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MICI’IIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF I‘IOTV'TE ECONOV‘VIECS
EAST LANSING, MTCHIGAN

 

(005
THS

ABSTRACT

flsICHOLOGIcAL AND EMOTIONAL EFFECTS OF LIGHTING
IN INTERIOR DESIGN:
(A REVIEW OF llTERA‘I'URE/

by Judith E. Orr
//

Very little research has been done on the psychological
effects of lighting in interior design. Other fields, such as
psychology, architecture, and electrical engineering have done
research on lighting which provides the necessary background
information for this problem.

Artificial lighting is compared to daylighting in terms
of physical changes and psychological advantages. Artificial
lighting affects the feeling in the interior of a roam by changes
in the amount of light, color of light, type of light source,
system, and equipment, and the location of the fixture. The
emotional effects of artificial lighting such as visual appeal,
emotional response, hearing response, and changes in environmental
conditions are described. The summary explains the psychological
importance of lighting; its use to create variety of mood, to
achieve visual unity, and to change clarity of form.

There is a definite need for more written research
concerning psychological effects of lighting because it is such

an important consideration in interior design.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND EMOTIONAL EFFECTS OF LIGHTING
IN INTERIOR DESIGN

(A REVIEW OF LITERATURE)

By

Judith E. Orr

A PROBLEM

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts

1969

ACKNG‘TIEIIEME NTS

The writer wishes to express sincere appreciation to all
those who have contributed to this study; The cooperation of
both faculty and research institutions have made this possible.

The writer would like to thank Miss Mary L. Shipley for
her time, effort, and patience in directing this study. Her
guidance and knowledge in the field of lighting in interior
design was most appreciated. Participation in the Architectural
and Consulting Engineers Lighting Conference at General Electric
Lighting Institute, Nels Park, Cleveland, Ohio also contributed
to the development of this problem. Attendance of an Illuminating
Engineering Society meeting in Grand Rapids, Michigan.provided
additional information and sources valuable for fiiis study. The

support of these people led to the completition of this problem.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
ACKNG’ILEWIENI‘SQQOOOQOOooooooooocoooooo°ii

Sections
I. LIGHTING: FUNDAMENTAL FACTOR IN INTERIOR DESIGN . . . . 1
Natural Lighting
Artificial Lighting
Integration of Daylighting and Artificial Lighting.
II. ARTIFICIALLIGHTIABASAPROBIEM. . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Amount of Light
Effectiveness of Artificial Lighting

III. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING AS A FUNCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Physical Problems Which Are Tangible
Psychological Problems Which Are Intangible

IV. EMOTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS IN ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING. o o o . l9

Sense Factors
Environmental Influences

V. SUIIIMARY: PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE COLLECTED FRCXVI DATA . 39

Lighting Used To Create Variety Of Mood
Lighting Used To Achieve Visual Unity
Lighting Used To Change Clarity Of Fom

VI. THE} FUTURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ARTIFICIAL
LIGHTIm O O O O O O C O C O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O h2

CITEDBIBLIOGRAHIY....................... NB

PERTINENTBIBLIOGRAPHI..................... 1:8

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND EMOTIONAL EFFECTS OF LIGHTING IN INTERIOR.DESIGN

(A REVIEW or LITERATURE)

I. Lighting: A Fundamental Factgr i3 Igtggioeresigg

The psychological and emotional effects of lighting are a
fundamental factor in interior design. A study of natural lighting
and artificial lighting throughout history leads to assumptions
concerning lighting techniques. These assumptions are based on the
selection and rejection of solutions to lighting problems. Research
must be done on these assumptions if man's subjective reactions to his

lighting environment are to become an exact science.

Natural Lighting

Daylight is an integral part of the architectural design
of the vast majority of modern buildings. It determines in
large part, the utilitarian as well as the esthetic environ-
ment provided by the designer....

The requirements for good lighting design can be achieved
by skillful application of daylighting techniques. These
differ from the design methods for electric lighting because
of the variations in the amount of daylight, the changing
position of the sun, and the deep-seated desire of many
persons for a view of the outdoors....The variations in the
amount, the direction and the color of incident daylight,
however, add an interest to the daylighted interior shich
no static lighting system can possibly produce. Daylight,
skillfully employed, provides the architect with one of his
most effective modes of esthetic architectural expression.1

Variable and‘Uncontrollable Methods
The natural lighting phenomenon is variable and uncontrollable

from the outside.

 

___

1John Callender, Han o f ch tectural es
(New York: McGran-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1966), p. 856.

Perhaps the most fascinating phase of nature's setting
is the variety of lighting effects. Nature's lighting is
ever changing.... Here nightly are rfndered the great
symphonies of light and of color....

