g ,5 g ,2: g; 5 g

 

“,9 . "3‘133
’ l
9.). M)‘ ‘

  
     

  

M I _ .
750 LIBRARY
77] 3 Michigan State

University

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.
TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due.
MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested.

 

DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5/08 K./Prolecc&Pres/CIRC/DaleDue.indd

 

 

 

 

 

[hip-ti...

\I‘chlOO-ll IUD-F9: '.

 

.n.i§il_:5...~.o. . . ..

?.tl..|.!l.tl

 

 

 

 

THE [from 0F COMMUNICA TION
IN UNI VERSI TT AD UL T ED UCA TION
IN BIAFRA

BT NJOKU 4W1:

 

 

THE ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN UNIVERSITY

ADULT EDUCATION IN BIAFRA

BY

Njoku E. Awa

A SENIOR THESIS

for the degree of

BACHELOR OF ARTS

Presented to
The Department of Communication
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan

March, 1969

The former Eastern Region of Nigeria was proclaimed

 

the independent Republic of Biafra on May 30, 1967.
Throughout this work, Biafra, rather than Eastern Nigeria,
will be used except where quotation from other works or
logical presentation of historical events urge the use of
the latter name. In any event, the author's reference to
Eastern Nigeria does not imply recognition of the existence

of such a region in Nigeria.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF TERMS . .

The University of Ibadan . . . . . .
The University of Biafra . . . . . .
Focus of the Thesis. . . . . . . . .
Definition of Terms. . . . . . . . .
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . .

Literature on Adult Education. . . .

Literature on Communication and
Biafra's Receptivity to Change . .

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

III. COMMUNICATION IN UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN'S
EXTRA-MURAL WORK . . . . . . . . . . .

How and Where Extra-Mural Courses
Were Organized . . . . . . . . . .

Communication Channels and Audiences
Reached. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IV. COMMUNICATION IN UNIVERSITY OF BIAFRA
ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAM. . . . . . . .

Communication Channels Used and
Audiences Reached. . . . . . . . .

iii

Page

12

12

15

18

21

23

26

33

34

Table of Contents (Cont.)

Chapter Page
V. MODEL OF COMMUNICATION FOR UNIVERSITY

ADULT EDUCATION WORK . . . . . . . . . . 43

VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . 50

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

iv

THE ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN UNIVERSITY

ADULT EDUCATION IN BIAFRA

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF TERMS

The purposes of the present thesis are (1) to com-
pare the communication channels used by the University of
Ibadan and those used by the University of Biafral in
their adult education programs in Biafra; and (2) to pro-
pose an ideal communication model that can help adult
educators overcome the bottlenecks that reduce the effect
of their messages in rural areas.

University adult education differs from ordinary
adult education work in that while the former is concerned
with university level courses, the latter is concerned
with basic literacy training. Furthermore, university
adult education is organized and run by a university as

part of its commitment to the community supporting it.

 

1Before Biafra's independence in May, 1967, the
University of Biafra was known as the University of Ni-
geria, Nsukka.

Literacy classes, on the other hand, are conducted by the
Ministry of Education in Biafra. Other adult education
activities that take place in a developing country, such
as Biafra, are those conducted by religious bodies and
other voluntary agencies seeking to develop in their ad-
herents an aptitude for reading. The purpose in this
kind of adult education campaign is to deve10p a nucleus
of literate "elite" within a religious organization so
that the teaching of catechism and other religious liter—
ature will be decentralized. Usually, the university
adult education department tries to coordinate the ac—
tivities of all the other adult education agencies within
its territory. In general, it does not duplicate or usurp
the functions of these other agencies.

This thesis is concerned with university adult
education in Biafra. It will be necessary to describe
briefly the nature of the program as it was conducted by
the sponsoring agencies. Between 1949 and 1962, the Uni-
versity of Ibadan conducted adult education work in the
whole of the former federation of Nigeria. From 1962 till
1967, the University of Biafra, Nsukka, was responsible

for this work in Biafra. Let us examine first the

University of Ibadan's extra-mural program and then that
of the University of Biafra in an effort to provide a
preamble for a more detailed consideration of the programs

in later chapters.

The University of Ibadan

This university conducted extra-mural courses in
Biafra for over 12 years. It is located in the densely-
pOpulated town of Ibadan in Western Nigeria, nearly 400
miles from Enugu, the capital of Biafra. For the period
that it sponsored adult education work in Biafra, the
University of Ibadan received an annual subsidy of $11,200
from the Government of Biafra. A lean budget, and in
particular, inadequate information about the program
limited the University of Ibadan's extra-mural program to
the urban areas where mass media facilities were concen—
trated.

On the whole, the number of extra-mural centers
established by Ibadan fluctuated between 11 and 13. At
the time that it finally gave up responsibility for adult
education work in Biafra, it had 11 centers. There were

23 classes in these centers with an enrollment of 481

students. Announcement of the courses was usually made
in national newspapers. Unfortunately these newspapers
had a large circulation in the metropolises and a very
scanty circulation in the rural communities where a great
majority of elementary school teachers lived and worked.
Even if these teachers read the announcement, they needed
more information about the program, its goals and objec-

tives.

The University of Biafra1

It must be noted that the University of Ibadan had
done a lot of spade work in arousing the intellectual
curiosity of extra—mural students in Biafra. When the
University of Biafra launched its adult education program

in 1962, it had to take advantage of the eXperiences of

 

1It may be advisable at this point to acquaint the
reader with the credentials of the writer. He was involved
in the extra-mural work of both universities. Under the
University of Ibadan he was the regional president of
Extra—Mural Students Association-—an influential pressure
group that used all the resources at its command to organ-
ize a systematic campaign for the expansion of the program
to rural communities in Biafra. At the University of
Biafra, he was the organizer of extra-mural courses in the
whole country from 1963 till 1966 when he left Biafra for
the U.S. for further studies. Upon his return to Biafra,
he hOpes to resume duty in the Extra—Mural Division of the
University of Biafra.

Ibadan. For the University of Ibadan, some of these ex-
periences had been frustrating, others rewarding. The
University of Biafra was guided by the initial failures
of its predecessor in developing a self-conscious program
capable of overcoming the teething troubles which usually
retard the success of a new undertaking.

With the same amount of subsidy from the Govern-
ment of Biafra, the University of Biafra's Continuing
Education Division had, by 1966 organized 167 classes in
36 centers with over 3,000 duly registered students. This
phenomenal rise in the number of centers, classes, and
students was due in part to the proximity of the univer-
sity to the centers, and in part to the multiplicity of
communication channels with which larger and larger audi-

ences were reached.

Focus of the Thesis

One question that has always agitated peOple's
minds and one which has not yet been adequately treated
concerns the role of communication in university adult
education. Why was the University of Biafra's Adult

Education Program more successful than that of the

University of Ibadan? To what extent is the acceptance
or rejection of an innovation determined by the amount of
information that people have about it? This paper will
describe in detail the communication channels that each
university used, and relate their effectiveness to the
degree of success achieved by each of the universities
concerned.

