To him. more than to any other man. we on our emnci'cation from the Hideous vulgarity of lid-Victorian house dncoration and upholastry. Other. preached but William Morris no able to supplement precept by practice and visibly demnnstrate the guprriority of his method (64).” 53 Ibid.. p. 442. 54 Ibid.. p- 444. \ w \41 .(\ 49 Part 1? TV? RTNCEU'TIQE (I? TASTE The Bevelutisn of Taste with which we are concerned took nlsce in ins-laid as .2 direct result of the work. the teachings, end writings '3! William Morris. It had been well started in the field of art by the tubl icetinn of Ruekin'e Modern Painters in 18214. but it was net until 1861. when the firm Morris. Marshall. Faulkner and Co. was fo-mded. that there we. real evidence that something practical wmzld be done in the other £19163. The la tter phage reached its height during the 80's. and its peak with the ”.xhibition of 18.98. For our nurpose hare it will be necemsry to trace the history of taste in mglenfl thrmg’fh the Victorian period and to noint out a. we nraceed the extent to which tfi‘ill iem Morris and his associates in- fluenced the cinemas wich occurred. To definitely establish the point at which Morrie’ influence bepnn to effect taste will be entirely impossible. because as early as 1853-9 there was some infers-It in bi! work which may have bourne reel fruit sometime later. As eonn as the Red Hon-e we: built it began to attract- attentian. and. though the first spectator: were merely curiosity- seoakere, an ever widening circle gathered in its rooms to «license the new art. At first this included only painting in the Pre-Rapmputo tradition. but later through Vorrie' enthueislem it encompassed all the tarts. architecture as well as the various crafts. The 18th century had not yet seen the downfa’ll of aristocracy and its: civilization aimed at a life that IWld be beautiful and dignified with comparatively little regard for cerafnrt. A man of bread- \5“? \41 (9 in; was expected to be s as: of taste and to innose his cultured ideas not only on his surroundings but on the very landscape. The beautiful china and furniture of that tine were produced to meet the requirements of people with wealth and leisure enough to insist on living exquisitely. But the industrial TFV”1Ut10D changed that completely. The 19th centuny found the middle class in the ascendancy, the face of England dotted‘wifih factories belching forth great clouds of black smoke. and citias. once fair, crowded with the slaves of commerce. The tests of the>upner class nlunged downward. The bourgeoiss had no traditions of culture and were too absorbed in conpetition for a means of life to have much time for the refining graces. There was instant 9nd prolonged clemour fur machine-made nroducts. Hbmes were cluttered with hundreds of ugly. worthless trinkets. Halls were plastered with hideous commercial paper. lothing in the house gave it any semblance of’unity. Lucy Crone says. "fihe thinvs grow chosoor ycsr by yaer. end that can be the only reason shy‘peODle buy them: else if they thought about the setter, or even cared for the things themselves. how could they beer. as Mr. Morris says. ‘to nay a nrice for s niece of roads that will help to trouble one man, to ruin enoflxer, and to starve a third? (65)‘ " We cannot story now to dis- cure the social nhiloso hr of’this “ester and his puoil. though it is evident that it is closely allied to the attack which they made noon the art of their day. It was only natural that when cheap and specious household goods were: turned out of ‘rha new factories neonle jumped to stocking 55 Lucy Crone, Art and the rormntion of T'aste. p. 41. an“ ~ 51 their houses. Useless tawdry bits of glass. china and metal work, vases that wouldn't hold anything. candlesticks that wouldn't carry candles. and lame that wouldn’t turn. cluttered the interiors of the “square boxes” of the middle and lowa' classes. 'hat hone was there for real art. beauty. and pleasure in such an environment? Styles for these atrocities were executed by imitation of anything and everything within sight or nanory. lo one had any E particular knowledge of what Gothic furniture was like. but there . was much talk of the Gothic mode. so it was logical to make it apply. 4 file result was that chair. cone to look like rose windows and foo t- stools like tabernacles (66). um Gothic revival which had its be- ginning with Horace 'alnole a cmtury earlier was still giving to the neonle examples of its shallomess. its nretanae. and sham. Toward the middle of the century machine-made products were coming more and more to supersede craftsmanship. and Victorians seemed to be fast losing both the desire and the capacity to surround then- eelves with bwantii‘ul things. Everything pretended to be something that it was not. How florris hated this falsencss which showed itself in fiery nook and cranny of the average middle class hone. and more publicly in the movement to restore ancient churches! he houses them-- selves were “interminable rows of brick and slate boxes made to contain 'robots' instead of men (67).