One of the reasons that natural lighting is variable and
uncontrollable is because of changes in atmospheric conditions. The
degree to which the natural environment affects our emotional state
is apparent with the change of mood brought about by changes in weather.
Phillips states that a bright day usually brings about a state of
well—being, while a dull, overcast day can produce a state of depression.
Anything between these two extremes has similar but less pronounced
effects. If weather changes take place over a long period of time,
so that the effects are graded into each other, the emotional change
may be less pronounced. If weather changes are sudden or violent as
with the appearance of storm clouds on a sunny day, emotional change
may be Spectacular.2

Another reason natural lighting varies is because of the
change in time of day. The sight of an early morning sun is enlightening
because it is the beginning of a new day. The sky gets lighter as the
sun rises and becomes purer in color. Yet at the end of the day the
setting sun may be more depressing because the sky continues to get
darker as the sun disappears. There is no way to control these

natural changes in the time of day, but constant change is what creates

variety.

1Mathew Luckiesh, Lighting Fixtures and LightinggEffects
(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1925), p. 19.

2Derek Phillips, Lighting in Architectural Desim (New York:
McCraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1961.), p. 1.8.

 

Psychological Advantages

Natural lighting has psychological advantages caused by a change
in the outdoor conditions which bring about a stimulating effect.

One advantage is that a natural mood is present outdoors.
Phillips observes that a bright sunny day with clouds creating light
and dark patches is more stimulating than a cloudless day. Also, the
changes from rain to sunshine and back to rain provide more
stimulation than a steady overcast day. The evening sky has a
different character which creates a change of mood. [After the working
day, thought and containplatl on may be stimulated rather than action.1

A second psychological advantage is that direct sunlight feels
warm. It is a matter of common observation that a bright.sunny'day
produces a'warmphearted and cheerful emotional state. Phillips mentions
that the natural environment seems bright and warm because of the
yellowish appearance of the sun. The sources of light, both wane
direct light from the sun and cool diffuse light of the sky, contain
all the colors of the spectrum. This causes the color of the
environment to seem balanced with.no apparent'distortion of any hue.

It is clear that these psychological aspects of warmth and balance in

color contribute to our state of well-being.2

Artificial Lighting
The artificially lighted environment differs somewhat from the

naturally lighted environment.

 

1thips. WW 1:. 1.3.

d. p. 49.

A.

The purpose of lighting is not Just that it provides
a desired footcandle level at 30 inches above the floor,
but that lighting be an integral part of the essential
interior space - recognizing that its excellence or1
failure can make or ruin the essence of a building.1
Controllable Methods

The methods of artificial lighting can be controlled by the
architect or designer. Artificial lighting differs from natural
lighting because it can be controlled for desired mood and environmental
function.

According to Phillips, artificial lighting controls the
environment by allowing flexibility of planning within a building.
If building plans are based on production and function rather than
obtaining natural light, then heat losses can be reduced in places that
otherwise would be lighted by large areas of glass. Also, dirt and
dust can be controlled and.environment designed for work areas created
where necessary. Deep spaces can be utilised and dead storage areas
can be eliminated. Sole architectural spaces have several needs,
such.as lecture halls used for concerts and plays, and assembly halls
used for dining, dancing and examination rooms.2 'The flexibility
of artificial lighting solutions enables the right mood to be
established and the right light intensity to be realised."3

Artificial lighting offers a choice of mood by variation of

lighting effects. One way to create mood is by variation of intensity.

,lsrnat Payer, ”Lighting is to Architecture as Architecture is
to Lighting." W. XXXVII No. 2 (1968). p- 12-

ZPhillips, i t in c ct esi , p. 10.

JIbid.

This is achieved by raising the lighting levels so that the body
responds favorably. Logan states that:

...people feel refreshing certitude in their perceptions,

orientation and actions as lighting levels go up, that they

will continue to adqat higher levels as fast as they can

afford to; up to the point that they can afford to introduce

levels indoors characteristic of the daylight range, outdoors}
Variation of mood is also created by distribution of light to enhance
appearance. Fairly wide beam distribution illuminates vertical planes
and is flattering. However, lighting from one direction is unflattering

and creates an unnatural mood.

Psychological Advantages

Artificial lighting has psychological advantages in which the
effects are created by emotional appeal, control of changes and
imitation of natural lighting. .

One psychological advantage is that the illumination level
effects both physical comfort and emotional well-being. I'As with
the natural environment a well-lit, bright appearance assists in
promoting a sense of well-being, which can be obtained as easily from
medium levels of illumination as with those substantially higher. . . ."2

Another psychological advantage of artificial lighting is that
it can imitate natural lighting. Luckiesh proposes that:

Artificial light is a mobil medium of expression,

with it, not only may any of nature's effects be reproduced
but the great pageant of lighting moods En interior design

1Henry Logan, Trends in Electric Li ht Source Devel ment and
Utilisation, Building Research Correlation Sofierence, CleveEand, Mo,
my - 2 , 1959 (Washington, D.C.: Building Illumination, 1959), p. 35.