It should be realized that the interest of adult
educators in developing countries has never been limited
to the sponsoring of educational activities p§£_§§, Their
interest has always included the broader theoretical area
of "education for modernization." If we accept the con-
cept that education or even literacy is a key antecedent
to modernization, then adult educators in develOping
countries would have to be more aggressive and more real—
istic in their campaign to eradicate illiteracy. Develop-
ing countries are no longer impressed with adult education
programs designed for broadening the mental horizons of a
privileged few. It is important that adult education
planners in deve10ping countries be conversant with the

exposure habits of the audiences they intend to reach, so

as to select the right channels for their messages. For

this reason, this paper will evaluate:

l° The degree to which an inadequate flow of infor-
mation impeded the growth of adult education work

in Biafra under the University of Ibadan.

2. The channels that the two universities used in
transmitting their messages in order to find the
relationship between channel and penetration of

messages in rural communities.

3. The extent to which the two—step flow of commun-
ication enhances consumption of mass media mes—
sages through opinion leaders in the city and in

Villages.

4. The effect of mass media messages about university
adult education programs upon an urban consumer on
the one hand, and upon a village consumer on the

other hand.

At the end we shall propose a communication model
that could prove effective for reaching the different seg—
ments of the audiences for whom university adult education

messages are intended.

Definition of Terms

Extra-Mural Courses: This is a British terminology
for university extension courses. As the name implies,
extra—mural courses are university courses offered outside
the walls of the sponsoring university. In the United
Kingdom, people enroll in these classes for "enrichment"
courses. In some cases students attend the classes for
the purpose of improving their professional competence
through exposure to research findings in certain fields.

In most developing countries in West Africa, extra—mural
courses are regarded by the students as a means to an
end--the end being the possession of a recognizable cer—
tificate. The difference is in orientation. While the
British extra—mural students may be very gainfully employed
in factories, schools, mercantile houses, etc., their West
African counterparts would probably not be so employed.

It is, therefore, rediculous to expect a poorly-paid person
to pay fees for "enrichment" courses which would yield
neither material nor social benefits to him and his family.

Adult Education: Broadly speaking, adult education

 

refers to the whole spectrum of part—time classes, from a

basic literacy campaign to university credit courses given

to students who are technically described as adults.1
University adult education means the same thing as extra-
mural courses. The program attracts mostly post-secondary
students who wish to satisfy university entrance require—
ments through the General Certificate of Education or those
seeking promotion and social mobility by the possession of
the same certificate. This is particularly true of the
case in developing countries.

General Certificate of Education:eG.C.E.: This
certificate is issued by the University of London and other
higher examinations syndicates in the United Kingdom. The
West African Examinations Council has also started to issue
the G.C.E. to candidates who meet the Council's require-
ments. The certificate is issued at two levels-—the Ordi—
nary (O) Level, and the Advanced (A) Level. A possession
of this certificate at the 'A' level guarantees direct
admission to universities in the United Kingdom and those

in West Africa that are patterned after the British system.

 

1"Adult Education is defined as any purposeful
effort toward self-development carried on by an individual
without direct legal compulsion and without such effort
becoming his major field of activity." Floyd Reeves,
st 31., Adult Education (N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, 1938).

10

For purposes of direct admission, a candidate must pass in
three subjects that are related to the degree program he
intends to pursue. And, at least two of these subjects
must be passed at a very high grade, A, or in some cases,
B. The G.C.E. has come to be regarded as the magic key to
the door of opportunities. With it promotion in the civil
service is assured; admission to a university is possible;
probability of in-service training or selection for a re-
fresher course becomes high. Without it, the door to suc-
cess remains literally locked forever.

Part-Time Tutors: Each university involved in off-

 

campus educational activities usually finds that its reg-
ular staff cannot conceivably handle all of its extra-mural
classes. As a result, graduates from the locality in which
an extra-mural program is organized are usually hired by
the university for part-time tutorial service. Part—time
tutors receive equal allowance for an equal amount of time
spent on university program, regardless of whether they

are bachelor's or master's degree holders. Some part-time
tutors, mostly Peace Corps Volunteers from the United

States, were not paid allowances for their services.

11

Communication means the transmitting of messages
from one person (source) to another person (receiver).l
In short, communication means giving, or giving and re-
ceiving, information either thru interpersonal channels
versus print or electronic devices. Communication can
also take place when a source sends a non-verbal message
through artifactual, contextual, gestural, or postural
codes. In all, the purpose of the source is to affect

O 2
the receiver.

 

1David K. Berlo refers to the ingredients of the
communication process as (1) the communication source
(2) the encoder (3) the message (4) the channel (5) the
decoder (6) the communication receiver, The Process of
Communication (N.Y.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961).

2Weaver defines it as "all the procedures by which
one mind affects another": Harold D. Laswell defines
communication research in terms of "who says what in which
channel to whom with what effect?" See Wilbur Schramm,
Mass Media and National Development, the Role of Informa-
tion in the DevelOping Countries (California: Stanford
University Press, 1965), p. 180.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Literature on Adult Education

Educational planners in developing countries are
sometimes the uncritical adopters of educational systems
recommended by foreign advisers. Policies which have
stood the test of time in other cultures are often intro-
duced in a developing country without consideration to
the cultural differences that may militate against the
success of such policies. Besides, some foreigners are
so ethnocentric that good or bad policies can be measured
only by their own standards. Experience, however, has
shown that the educational policy of one culture cannot
be wholly satisfactory to another unless it is adapted
to the specific needs of such other culture.

Dudley sharply criticized the extra-mural depart-
ments of some develOping countries for their unrealistic
approach to the problem of policy. He has served the
University of Ibadan's Extra-Mural Department as a lecturer.

12

13

He holds that since about 90 percent of university adult
education students are "examination oriented,"l the policy
of the adult education department of the University of
Ibadan should be changed to meet this demand. He main—
tains that Nigeria inherited her adult education policy
from Britain where opportunities have always been provided
for students to obtain the right certificates at an ear-
lier age. On the contrary, "The majority of the popula—
tion [in Nigeria] has not had this Opportunity . .
there is thus an urgent need for help outside the schools
and colleges at all levels."2 This means that Nigeria
should not "continue a policy which does not suit the
country."

Peers urges that more advanced countries should
invest heavily in the adult education programs of the
under-privileged peOple of the developing countries.

This, he feels is necessary in order "to free these peoples

 

1B. J. Dudley, Extra—Mural Studies in Nigeria—~A

Critique of Policy (Adult Education Journal of the National
Institute of Adult Education, London, W. 1), p. 386.

 

 

21bid.. p. 387.

3Ibid., p. 387.