“ With the departure of taste in architecture and furniture went that of color and design. hrdette describes a tynical living room in the following passage. 66 Vihgfield-stratford, Those Earnest Victorians. n. 224. 7 Ibid., p. 227. 52 The ornate over-mantel. bristling with mirrors and vases standing unon obtrusive shelves. was s conepicious altar in honor of ugliness. Every object ministered to a mind diseased. to an artificial corruntion of taste that is without parallel. In the center of the mantel- niece was en ormoln clock (ugly) ticking beneath a glee: cover. and flanked on either side by a pair of hideous bronze horses. Against the ornate brass of the fender. twisted into fantastic coils. was I white hearth rug. and beyond. a florinted carpet that mimicked the con- torted never on the walls. Enormous dahlias in bright Colors pmed between the framed engravings of Dore: and the floor was studded with occasional tables and crowded whatnots. enri nkled with gilt albums end framed photo- granhs. Bright cushions renneed in the chaire. which germs-d to overflow into white lace antimacaeeare. Every- thing looked as if it was meant to be seen not used. and the windows were draped to heavily with double curtains that the blanket of stale air was the only neutral presence in the room. It was all dulln=ss and hynocrisy. ... Those which followed were the exact opposite in every particular (68). Before we leave this mid-Victorian disgrace. it met be remembered that the some struggle for show and elaborateness was Corried into all “hoses of middle-class life. Women's dresses lost all sense of ornnortinn and unity when great insertions and enlarge- ments were ar‘ded to them. The preposteroueness of the ei tuetion was cl ‘arly evirfiont but not willingly acknowledged. Utility had certainly Mneed on. t of erietence whm a young lady wee forced by the protrusion of her gown to remain standing in e. perfectly upright nosit ion though she doeired eVer so much to si t. Some one hos said that the Victorians ”set 001ch at and: ot her'o throats. or left them screaming at each oths' like lions in a. zoo. The most hideous disco rds were received with Joy. The blues and bottle greens of the dandies darkened into oblivion and e reign of universal dinganess set in (69).'I The whole reriod was thrown off balsnce and the worst testes of human nature were aroused and stimulated. 58 Cohort. Burdett. The Beardsley Period. p. 196. 9 Wingfield. Strum-d. 31;. cit.. p. 235. “2”“ ...—i- 5-... p.“ \3" \‘l7 53 ”The hard. ungradated. glaring. metallic brilliancy of the magentes. the mauwes. the emerald greens, and the unmitigated blues had names! Violins. roesine. fhchsine. saferine. emeraldine. ssuline. are a few: and sudi sickly purplish hue over-spread wagon to. after it had seen the sun a few times. and into what a greenish pallor mauve stuffs fesbly relapsed after a little wear (70)!” It is little wonder that Morris with his fondness for and ability to use color set out to reform: and it is not surprising that he started with his own home. Of his work in dyeing much has already been said. In the discussion of the lectures it will be recalled. we pointed. out that Harris appealed to the people to do away with the wall rarm's which were so inhermonicus. to use paint Very carefully. and to do whatever ass in their power to alleviate the drabness and ugliness with which they hzd surrounded themselves. flth the Company‘s production of an increased sunber of articles for household decoration. demand for wallpapers. textiles. and decorative pieces in- creased. lhough not mach of consequence was accolplished during its early years. it was evident by theBO‘s that a movement toward the revival of the arts and crafts was well underway and the increased receipts of the Company are positive proof. The age of ”square-boxes“ passed.nnd.that of the villa advanced. Accompanying the charge in architecture was the change in all artistic taste. The 1890's with their decadence and {in 19. siecle spirit brought with than the climax of art for art's sake. and the beginning of what is later called m Houveau. Morris' Philosophy of beauty which had been inherited from 70 1.. Crane. 23. 0112.. pp. 95-6. -- _ a“ rfir . . w \3V (V 54 Ruskin. and wl‘lichhad also been adopted by the Pro-Raphaelite painters and poets. and which was the very basis of the deaths-tic movement es- tablished as early as 1875, dwindled into the doctrine of Art for Art's sake. Bcauty hncame an obsession and was gradually identified with the fte‘ntastic and strange. Oscar Wilde and the Aest‘sletcs broke with Ruskin cormlctely. and the Socialism shich to Morris was a cause worthy of even his life. if necessary. we a yellow flower in ‘lilde's local. BP"'¢"]S].9y followed the Pro—Raphaelites. and "accormanied in art thn final overthrow of the cormlacency that had blinded Victorian eyes to the soirit-atroohy beneath the riches that it was accumlating. He showed the soul corru'nting beneath the weed: of commercial civiliza— tion (71).