 

 

ZPhillipe, Lighting in Architectural Design, p. 149'.

may be stimulated with the same modulations. These

lighting effects are just beginnings for artificial light.

The possibilities bey them and into the realm of the

abstract are unlimited.
It is possible to duplicate the effect of the various types of artificial
lighting systems to seem.like the natural environment. This can.be
carried out too far where night is made into day and where every
environment attempts to reproduce a similar model or a daytime
atmosphere. This extreme is a mistake since nature relies on effect of
subtle changes requiring dynamic adaptation to environment instead of
the static quality of the controlled research experiments. Phillips
adds this idea:

...On a bright sunny day a person.may experience a sense of

loss when inside a building where there is neither sun

penetration nor view of the outside brightness pattern. On

a dull day his emotional state may remain unaffected, while

in some weather there may be positive advantages in shutting

out visual contact with an unpleasant climate....2
A problem develops in buildings where there is no daylight and where
emotional effects are of importance. To solve this problem.Phillips
suggests lighting an entrance hall with a tungsten filament to make it
very artificial. Then he recommends lighting the working area by
daylight fluorescent lamps of a high illumination level to increase the
feeling of naturalness.3

A third psychological advantage is that artificial lighting

changes can occur’at any time for the desired lighting effect. A room

in which lighting units give no light to the ceiling may be oppressive.

 

;Luckiesh, Lighting Zixtgzgs gag Lighting Egggcts, p. 20.

2Phillips, gigntigg in Architectggg; Desigg, p. 52.

albid. p. 53.

To change this effect, the light may be directed to the ceiling and
the room will appear brighter even if the illumination level is
reduced. Rooms may appear to be dimly lighted because of low surface
reflectance or lack of light, but the effect can be changed for
emotional appeal. Phillips cites examples of a dimmed auditorium.to
induce anticipation, a dim cocktail lounge to produce an intimate
atmosphere, and an exhibition building with high contrast effects to
achieve compelling results.1 It is necessary to strike a balance
between the amount of light contrasts within the visual area and

emotional effects of the space in order to maintain the psychological

advantages.

Integration of Daylighting and Artificial Lighting

To benefit from the psychological advantages of daylight and
artificial light, a method of integration is used. Phillips recommends
‘using prediction techniques for daylighting and artificial lighting so

that the illuminating engineers can integrate the two lighting systems.2

Produces Illumination.Most Economically
By incorporating the two lighting systems, the recommended levels
of illumination are produced most economically. There is no cost for
natural lighting except in controlling it. However, there is an
unreliable cost factor because work may be halted or activities stopped
until the natural light returns. Architectural structures will function
more economically by using artificial light sources rather than by

11219. p- 49.
21bid. p. 48.

relying completely on daylight.

...The architect may still use daylight in the traditional

sense - but with a new freedom in design; he may also

rely (partially or completely) on electric sources. ‘lith

the choice of techniques now at his diSposal, it is

economically feasible to achieve an environment suitable

for almost any task or activity....1
Logan concludes that it is necessary for survival to extend the working
day, at daylight levels, beyond the period when natural light is
available. In order to develop a round—the-clock economy, there must

be an abundant and cheap high level artificial light source integrated

with natural light.2

Overcomes High Intensity of Artificial Light

In correlating the daylighting with artificial lighting most
of the undesirable effects of poor color rendition, due to high intensity
artificial sources, can be overcome. For certain purposes it is
necessary to have a light source of constant color that can be controlled.
Control is particularly important for accurate color rendering or to
enhance objects for display. Phillips suggests that no department store
would remain in business if it were lighted with natural light alone,
since the appearance of the goods would not be enhanced.3 However,
some daylight may be necessary to prevent undesirable effects on colors

from high intensity artificial sources. By integrating daylight and

1John E. Flynn and Samuel M. Mills, Agghitectural Lighting Graphics,
(New York: Reinhold Publishing Company, 1962), p. 7 - 8.

2HenryL. Logan, fielationship of.L1ght to Health, National Technical
Conference, Minneapolis, Minn., August 21-26, 1966 (New York: Illuminating

Engineering Society, 1966), p. 1.
3Phillips, Lighting in grgchitectnral Qesigg, pp. 7 - 8.

artificial light, it is possible to attain the desired lighting

effOCte
II. ific L tin roblem

Artificial lighting is a problem to the engineer as‘well as the
designer. "The lighting problem may be summed up as the provision of
'enough light, where you want it, how you.want it', and it must be
based upon the needs of the individual building program....'1 In
addition, it.may be necessary to determine the type of lighting system

to be used.