14

from ignorance and therefore from the danger of unprin-
cipled exploitation."1 He is not overly critical of the
extra-mural policies of West African universities. But
he feels that West African universities have less justi-
fication in following the English pattern than those in
the West Indies2 where modifications were made.
Mawby attributes the failures of some university
extension programs to lack of flexibility in their year
to year development of policies. "A modern public insti—
tution," he maintains, must operate under a broad, flex-
ible policy such that would enable it to "meet and adjust
to and adapt to changing circumstances," with its programs,
efforts and operations reflecting "today and tomorrow."
Doyle, in an attempt to assess the scope and nature
of the extra-mural work done by the University of Ibadan,
stresses the fact that although that university made good

progress, its work was "modelled after the pattern set up

 

1Robert Peers, Adult Education: A Comparative
Study (London: Rontledge & Kegan Paul, 1966), p. 324.

21bid.. p. 324.

Dr. Russell 0. Mawby, "Extension Programmes in
Agriculture, Home Economics, Community DevelOpment and
Youth Work," Continuing Education Seminar Report, Univer-
sity of Nigeria, Nsukka, 1963.

15

in English Universities in the 1800's."1 He feels that
the adoption of the British model of extra-mural work was
necessary because there had to be some starting point.
But he laments that while there was a well-developed edu—
cational system in the former federation of Nigeria, the
pattern was "borrowed from the British, [and while] it
had served the needs of a colonial government . . . it
fell short of meeting the needs of Nigerians as seen by

themselves."

Literature on Communication and Biafra's
Receptivity to Change

Cultural and social sanctions can deter traditional
members of a community from exposure to the mass media or
to modernization messages from change agencies. In other
words, the social norms of a society can constitute a real
barrier to both the giving and receiving of information.

In spite of the preponderance of peasant farmers in Biafra,

 

1Louis A. Doyle, "Continuing Education, Nsukka, A
Program of University Extension aimed at Serving the Prac-
tical and Intellectual Needs of a Developing Nation,"--
End of Tour Report, M.S.U., 1968.

2Ibid., p. 6.

16

some studies have shown that the average Biafran, includ-
ing the peasant farmer, is receptive to change.

Rogers and Neihoff analyzed Phase I of a series of
communication researches conducted in Biafra. One of the
objects of the research was to gather information which
change agents may find useful when introducing innovations.
Analysis of the Phase I data focused on the "Diffusion of
Agricultural Innovations in Eastern Nigeria." The areas
examined include the innovation characteristics, motiva—
tion, and communication bottlenecks in Biafra. The
authors' conclusion is that villagers show sufficient
motivation in accepting modernization messages and in
adOpting innovations.1 Furthermore, they found that vil-
lagers adopt innovations when they perceive actual rewards
even where such innovations are somewhat in conflict "with
local cultural patterns."2

Traditionally, the people of Biafra are status-

conscious. They have high achievement motivation,

 

1Everett M. Rogers & Arthur H. Niehoff, "Diffusion
of Agricultural Innovations in Eastern Nigeria." Paper
presented at the conference on the Nigerian Economy and
Rural Development, Lansing, Michigan State University,
May 1, 1967.

2Ibid.

17

particularly in the economic sphere. So long as the
legally—sanctioned "roads" to progress are open, the
average Biafran is always motivated to try new methods
of doing old things. The reason for this is that Biafra's
Openness provides a climate for self-development and the
glorification of individual, as well as collective achieve-
ment. Ottenberg referred to this when he said that the
"Ibo society is an 'Open' society in which positions of
prestige, authority and leadership are largely achieved."1
This observation is not peculiar to the Ibos of Biafra.
The study on the innovativeness of peasant farmers cited
previously was conducted among Ibo and Ibibio villagers.
Besides, ethnic communities in Biafra are not so isolated
as to develOp insular traits that could not be assimilated
by neighboring communities after a well-sustained inter—
action.

Hursh, et al. analyzed the partial results of

. . . . 2
Phase III of the Communication research in Biafra. Part

 

1Simon Ottenberg, "Ibo Receptivity to Change," in
William R. Bascom and Melville J. Herskovits (Eds.). Egg:
tinuity and Change in African Cultures (Chicago: Univer—
sity of Chicago Press, 1959).

 

2
Phase III was underway when the outbreak of the
Nigeria—Biafra war terminated the research.

18

of the aim of Phase III was concerned with the analysis
of the effects of different communication strategies in
promoting rural development. Again, the findings show
that the farmers who were exposed to radio-forum messages
decided to adopt one or more innovations, and had indeed
"taken steps to implement their decisions."1 The report
goes on to say that supplies of Aldrin Dust which the
researchers had thought would last for the duration of
the research period did not meet the demands of selected
farmers in the villages chosen for the Diffusion Project--
Phase III. As a result, "extra supplies had to be made
available to keep up with the unexpectedly large demands

by the farmers."

Summary

Briefly recapitulated, this short review of

selected pertinent literature shows that:

 

1Gerald D. Hursh, et al., Communication in East-
ern Nigeria: An Eerriment in Introducing Change (Lans-
ing: Michigan State University, Department of Communi-
cation, July, 1968).

21bid., p. 19.

19

The university adult education pattern of the
University of Ibadan was borrowed from existing

British systems.

Although the system was successful in Britain,
it did not sufficiently serve the educational

needs of the people of a developing nation.

Because of its British orientation, university
adult education was, contrary to its stated aims,
often a means of perpetuating the gap between the

elite and the commoners.

There is research evidence to show that the people
of Biafra are generally receptive to change. The
society is an "Open" one which permits individual
achievement. A man's level of achievement is
limited only by his own desire and motivation to

rise.

Because of the absence of primitive or religious
taboo, there are few cultural constraints affecting
the flow of information in Biafra. Anyone who has

the necessary receiver can pick up any information

20

disseminated by the electronic media. Similarly,
literate persons can buy and read any newspapers

and magazines.

6. Finally, it has been shown that people adOpt inno—
vations when the perceived results seem to satisfy
their needs. In order for change to take place,
new ideas have to be communicated to the prospec-
tive adopters in an atmosphere favorable to the

acceptance of such new ideas.

In the following chapters, we shall relate these
findings to the relative success or failure of the extra—
mural programs of the Universities of Ibadan and Biafra
from a modernization standpoint. We shall examine the
communication patterns of the University of Ibadan and
the University of Biafra, in that order, during the period
that each of them conducted extra-mural work in Biafra.

In this way, we can determine the relative effectiveness
of different channels of communication in reaching the
diverse segments of the public for whom university adult

education in develOping countries should be designed.

CHAPTER III
COMMUNICATION IN UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN'S

EXTRA-MURAL WORK

Because of its strong inclination to the British
educational system, the University of Ibadan did not place
much premium on the importance of extra-mural education
in the development process. Britain is far more developed
than any of her former colonies. University adult educa—
tion in England is not designed to provide adults the
Opportunity to pursue a course of study which, for lack of
educational facilities, could not be acquired at an ear-
lier age. Nor is it designed to help accelerate the rate
of develOpment. Conversely, adult education in developing
countries has a development or modernization overtone.

