_ é, a;zgggigg15:3: Michigan State Unfiversity PLACE IN RETURN Box to remove this checkout from your record. To AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. ! DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 6/01 cJCIFIC/DataDue.p65-p.15 vs» 5“ /'nm mma'nmcz or cmzms AND APPEARANCE AS INFLUENTIAL FAC'NRS IN AN INTERVIEI-IING SITUATION FOR A SECRETARIAL POSITIOIV 3? Lina Rowe Godfrey // A PROBLEM Submitted to Michigan State university In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts 1965 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express gratitude and sincere appreciation to Hrs. Edna Rogers for her guidance and cooperation in directing and executing this research problem; to Dr. Mary Gephart for her help in initiating the study and for her constant assistance, suggestions and encouragement; to Dr. Elinor Nugent for her suggestions and help in collecting data; to Mrs. Stephanie Winkler for her suggestions and assistance in obtaining respondents; to the Personnel Officer of‘Michigan State University for supplying the names of hiring agents of Michigan State university; to the thirty hiring agents of the various colleges and departments of Michigan State University who gave generously of their time; to all my friends for their encouragement; and finally to my brother, IeRoy, for his kind- ness and generosity. ii CHAPTER I. II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS IMODUCTIONOOOOOOOOOOO......OOOQOOOOQO... Statement of the Problem.,............ Definition of Terms................... Importance of and Need for the Study.. REVIEW OF THE LITERATUREoooooocococoon-coo 'Historical Background of Clothing ... and AppGaranCEoooocoooooeoooooooooo The Importance of Clothing and Appearance in Social Relations..... Clothing and Appearance in Relation to Employment.......o...o.....g...o METHODOLOGY.otoooqeooocoo00000000000000coo Selection Of mathOdOOOOOOO000000000000 Development of the Instrument......... Selection and Description of the sample.......OOCOOOOCOOOOOOOOO. Administration of the Instrument...... MethOd Of Analysisooooooooooocoooooooo FmDmGSOOOOOOO.0......OOCOOOOOOOOOOOOI... SUMMARY...cooeooooooooooo009.000.000.00... Recommendations.oeoooeooooocoooooooooo BIBLIOGMMOOOOOOOOQOI......OOOO....OOIOOQOOOOOOO .APPEHDIX A.-*Enterview finestiOnnaire..;...,...... iii Page $‘h’hfl U! 14 20 20 21 22 23 23 37 38 40 I O’o"‘ " a '\| . ' - . t 5 .I I 90s,. ... ' a I '0 .-.I . ~ O,‘-,.§'o new | '1 ....‘u am»... 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A 1 V o o ' .- a. d . v -. a v- . .' v - ' - ’ a . {I '0 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Though often considered trifling concerns, appearance and clothing are matters of considerable social importance. An individ- ual's personal appearance is "sort of an obscure prologue" of his social character. His appearance is really a composite of symbols to which people attach social meaning. Clothing and other body alterations can be viewed as cultural products, their design and use being subject to societal values. As the human within a society develops a social self, the factors of appearance, clothing, and adornment become more intimately linked with the individual’s inter- action with others. He learns to manipulate his appearance to fit his interpretation of a specific situation and, in this way, he adjusts to the variety of social situations in which he finds himself. The psychologist, Hartman, sees clothing as a persistent "interest center" in everyone's life. He feels few would deny that it is one of life's fundamentals, even though most people make an essentially superficial approach to this ever-recurring topic. Hartman points out that clothes act as both a stimulus and a response to the wearer and the beholder.1 ‘ — ... o - --- —-——.‘-——- .—a— -—. c. r . c . 1George W. Hartman, "Clothing: Personal Problem and Social Issue," ournal 2f Home Economics, Vol. 41, (June, 1949), p. 295. 1 I' ....-c.. at w ...- “C Clothing and appearance provide clues, or symbols, that are the bases for the appraisal of a person's social characteristics. This is especially true when the two individuals are not acquainted with one another. In this way, clothing and appearance facilitate communication and serve as guides for social interaction.2 As an individual presents his image and expresses himself to others, either positive or negative effects may result. Clothing and appearance may play a part in making for happiness and success or for disappointment and failure. Statement of the Problem , The focus of this study is on the criteria used by hiring agents in judging an applicant for a secretarial position, with 'the primary objective to investigate the importance of clothing and appearance as influential factors in the interviewing situation.-f In this situation the employer and potential employee are usually unknown to one another. Therefore, it is a situation in which the hiring agent searches for visible symbols by which to evaluate the job-seeker. hrThis study is based on the following assumptions: (1) culturally defined standards of dress and appearance exist for various occupations; and (2) hiring agents use these culturally defined standards in evaluating a job-seeker. 2Raymond Firth, glgments o£:§ocial Organization, (London: Watts and Co., 1951), p. 42-45. . . . u ..i x. . .. . v . . . . x. n . n. I A r K . n v. . ‘ . s . . . to i u p . l . u . C. . ... .. . . . . w . u . e I . D . . . r . ~. . ‘ . . y s.‘. .I . J r a - . . . . . i . o , . . \ ‘ ... . . .. n o . ., .~ ..- u . ’ . . \ . I. . n . . s’ It. - .~ The specific hypotheses guiding this study are that: (l) clothing and appearance will be consistently mentioned by the hiring agents as significant factors in judging an applicant: and (2) male and female hiring agents will differ in their response to clothing and appearance as influential factors in judging an applicant." W Various terms are used in the literature to refer to body alterations. This study is concerned with two rather encompassing terms--appearance and clothing. ” ! Appearancexl Appearance is defined as the total external L look of an individual. Silverman uses the term "appearance" in relation to expressive (symbolic)behavior, demonstrating how the individual cares for himself (grooming), how he clothes himself (clothing), and how he presents himself to the outside world (poise and other non-verbal symbolic behavior).3 The definition of appearance in the present study includes all of these aspects plus an individual's given physical features, such as, skin color, eye color, body size and features. Clothing: Clothing will be defined as a sub-part of appearancei] According to Crawley, ”Clothing is anything applied or put upon the bOdYo"4/ffor the purpose of this study, "Clothing 3Sylvia S. Silverman, Clothigg and Appearance, (New York: Teacher's College, Columbia university, 1945), p. 27. 4S. E. Crawley, "Dress,” ngyclopgdia of Religion and Ethics, ed. James Hastings, V, (1922), p. 40. . 1..”- - u. u.“ is any textured material that is used for the purpose of covering the body, thus altering the self and appearance by changing, heightening, or emphasizing or de-emphasizing the .as body." 3 I.