The Amount of Light

In the past, the amount of light.may have been a problem because
light was not as readily available as it is today. IAlso, facilities
for artificial light have been very limited and crude throughout
historical time, so that it has borne the aspect of a luxury and the
nature of an expense...."2 Lighting may still be a luxury in some
areas of the world. However, most Americans have lighting in their
homes and would not think of living without it. "...It is something
‘we take for granted; it is part of our daily life, like walking or
breathing...."3

The designer can assume that the desired amount of light will

Ibid. p. 16.

aLogan, Relationship 9f Light to ggglth, p. l.
3Ph1111p8. W p. 4.

 

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10
be available, so he can concentrate on lighting effects.

Effectiveness of Artificial Lighting

The first consideration in planning effective functional and
psychological artificial lighting is the selection of the type of
lighting source, type of system, and proper equipment for each type.
After the equipment is selected, then the control methods, such as
techniques and location, must be decided upon. All of these create
the design and emotional effect of the room. "Obviously, one must
know what is to be illuminated when one designs lighting; and he must

know how illumination can be devised to achieve satisfying effects."1

Type of Light Source
“The two most commonly used electric light sources are the
incandescent lamp and the fluorescent tube.'2
The incandescent lamp is described by Flynn and.lills as
“...‘a hot wire in a bottle'. The hot wire (usually a tungsten coil)
is heated to incandescence by passing an electric current through it.
The bottle is a sealed bulb of gleee.-3 Callender continues to say
that incandescent lamps:
...(1) Provide a point source of light that can be focused or

directed over a limited area if desired. (2) lost household
bulbs have the same size base, thus lighting from fixtures or

 

1Payer, Lighting is to Aachitgcture as Architecture is to Lighting, p. 14.

2Callender, g Handbogk of Architgctggg; Dgsigg, p. 872.
3rlynn and.uills, Agchitgctgggl Lighting Graphics, p. 93.

ll

lamps can be increased or decreased within certain limits by
a change to bulbs of different wattage. (3) Most types are
less expensive to buy than fluorescent tubes. Incandescent
lighting fixtures are also genirally less eXpensive; they
require no ballast or starter.

A fluorescent tube is described by Flynn and Mills as:

...a discharge source and a rather complex electrical device.
Light is produced by an electronic action that consists of a
flow of electrons that excite mercury atoms within the glass
bulb and cause them to give off radiation. The major portion
of this radiation is in the invisible ultra-violet range,

and special phosphors coat the glass bulb to convert this
energy into visible light.2

Callender adds that fluorescent tubes:

...(1) Provide a line of light, thus in work areas the
light coming from several angles tends to wipe out the
shadows...(2) Provide three to four times as much light
per watt of electricity as incandescent filament light
bulbs, with less heat produced. (3) Hill operate about
seven to ten times longer than incandescent bulbs before
replacement is required.3

After the light source is selected, then the type of lighting system

must be considered.

Type of Light System
The types of lighting systems are direct lighting, indirect

lighting, directional (direct~indirect), semi-direct, semi-indirect,

and diffused.

...No one system can be recommended to the exclusion of
all others. Each has qualities which may match the
requirements for a given situation. Selection should be
based on the performance, architectural and budget
requirements of the particular Job.4

 

1Callender, A Hgggbook gf’Azchitgctural Dgsigg, p. 873.
2F1ynn and Mills, Azchitgctural Lighting Graphics, p. 103.

3Callender, A Hggdbogg 92 Architectgggl Desigg, p. 873.
‘Ibide pe 872e

12

The first type of lighting system is direct lighting. Callender
defines direct lighting as "A lighting system or luminaire in which
over 90 per cent of the light is distributed downward."1

...Direct lighting...gets the highest efficiency, quantity-

wise, of all systems, but direct or reflected glare results

more easily under this system than any other, and so do great

contrasts in brightness. Direct lighging may spread in a

broad radius or shut down sharply....
Callender mentions that focused, sharply direct lighting may produce
disturbing shadows and reflections unless the units are large or are
closely spaced. The general qualities of direct lighting may be poor
unless special precautions are taken to cut glare.3

Another lighting system, besides direct lighting, is necessary
to complete the luminal composition, and to provide fill light.
Indirect lighting is a reflected light which does provide fill. Callender
defines indirect lighting as a "Lighting system or luminaire in which
over 90 per cent of the light is distributed toward the ceiling."“
Anderson states that "...the quantity of light at a work area decreases
as the same amount of light gets more indirect, and that the quality of
light gets simultaneously better....'5 Phillips Observes that indirect
upward lighting results in a uniform brightness pattern and poor
modeling. The visual evidence is a diffused light source like an

overcast sky. Not all forms of indirect lighting can be criticized.

Lighting wall surfaces directly downwards from concealed locations

 

111321. p. 847.