If a develOping country should invest all of its educa-
tional budget in the training of its youth, the rate Of
develOpment of such a country would be substantially re-
duced. The social distance between the educated and the
uneducated would get wider and wider. A new breed of
intellectual elite that would emerge would probably

21

22

develOp values and aspirations which would not be conso-
nant with the norms of their society. And the country
would thus be creating a monster that might destroy her
social fabric in the course of time.

This brief characterization of the intellectual
elite was in fact the dream role of a typical graduate of
the University of Ibadan. He had assimilated the scornful
attitude of his British or British-trained professor. It
was difficult for him to communicate with non—university
peOple except where such people were willing to assume
the role of inferior partners in their interaction with
him. Thus, interpersonal communication between a typical
Ibadan graduate and a non-university trained person in
the Office, school, or in the street was to be on basis of
"one up" and "one down" complementarity. In other words,
the psychological disposition of our typical graduate from
Ibadan would predispose him to dislike the idea of estab-
lishing a "pseudo-university program" outside the walls
of the University of Ibadan. This attitude would be
reinforced by the contempt with which the intra-mural
lecturer at Ibadan would regard the extra—mural program.

With this background, we shall go a step further and

23

consider the places in which extra-mural courses were

organized in Biafra under the University of Ibadan.

How and Where Extra-Mural Courses
Were Organized

 

It is important to point out here that following
the British tradition, the intra-mural staffs of the Uni-
versity of Ibadan considered themselves infinitely su-
perior to their extra-mural counterparts. Before 1939,
extra—mural staffs in England were usually appointed on
special conditions and on salary scales which did not
correspond to those of the intra—mural staffs of compar-
able qualifications.1 A senior administrative Officer Of
a British university expressed his mistrust of the qual-
ification of extra-mural tutors in a succinct way when,
in a letter about an applicant for an extra-mural teaching
position, he said:

I have less knowledge of Mr X's academic poten-
tial but from what I do know I would be inclined

to say that, while it is not sufficiently high
to qualify him for membership of the ordinary

 

1S. G. Raybould, Adult Education at a Tropical

University (London: Longmans, Green, 1957), p. 84.

 

 

24

teaching staff of the university, it is prob-
ably fully adequate for an Extra-Mural Depart-
ment.

Although the status of university adult education
staffs has improved considerably in the United Kingdom,
the extra-mural staffs of the University of Ibadan were
still looked down upon by their intra—mural colleagues.
In fact, a senior administrative Officer of the University
of Ibadan told Professor Sidney G. Raybould that "Extra-
Mural posts should not be regarded as academic appoint—
ments."2 But he knew that Professor Raybould was himself
the head of the University of Ibadan's Department of
Extra-Mural Studies, on secondment from the University
of Leeds in England. The agony Of the Ibadan experience
is that some extra—mural tutors held higher degrees and
from more reputable universities than some of the intra—
mural lecturers.

It is easy to see why extra—mural centers were
established in urban areas. As we have seen, some of

the problems that the extra-mural lecturer faced were,

to some extent, "ego involved." They knew (even if their

 

1Ibid., p. 46.

2Ibid., p. 46.

25

intra-mural colleagues did not acknowledge it) that their
degrees were not in any sense inferior to those of other
lecturers. In order to validate this view, extra—mural
tutors probably felt that they had no business in extend—
ing work of a university standard to people in rural com-
munities. For the level of cosmOpOliteness of an indi-
vidual was regarded as a rough measure of his knowledge
level, including knowledge about university activities.
The University Of Ibadan had 23 classes organized
in 11 centers in the 1961—62 session--the last session in
which that university conducted adult education work in
Biafra. The centers were Aba, Awka, Calabar, Enugu,
Eziachi-Orlu, Port-Harcourt, Umuahia, and Uyo. Without
exception, these centers were the semi—urban or urban
areas in which access to mass media was relatively easy.
Not only were mass media facilities and primary indus-
tries concentrated in these centers, there were higher
schools and teacher training colleges in the neighborhood.
The existence of several secondary schools, major govern-
ment departments and industries together, indicated the
presence of a nucleus of university graduates with whom

extra—mural tutors could interact.

26

Communication Channels and
Audiences Reached

 

 

Extra-mural courses were announced in a few na-
tional newspapers. By Nigeria's standards, these news-
papers had a large circulation and would be classified
as prestige newspapers. Although there is no valid study
on the exposure habits of the average Nigerian or the
average Biafran literate adult, it is the writer's view
that the level of exposure to the mass media in both
countries is shockingly low. Mass media messages are
consumed largely by intellectuals. Penetration of media
messages into the rural community is difficult partic-
ularly where there are no provincial newspapers to give
a synopsis of the major news and events contained in
national newspapers.

University adult education messages are usually
directed to those literate adults who have acquired enough
education as to be able to do work at a standard that is
appropriate for university sponsorship. This kind of
peOple are found both in urban and in rural areas. Gen—
erally, qualified students living in rural areas are more

studious, and somewhat more serious, with their work than

27

those living in urban areas. They have fewer distractions
and a limited public entertainment to compete for their
leisure. They are by far more interested in raising their
social status through education than their urban counter-
parts. The man who succeeds in getting an appointment in
a city is seen as possessing more knowledge and more power
than the man living in the village, their qualifications
notwithstanding. It is partly for this reason and partly
for the purpose of improving his financial position that
the village teacher or clerk would sacrifice his leisure
and savings to gain the kind of education that would qual-
ify him for white collar jobs in the city. The moral of
this is that the person in a rural community, more than
the one in the city, is more likely to expose himself to
adult education messages if both had equal access to mass
media.

We have seen that adult education messages from
Ibadan did not infiltrate sufficiently into the villages
because they were sent via channels which reached only a
segment of the assumed receivers. The few teachers who
traveled to the urban areas more frequently were privileged

to learn about the Ibadan courses from people with whom

28

they came in contact in the cities. These were the teachers
who registered in the extra—mural center nearest to their
village school and covered up to 30 miles one-way to attend
classes. So conscientious were these village teachers that
they traveled long distances every day of the week-—return-
ing at night to do their extra-mural assignments as well as
prepare for the next day's teaching program. Most Of these
teachers were simultaneously registered in extra-mural
classes and in overseas correspondence courses. To the
extent that extra-mural courses supplemented correspondence
courses, there was no attempt by university extra—mural
authorities to develop a goal—directed program Of study
such as was developed by the correspondence colleges.
While the extra-mural program aimed at producing a well-
informed, mentally alert student, the correspondence col—
lege had a definite program designed to prepare the student
for the General Certificate of Education--the coveted prize
that goes to the man or woman who invests in education
for self—development.