“ Importance of and Need for the Study_ The significance of clothing and appearance has long been recognized as an important factor in society. Numerous investigators have focused on the prominent role which clothing and appearance plays in the life of the individual.5 Yet, relatively few studies have considered the social significance of clothing in occupational life.6 This study 13 an attempt to delineate the influence of clothing and appearance in the employment situation. 5J. C. Flugel, The Paychology of Clothes. (London: V. C. The Hogarth Press, Ltd., (2) Sylvia S. Silverman, Clothing and Appearance, (New York: Teacher's College, Columbia university, 1945), (3) Grace M. Horton, The Arts of Costume and Personal Appearance, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1945). 6Arthur M; Vener, and Charles R. Hoffer, Adolescent Orientation to Clothipg, GMichigan: Michigan State university Experimental Station, Bull. 270, March 1959), (2) William H. Porm,and Gregory P. Stone, Social Significance of Clothipg in Occupational Life, (Michigan: Michigan State Experimental College, lull. 247, June 1955), (3) Mary Lou Rosencranz, "Clothing Symbolism,” JOurnal of Home Economics, Vol. 54, 1965. O . .‘I as ..' .t'i (..|~ a. I‘- ? CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE In this chapter the writer has undertaken a discussion of some of the literature relating to basic concepts of clothing and appearance in three general areas. These are: (l) the historical background of clothing and appearance values, (2) the importance of clothing and appearance in respect to social relations, and (3) the importance of clothing and appearance in relation to employment. The Historical Background of Clothing and Appearance Values Ever since primitive people began to adorn their naked bodies with colored clays and with tatooing and scarification of the body, men and women have continued to occupy themselves with the attaining, enhancing and preserving of their external beauty.1 Throughout history, teeth have been blackened or chipped or filed into special shapes. Heads and feet have been shaped in infancy into culturally defined forms, by binding and similar techniques. Necks and lips have been elongated. Other body alterations have included cutting and dressing the hair: shaving, growing and trimr ming mustaches; piercing the nasal septwm, the lips or cars, so that sundry bones, feathers, shells, wood or metal ornaments could be shoved through them: plucking the eyebrows: allowing fingernails to 1Grace H. Horton, The Arts of Costume and Personal Appearance, (New Ybrk: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1945), p. 1-3. 5 I" ‘U grew very long and shaping these in various ways; and adding colors, permanent or temporary, to the hair, skin or nails. There have been few, if any, people who did not in some way shape or embellish parts of their bodies for purposes of adornment. There have been many who have undergone extreme discomfort to achieve the effects of tatooing, scarification, tooth filing and other beautifying tech» niques that are painful to the subject. The motivation in each case was generally similar to the present day motives for cuttan, shaving, plucking, bleaching, dieting, or undergoing plastic surgery--namely, to shape or embellish body parts to culturally determined standards of beauty or attractiveness.2 In the tombs of ancient Egyptian ladies are found toilet sets which are marvels of workmanship, rouge pots and perfume bottles, countless ointment jars of alabaster and gold, and mirrors of burnished metal with richly carved handles. We are informed that these ladies rouged their checks and lips, pencilled their eyebrows, shaded their eyelids, and applied creams and oils to their bodies to prevent perspiration.3 Quite as interested in making themselves beautiful were Greek women of the early days, who, when not embodying the perfect proportion they so greatly admired, padded out their deficiences, and compressed themselves by lacing and supported their breasts with cloth brassieres.4 2Ralph Heals and Harry Hoijer, An Iptroduction to Anthropplogz, (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1956), p. 314-318. 3Ibid. 41bid. a; In Europe, during later times, there is still further evidence of pre-occupation with adornment. The desire for salsa»: and jewels and other articles of adornment brought by European traders from.the East, played a large part through the centuries in making Western Europe the seat of progress and culture.5 Modern scientific invention and business enterprise have put fashion and cosmetics among the foremost industries in the united States. With the availability of modern cosmetics and synthetics, it is possible for one of little material wealth to engage with the more fortunate in the art of enhancing one's appearance.6 Segarin stresses that the changing role of the woman in the socio-economic and political life of America has contributed towards the virtually uninterrupted increase in cosmetic sales during the past forty years. He states that a social revolution has taken place, liberating the woman from the home and effecting her entry into the office, the factory, and the business world. Hence, the woman has been made more conscious of her appearance, and this has led her to the use of more cosmetics and fashion.7 The billion-dollar mark in cosmetic sales in the united States computed at the retail level was attained for the first time in 1952 and has continued to rise.8 An interest in clothing and appearance Ibid. 6Edward Segarin, "Status and Structure of the Cosmetic.Industry," Cosmetics, Science and Technology, ed. Edward Segarin (1952), p. 44-47. 7Ibid. 0 °Ibid. which has long been evidenced seems to be gaining wider and wider endorsement. The Importance of Clothing and Appearance in Social Relations Stone has offered a thoughtful analysis of the role of appearance in human interaction, and of its effects through the reflected image of others, back on the self. He asserts that in most interactional processes there is an exchange not only of verbal symbols but also of non-verbal signs which set the conditions for the interaction. Among the latter are the appear- ance.of the interacting persons as they perceive each other. Appearance, says Stone, covers many things, including body size and shape, reputation and image, clothing, stance, and facial expression. 