“ William Morris when he was dying. is said to have enjoyed .9. vi sit from Wilde more than from anyone else. though Norris was the reality of so much that Iilde profaned. 'i'ne Yellow 1925 was the sur- orising roa‘ization of the seed sown bv the 9.3.3 in 1851. The age of shoddy stood across the path of quality. and many who were set upon the high trail of excellence by the Arts and Crafts Moro-cent ended as devotees of fumed oak furniture. and what began as a great novement was in danger of ending as an emoty fashion with the word 'artistic' for 'shibholeth' (72). The final ou’come of the Morris “pavement was the somewhat modern but. neworthnless. closely related art. celled 'Mctionalism." This is characterised by emphasis upon utility and individualism. althmgh both are carried to extremes which Morris had not anticipated nor advocated. Morris believed that in order to be mod decoration must be useihl. and that avery artist was lini ted in the exercise of his individuality by the nature of his motorials. Functionalism in 3?; Burdette. 93. Cit" p. 14.1. L Jackson, 92, cit. p. 252. w-r-'——-‘ --~'~ m . .. \w \‘W 55 its new farm overthrew the latter idea entirely. Therefore. it is somewhat difficult to decide Just how far Morris' influence extended into the varied of modern art. some critics cannot reconcile modernity and mediavalism. and. consnouently. have little regard for thebflovement as a. whole. In the following pages an etfempt will be made to estimate Harris. influence and to define the limits of'the Revolution. It was perforce a revwlution in thought oceannanied in Varying degrees by a cheapo in taste. the? is. in action. “j": ‘W‘ "' "_‘ ‘-"""m \DU: \4’” 56 Part V CONCLUSION I do not know who are the better critice. contennorariee, who may be too close to Judge wisely. or men of a century later. who may be too far removed fro- the scene to have a oomnlete pic-- ture. The first. in the cane of Harrie. were nearly all peonle associated with him or followers in hie line of thought and work: waiter Crane. who founded the Arte and Craft. Exhibition Society. hie daughter Lucy. who took up the cause and lectured on the place of art in life, Lewie Foreman Day, whose little group of artiste became a next of the Art Vorker’e Guild. and the biograrshere, Ayner Vallence end B. Halliday Spar-ling. There are countleee other: who knew Norrie and new the work that he did. Their Judgment of him is. at leaet. coneietent in ite praise. of the other: are the peonle who felt that Villial Horrie‘ contributions to art were great enough to deserve content and in- mastication in later years. especially at hie centenary. Certainly a significant statement ie that of 'alter Crane written in 189?. the year following Horrie' death. Beginning with the houses of a comparatively limited circle. mostly artiste. the taste rapidly spread, and in a few year. Morrison patterne and furniture became the rogue. Cheap imitation on all eidee act in. commercial and fantastic persona. perceiving the net of the mrrent. floated thee- eelvee upon it, tricked themselves out like Jack- den and peacock” feather: and called it 'the aesthetic movement.’ These were the usual exceeeee indulged in by excitable per-one. and the inner meaning of the movement was temnorarily loet eight of un'ier a cloud of traviety and ridicule - until it was finally thrown aside for some new catch-word. \‘H (‘5 57 mess things were. hows-Var. but ripples or falling leaves noon the surface of the stream. and had but little to do with its sources or its depth. though they eight serve as indica- tions of the strength of the current (78). Of Morris‘ work. he says. “few men had a better understand- in; of the nature of Gothic architecture and a wider knowledge of the historic buildings of his own cmntry. and there can be no doubt _ that this green of the root and stem of the art was an enormous E advantage when he came to turn his ettent ion to the various subsidiary arts and handicrafts comprehended under decorative designs. The '3 . ”-1....3‘954... '.&."1) .... - s . ' ‘ thoroughness of his cathode of work and workmanlike practicality were no less remarkable than his amazing energ and conscity for work (74)." Vallance. who wrote several books and articles about William Harris and his work. said of him, “It is thus impossible to over- estimte the influence of 'illian Morris in the improvement of house-- hold taste. When he began his crusade against ugliness and had sent. the art of house decoration was at its lowest ebb. and there was little produced which was not positively repulsive both in execution and design. But thanks to Morris. the remedy for so deplorable a state of things is with us. In the establishment of the decorative firm which bears his name. he provides the public with both an illustration of his teaching and also a practical scans of putting it into effect in o'ne's own surroundings. 30w g'eat a multitude of houses he has thus directly or indirectly beautified none can tell - it is indeed incal- culable (75).“ He routed imitative and nosegay kinds of patterns. leaded and stained glass. He filled places of blank desoair: “the white marble man teloiece turned livid before rich tapestries and :i $0 0113.. p. 90-1e Ibid.. p. 91. 