These correspondence colleges were Operating from
their headquarters in England. They demonstrated confi-

dence in the efficacy of repetition of communication

29

messages. The courses that they Offered, the individual
instructors of the college concerned, and the benefits
that students would derive from a successful completion
of their program were repeatedly published in newspapers,
magazines, and folders. They knew their competitor, but
their competitor, the Extra—Mural Department Of the Uni-
versity of Ibadan, did not at any time consider the pro—
grams of the English correspondence colleges as a threat
to the success of extra—mural work. The message from
Ibadan was so brief that it was incomprehensible to some-
one who had not known about the program before reading

of it in the press. But messages from the English corre—
spondence colleges were so complete and explanatory that
no G.C.E. aspirant needed additional information from a
more informed person in order to determine the relevance
of the message to his educational problem.

We are using the phrase "more informed person" to
mean Opinion leader. The role of the Opinion leader is
crucial to an understanding of the characteristics of the
consumers of mass media messages in urban and rural areas.
Usually, urban areas attract more educated and more west—

ernized people. These people are generally more informed

30

than their less-educated, less—westernized compatriots.
They read local and foreign journals and are thus able
to give information on a wide range of tOpics. Because
of their relatively high level of knowledge and greater
number of units of identification, the well—educated
people know about many things and about many people.
Even where they do not know about a particular person or
thing, chances are that their guess would be better than
that of a less-informed person.

Given the preponderance of this class of peOple
in cities and their willingness to share their knowledge
with opinion seekers who are academically inferior to
them, the average elementary teacher in the city is by
far more informed than his counterpart in the village.

In some developing countries, despite the significance of
ascriptive values such as age and inherited title, the
educated person commands more respect in society. If an
Older person reads about extra-mural courses in a local

or national newspaper, he would not hesitate to seek addi-
tional information from a younger person who is more edu-
cated, if he (the older person) is interested in the pro-
gram. It means that there are more Opinion leaders in

the cities than there are in the villages.

31

Let us then turn to the village receiver of the
same message. Let us assume that the message from Ibadan
was read by teachers in the cities as well as those in
the villages-~and some teachers in fact subscribed regu-
larly to some of the national papers. As noted previously,
the message from Ibadan did not define the Objectives of
the courses. The village teacher whose aim was to improve
his status through the G.C.E. was shown no apparent reward
in doing what the message suggested. Thus, the source
believed in the "hypodermic needle" effect Of media mes—
sages. Besides, the term "extra-mural" was strange to
many people in Biafra, for instance. The channel used in
disseminating information about extra-mural courses was
adequate for the urbanites who took advantage Of the two-
step flow of information that the message stimulated.
Audiences in rural areas had no university graduates in
their midst. The absence of Opinion leaders in the vil—
lages rendered the message from Ibadan ineffective—-even
where it was read but partially understood.

In Britain, the expansion of university adult
education work was intensified largely in response to

pressures exerted from Adult Education Associations.

32

These associations know their rights and privileges.

They knew the duties that a responsible university owes
to the people who live within its territory. The Workers
Educational Association of Britain has, among other things,
seved to create awareness as to the nature and SCOpe of
extra—mural courses. The rapid expansion of British
extra—mural education since its inception at Oxford in
19071 cannot be said to be fortuitous. Since organiza-
tions similar to the Workers Educational Association were
still in their embryonic stage in 1960 in Biafra, and
since they were not sufficiently encouraged by Ibadan,
they did not fully play their informational role. If the
Extra-Mural Students Association of Biafra had received
sufficient encouragement from Ibadan, it would probably
have intensified its pressure upon the government Of
Biafra to increase the annual grant paid to Ibadan for
extra-mural work. The Association would also have helped

in transmitting the messages from Ibadan to the audiences

in rural communities by interpersonal channels.

 

1Raybould, Op. cit., p. 105.

CHAPTER IV
COMMUNICATION IN UNIVERSITY OF BIAFRA

ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAM

The University of Biafra took over responsibility
for extra-mural work from the University of Ibadan in
September, 1962. That year witnessed a transition not
only in regard to the change from one university to an-
other, but also from one extra-mural tradition to another.
Hitherto the British extra-mural pattern had been adopted
as faithfully as the British model of democracy was. In
1962, the new director Of extra—mural studies, Dr. Louis A.
Doyle, was not going to accept the pattern that had been
set. Nor was he going to superimpose a new pattern on
an existing tradition. Coming from the United States, he
had his own biases. He had been involved in university
extension work at Michigan State University prior to his
appointment as senior advisor on the M.S.U. team that
worked at the University of Biafra. Since he was not a
green hand in the field of adult education, he knew what
to do.

33

34

Communication Channels Used and
Audiences Reached

 

Shortly after he arrived at Nsukka, Dr. Doyle
visited his counterpart at Ibadan for a briefing. Fol-
lowing this visit, the new director contacted the Officers
of the Extra—Mural Students Association of Biafra (includ-
ing the present writer). On his own initiative, Dr. Doyle
undertook a regionwide tour of Biafra. During his tour,
he had the Opportunity of meeting some of the people who
were to form part of his adult education clientele in the
immediate future. He discussed freely with all the people
he met and was able to know something of their aspirations
and expectations. It may be necessary to mention in pass-
ing that from the time he started making his adult educa-
tion plans, the new director enlisted the COOperation Of
the Extra-Mural Students Association Of Biafra. His tour
was announced by the University of Biafra and by the Extra-
Mural Students Association—-each source using different
channels. Penetration of the messages was so complete
that each of the meetings was attended by students from
both the cosmOpOlitan area and the rural countryside.

This was the first practical testimony of the effectiveness

35

of multiple media and channels in reaching audiences in
rural areas.

From that time extra-mural messages were sent from
one major source--the University of Biafra--to all the
existing centers. Each of these extra-mural centers had
a local chapter of the Extra-Mural Students Association--
EMSA for short. The local chapter of the EMSA served as
receiver of the message from Nsukka, and then as source
of the same message to peOple in village schools. In
other words, the local chapter of the EMSA performed a
relay function between the University Of Biafra's Extra-
Mural Department and its widely scattered audiences.

Before the beginning of each extra-mural session
in February of each year, the Department would make a
newspaper announcement in which the courses, the centers,
the tutors and their credentials would be fully described.
The name and address of the chapter secretary was also
included in the newspaper. At the local level there were
additional newspaper announcements in those places served
by a provincial press. Large, attention-getting posters
were also mounted on bulletin boards in churches, at street

corners, recreation grounds and schools. Finally the

36

chapter executives printed handbills, which were diSF
tributed in churches, schools, county council offices,
hospitals, and factories.