1 Stone argues that every social transaction can be broken down into at least two components, appearance and discourse, with appearance being as important for the establishment and mainten- ance of the self as is discourse. Appearance is that phase of the social transaction which establishes identifications of the participants. Ordinarily, appearance is communicated by such non- verbal symbols as gestures, grooming, clothing, location and the like; discourse is communicated by Verbal symbolism.1 1Gregory P. Stone,"The Appearance and the Self," Human ehavior and SociairProcessgg, ed. Arnold M. Rose (1962), p. 86-93. . An excerpt of Flugel's book on the psychology of clothes also illustrates the symbolic function of clothing: And yet as the sense of vision is concerned, man has but little opportunity of directly observing the bodies of his companions. Apart from face and hands, which are the most socially expressive parts of our anatomy, and to which we have learnt to devote an especially alert atten- tion, what we actually see and react to are, not the bodies, but the clothes of those about us. It is from their clothes that we form.a first impression of our fellow creatures as we meet them. The delicate dis- crimination of facial feature needs a somewhat intimate proximdty. But clothes, presenting as they do, a much larger surface for inspection, can be clearly distin- guished at a more convenient distance. It is the indirect expression of an individual through his garments, that tells us for instance, that the person whom*we see approaching is one whom'we know; and it is the movement imparted in his clothes by the limbs within and not the motion of the limbs themselves that enables us to judge at first glance whether this acquaintance of ours is friendly, angry, frightened, curious, hurried or at ease. The clothes he is wearing tells us at once something of his sex, occupation, nationality and social standing, and thus enable us to make a preliminary adjustment of our behavior towards him, long before the more delicate analysis of feature and of speech can be attempted. Allport states that some of the most important problems involved in the judgments of personality are: (l) the nature and reliability of first impressions, and (2) the chief factors involved in judging. He argues that in a brief period of first meeting there is little chance for contradictions to appear, or for the judge to ascertain which traits are central and which are incidental in the personality. Nevertheless, Allport feels that 2J. C. Flugel, The Peychology of Clothes, (London: U. C., The Hogarth Press Ltd., 1930), p. 40-42. 10 a brief acquaintance often does result in amazingly rich impressions, many of which are proven upon further acquaintance to be correct. Such successful judgments are significant, because lacking personal information, the clues are derived almost entirely from expressive moments, from appearance, gesture, and manner of speaking.3 Blanckard in her writings states that psychologists have recognized that every piece of apparel serves to extend the person- ality, becoming as it were an intergral part of the wearer's own ego. Hence, the individual seeks to reinforce his self-respect and conceal his failings under the attire which he assumes. In doing so he accomplishes a double purpose, winning admiration at the same time that he diverts social humiliation from the consciousness of self.4 Hurlock recognizes the fact that the effect of clothes on the individual's concept of self is very great during the adolescent years. For an adolescent, clothes may become a symbol of security, an extension of self and a way of identifying with someone. The illusion value of clothes to hide physical defects becomes known to boys and girls during the adolescent years. They discover that certain physical characteristics which have led to feelings of inferiority can be covered up, or attention can be diverted from 3G.‘W. Allport, Personaligz, a Pszchological Interpretation, (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1948), p. 500-502. 4Phyllis Blanckard, The Adolescent Girl, (New York: Dodd, Head and Co., 1924), p. 50. 11 them by the use of properly selected clothes, personal adornment, or by the skillful use of cosmetics.5 Since appearance is the first, and sometimes the only basis on.which people form opinions of one another, Silverman suggests that the individual has a responsibility to himself to present the appearance which will portray him in his best light. She stresses the fact that clothing and appearance can and do give information about an individual, and that judgments which are important to the individual are constantly being made about him on the basis of his appearance.- Further, she believes that the extent of the judgments which can be made on this basis is broad. As a form of expression, clothing (when likened to conversation), is more immediately revealing because it is more visible, direct and spontaneous. Therefore, Silverman feels clothes can give direct insight into the aspirations, morals, economic status and beliefs of individuals.6 Langner in his writings on clothes and conformity says: Man's tendency to fit the appropriate clothing to the responsibilities of his profession is a deep-rooted one: if you wish to test it, try going to business in your pajamas, and if you feel this is a far-fetched example and you are what is termed a "white-collar"worker try going to the office without wearing a necktie .... You will suffer all the embarassment of a nightmare in which you dream.you are walking on the street in your underwear. 5Elizabeth Hurlock, Adolescent Development. (New York: 'McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1949), p. 469. 6Sylvia S. Silverman, Clothing and Appearance, (New York: Teacher's College, Columbia university, 1945), p. 5-29. 7Lawrence Langner, The Importance of Uearing_Clothes, (New York: Hastings House Publishers, 1959), p. 169-191. ’l '12 A survey of Cornell University co-eds was conducted by Ryan, who was investigating the psychological effects of clothing on the individual. The following reasons for wanting to be well- dressed were given by the respondents: (1) people judge one by what one wears, (2) being well-dressed creates a better impres- sion on people one meets for the first time, (3) to get anywhere one has to impress others and part of leaving a good impression is a neat and well-dressed appearance, (4) being well dressed puts one at ease and gives one a feeling of self~confidence, (5) attrac- tive dress, which emphasizes one's good points and plays down poorer ones, reflects one's intelligence, and (6) clothes are often a mirror of a person's taste, and are valuable as an expression of one's personality, both in themselves, and allowing for need for‘self-expression.8 To have some proof of the general idea that clothes worn by individuals do have a definite and measurable influence on impressions they make on other people, Douty designed a study to observe the part clothing and appearance play in structuring per- ceptions of persons. Among other criteria, it was concluded that generally, impressions of persons were greatly influenced by the clothing they wore. She asserts that in an urbanized society, where many interactions are single in nature and frequently are purely impersonal and contractual, the criteria of clothing may be 3mm 3. Ryan, Psychological Effects of Clothipg, Cornell University Agricultural Experimental Station, Bull. 882, (Ithaca, New York, 1952), p. 3-30. ‘0 13 even more important than in social contacts which are most personal. Thus, it becomes increasingly important to find out how the impres- sions on which behavior is based are formed and the factors that influence them.9 Rosencranz developed a clothing thematic apperception test and used this projective technique to analyse (l) the degree to which clothing is used as a guide in identifying the role and status of unknown persons, and (2) the various shades of meaning attached to clothing in particular social situations. The findings revealed that social class and all of its related indices (occupa- tion, income, and education) were significantly associated with clothing.13 Rosencranz has more recently stressed the need for further investigations regarding the symbolic functions of clothing and appearance in human interaction. She states that as there is more cross-cultural contact in the modern world, there is more of a need to pay special attention to the non-verbal language--the language of behavior, and clothing is a part of that silent 1anguage.11,12 9Helen I. Douty, "Influence of Clothing on Perception of Persons," Journal of Home Economics, (I-iarch 1963), p. 197-202. 