2John Anderson, "Lighting," Integigrs, October, 1952. p. 102.
3Callender, A Handbggk 9f ggghitggtggg; Design, p. 872.

“29;. p. 871+.

5Anderson, "Lighting," p. 102.

 

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produces qualities of sunlight.1 General Electric states that
indirect.lighting is flattering because it is softly diffuse and
virtually shadowless. However, it lacks character and lacks the
dramatic quality of directional lighting.2

Directional lighting is defined by Callender as "A lighting
system or luminaire in which.light is directed almost equally'upward

and downward, but with little or none directed horizontally."3

General Electric confirms that directional sources create shadows and
patterns.4 “The wall brightnesses and the highlight and shadow patterns
produced by the directional downlighting are techniques that break up
visual monotony.'5 Payer sites an example from adjustable directional
units on one wall which add visual interest. Another technique is
a ceiling mounted fluorescent valance near the wall to produce a
different, but equally pleasing effect.6

Other artificial lighting systems include semi-direct, semi—
indirect, and diffused. Callender defines semi-direct lighting as a
'Lighting system or luminaire which directs from 60 to 90 per cent of
the light downward.'7 Anderson adds that the remainder may be sent

‘up to illuminate ceiling and upper walls. ABrightness and glare ratios

 

J'Phillips, Lighting in gremtecmg Desig, p. 52.
.ZFrenk LsGiusa, I'Men‘u for*Lighting,' Light Magazine, XXXVII (1968), p. 22.

3Callender, A Handbgok of Architgctural Design, p. 874.
4LaGiusa, 'flenu for’Lighting,' p. 21.

5Ibid. p. 21.

Payer, L h is o Are ecture a chitec ure is o n p. 14.

7Dallender, A flggdbggg 9f ggchigectural Design, p. 875.

14

of semi-direct lighting are improved over'direct lighting. However,
semi—direct lighting is used less than direct lighting.1 Callender
defines semi-indirect lighting as a "Lighting system or luminaire
which directs from 60 to 90 per cent of light upward."2 Semi-
indirect lighting should be overlapped for general light distribution.
Diffused lighting is defined by Callender as a “Lighting system or
luminaire in which almost an equal amount of light is produced in all
directions."3 I...General diffuse lighting distributes from 40 to 60
per cent of the light down....'4’ The rays are scattered to emit or
reflect over broad angles. This produces a strong horizontal

emittence of light which eliminates glare.

Type of Equipment
Proper equipment must be chosen for each type of lighting system.

Luckiesh states that lighting equipment is necessary for directing
light, diffusing light, and for shading light sources from our eyes. A
light source emits ran light and, like most raw materials, is enhanced
in value if it is modified. Usually bare light sources are glaring
and harsh. They are harmful to the eyes and they contradict the
principles of quiet, restful and comfortable surroundings. Therefore,

bare light sources can annoy our esthetic sense.5

1Anderson, "Lighting," p. 102.

20allender, A figndboog 9f Architectural Desigg, p. 875.
bid. p. 874

Aludersen, iLighting,‘ p. 102.

5Luckieeh, Lightigg Fixtures gag Lightigg Effects, p. 62.

15

Lighting equipment must be the proper scale and proportion.
According to Phillips, this has a marked effect on the emotional
quality of a space.1 “...The rules of good design apply to lighting
equipment as they apply to any article that must be seen as a part
of the overall unity of a building...."2 Phillips continues to
say that a single fixture may be striking or decorative, but when
many are required, it is necessary that each individual fixture have

simplicity, in order that the total effect he a quiet hernony.3

Control Methods

An effective lighting system not only depends on equipment,
but on control methods, such as special lighting techniques and location
of lights.

One of the lighting techniques is downlighting. Callender
defines downlighting as a “Fixture producing concentrated direct
lighting from a single bulb. It may be recessed in, or'mounted on,
the ceiling.'£ General Electric describes the emotional effects of
'controlled' downlighting as relaxing, and adaptable to a time-sensitive
pace. General Electric also describes the psychological effects of
tinted downlighting. This downlighting gives complexion flattering
illumination, sparkle on shiny objects, and varied wall brightness.5

General Electric feels that the prOper distribution of downlighting

lphillips, Lighting in Architectnrg; Design, p. 54.
2Ibi .
3paid.