It was not enough merely to bombard the assumed
audiences with messages about extra-mural courses. There
was reason to suspect that some people would expose them-
selves to the messages and yet fail to make the response
that the source expected. It was further feared that out
of a feeling of inadequacy, some village teachers who
required additional information about the program would
probably not feel free to seek this information from
fellow teachers. For these reasons, a two-way flow of
communication was subtly urged by asking an anonymous
audience to "call on the secretary of the extra-mural
center nearest you for further information regarding the
above courses."1 In this way, status was inadvertently
conferred upon a local secretary of EMSA. He became an

Opinion leader in his own right. But this was not an easy

 

1Both the printed handbills and the large posters

suggested a face-to-face communication between prospective
students and the chapter secretaries. The statement
quoted above is similar to the one suggesting a two-way
communication usually inserted at the end of the poster or
the handbill.

37

role even though the position of a local secretary seemed
enviable. Each extra—mural secretary was himself a stu-
dent. The fact that he was elected secretary of his
branch did not make him any more knowledgeable than the
rest of the students in his chapter. But his new role

placed him in the position of primus inter pares, and he

 

was compelled to seek information from time to time from
university cadre.

This device paid high dividends. By the end of
the second year of operation, the Department Of Extra-
Mural Studies found that there were more qualified stu—
dents in Biafra than its meager staff could c0pe with.

It had made repeated but unsuccessful appeals to the Gov-
ernment of Biafra for an increase in the amount of subsidy
paid for extra—mural work. Although the government seemed
to be impressed with the growing interest that Biafrans
showed in continuing education programs, it was not suf-
ficiently far-sighted to relate this interest to the con-
cept of modernization. Rather, individual.members of

the Biafran Parliament started to agitate for the crea-

tion Of extra-mural centers in their constituencies.

 

1 . . . .
Parliamentarians are fond of asking for impos-
sible amenities for their constituencies even where they

38

Meanwhile the director of the program, Dr. Doyle,
was concerned with finding a practical solution to the
problem of providing tutors for classes in the new centers
which were springing up like mushrooms in all corners of
Biafra. Fees had been increased in a futile effort to
find a surplus with which to pay honoraria to a few more
part-time tutors. Despite initial resistance to fee
hikes, students paid the fees and demanded that more
courses be offered in their centers. Since the fee hike
did not solve the problem, one of two alternatives had to
be taken. The first alternative was for the Government
of Biafra to accept its full responsibility regarding the
education of adults. The second alternative was for the
University of Biafra to reduce the degree of its involve—
ment in the program to the point where its commitment
would correspond with the grant provided by the government.
The second alternative was more feasible since the govern-
ment was still advancing plausible arguments to defend

its position on the question Of subsidy.

 

know that there-are no provisions for such amenities.
However, constituents like to know that their representa—
tive is conscious of his obligations to them and this
consciousness is sometimes expressed by way of making
vague requests on the floor of the House of Assembly.

39

There was a dilemma. The program had been ade-
quately publicized. Tentative arrangements had been made
for the establishment of new centers in some rural dis—
tricts. The hopes and aspirations of the village teachers
had been raised and they expected immediate implementation
Of the program. It should be remembered that about 85
percent of the non—graduate teachers in Biafra were G.C.E.
candidates registered with correspondence colleges in
Britain. Every one Of them needed additional guidance
because the correspondence programs were so commercialized
that the instruction lacked the personal approach that
the students needed. Besides, correspondence courses seem
to be preferred by students prepared to learn by rote.

For the first time in their lives, these village teachers
were to have had university adult education service ex-
tended to them in rural districts. Their intellectual
appetite had been whetted by promises which the extension
staff of the Extra—Mural Department had made to them. The
Department was prepared to provide the courses if given
the tools with which to work. But the government had
failed to live up to its responsibilities. This was the

dilemma-—a dilemma that is more aptly described by the

4O

biblical saying, "The spirit is willing, but the flesh
is weak."

To resolve this "crisis," the Department of Extra-
Mural Studies got in touch with the Director Of the U.S.
Peace Corps volunteers in Biafra, Mr. Warren Ziegler.
Mr. Ziegler was requested to encourage Peace Corps volun—
teers to assist the Department in extending higher educa-
tion to qualified students in Biafra. All that was re—
quired of a volunteer was a willingness to serve the
Department in his or her spare time in the evening without
remuneration. Accordingly, Mr. Ziegler circulated a
letter in which he asked interested Peace Corps teachers
to indicate whether they would be willing to accept the
additional responsibility of teaching extra—mural courses
at least once a week. Shortly after the circular was
received by the volunteers, many of them indicated will-
ingness to teach more than once a week. Some of them
actually initiated plans to establish extra-mural centers
in the areas where they lived and only wanted the approval
of the Department.

By the end of 1964, the Department had had more

part—time tutors than it needed. This was the case

41

because the overwhelming response of the American volun-
teers had generated a spontaneous reaction on the part of
volunteer groups from other parts of the world. By the
beginning of the 1965 session, there were British, Cana-
dian, and indeed a few Biafran volunteers. All of these
peOple were university graduates induced by the example Of
the American volunteers to Offer free tutorial service to
the University of Biafra.

By the middle of 1966, when the second director of
the program, Dr. Melvin Buschman, was preparing to return
to the United States, the Department had established twice
as many centers as it took over from the University of
Ibadan. At that time, there were 36 centers. In fact,
there were to be 37 had one center not been closed down for

failure to satisfy registration and other requirements.

 

1It was the policy of the Extra-Mural Department
to discontinue classes which had less than 15 duly regis—
tered students. In a few instances, however, classes
which did not meet the registration requirement were al-
lowed to continue by the director if (1) the part-time
tutors teaching the courses were volunteers who expected
nO financial reward, and (2) the subjects were so impor-
tant as to justify administrative expenditure by the uni—
versity.

42

Altogether, there were 3,650 students in 167 classes con—

ducted in 36 centers.2

 

2These figures were obtained from an "End-Of-
Session Report" submitted by the writer to the Department
of Extra-Mural Studies, University of Biafra, in June,
1966. At that time, he Was Extra—Mural Studies Organizer
at the University Of Biafra.

CHAPTER 5
MODEL OF COMMUNICATION FOR UNIVERSITY

ADULT EDUCATION WORK

The aggregate level of the development Of a
country is somewhat proportional to the level of the
individual development of a majority of its people. If
a large section of a country is primitive, the country
itself will be primitive. The fact is that every country,
no matter what may be its level of development, can be
said to have a mixed pOpulation of haves and have-nots,
ultra—modern and modern, educated and uneducated, etc.

In developing countries there may be other classifications
along the continuum from primitiveness to modernity. But
we are concerned here with countries in the transitional
stage, such as Biafra. These are the developing countries
in which a small percentage Of the population has been
educated, modernized, westernized, and therefore, soci-
ally mobilized. Per capita income in these countries
usually ranges from $100 to $400. Although they cannot

43

44

be called developed or modernized countries, they are not
under—develOped in all respects. They are called "develop—
ing countries" because they are gradually witnessing the
social and economic transformations that mark the develop—
ment process.