10Mary Lou Rosencranz, ”Clothing Symbolism," Journal of Home Economics, Vol. 54, (Jan. 1962). 18-22. )1Mary Lou Rosencranz, "Social Psychological Approach to Clothing Research,fl.ibid., Vol. 57 (Jan. 1965), 26-29. 12Eicher and Roach bring this out with great clarity in their book, Dress, Adoppment and the Social Order, eds. Joanne B. Eicher and nary E. Roach: (John Wiley and Sons, Inc.), "1965 ." ”l4 Clothipg and Appearance in Relation to Employppnt Few people are unaware of the fact that clothes can make them.appear more attractive, more prosperous and more successful. Vener and Hoffer agree with earlier statements made in this paper that one of the characteristic elements of social life is the existence of numerous symbols which serve to distinguish the social positions of individuals in a community. Clothing, functioning as one of these signs, is of crucial importance. It provides the basis for the initial appraisal of a person's social standing, especially when the appraiser is not acquainted with the indi- vidual. It permits the stranger to determine the wearer's socialf;\/ position almost immediately, and thus facilitates communication with him. Vener and Hoffer also mention that it has been demon- strated experimentally that the type of clothing plays an important part in shaping the nature of personal relationships. The findings of Vener and Hoffer's study on adolescent orientations to clothing demonstrate that such factors as iocial class, occupation and sex are related to an individual's attitudes toward clothing and the use of clothing in his daily activities.1 1Arthur‘l-I. Vener, and Charles R. Hoffer, Adolescent Orientation to Clothing, Michigan State university Experimental . . u d . s . ~ . . . . s. , .s . x s . o a . v. . b " . .... I 0.. . . I ‘- I II . ...! VI -, n 1 Ir in . U C . - I ‘ . . I. . . I I. A .15 In a study of the social significance of clothing in occupational life, Form and Stone explored the role of clothing in applying for work: The formal orientation for white-collar workers or cosmopolites ... is emphasized by their choice of dress when they applied for work. Over three-fifths reported that they wore their best suit, were "dressed up,” or wore a sport shirt and slack combination on this occasion as compared to one-eighth of the manual workers. Localities also exhibited a greater tendency to wear working clothes when they applied for a job. ... The contrast in dress is all the more emphasized by the respondent's self-image in relation to his own clothing behavior. Over one-third of both white-collar and cosmopolites saw themselves as being "dressed up” in order to impress the hiring agent ... The differential orientation to the manip- ulatige use of clothes was maintained and developed in later Jabs 0 Dearborn from.a 1917 summer school class at Harvard received the following answers to the general question, "why are success and clothing inter-related?" Twenty-eight answers were given among which are ‘the following: (1) clothes frequently help people to get jobs and to hold them, or inversely, clothes help others to lose positions, (2) a well-dressed person more easily gains the confi- dence of people in the business world, (3) consciousness of good personal appearance frees the individual from the fear of the most common form.of adverse and criticism, (4) the personality of an individual is judged, first of all by his external appearance, 2William H. Form and Gregory P. Stone, Social Significance of Clothing in Occupational Life, Michigan State College Experimental Station, Michigan, Bull. 247, (June 1955), p. 28-29. 116 (5) to see an individual well-dressed requires a certain amount of cleanliness, therefore, it is hygienically worthwhile.3 The class members were then asked to recount actual personal or observed experiences in which being well-dressed was of actual benefit, or the contrary. Three examples of these responses are: I know a young man who is not at all sincere in any work, who is always losing his positions but who always obtains good ones. This young man ever makes it a point to be well dressed and groomed when seeking interviews, and his dress and pleasing manner always land him.a place. I saw an experience in an employment bureau some years ago while in town. There was a large number of appli- cants of various stages of prosperity. Judging by clothes and general appearance, the proprieter or manager singled out a young man of about twenty years of age, because he was well groomed in personal appearance and his clothes looked clean and well cared for. There was no other reason to choose him first from the waiting crowds exqut his general appearance of personal care. my brother in 1911, secured a position.with an electrical company in competition.with six other men who were grad- uates of the same institution as he. The manager after- wards told him that his personal appearance, clothes and general make-up were more pleasing than that of the other men. 3George V. N. Dearborn, ”The Paychology of Clothing,” Psychological Review monographs, (Vol. 26, No. 12, 1918-1919), p. 29-69. 4mm. n 17 Norton has given some attention to personal appearance as related to job-getting. She states that one has to realize that in a mechanized society there is intense competition between men and women for jobs and social positions. She has observed instances of the influence of clothes on people's habits in life and on their success in obtaining and holding jobs. Supporting this view, Merton gives an example of what a prominent woman lawyer has said about dress: A well-dressed woman is never overlooked.... Good- 1ooking clothes have helped many a woman over life's difficult places. If men and women could realize how carefully their dress is examined when they apply for positigns they would make their clothing a deliber- ate study. Gilbreth, speaking before a convention of deans of women stated that an adequate person has a philosophy which makes life interesting and worthwhile, certain techniques of living which makes one physically competent, mentally alert, and emotionally controlled. Then she adds a fourth, calling it the technique of being "sartorially" smart, because it is an asset in getting and holding jobs and opportunities, and because it indicates the other three techniques of living to some extent. In summary, she states that clothes indicate one's mental alertness, help one to feel adequate, and may mean the difference between success and failure.6 5Grace Norton, The Apts of Costume and Personal Appearance, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1945), p. 1-6. 