‘Callender, A Handbook of Architectural Dgsign, p. 874.
5LaGiusa, "Menu for Lighting,“ p. 17.

l6

imposes highlights and shadows, produces modeled effects, and
enhances textures. Downlighting, however, should not be too narrow
in beam distribution. If it is too narrow it produces harsh top
lighting, excessive modeling, and wrinkles on peoples faces. Wide
and smooth distribution downlights are more desirable, so glare is
not evident.1

According to the Illuminating Engineering Society (I.E.S.),
there is a desire for more flexibility in residential lighting control,
types of fixtures, and architectural installations. As a result,
manufacturers have developed dimming equipment.2 Callender defines
a dimmer as a "Device to control the amount of light by reducing the
voltage or the current."3 Dimmers provide the dramatic changes in
mood and atmosphere which can be affected by varying the brightness.
A lighting system designed to provide a high level of illumination
can be stimulating or relaxing if controlled by a dimmer. "...As
dimmers become more and more widely understood and easily obtainable,
the limited 'on' or 'off' lighting of today's interiors may become
'yesterday's limited light control'."l’

Two other techniques of controlling light are cove lighting
and valance lighting. Cove lighting is defined by Callender as:

...a fully indirect system in which the ceiling is lighted
from continuous sources concealed in a cove on one or more

112.11!- p- 21-

2I.E.s., Lighting - Keyed to Today's Homg (New York: I.E.S.,
February, 1960), p. 67.

3Callender, A Handbag; of Aachitectural Desigg, p. 874.
LI.E.S., L htin - e ed 0 Toda '8 Home p. 67.

l7

walls somewhat below the ceiling. It produces a feeling

of height and spaciousness, but if used alone, tends to

be flat and monotonous. Direct lighting from downlights

or portable lamps should be used with cove lighting to

add shadows, highlights, and sparkle.l
The other technique, valance lighting, is defined as a I'system where
light sources are shielded by a panel parallel to the wall, usually
across the top of a window or fireplace . It usually provides light
both downward and upward."2 Valance lighting, or wall-washing, as it
may be called, is a simple, highly effective built-in lighting
technique to emphasize an area. It creates a focal interest and
brightness pattern.

Another’way to control methods of lighting is by proper
location of fixtures. Location of lighting fixtures contributes to
the mood of the room. If the decorative fixture is meant to be looked
at, it must be in normal line of sight. If the fixture distributes
direct light in normal line of sight it may present obscuring
brightness to the viewer. Decorative fixtures can offer interesting
luminous ornamentation, but their location can compete with the
environmental lighting by providing too many things to focus upon.

"A single elegant chandelier, for example, can be more striking as a
focal point in a room than a dozen little chandeliers on six foot
centers - a spacing that might be necessary for general lighting.'3
A room may also be illuminated the usual way and secondary lighting

may be superimposed. Luckiesh cites an example, that the ceiling

 

1Callender, A gggdbook of Agchitectural Design, p. 907

2;big. p. 875.

3LaGiusa, 'Menu.for Lighting,‘I p. 22.

18

and upper walls may be flooded with.a low intensity of illumination
from concealed sources emitting a blue—green light. Under some
conditions this sky effect is pleasant. ‘When it is not desired, this
light may be extinguished by a switch. Other colors may be
substituted or them.may be put on separate circuits.1 With this
property of mobility, the location of lighting fixtures can control

both the design and the mood of the room.

III. Artificial Lighting As A Function

"The lighting function is by definition a physiological problem,
which must concern itself with the practical problems of vision rather

than emotional and intellectual considerations."2

Physical Problems Which.Are Tangible

The physical considerations of the architectural function can
be systematically outlined because they are of a tangible nature. In
order to perceive and respond psychologically, there must be stimuli.
The stimuli are physical elements which are the tangible problems.
3

These are discussed by Peterson.

Psychological Problems Which Are Intangible

...A more complex side of human beings affected by
lighting is the psychological side. Psychological
comfort is no less important than ocular comfort.

1Luelciesh, Lighting Fixtgggs and Lighting Effects, p. 58.

2Phillips, Lighting 4;; grcmggcggg Desigg, p. 17.
3Refer to Paper by Kathy Peterson

19

Lighting must satisfy the manyssided demands and needs

of a diversity of individual psyches. Through a

variety of activities and situations an individual

requiris lighting to fulfill many different psychological

needs.
The psychological effects cannot be as systematically organized as
the physical considerations. This is because psychological effects
are of an emotional nature which are less tangible.

In the field of light and color, the least explored
field is that of psychology....It may be well to
realize in doing so, however, that most of the facts of

the psychological effects of light cannot be established
by the opinions and reactions of one person.2

IV. Emotional Considerations IQ Agtificial Lighting

Emotional feelings should be considered in designing artificial
lighting. Larson remarked that lighting affects people in a variety of
psychological ways according to individual differences in personality.
There is no standard relationship between low or high levels of
illumination and the presence or absence of visual fatigue, eye strain,
disability or discomfort. It is impossible to prescribe illumination

levels which are ideal for every situation.3

Sense Factors
The interior is experienced not only through our sense of

sight, but also through our reSponse of emotion and hearing. "Man's

 

lLeslie Larson, Lighting and Its Design (New York: hhitney
Publications, Inc., 1964), p. 4.