75 &e cit.. Do 144. \5U V?! (\v' desptoned wall papers was dismantled and sent to the church yard (76)." There was s return to the ol der and sounder ideas in domestic decoration and Mr. Harry Quilter says. “He has changed the look of half the houses of London and substituted art for ugl i- ness all over the kingdom (77).“ Day in Living A551 1903. outlines the work Villian Harris accomolished in his time and points out that he was the child of the Gothic revival. but that his stamp upon victor-ian ornament effaced __ — ‘ _ - x '4 ‘ the fainter imresaion of the elder generation at whose enthusias- his own had taken fire. The Pre—Ranhalite group also had its effect noon art and life. for to then art and 11 fe were interchangeable terms. and though Morris belonged to the grcu p. his influence lay in a somewhat different and sounder direction than that which broke off into the art for art’s sake and the Oscar Wilde brand. my also credits Morris with me reintroduction into modern ornament of natural forms which Given Jones and the reformers before his had been at pains to surpress: but Norris treated natural for. in relation b the thing he was designing (78).” Of the decadence of the 90's Lucy Crane writes. “Those genuinely interested in the present revival of taste will not be affected by ridicule - it is sure to disappear in time and no harm if it be driven away by satire and derision: but the sounder part that is founded on true principles and Just reasons will certainly last and serve as a good fouhdstion for a wider and better diffused knowledge of art than has yet been seen in our day (79).“ 75 Ibid.. p. 145, 77 Wt! in Valiance. 22. £113. p. 144. 8 0p. cit., o. 103, 79 E 611... n. 6.1. }_,_. \5u \‘i" 59 Some idea of Morris“ imoortanoe to the Society of Arts and Crafts may be gotten from the lecture. ”Of Art and Life." delivered by '1'. J. Cobdsn-Sanderson the day news reached the Exhibition that Norris was dead. “We met work. incessant work. with Beauty as our everlasting ain - this is the Villian Harris. this the memory of him. this tho light shining upon the darkness of the future which we all ought to enoraoh and abide by forever (80).“ ‘The later critics say similar things concerning his work. mrant wrote in 1908. “Harris stands out as the man who infused new life and soul into handicraft (81).“ Faraday agrees that it was Harris who rescued art and the accomanying crafts from a sadly diminished state and raised them to a position of respect and uro- nise. 'E‘ven if his name is seldom on our lios. or his books in our hands. his influence moves amongst us. even today. in inmnorabls ways. iforris‘ influence on me resaureotion of a tradition of fine nrinting permanently romaine. This is true of the rest of his work. also (82).” The work of Fillies Harris and his confreres was inportant and far-reaching. ‘fhe Norris Movement emoloyed the services of men who have distinguished places in the history of art. “Nobody nowadays can dispute the massive reality of his contribution to the beauty of life. or cavil at the claim that his influence upon taste and thought has been both widespread and permanent. The change has been largely imperceotible. but it has been lasting in its effect. There is hardly 8° 2. J. cobden-Sandorson. "or Art and Life.“ £E£g_egg_6rafts 81 Exhibition Society Lectures. o. 5. St. S. niranm—nfluences of William Morris.“ Westminster Review. Vol. CLXIY. p. 54?. Benton I. Evans. “willie: Harris. His Influence and Reputation.“ Oontemorary aeviaw. 701. MY. p. 316. _' Tm“ fl ‘ ‘7“ devil—S-“ f ‘~ ' A ' ‘3'? V” (Y 60 e single object in daily and habitual use among”us which has not in some say received the inoress of the movement inaugurated by his (83).” The1greetest controversy over Morris“ greatness seams to have arisen. not in Ehglend shore there seened to be little question about the revolution effected hy him. but in America. and it continues econ; Americans even to this day. William Bradley and Willie: Bently disagree very widely as to florris’ influence. Bradley says his designs in furniture. tapestry. sell honor. etc. did not noticeable stir either his fellas artists or his students but they were stimulating (84). no questions even the influence of Morris' revival of orinting and its Value outside of uro- ducting museum pieces. Bentley is caustic in his rsnly. “If florris' oroducts did not stir artists and students then 'the‘ninsties' must have surpassed even our own tines in sniritunl apathy. a fact which many of us have long susnected (85).“ He agrees with Albert it. Bender. s San Francisco netron of the arts, who noid. l'ilorris as a designer marked the end of the victorien ers of walnut and horsehair. and many living rooms of San Trancisco sure the better for the change. Even the ertis tic and anatomical deficiencies of thenost widely adopted of his i'oovations. the Morris chair. failed to dampen the enthusiasm of his hosts of‘locel admirers. His service in the field of'printing was enormous. and we here in California hare hover out to felt that say about Iillian Morris (86).