6Lillian Gilbreth, National Association of Deans of Women Yearbook, (1932), p. 72-73. Y 18 An article appearing in a recent issue of the Wall Street Journal discusses the controversy in the business world created by one of the latest fashion trends, which puts women's hemlines above the knees. In general, statements of a majority of firms quoted in the article expressed the opinion that short skirts seem impractical and non-functional for business use from the standpoint of appearance and utility (comfort). Opinions by key personnel included in this article imply that many companies have business standards of dress, which are usually much more conservative than standards in the non-business realm. Attention is also drawn to the fact that some employment agencies'and secretarial schools do their best to insure that the women they send out for the job inter- views, conform to the accepted conservative business standards of dress. Therefore, the schools insist that job-seekers wear dresses that cover the knee, a minimum amount of make-up, and no oversized or dangling jewelry. It was also cited that a style of dress that displeases a prospective employer or one that does not conform to the standards desired, can ruin a capable and efficient job-seeker’s . chances of obtaining and retaining a position.7 Thus, in the light of the previous discussion, it seems apparent that research is needed in the study of the significance of the functions of clothing as related to job-getting and job- holding. 7The Wall Street Journal. Vol. XIV, N0. 42. (New York), Dec. 11, 1964, p. l. I'll}. :L, 19 Summary The literature on the significance of clothing and appear- ance was considered under three major areas: (1) the historical background of clothing and appearance values, (2) the importance of clothing and appearance in social relations, and (3) clothing and appearance in relation to job-getting and job-holding. Mbst authors agree that clothing and appearance are significant factors in social relationships. However, there is little empirical information to be found relating the significance of clothing and appearance to job-getting and holding. To attempt to establish empirically the validity of this relationship is the task of this study. CLAPTER III I-ZETHODOLOGY Tne methodology of this study will be presented as follows: (1) selection of the method, (2) development of the instrument, (3) the selection and description,of the sample, (4) administration of the instrument, and (5) method of analysis. Selection of the Method The direct interview method for gathering data was ‘chosen for this study.1 The "interview" may be defined as a two person conversation, conducted by one of the participants in accordance with a definite program. This involves an inter- viewer with a plan for asking questions and a respondent whose statements are the content of the interview.1 In the direct approach, according to Goode and Hatt, ”the interviewer main- tains complete control of the content areas of the interview, by setting up the framework and re-directing the interviewee's 1Theodore Caplow, "The Dynamics of Information Interviewing", The American Journal of Sociology, LXII, (November 1956) p. 165. 20 ‘4 21' responses to keep them within the desired structure.2 :This study is concerned with eliciting, without bias, hiring criteria used by employers when evaluating a potential employee. It was felt that a relatively direct interview method was appropriate for this task. By responding to several general questions about evaluating an applicant for a secretarial job, an employer has the chance to state hiring criteria without being asked about any particular criteria, such as dress, poise, -typing skills, etc., which would guide, and therefore, bias his answers. In the interview the respondent was allowed to answer in full, but was not asked any leading questions to suggest other 5 criteria not mentioned by him.; Development of the Instrument / ZiThe research instrument is in the form of an open-ended questionnaire. It is composed of six questions that are designed to give the respondent an opportunity to express his personal criteria for hiring a secretary:J/ The preliminary form 6f the questionnaire consisting of nine questions was used in a pilot study to determine: (1) the number of times that clothing and appearance was mentioned in the .interview situations, (2) which specific aspects of clothing and adornment were mentioned most often, and (3) were there any difference between the responses of male and female respondents. ZWilliam A. Goode, and Paul K. Hatt, Method in Social Research, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1952), P. 184‘2080 \J 22 For the pilot study, ten Michigan State University male and female hiring agents were interviewed. In all ten inter- views, appearance, dress, neatness and attractiveness were mentioned by the respondents. The criteria of dress and appear- ance were mentioned more than any other criteria. Clothing and appearance were mentioned ninety-seven times by the male respondents and forty-four times by the female respondents. It became apparent in the pilot study, that the symbolic character of clothing and appearance is involved in the acquiring of jobs. As a result of the pilot study, the instrument was revised and shortened; the sample was increased; and the present study was undertaken. The questionnaire used in the present study is attached in Appendix A. The Selggtion and Description of the Sample $ , The population from.which the sample was derived was \i university personnel at Michigan State University, East Lansing, , Michigan, who are responsible for the hiring of secretaries for their respective colleges and departments$7 These potential secretaries are first screened and selected by the Personnel Office of the Administrative Branch of the university. ‘For this study, the subjects were selected on the basis of their status of having authority to determine acceptance of the applicant and to finalize hiring procedures./kA list of sixty-five male and twenty-four female hiring agents of secretaries was acquired from the chief l 23 personnel officer of the Administrative Branch of Michigan State University. A random.sample of fifteen each was drawn from.the list of males and the list of females, for a total sample of thirty hiring agents: 1 Administration of the Instrument The researcher made appointments with the hiring agents by telephone, stating the reason for the request. All requests were granted by the specific hiring agents, and the interview schedule was set up._ WBach subject was interviewed in his university office:] The researcher, who did the interviewing, after identifying herself and stating her purpose, proceeded in asking the specific questions. The subject was allowed to talk as long as he wanted. ;The interviews ranged in length from twenty to thirty minutes, f depending on how extensive an answer was given to each question asked. The interviews were tape recorded. In all the inter- views, there were no refusals and the respondents were co-operative with the data-gathering procedures. ’ a Method of Analysis ..., V_The tape recorded interviews of each of the thirty hiring agents were written up in accordance to each question asked. A stmple content analysis was completed for each interview in.which all hiring criteria mentioned by the hiring agents were noted, .3. "OQ‘ 24 and later, tabulated by question and by sex. If criteria were mentioned more than once in the response to a given question, the criteria were tabulated only once. Therefore, the basic unit of analysis§in this problem is not the number of respond- 534;}. cuts but the criteria given by the respondents.3 \ ,The next step was to organize and combine the criteria into larger, more meaningful categories: These procedures were carried out by both the researcher and her adviser which resulted in six agreed upon general categories. TThe major categories are: (1) external personal qualities, (2) discourse, (3) internal personal qualities, (4) social relations, (5) job competency, and (6) background factors.) To be able to compare the relative importance of the various criteria, the absolute number of times a criterion was mentioned was transformed into a percentage. Percentages were calculated for each general category and its sub-categories, for each question by male and female and both sexes combined. Also, percentages were calculated across all questions by male, female, and both sexes. 