2Luckiesh, L'ght’ xtur s d L fee 8 p. 9.

3Laraon, L h d D 1 p. 17.

20

first sensory impression of heat and cold frol.his environment, from

sun or flame, had a distinct visual quality...._!'1

Visual Appeal
Artificial lighting affects our vision in the way we see
color, brightness, shadows and modeling, and reflection.

The visual environment is far from bland or dull.
Richard.Kelly has introduced an unusual blending of
brightness patterns throughout traffic and work areas.
Various combinations of lighting effects on surface
textures and colors create delightful visual transitions
from one area to another. On the banking floor, marble
walls are illuminated by lensed reflector lamps above
the edge of the dropped ceiling. The lamps are shielded
from.lengthwise viewing by black louvers spaced about
three inches apart. As a result, there is an
attractive shadow pattern on the upper walls, and the
cut off of light on the floor is truly dramatic.2

According to I.E.S. the visual effect of color used in the
treatment of major areas of an interior, such as floors, walls,
ceilings and large area window hangings, should be considered an
integral part of lighting.3 General Electric defines color as 'a
concept or human interpretation of the neural impulses transmitted
to the brain from the normal eye when it is stimulated by various
inbalances of visible radiant energy.'4 The process by which the
brain perceives color is not yet defined, but science and technology

are being continually advanced toward that end.

lPhillips, Lighting in Agchitgctggg; Qesigg, p. 51.

2'. S. Fisher, ”New and Different,“ Light Mggazige, XXIII,
NOe 1 (1963), pm 130

3I.E.s., Lighting - Keyed to nggz's Hggg, p. 72.

4General Electric, “Psychology of Color,“ Light and Color,
Cleveland: General Electric Company, Large Lamp Department,
Allguat 1967, p. 80

21

A more complete definition of color as a concept can be
made if color vision is considered. The totally colorbblind person
cannot distinguish between various wavelengths of light. He can
only distinguish between various amounts of light. Everything he
sees is either black or white or values of gray. The physical
light waves received by both a colorbblind person and a person with
normal color vision are not changed by the condition of the receptors.
Only the concept or perception of what is seen is changed. Any color
is the mental concept resulting from the brain's interpretation of
Special visual stimuli.

Color is part of what we perceive about objects, situations,
attitudes, moods, and environmental conditions. Color is assimilated
into impressions or concepts because the eyes supply the brain with
color information which is associated with any given subject or
situation.

”Perhaps more than any other single element in design, people's
reactions to color affect their individual preferences."1 Some color
reactions are almost universal. Certain colors are associated with
certain moods. General Electric claims that reds, oranges and yellows
are generally accepted as stimulating, while blue, violet and green
are less exciting.2

Reactions to color associated with materials are not always the

llbi e p. 90
21bid.

22

same as those associated with.light. For example,
...the green in foliage is generally accepted as
refreshing, cool, and undisturbing, so people have
come to think of trees and shrubs as somewhat neutral
or quiescent in effect: hense, green background
materials in man-made objects are psychologically
restful. But green in a light source is unnatural;
and used alone, tends to produce a macabre or
sinister effect.

According to Luckiesh there is much emotional appeal to colored
light. Chromatic light is very powerful because it tinges the
environment. It is even more powerful in arousing emotions than colored
paints.2 Phillips elaborates by saying that the color of light may
be changed for variation, and many dramatic effects can be created.
There is a potential in colored light sources related to carefully
chosen surfaces that have often escaped the architect. Also, the
variety that can be achieved by changes in the lighting of space has
been overlooked to a great extent.3

Variations in chromatic light and colored objects affect the
psychological mood perhaps without an awareness of what is happening
or without knowing why it is happening. A simple light change can
produce an interesting psychological effect by varying chromatic
light or colored surfaces.

Another visual appeal is the brightness of the interior.

Callender defines brightness as "intensity of optical sensation

 

1paid.
2Luckiesh, Lighting Eixtgges and Lighting Effects, p. 49.

3Phillips, Lighting in Architectgggl Deeigg, p. 50.

23

caused by viewing a surface from which light comes to the eyes."1
Luckiesh comments that if colored lights are properly controlled, a
great range of contrast in brightness is possible.2 On the other
hand, he says that without the use of color we may produce a range
of moods and emotions by means of brightness.3 Luckiesh continues
by saying that bright surroundings are pleasant and stimulating.‘
The brightness of the general surroundings of the

interior - the walls, ceiling, floor - should be

sufficiently high to bring the eyes to an appropriate

state of adaptation and to create an appearance of

cheerfulness without, however, causing visual dis-

comfort or distraction.5
On the other hand, low intensities of illumination produce subduing
effects in which colors appear grayed. Other psychological reactions
are also involved in these brightness changes: “high intensity
illumination, for example, contributes to a sense of increased
activity and efficiency; low intensity lighting tends to create an
attitude of relaxation...."6 Breaking up visual monotony with
brightness variations makes the atmosphere brisk and interesting.
According to I.E.S., the brightness or darkness plays a vital role

in the interior atmosphere and in the visual comfort of the persons

Callender, A Handbook 9f Architgcturgl Desigg, p. 874.
gLuckiesh, Lighting Fixtures and Lighting Effects, p. 49.

l

31b1ge pe [V60
‘Ibi . p. 46.