“ :2 Swirling, 23. 311.. on. 115-6. Iilliem Bradley. “William Horris. Review of 31s Influence.“ Publishers wookiy, Vol. cxxv. n. 1373. Villiam BentT:§T-“Horris' Influence. Reply to W. Bradley.“ Publishers 33:511. Vol. CXIY.‘p. 1783. Robert Miller. Salute to e Press.“ Christian Science Honitor (July 6. 1940). p. 12. 86 \‘i’l (v 61 i‘hese, I realize are not directly connected with the history of Euglish taste. but if we set the boundaries of Harris influence and the change it brought about. we are forced to include the United States. Germany (especially. in the field of'printing). Irancs. (in m Houveau). and someone has said even the entire world. To be are. all critics do not agree with the oninion thus far expressed here. Let us examine the. other side and then draw our conclusions. Ledd. in his very comprehensive and scholarly book. Victorian Horalitz _o_f’ Art. has given this estimate of the Morris Hovenent: Social theories brought forth the Arts and crafts Societies. offspring of Victorian despair and e ais- epnlied Pletonisn. doomed fron their birth to an un- social life among smsitive though maladjusted men and neurotic sninsters. for the “Arts and Crafts" are in themselves leisure class products of an in- dustrial age. The art impulse in industry. in eny genuine sense. had to come by the attraction of nan to the machine. Ruskin's alienation of the machine led Norris to a reactionary medievalisn which was abortive. Individual and mass was already the inevitable tern cf industrial thought (37). Jackson isn‘t quite so vicious in his criticise. for he be- lieves Morris contributed s great deal of good to the movement. but he does say tht the “outward effect was not so gent as it light have been. for conditions under shich lion-is end his group sorted were so fer removed from conditions of the average economic and industrial life of. the tines. as to apnea? impractical for gaeral adaptim.....i'he members did pioneer sort. stepped back into the pest toward fine standards and sound tradition of workmanship. 3" Henry Andrews Ledd. [he Victorian Morality 3; Art. pp. 313-4. 62 therefore. their work. excellent though it is. looks end is archaic. The best craftsmanship of the 1890's was outmoded at its birth (39).“ Crow says his ears general and permanent influence was actually hindered by his own success. in that (l) competitors could not {0110' his lead because he see the head of the commercial company. and, (2) his imoact noon his age engendered the craze for Art Uonveau. which became so debesed and ridiculous as largely to discredit its innocent urogenitor. Bis influence upon contemporary design was actually smell. but the immlee of his example animates all that is ‘w—x' s _ -.—_*.-n‘- . ’ ' , ... ‘ i best in modern craftsmanship. wherever nen exec-.1 te their con designs (89). Vingfield-Stretford. eminent historian. has evaluated fins Morris novement in this say: “The forlorn homo! lillian Morris to revive the arts and crafts of en idealised Gothic in the midst of a machine age is along the nest heroic episodes in the war of divine spirit in nan for liberation. ... Heavinese night endure for a night. tut shoddy coneth in the morning (90).“ Certainly this wee one thing Horrie failed to consider. be- cause he abhorred it and therefore ignored it: the real strength of industrialisn. In 1893 another exhibition was sponsored by the Arts and Crofts Society of London. and Beamans. who reviewed the work there felt that there was little of reel value on disoley. A few items. among which Mr. Horris’ were most prominent. attracted some atten- tion. '1! it (the work) can honestly be called representative. then t. . pp. 251-4. 00. 85"“ :it.. p. 115. Vic to rani Sunset. p. 10.“. 8mg 63 indeed must the Art: and craft. of‘Ehgland.have fellen to a lower level than ever before (91).“ The due exemption was u.rng'of Morrio‘ design which “in no restless and deciling in pattern and color alike that it in an offenco- nther than a :31me to the «70 (92).“ R. attack. not only the arrange-mot hit the selection a. tell. declaring that, as was to be expected, prejudice had.ruled the selection and fee things vere included which did not cone Iron Hr. Harrie. 00mm (93). Lever in bi. biz-ogrephy of Jane. Whistler cay- that Horri- and his friends, uith their love of beauty. had only’uucreeded in cluttering the houses of thoir patron. with note bric—a-brac, Iodinnl instead of‘nid-Victorian. but none the lee- inepnrOpriete and diotnote- fol. 'ith the Panel. he cake the question, “men would thq learn the lesson of Japaneoe :imnlicdty and epfirOpriateneco that 'hietler would tnoch them? He had tried to intmducc them to Japanese at. and all they bod done we. to case it in heap: on the toe of their al- ready crowded cabinet. and cideboerdl (94) .' The most etirr ing et‘eck which the Fennel: mke anon Harris in one that is often node. 30 preached that all {tinge coefal should be beautiful. that art sprang from the peoole and ohould return to the peeple. but in practice he mde it impossible for the people to on or often even to on the work which he maintained was their. by right. To decorate a bone. as he wished it to be decorated needed a millionaire patron. “And then it.vao finiihed it wocld reoecble a 99 “Art: and. Crafts in London.” Nation. Vol. 1111’. p. 2971. ‘ ’ Ibid, '0. 