3There were problems in grouping all the criteria .mentioned by the hiring agents, but we were interested in what criteria would be mentioned, also, we did not have enough knowl- edge to set up categories before the interviews. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS The concern of this study was to determine which hiring criteria are influential in the judging of an applicant. Hiring agents provided the job-criteria information for this study through responses which were tabulated, categorized, and analyzed in terms of‘percentage. This data is presented in its totality in Table 1. Later in this chapter, for a clearer and more focused view, the findings are more concisely presented in Tables 2 and 3. These latter tables are derived from Table 1. All job-hiring criteria are given in Table 1. These criteria are recorded by question and by sex and are grouped appropriately in the six major criterion categories. From.Table 1, it is possible to make comparisons among the sub-heading criteria as well as the major criteria. Listed under the category of external personal qualities are the sub-headings of appearance, clothing, grooming and poise. These sub-headings contain the sum total of all the related criteria mentioned in those areas by the hiring agents. It can be pointed out that of the total responses, appearance rated 7.1 per cent, clothing 1.8 per cent, grooming 4.6 per cent, and poise 5.8 per cent. In making a 27 comparison of these sub-headings, appearance rated first, but it should be noted that appearance is an all inclusive term consisting of the overall picture of the individual. Under the major category of internal personal qualities are the subdheadings of personality, intelligence, responsibility, industriousness, attitude toward the job, and emotional maturity. Personality, which seems to be a very broad term in its usage, received precedence over the other sub-headings with 6.3 per cent of the total responses. (See Table 1.) Social relations, another major category, also took an important place. The term "getting along with others" was used quite frequently by the hiring agents since it received a total of 11.1 per cent of the total responses given by males and females combined. The sub-heading of ability rated first in the major cat- egory of job competency with a total of 16.7 per cent of the responses given by male and female hiring agents combined. Ability was supported more by the female hiring agents than by the male hiring agents. The total responses of the other sub-headings, efficiency, absenteeism, and skill test scores, received a total percentage of 5.6, 4.8, and 3.3 per cent, respectively. The major categories of discourse and background factors rated quite low compared to the other categories. Voice quality rated only 4.7 per cent and speech content rated only 2.2 per cent of the total responses. 28 The subdheading under background factors receiving the most frequent mention was past employment experience. However, this quality received only 3.3 per cent of the total responses. In the six major categories, male hiring agents included personality as 3.9 per cent of the total responses; whereas, female hiring agents mentioned this quality as only 2.9 per cent of the total responses. Female hiring agents gave greater support to the qualities of appearance and ability than the males. Appearance accounted for 8.8 per cent and ability for 24.0 per cent of the total responses by female hiring agents. Table 2 presents the data on the major job-hiring criteria for male and female hiring agents separately, and for both sexes combined across all six questions. From this table it'can be seen TABLE 2.--Najor Job-Hiring Criteria by Male and Female and Total {3.1.} a Male Female L T0118}: Jo iring Criteria Nwz J] 7. , Hf Z External Personal Qualities 36 16.0 39 23.0 3 75 19.0 Discourse 13 3.0 . 9 5.3 E 27 6.9 Internal Personal Qualities 50 22.2 ; 22 13.0 f 72 18.2 Social Relations 38 16.9 25 14.8 % 63 15.9 Job Competence 63 28.0 ; 56 33.1 t 119 30.2 Background Factors 20 8.9 ? 18 10.7 i 38 9.8 Total 225 100.0 1169 99.9%! 394 100.0 *Percentages do not add to exactly 100 per cent because of rounding of numbers. 29 that the category of job competency received the highest percentage, 30.2 per cent, of the total responses of males and females combined. External personal qualities received the second highest number of responses with a percentage of 19.0 of the total number of responses given by the hiring agents. The next highest number of responses was given to internal personal qualities which received 18.2 per cent of the total number of job criteria mentioned. Ranking fourth in importance, the category of social relations received 15.9 per cent of the total responses. The percentages of the total responses given to the categories of background factors and discourse were 9.8 and 6.9 respectively, which were low compared to the other categories. The data concerning the six major hiring criteria for each interview question are presented in Table 3 by male, female, and both sexes combined. It is obvious from.Table 3 that of the total number of 119 criteria mentioned by the hiring agents in all categories in question one, external personal qualities received the highest percentage of the total, 32.8 per cent. Internal personal qualities ranked second with 21.9 per cent, and social relations ranked third with 20.1 per cent. In question two, external personal qualities also received the highest percentage, 24.7 per cent, with internal personal qualities rating second with 23.2 per cent, and job competence third with 21.5 per cent. On questions one and two, 30.3 and 17.1 per cent of the responses to the criteria of external personal qualities were given by the males and a considerably z; 30 g 9 TABLE 3,-4Major Job-Hiring Criteria by QuestiOn and Hale and Female and Total 4L 1 . . , .7; 5 Question 1 . Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 _” r{.Qucotion 5 Question 6 Job-Hiring Criteria‘ M. F T M. F T . M o F T M p 3 ”mm _ *;‘ F T M , F T 1N % N 7;. N 7. N 7 N 17111: A __11_ ’° N 7° N 7. N "4 N 70 N .1 7. o 7. N 7;. N 7. N 7. N 77:” External Personal !L n 1 3 12 0 2 9 5 ‘ r. ”if Qualities 11030.3 19 35,8 39 32.8 6 17.110 33.316 24.7 a . 