In developing countries, the flow of information
from central and regional sources to villages varies from
country to country. In some countries, governments seem
to give the impression that people in rural communities
are to be remembered only when it is time for them to pay
their taxes or cast votes. At such times, villagers are
saturated with information concerning the prompt payment of
taxes or the importance Of casting votes. Usually, mes-
sages about taxation contain threats Of punishment for
false declaration of income or tax default. Messages about
voting are encoded in such a purposive manner that vil-
lagers seem to perceive a reward in taking the action sug-
gested by the source. Thus, villagers are reached at such
times that their political participation will serve to con—
solidate the political leadership of their country.

Since our concern is not with what governments do

with their subjects, we shall proceed to propose a model

45

Of communication that could prove effective for reaching
adult education audiences in rural districts. Our model
is being proposed for adult educators who would be will-
ing to face the realities of development problems in less-
advanced countries. As development planners, adult edu-
cators should aim at modernizing a society through educa—
tion, for illiteracy is one of the concurrent barriers to
development. If the problems of poverty, disease, fatal-
ism, etc., are seen in their true perspective in the
modernization syndrome, development planners would be
more willing to accord education the priority it deserves.
Once a developing country is willing to take steps to
modernize its people, efforts should be made to reach
the villagers in just the same way that the urbanites are
reached.

Ideally, a communication model for university
adult education should be charted with the audience of a
specific country in mind. But the information problems
in all or most of the non-communist developing countries
appear to be about the same in some respects. Generally.
mass media facilities are concentrated in the cities while

a majority of the people in the rural areas remain

__——__-L—_

46

ignorant, primitive, and fatalistic in their beliefs.
These people should be reached by university adult edu-
cators through the use of a combination of the channels
Of communication. Schramm pointed out that

the great battles of development are continu-

ing ones, and the results come less from the

impact Of single messages or single media than

from a succession of impacts of related mes—

sages and reinforcing channels.

Information about adult education programs should

be given in the following media and channels:

1. Newspapers.--City dwellers get most of their

 

information from newspapers. TO them, this medium is as
important as their breakfast. For the town dweller, the
newspaper is a bulletin board, market directory, defender
of the rights of citizens, and the promoter of community
welfare activities. Nelson P. Poynter is quoted to have
described the modern press as "a composite, omnibus ve-
hicle, carrying a variety of loads."2 Because he turns

the pages of the daily newspaper to seek information on a

 

1Wilbur Schramm, Mass Media and National Develgpe
ment (California: Stanford University Press, 1967),
p. 145.

2Frank W. Rucker and Herbert Lee Williams, News-
paper Organization and Management (Iowa: Iowa State
University Press, 1966), p. 3.

47

wide variety of matters, the urban dweller is very likely
to read adult education messages published in newspapers.

2. Television and RadiO.-—Following a newspaper
announcement (or simultaneously with it) there should be
television and radio broadcasts. Radio and television
broadcasters should mention a recognizable certificate as
a reward to be perceived by prospective students. This
is important because, in a developing country the number
and kind of certificates a man possesses are a rough
predictor of his social status.

3. Handbills.--Because of a dearth of reading

 

materials in the rural areas, literate adults in villages
treasure handbills. Posters and handbills are very ef-
fective media for reaching literate villagers. In those
districts where there are no extra-mural centers, hand-
bills and posters can be sent to the education officer

or the divisional Officer Of the area. Experience in
working with these officers has shown that they can be
trusted with modernization programs. Their enthusiasm.
in disseminating modernization information is such that
they can carry posters and handbills to all corners Of

their division in person or deliver them to the intended

48

receivers through their subordinates in county council
headquarters.

4. Face-tO-face communication.--We already men—
tioned that government gets its message across to the
people when the peoples' taxes and votes are needed for
the continued existence of government. Whenever the
villagers' cooperation is needed, efforts are made to
reach them as swiftly as possible by interpersonal com-
munication, and through government representatives. Word-
of—mouth or face-to—face communication is quite an effec-
tive way of introducing a change. It provides Opportunity
for a two-way flow of communication. Because of the in—
stant feedback that interpersonal communication generates,
a source is in a better position to persuade a receiver.

A well-informed graduate should talk to audiences in vil-
lages and explain the Objectives Of the program to them.

In summary, we can say that adult education mes-
sages should be sent in different media and by a combina-
tion of channels. Town dwellers are more exposed to mass
media--print and electronic. They are likely to get the
information from one of the several media of mass communi-

cation. For the people in the villages, handbills,

49

posters, face-to-face communication, and pamphlets, or

even folders, are more effective.

CHAPTER 6

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In the previous chapters, we have been exploring
the proposition that inadequate flow of information from
a university to the villages, and the use Of a single
medium, could impede the progress and success of univer-
sity adult education work. We attempted an analysis of
the communication systems used by both the University of
Ibadan and the University of Biafra in their adult edu-
cation programs in Biafra. We found that penetration of
information disseminated by newspapers alone is usually
limited by poor circulation. Until newspaper publishers
in developing countries recognize the importance of
building circulation, people in rural areas can hardly
feel the urge to read papers. To create reader interest,
newspapers must devote some sections to tidbits from all
parts of the territory in which they circulate. Since
national newspapers in some developing countries do not
cover events which occur in remote villages, their con-
tents will have limited appeal to a rural pOpulation.

50

51

We have seen that messages from Ibadan were chan-
neled through the printed media, namely newspapers. Their
source over—estimated the potency of the printed media by
equating their penetration potential with what is known in
communication jargon as the "hypodermic needle" effect.

The University of Biafra, on the other hand, used more than
one medium and one channel. It also sought to increase the
two—step flow of information by conferring status upon a
part-time extra-mural secretary in the village. Although
the town dweller has different opinion leaders on differ-
ent issues, the village teacher or clerk has few or none

at all. In order to provide the necessary climate for
Opinion leadership, status conferral upon an "early
adopter"1 is of great importance.

It is not difficult to find an "innovator"2 in

the village. Oftentimes, adult education departments

 

1Early adopters are said to be (Rogers, 1968,
p. 169) the men from whom potential adopters get informa—
tion about new ideas.

Innovators are described by Rogers as people
"eager to try new ideas." This eagerness "leads them out
of a local circle of peers and into more cosmopolite so—
cial relationships." Among the several prerequisites for
being an innovator are "venturesomeness (and) the control
of substantial financial resources to absorb the loss of
an unprofitable innovation . . ." Everett M. Rogers, The
Diffusion of Innovations (N.Y.: The Free Press, 1968),
p. 169.

 

52

receive letters from inquisitive village teachers seeking
information about continuing education programs. Such
inquirers usually travel to the university or to an ex-
tension office of the Continuing Education Department of
the university to try to persuade adult education personnel
to establish extra-mural centers in their school district.
Generally such people are responsible for the defrayal Of
the initial expenditure incurred by them in the campaign
for the establishment of an adult education center.