284. 93 Tb:d.. p.285. 94 Jane. Laver. Whistler. 1). 173. 14th century caetle. beautiful. but 19th century oeople would he so diecordent within it that a coetune. a language end a. life would have to he invented for then. lhile Norrie wee buoy preaching art for the neonle. he would run up a bill for 35.000 in decorating a room. making it no precioue that the owner hardly dared to go into it. ... with hie death hie nereonel oowere ceased. Hie work left its mark. but only that wallpapere and cretonnee night become core gor- geous end elaborate in color. on they became cheeoer in other oeonle'e hands. Here my: ere need then before hie day. flare neonle eit upon what are called Norrie choire. though with the deeign of the beet Morris had nothing to do (95)." If we I'lould forget that these latter critics are, nerhape, prejudiced ndmirere of Hhietler end his art, we night conclude that erery person who seen any good in the change from aid-Victorian taete to that of the following decadee ie entirely wrong. Tint we cennot do in the light of the etudy we have made. William Norrie was a ohiloeooher. a eocieliet. n roennticiet. end & nedievelie t. but he wee not on inpoetor. nor an initntor of out- worn idenle nor objecte of art. He loved England no he knew who nuet have been during the age of her greet and bountiful buildings. And for her people to conceive end conetruct Inch beeuty. he believed that they must have been happy in their work. She: were unhenpered by machinery. working intimately with their meteriele and executing the designs out of their heerte and souls. Wee it not logical that if pleeeent obj ecte had once been produced by the union of head. heart. and hand, they night nleo be again? And. wee it too Inch to 95 Joseph and Elizabeth Fennel. "Shietler on Decorator,“ Centtu'z, Vol. LXXIIII, on. 502 and 504. " Tia-13 m A ’ o-amfir— i‘g‘ fin?" \w \41 65 suppose that these things night be accepted by a people who by aid- century were not only slaves to machines and filth and dirt. but lived in flhe moot ugly and unpleasant surroundings conceivable? Kerrie. who had Ruskin to guide his in an early understand- ing of nature and of Gothic. set out to revolutionise society by re- viving one bv one the almost extinct arte and crafts. If he had not t been a true artist. hie wot-Irma doubt would have fallen such farther ehort of its real goal than it did: but he was no ordinary craftsman. We have the painting on the wall! at Oxford Union. the fine tapestry. 3' - silks. chintsee and woole at the Victoria-Albertrfluseun. and the Kolnecntt Chaucer. not the least of hie great works. to attest hie greatness. it is not hard for as to believe that once a.people were awakened to their folly. they would not be long in discarding their “fine horsehair furniture and their draperies.“ their wooden doors that looked.like bronze or marble. and the dozens of knicknacks that crowded the dozens of ornate and.carved whatpnote and tables. Ibrrie' nieces did replace these atrocities. and'his ideas of interior decora- tion did not always fall on barren ground. The editcr of Graftenan in the first edition said that.the none of Harris was a household word in America. Could it be such less in the country of his birth where the results of’hie vigorous and active life could etill be seen and used and admired? I an inclinded to agree with Jackson in his estimate of the Arts and crafts Hovenent. \‘l’l 66 Ihetever their theories. their ectivitiae produced a notable effect unon teete in all lettere relating to architecture and the decorative and useful erte. end permeated more particularly the taste of the middle cleeeee in Greet Britain. spreading from then to krone and America. To e greet extent pronegenda wee carried on by example rather than by precept. and thie nee made poeeible by the existence of so may craft-em of ability and repute (96}. That lilliee Norrie one the greeteet craftsmen of then all ie unqueetioneble. and. though hie influence upon teete may not have been ultimately good in every ceee. he affected 1: revolution of no emell coneeeuenoe. Yallence eoye. "for there needed not the peet ten years to spread hie false :0 much lore exteneively. but that. had he eo choeen. he night have claimed Jnetly. eren in 1885. to be known in the four conti neute. There ie no quarter of the globe but containe either eteined gleee. carpets. tepeetriee. or other vorke of art from the firm of Harrie end Cmpany. 1t ie. therefore. e snore-e echieve- nent of Iilliel Merrie to have brought art. through the median of the handicrafts. within reach of thoueende: hie distinction. by decorating the lens pretending, but not lees necealm ”fiction of hmcfiold mrniehing. to have done lore than any can in the preeent century to beentify the olein. ereryday hone-life of the people (97).