510.8 6 17.6 5 29.411 .81.}. 2% '1 4,7 210,5 3 7,5 0 0.0 1 3.4 1 1.3 . U .- ,! , Discourse 2 3.0 5 9.4 7 5.9 4 11.4 0 0.0 4 6.1 2 8'0 0 0-0 2 4.3 9 26.4 4 23.5 13 25.4 f. 1 4.7 0 0.0 1 2.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Internal Personal ' H Qualities 15 22.7 11 20.8 26 21.9 9 25.7 6 20.0 15 23.2 4 16-0 1 4.7 5 10.8 6 17.6 2 11.7 8 15.6 3 :3 9,5 1 5.2 3 7.5 14 31.8 H 3.4 15 20.6 Social Relations 15 22.7 9 17.0 24 20.1 8 22.8 0 0.0 8 12.3 2 8'0 0 0-0 2 4~3 4 11.7 3 17:6 7 1918 3 14.2 4 21.0 7 17.0 6 13.6 9 31.0 15 20.6 Job Competence 8 12.0 6 11.2 14 11.8 5 14.2 9 30.0 14 21.5 3 10 40-0 12 57.1 22 47.8 3 8.8 3 17.6 6 11.8 11 66.6 8 42.0 22 55.0 23 52.2 18 62.0 41 56.1 Background Factors '6 9.1 3 5.4 9 7.5 3 8.5 5 16.6 8 12.3 ‘ 4 1590 6 23.5 10 21.7 6 17.6 0 0,0 6 11kg” 0.0 4 21.0 4 10.0 1 2.2 O 0.0 1 1.3 -.‘v- TOtal 56 99‘9—~53~9975~11915972y35779911739~799'9 65 99’9 :25 100'0 21 99'8 46 99'7 34 99-7 17 99~8 51 9913;? 21 99.7 19 99.7 40 99.6 44 99.8 29 99.8 73 99.9 I'Irrl'lales F=F emales 'erlqtlmber T=Tota1 . i ; Percentages do not add to exactly 100 per cent ' 1 because of rounding of numbers. ? -,P 31 larger percentage, 35.8 and 33.3 respectively, were given by the females. It appears that on questions number one and two, ”What things do you pay particular attention to when you meet the applicant for a secretarial position?" and "what is the first thing you look for when you interview an applicant for a secretarial position?", ask especially for initial value judgment of the individual. Priority in responses was given to external personal qualities. Evidence of the tendency of hiring agents to judge prospective applicants by the effectiveness of their external personal qualities, which included clothing and appearance, is apparent by the great difference in the response made to the category of external personal qualities, as compared to the other cat- egories. It seems that the hypothesis, "clathing and appearance will be consistently mentioned by the hiring agents as significant factors in judging an applicant" is confirmed by the responses to the first two questions. Furthermore, these results confirm the hypothesis that male and female hiring agents will differ in their response to clothing and appearance as influential factors in judging an applicant. The female respondents put more oh 32 importance on external personal qualities than did the male respondents. The above results are supported by the theories advanced by investigators such as, Flugel,1 Stone and Form,2 3 and Silverman.4 Vener and Hoffcr, These investigators have emphasized the idea that clothing and appearance are bases which permit the stranger to "determine" the wearer's social characteristics almost immediately, and also facilitate conmvnication with him. Silverman5 supports this idea when she stressed the fact that clothing and appearance can and do give information about an individual, and that judgments which are important to the individual are constantly being made about him on the basis of his appearance. A somewhat different picture is seen by analyzing the responses given to questions numbered three and five. The questions were as follows: (3) "How do you determine the 7W 1J. C. Flugel, The Psychology of Qlothes, (London: U. C., The Hogarth Press, Ltd., 1930), p. 40-42. 2William H. Form, and Gregory P. Stone, Social Siggificance of Clothigg in Occupational Life, Michigan State College Experimental Station, Michigan, Bull. 247, (June 1955), p. 28-29. 3Arthur M. Vener, and Charles R. Hoffer, Adolescent Orientation to Clothin , Michigan State University Experimental Station, Michigan, Bull. 270, (March 1959), p. 3. 4Sylvia S. Silverman, Clothing and A earance, (New York: Teacher's College, Columbia University, 1945;, p. 27. 51bid. 33 applicant's capabilities for the specific job?”, and (5) "Do you ever consult with anyone else about hiring a secretary?" These questions tend to be directed more toward job competency and background factors than toward other categories of job- hiring criteria. The results of question three show job competence receiving the highest percentage, 47.8 of the total responses, background factors receiving the second highest number of the total responses, 21.7 per cent, and external personal qualities and internal personal qualities ranked third with each receiving 10.8 per cent of the total given hiring criteria. Forty per cent of the male responses and 57.1 per cent of the female responses referred to job competency. 0f the total of 10.8 per cent of the given responses on external personal qualities, males gave 12 per cent and females gave 9.5 per cent. Again, in answer to question five, job competency had the highest percentage of SSJL Social relations rated second with 17.0 per cent of the total responses. ‘External personal qualities received 7.5 of the total responses, males rating 4.7 per cent and females rating 10.5 per cent. The results point out very clearly that questions referring to job competency rated first. Form and Stone in their exploration of the social significance of clothing.in occppational lifeg mentioned that one of the central ideals in our world of work is 34 that a man’s performance on the job-«what he does--is certainly more important in determining his chances for success than his clothing or appearance. Yet, there are a large number of specific occupations which lay great stress on the appearance of employees, and it is among those engaged in such occupations that clothing and appearance obviously assume a central role.6 Therefore, it is interesting to note that although in a relatively small number of cases, 10.8 and 7.5 per cent, external personal qualities were identified with questions three and five. Responses to question three, particularly, show that some relationship exists between external personal qualities and job competency in the hiring situation. Question four was: "How do you judge an applicant's social confidence?" Of the total respaises given, discourse rated first with 25.4 per cent, external personal qualities rated second with 21.5 per cent, and internal personal qualities rated third receiving 15.6 per cent. It is interesting to note that discourse, i.e., verbal communica- tion, was the major criteria given for judging social confidence, but it was mentioned only a few times on the other five questions. In response to question four, external personal qualities received 17.6 per cent of the male responses and 6Hilliamii. Form, and Gregory P. Stone, Social Significance of Clothing in Occupational Life, Michigan State College Experimental Station, Michigan, Bull. 247, (June 1955) p. 1-2. 