A case in point is the successful adventure of
Joseph, a teenage teacher from one of the cluster of vil-
lages surrounding the university town of Nsukka in Biafra.
His village was plagued with problems of child care, nu-
trition, and sanitation. Joseph knew that the University
of Biafra's Adult Education Department was likely to help
his village if contacted. As a result, he consulted the
head of the Department of Home Economics, Mrs. Mirriam
Kelley, a veteran advisor on Home Economics and Family
Living problems. A few weeks later, Mrs. Kelley and her
colleagues launched a pilot project in home management
training in Joseph's village. This project which was

supervised by Mrs. Uzoaru Mba——also of the Department Of

53

Home Economics, University of Biafra--was so successful

that it was later named "Experimental Village Programs in

Human Resource Development."1 ‘
We are not concerned with details Of the project. i

I

What concerns us here is the side-effect of its success. i

By his association with a reputable institution (Univer-

sity of Biafra) Joseph was seen by fellow teachers and

villagers as a very important person. He had had status

conferred upon him by working with university professors.

Henceforth Joseph became an OpiniOn leader for villages

seeking enlightenment education in their communities. The

success of the project in Joseph's village was the result

of both the young teacher's altruistic adventure and the

receptive and sensitive audience he found in the University

of Biafra's Department of Home Economics. There are many

teachers in the villages with Joseph's missionary drive,

initiative, and adventurous disposition. Adult educators

should try to seek them out in village schools.

 

1Mirriam J. Kelley, End of Tour Report, M.S.U.-
University of Biafra Program. Mrs. Kelley was M.S.U. Ad-
visor at the Continuing Education Center and Acting head
Of the Department Of Home Economics, University Of Biafra,
1965-1967.

 

54

Much has been said about the widening socio-
economic gap between the university graduate and the high
school graduate. The task of bridging this gap by a care-
fully planned adult education program is the inescapable
responsibility Of adult educators in developing countries.
Given the communication problems in rural districts, adult
educators may have to combine mass media with interper-
sonal channels to reach both their urban and village
clientele. Newspaper circulation in rural areas is very
poor, and the desire to subscribe to a neWSpaper is Often
mediated by economic, political, and religious consider-
ations. Urbanites can afford to subscribe to a newspaper
because credit privileges are extended to them as regular
workers enjoying a security of tenure. Such privileges
are rarely extended to villagers. Furthermore, when a
religious organization or a political party prohibits its
followers from reading a particular newspaper, city
dwellers may flout the instruction while the fundamen—
talists in the villages will adhere to the order with a
ritualistic sense of duty. To predict the degree of mes-
sage penetration into rural communities from the circula-
tion graph of a national newspaper is merely an exercise

in self-deception.

55

It is advisable that adult educators in develop-
ing countries should assess the educational needs of the
communities in which they work. Several methods are Open
to the adult educator for determining the educational
needs of his assumed audience. Perhaps the best approach
would be the questionnaire method. The next method would
involve a sustained instructor—students interaction where-
by the instructor could have an opportunity of knowing
something of the perceived goals of his students. Those
who lack the patience to make empirical Observations may
have to rely on their intuition. The danger lies in mak-
ing policy decisions in one country on the basis of ex-
periences gained from another.

Extra—mural traditions of the more technologically
and economically advanced countries should not be intro-
duced in developing countries without modifications or
adaptations to their needs. Adult education leaders
should collaborate with other modernizing agencies to
plan a well-balanced development program capable of pro-
ducing simultaneous results in education and literacy,
mass media consumption, and economic development. Human

beings are the "tools" with which adult educators help

56

to modernize a society. The individual members of a
society have to be modernized first because they are the
ones that will use modern facilities when provided. TO
this end, communication between the adult educator and
his anonymous audience is of great importance, and choice

of channels is of greater importance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Barnlund, Dean C. Inteppersonal Communication: Survey
and Studies. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,
1968.

 

 

Berlo, David K. The Process Of Communication. An Intro-
duction to Theory and Practice. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1961.

 

Black, C. E. The Dynamics of Modernization. New York:
Harper & Row, 1967.

Klapper, Joseph T. The Effects Of Mass Communication.
New York: The Free Press, 1967.

 

Lerner, Daniel. The Passing Of Traditional Society, Mod—
ernizing the Middle East. New York: The Free
Press, 1966.

 

 

Ottenberg, Simon. "Ibo Receptivity to Change," in William
R. Bascom and Melville J. Herskovits (Eds.).
Continuity and Change in African Cultures. Chi-
cago: University Of Chicago Press, 1959.

 

Peers, Robert. Adult Education: A Comparative Study.
London: Rontledge & Kegan Paul, 1966.

 

Pye, Lucian W. (Ed.) Communications and Political Devel-
opment. New Jersey: Princeton University Press,
1967.

 

Raybould, S. G. Adult Education at a Tropical University.
London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1957.

 

57

58

Reever, et a1. Adult Education. New York: The McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 1938.

 

Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion Of Innovations. New York:
The Free Press, 1968.

Rucker, Frank W. and Herbert Lee Williams. Newspaper
Organization and Management. Ames: The Iowa
State University Press, 1966.

 

Schramm, Wilbur. Mass Media and National Development,
The Role of Information in the Develpping Coun—
tries. California: Stanford University Press,
1965.

Booklets and Papers

 

Buschman, Melvin C. End of Tour Report on Continuing
Education work at the University of Biafra, MSU,
1966.

Doyle, Louis A. Continuing Education--Nsukka End of Tour
Report on University Adult Education in Biafra.

Dudley, B. J. Extra-Mural Studies in Nigeria—-A Critique
of'Policy. Adult Education Journal Of the National
Institute of Adult Education, London, W. 1.

 

Hursh, et a1. Communication in Eastern Nigeria: An Ex-
periment in Introducing Changp. M.S.U., July,
1968.

 

Kelley, Mirriam J. End of Tour Rpport on Home Economics
Extension work in Biafra, M.S.U., 1967.

 

Mawby, Russell. "Extension Programmes in Agriculture,
Home Economics, Community Development and Youth
Work," Continuing Education Seminar, University
Of Nigeria, Nsukka, 1963.

 

Rogers,

59

Everett M. and Arthur H. Niehoff. "Diffusion of
Agricultural Innovations in Eastern Nigeria:
Innovation Characteristics, Motivation, and Com-
munication Battlenecks." Paper presented at the
Conference on the Nigerian Economy and CSNRD,
M.S.U.. 1967.

93-5923-575-53
711.2431’

'

rt

IF"

I
r.
__

"Frau-v

.4.
«50.
t‘
if
p
s I
Adw~ .“._
. w...
\ v.1...
L3. ..3 .
x .r
1 a. ..O~\
:5...
P. a N.
oxw VU.
. a“..‘
a... ..

 

wiv-

 

 

 

'IuI1111111111«mum1111mm '

 

31293 020975