“ 96 97 (1259—53. p. 250. l l \W \«1' (Y ~— rv VJ 3131mm Part I A. Generel Reference and Bibliogreohical Material Cambridge Bibliogreotq of mlieh Literature. Vol. iii, Gwenbridge. England. 1941. Dictionary of Rational BiographyL Stephen Les. ed... annulment. ord Univereity Pfeee. 1885-1901. Queen. Deily. saith. Bibliograohiee of Twelve Victorian Authore. New York. 1930. W Engclggedia Britannica. Vol. xv, "William Kai-rim" Onicago. 1929- 19:55. E. Background Katerial (Books) Arnetrong. Sir Walter, Art in Great Britain and Ireland. lee York. 1909. Beneon. Eduard Prederic. Ae Ie Were: A Victorian Peep Shoe. London and New York. 19:10. Climbers. Tran}: P... The History of Taste; lee York. 1932. Clifford. C. 3.. Period Ihrniehinge. Rev York. 1914. Ootchett. Incretia Eddy. The Evolution of hrniture. London. 1939. Coo. Mabel. he Arte and Crafte Exhibition. meuick. Allen. 1896. Crane. Lucy. lrt and the Formation of Taste. Boeton. 1889, Crane. halter. Ideele in Art. London. 1905. .....uggliam Norrie to lhietler. London. 1911. l'eradey. Cornelia Batman. Fnrooean and Aeerican Cerpete and Bugs. Grand Rapids. Iichigan. l§2§. roakee. i'recioricir. and Jackeon. John. Social Life in hgland, 1250- 1850. lee York. 1916. Rani-Cl. Paul T.. New Dinoneione. lev York. 1926. - .‘ if“)! ‘Tr-{fifi—K-M 1. _. Gardner. Helen. Art through the egg. New York. 1926. Oiedion. Sigh'ied. Space. Tine and Architecture. Cambridge. vane” 1941. Gilbert. Katherine. and Kuhn. Helmut. A Hietory of Bethetice. Nee York. 1939. Heuffer. Ford Hadox. The he-Baphaelite Brotherhoodj London. 1920. Hunter. George Leland. Decorative Textiles. Grand Rapids. lichigan. 1918. Inge. 'illien Ralph. The Victorian Age. unbridge. Miami. 1922. Jackson. Holbrook. The Eighteen Hinetiee. lee York. 1925. Johnson. Charles. English Art from the 17th Centurz to the Preeent. New York. 1932. King. Robert Wylie. England from Wordsworth to Dickene. lee York. 1928. Ladd. Henry Andrews. ‘i‘he Victorian Horality of Art. lee York. 1932. Lever. Inflammation low York. 1930. Legouie. Eeile and Caeanein. Louie. flietory of Englieh Literature. Rev York. 1935. Moree. Frances Clary. firnimre of the Olden Time. In York. 1941. anther, Richard. The Hietor} of Igdern Printing. lee York. 1896. hukin. John. godern Painters. Boeton. 1873.. .......3even Leone of Architecture. New York. 1880. . ..... .Stonee of Venice. 3 vole. Foeton. 1851. .......i'vo Pathe. Nev York. 1879. Baylor. Oliver 34.. Revolt in the ‘rte. lose York. 1930. Tallnadge. homee 3.. The Story of England“ Architecture. New York. 19:34. Thomson. William George. A Eietory of Tapeetrz from Earliest Times. London. 1930. Twining. Edward 3.. The Art and craft of Stained Glaee. London. 1928. - . .le t 0 ~ :I_“('A' ' \30 \‘i‘l (\ 'ingfield-Stretford. “Isa; Cecil. Those Eel-nut Victorians. In York. 1930. .......'1‘he Victorian Aftermath. lei York. 1934. ......._!);e Victorian Sunset. Hem York. 19:32. Young. George Helooln. Early Victorian England. Vol. 99. London. 1934. .......Yictorien mgland. Portrait of an Age. London. 19.16. Part I! a. Critical and Biographical Material ’1. Book. Brief Sketch of the Iorril Hovenent. London. 1911. Burdett. Chbert. Ihe Beardslez Period. London. 1925. Burne-Jonee. Georgienne. Emoriele of Sir Edward Rune-Jones. 2 vole. London. 1904. Carfiy. Zuzana: Luther. The Rossettie. In York um London. 1900. .......!illiea florrie. Poet. Craftsman end Socioliet. '9' York. 1902. mutton-Brook. Arthur. Iilliam liorriez Hie work and Influence. London. 1931. Crow. Gerald 1-1.. Iillien Harrie. Designer. London. 19:54. My. Levin Yoremen. Decorative Art of Willie: Harrie end Hie a’ork. London. 1899. lbreman. Henry 3.. The Books of"illinn Norrie Dbecribed with lone Account of Hie Doin e in Literature and in the Allied 6 refte. London. 185-7... Leethan. James. lillien Harrie. Hooter of ”an: Crafts. London. 1900. hackail. J. 1.. Life and Work of William Harrie. HeI'Yorkrand London. 1899. .......‘lillian Harrie and Bio Circle. New York. 1901. ”3,1111pr, Henry Currie. The Merrie Movement. London. 1917. ‘0. (\‘L. "(do . '- ‘ \M—3 1 \‘fi «’1 A; A ——,———~- ‘— Maesingham. Harold J.. The Great Victorians. lee York. 1932. Hayes, Alfred. 'illial Norrie. London. 1928. Phelan. ire. Anna 1.. 33m Social 3111er33! of Iillien Norrie. mentor I. "the Relation of Art to Li e. rhea. orth Carolina. 1927. Ransom. 3111. Private Preeeee and Their Books. leer York. 1929. snarling. H. Halliday. The Kelnecott Preee and Iilliae Norrie. Maeter Craftsmen. £0ndon. 1924. " Yallence. Ayner. The Art of Iillial florrie. London. 189?. .......'i'he Late Villian Norrie. Craftsmen and Poet. London. 1896. ......J’Lllian MerrieL Hie Art. Hie Uritinge. flie Public Life, London. 1898. Weekley. Montague. William nan-1.. London. 19:34. 2. Articles “in. and Crafte in London." lation (ILL). 701. m: (October 19. 1393). pp. 284-5. Aehbee. Chfirlee Robert. “meineee of Norrie and Co.“ Houee Beauti- ggl. '01. mm: (March. 1910). pp. 101-2. ......."‘!he use and heir Goepel.“ Renee Beautiful. Vol. XXVI! (February. 