35 29.4 per cent of the female responses. Once again the women rated external personal qualities higher than the men. Finally, question six, which reads, "What are the problems that would cause you to dismiss a secretary?", concerns the problem.of dismissal of an applicant after being hired. The greater number of responses to this question supported job competence criteria which received 56.1 per cent. Internal personal qualities and social relations received 20.6 per cent each. It would seem unnecessary to mention that it is possible that responses to the other categories would be lower on this question as those criteria were already established in the hiring situation. Summagy This study focused on an examination of the analysis of the criteria used by the hiring agents in judging an applicant for a secretarial position, with the primary objective to investigate the importance of clothing and appearance as influ- ential factors in the interviewing situation. It was hypothesized that clothing and appearance would be consistently mentioned by the hiring agent as significant factors in judging an applicant, and male and female hiring agents would differ in their responses to clothing and appearance as influential factors in judging an applicant. 36 Each question was analyzed and the findings were presented. The results show that clothing and appearance do have significance as influential factors in an employment situation. Across all questions, external personal qualities,which included clothing and appearance, ranked second in importance as job hiring criteria. In response to the two questions dealing mainly with initial judgments, external personal qualities ranked first in importance. The hypothesis that male and female hiring agents differ in their responses to clothing and appearance as influential factors in judging an applicant was confirmed. CHAPTER V SUMMARY The focus of this study was to investigate the significance of clothing and appearance as influential factors in the initial judging of a job-applicant. It was assumed that culturally defined standards of dress and appear- ance exist for various occupations, and that hiring agents use these culturally defined standarda,as well as others, in evaluating a job-seeker. The hypotheses guiding this study were: that cloth- ing and appearance would be consistently mentioned by the hiring agent as significant factors in judging an applicant, and that male and female hiring agents would differ in their response to clothing and appearance as influential factors in judging an applicant. The direct interview method was used to elicit information regarding hiring criteria for secretarial posi- tions. The instrument, in the form of an open-ended question- naire, was administered to thirty Michigan State University male and female hiring agents who were responsible for the hiring of secretaries for their respective colleges and departments. 37 38 The interviews were tape recorded and then reproduced in.written form. A simple content analysis was completed for each interview. The resulting criteria responses were cate- gorized into larger, more meaningful classifications, and t1e responses in each category were tabulated and expressed in percentages. The general findings showed tbe following: 1. External personal qualities, whic. include clothing and appearance, do save some signi- ficance as influential factors in an employ- ment situation. 2. Over-all, job competence was rated the most important job-hiring criteria. 3. External personal qualities ranked second in importance as a job-hiring criteria. 4. Women gave more support to external personal qualities and job competency than men; whereas, men gave come paratively more support to internal personal qualities and social relations. 5. Discourse and background factors rated compar- atively lOW. Recommendations In the light of the findings of this study, the researcher believes that there is a need to further investigate 39 the criteria of clothing and appearance (external personal qualities), used by hiring agents to judge an applicant for employment, so as to acquire further understanding of the relatedness of external personal qualities to employment situations. Therefore, this study might fruitfully be replicated by: (1) using a larger population, (2) using a population of hiring agents in the business world, (3) and making a comparative study with hiring agents in the academic world and the business world. The researcher also recommends the Clothing Thematic Applrception Test as another measuring instrument that could be utilized to investigate the relatedness of external personal qualities to job-hiring situations. Rosencranz used this instrument in measuring clothing symbolism and recommended its use to measure other areas of clothing symbolism.1 This technique might supplement or extend the information acquired in this study which used the direct interview approach. 1Marylou Rosencranz, "Clothing Symbolism? ournal gfgflome Economics. Vol. 54, (Jan. 1962), p.18-22 . ‘0' BIBLIOGRAPHY 4O @® BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Allport, G. u. Personality, a Psychological Interpretation. New York: Henry Holt and Co.,,l948. Beals, Ralph, and Hoijer, Harry. 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New York: Cornell university Agricultural Experimental Station, Ithaca, Bulletin 882, 1952. Silverman, Sylvia S. Clothigg and Appearance. New York: Teacher's College, Columbia university, 1945. Vener, Arthur‘M., and Hoffer, Charles R. Adolescent Orientation to Clothing. Michigan: Michigan State University Experimental Station, Bull. 270, 1959. 41 unfit... _ Articles and Periodicals 08910": Theodore. "The Dynamics of Information Interviewing," The American Journal of Sociolo (LXII, 1956). Crawley, Ernest 8. "Dress," ncyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Edited by James Hastings, New York: Charles Scribner s Sons, 1922. ‘ Dearborn, George V. N. "The Psychology of Clothes," Psychological Review Mbnoggaphs. (XXVI, No. 12, 1918-1919). ' Douty, Helen 1. "Influence of Clothing on Perception of Persons," Journal of Home Economics, (LIV, 1963). Eicher, Joanne 3., and Roach, Nary E. Dress Adornment and the Social Order. Edited by nary E. Roach and Joanne B. Eicher, (Jehn Wiley and Sons, Inc.) "l965___," Gilbreth, Lillian. National Association of Deans of Women Yeagbook, (I932). Hartman, George W. "Clothing: Personal Problem and Social Issue.” Journal of Home Economics, (XLI, 1949). Rosencranz, Mary Lou. "Clothing Symbolism," Journal of Home Economics, (LIV, 1962). ~ Rosencranz, Mhry Lou. "Social and Psychological Approach to Clothing Research," Journal of Home Economics, (LVII, 1965). Segarin, Edward. "Status and Structure of the Cosmetic Industry." Cosmetics Science and Technology. Edited by Edward Segarin, New York: Interscience Publishers, Inc., 1957. Stone, Gregory P. “Appearance and the Self." Human gehaviog and Social Processes. Edited by Arnold M; Rose, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1962. News r zhe Wall Street qurnal. NEW York. (Vol. XLV, No. 42, 1964). 42 .APPENDIX A Interview Questionnaire 43 109 0804 38736 an 5'."“ if .‘3' *4. J BU! 1. 6. 44 QUESTIONNAIRE ' What things do you pay particular attention to when you meet the applicant for a secretarial position? What is the first thing you look for when you interview an applicant for a secretarial position? How dd'you determine the» the specific job? How do you judge an applicaif's social confidence? Do you ever consult with anyone else about hiring a secretary? Uhat things do you consult about? What are the problems that would cause you to dismiss a secretary? - . l‘ . . . . I A o C . o . . d .J I O I n. A n V \ . a s I A . a s 0. u t o . P O U I u a t . a . n . n la 0 I . u a to U I o t s s I o O - u " I o . 31293 02231