1910). pp. 75-77. Deneon. Arthur GirietOpher. ”hummus and 711111” Horns." Phthan'e. m1. 111 (January. 1908). up. 4:59.45. ""‘""""' Bentley. 'illiam. "Horrie'e influence. Reply to '. Bradley.“ flihliehere Weeklel. Vol. CXXV (may 12. 1934). p1). 1782-3. Blore. George Henry. 'Iillian Norrie. Craftsman.“ Victorian Vora- Bradley. William. ”“1112: Harrie. A Review of file Influence.‘ Publishers 199111.11. '01. our (April 7. 1934). pp. 1373-6. Carey. Elizabeth Luther. 'i’oe Real Demratorf Draftsman. Vol. xxx (May. 1916). pp. 207-3. """""""" Crane. tangy. «111m: norm.“ Scribnere. V01. In: (July. 1897). up. 88-98. \5»: \‘i"! 71 Day. Lorie foreman. "tilliem Norrie and Rio Art.“ Art Journal. vol. LXI (January. 1899). pp. 1-32. ......."Iillian Morris and Hie Decorative Art.I Livia 5e. Vol. ccxxmu (June 11. 1903). pp. 102-9. mrant. William Scott. “Influencee of Iillia torrie.“ Ieetmineter Review, 701. 61.117 Way. 1908). pp. 542-9. mryea. Hilton 9.. 'Oobden-Sendereon’e Garden at Hemereeith. with glimpeee of the Gardme of William Norrie and Hoeeetti.’ Scribnere "fiflifib Vol. uxxxv (July. 1923). pp. 25-34. Ellie. Inward. “Iiilian lorrie.‘ I" Republic. Vol. “I”!!! (Septem- her 2. 1936). pp. 103-9. ”mglieh Art in the Victorian Age.“ fill-rterlz 3671'”. 701. am” (January. 1998). pp. 220-2. Evens. Benton 1.. “Villian Harrie. Hie Influence and Reputation.“ Contemgorarl Review. Vol. CXLT (March. 1984). pp. 315-23. Haml in. A. DJ... “L'Art Rouveau: Ite @1511: and Developnent.' . Craftsmen. Vol. 111 (Decanber. 1902). on. 129-43. Jackson. Holhrook. 'lillian Harrie and the ‘rte and Crafte.‘ Book Collector'e Qtarterly. No. 14 (”rib-June. 1934). pp. 1-10. ......."lillien Norrie. hpercraftemanfl TL)“. Weeklel. '01. :11. (June 5. 191:5). p. 709. Jnmee. George Wharton. "Iilliae lorrie the Han.“ Craftenan. Vol. 71 (January. 1905). pp. 412-90. Miller. Robert. “Salute to e Prue." Ohrietian Science Nonitor. lion. up. 12. 5.1: e. 1940. __ modern Development e in Ballard Art.‘ Edinburgh Review. '01. 001111 (January. 1911). pp. 169-79. Norrie Societl. cnicego. Illinoie. Mlletin (Monthly). 701. 1-11. (mirage). 1003-5. "Ir. Norrie end Hie Vail Papen." Literary world. Vol. XXVI! (October 17. 1896). p. 346. “lee Beneaterencee of Oeonr Wilde and William Harrie.“ mrreot Oninion. 1701. mm (mguet. 1921). pp. 226-9. Fennel. Joeeph and Robine. Elizabeth. “lhietler ae Decorator. Conner- ieon of the Influence of Ihietler and that of Willian fiorrie.‘ Oantug. Vol. unm (February. 1912). pp. 500-13. \‘i’i (\ 72 “Portrait? Qhrietian Science Honitor. Hon. 93p. 9. he: 4. 1940. "The Pro-Raphaelitee and Ii’heir Influence upon Life.“ Eouee Beautiful. 701. um (Farah. 1910). pp. 101-2. Princep. Victor. “Oxford circle}I magazine of Art. Vol. XXV!!! (February. 1904). pp. 167-72. Robertson. Louie. “Reviving the Spirit of Willie: Morris." nee and Garden. '01. XL! (Avril. 1922). p. 43. Rolline. Carl Purlington. “new Merrie Item." Sammie; Review of Lit- ereture. '01. 1!. (September 29. 1934). p. 151. Sargent. Irene. "Beautiful Books.“ graftemogL Vol. I (Apri1. 1902). p”. 17-200 ......."1.ifo. Art. and Influence of William Morris.“ Craftemn. V01. 1 (October. 1901). pp. 1-14. .......“Morrie and Co.. Decoratore.” Craftemag. Vol. I (October. 1901). on. $338. Shaw. Arthur. "Versatile William Morris." Golden Book.'Yol. XI (Augiet. 1934). pp. 168-70. Yallmce. Asher. “000:! Furniture cnd Decoration of the louee: Wallpaper.' Magazine of Art. '01. 11711! (March. 1904). pp. 224-233. Vent. Geoffrey. “lillian lorrie. lien Creative." 2201:1091: (London). 701. um (March. 1934). pp. 472-4. "' thitaker. mar-lee Henry. 'Iillian Harrie.“ American Regain. of Art. n1. xxm (August. 1934). p0. 436-8. route. P111111). 11.. "11,1 and racism." American 11359111. of Art. '01. XXVI! (menu. 1934). pp. 480-5. Part 1!! A. worke of 'illiee Norrie 1. Eepeye end Lecturee 1877 Th. Lcceer Arte 1879 i'he kt of the People 1879 Making the neet of It 1880 The Beauty of Life 1881 The Praepecte of Architecture \51. \‘V‘ (i 73 1881 Art end the Beauty of the Earth 1881 Some Hints on Pattern—dodging 1882 The History of Pattern neeiain‘ 1884 'i'he Keener kte of Life 1884 Textile Pabri ca 1884 Architecture and Hilton 1886 me Revival of Architecmre 1888 The Revival of Handicraft 1888 Art and It: Pmducere 1889 The Arte and Watts Today 1890 Art and Induetry in 14th Century 1890 The External coverings of Rooi’e 1892 Influence of Building: Materials Upon Architecture 1893 leetnineter Abbey 1894 An Addreee 2. Other- 1888 Item of John Bell 1891 Fees fi‘om Bodiere 8. Arts and Crafts Lectures Art end Life. and The Buildings and Decoration of Cities. A Seriee of ecturee by Members of the Arte anti CreTte E1151: ion Society Delivered at the 5th Exhibition of the Society in 1896. Lon- don. 1897. Arte and Crafte Exhibition Society (London). Arte end Crafts linen]! by members of the society. London. 1893. “I'.. ”II; ‘ I" ' .P-J \‘V (\ .v:»u.. .o vlpvt .. .JA:.OIID11~OIDI|II i,» l III!IP4|I‘I-II|I.IDI.IIIJIJQIIII¢I ill I DI‘lu 0101:. ..!.tcoi. 4;-..nuiy. .vu.» vlovl.. Id In 2. .01: .1. 1:. c on HICHIGQN STRTE UNIV. LIBRRRIES I III Ill 1 II III | 1 312930 84 3488