5I.E.S., The I.E.S. Code - Recommendgtions for Good Interigr
Lighting, (London: Illuminating Engineering Society, 1961), p. 4.

6Flynn and Mills, Aachitectural Lighting Graphics, p. 43.

 

24

occupying the space.1

The necessary artificial brightness level for
comfort may depend on the natural brightness of geographic locations.
Phillips explains that in America, where the level of daylight is
high, there is a tendency to cut down brightness of sky glare by
shading the windows. Artificial light sources are evenly distributed
close to the windows. Here it is necessary to use illumination levels
similar to daylight. Higher levels are used in these areas which
actually require less light. This may be why the illumination levels
in American office buildings are in excess of those used in England,
where the general level of daylight is lower.2 'fle are emotionally
conditioned to high levels of brightness as long as glare is not a
disturbing factor.

The modeling effects of lighting are also important visual
factors. Phillips mentions that modeling is an essential part of
seeing, since it assists in the discrimination of form.3

The direction from which light falls on the surfaces

of a three-dimensional object affect its appearance of
solidity. By changing the directional component of the
light, both the form and surface texture of the object
can be emphasized or weakened. This effect is known
technically as modeling and can be used to improve the
visibility of some task details and also give a more
pleasing appearance to buildings and to objects within
them....

Modeling is an essential aspect of the environment which has

an effect upon emotions. Luckiesh mentions that modeling not only

 

2Phillips, Lighting in grchitectural Dgsigg, p. 53.
b do pe 50. I

L htin 41.132., The I.E.S. Code - Recommendations for Gogd_Interior
Lg g, p. e

25

has an influence on objects, but it also affects the character of
shadows on the appearance of an interior.1 Phillips explains that a
lack of shadows may be depressing even though the illumination level
may be high. This effect is obtained with luminous ceilings when the
surrounding surfaces are light and there is an absence of contrast.
During the day there may be strong directional shadows from natural
light, but at night the effect is monotonous because of lack of
accent.2 Shadows and modeling add to visual appeal because they give
a three-dimensional sharpness, making objects realistic to the senses.
Visual appeal is also evident in the reflection of light.
Luckiesh refers to the surface reflection of light as a very important
factor in lighting. It is not only efficient, but it provides
satisfactory vision and cheerful surroundings. Paint or any other
medium for walls, ceilings and woodwork would be of little value
without light. Johnston and Parks state that the amount of light
reflected depends on the angle. Surfaces may appear to be the same
when viewed at one angle, but different when viewed at another.3
Luckiesh continues to say that a surface as a diffuser and reflector
of light is of no interest unless in connection with lighting.‘
Phillips supports this idea: “Light [grtiriciaI] is one of the most

potent methods of achieving...reflectance....‘5

 

1Luckiesh, Lighting Fixtures ghd Lighting Effects, p. 57.

2Phillips, Lightigg in Agchitectural Desigp, pp. 49 - so.

3Ruth.u. Johnston and Robert E. Parks, “Color and Appearance,"
Color Engineering,.November'- December, 1966, p. 14.

4Luckiesh, Lighting Fixtures and Lighting Effects, p. 61.
5Phillips, Lighting in Architectural Design, p. 50.

26

Emotional Responses
Surface qualities (textures) which vary from rough to smooth,
hard to soft, etc., cause an interior to seem to have a certain tem-
perature such as hot or cold, cool or warm. Artificial lighting also
adds to this emotional response by its effect on the surface qualities,
making a room seem warmer or cooler depending on the quality and
quantity of light used.
The psychological effects of the surroundings are

very important in many aSpects of lighting and may be

taken advantage of in solving some problems. Some

examples may be drawn from experiences with artificial

daylight and ordinary artificial light for the former

is white and relatively cold as compared with the

yellowish artificial light.1
In general we expect the artificial illuminant (incandescent) to emit
a warm tint. I'This has led some to express their displeasure with the
psychological effect of the cold, artificial daylighti[21uorescen£:]
deSpite its superior rendition of colors...."2 The cold impression
of the artificial daylight lamp may be deleted by designing an interior
‘with.warm colors and textures. I.E.S. explainp that both daylight and
white sources vary from reddish or warm to bluish or cool white.
Incandescent lamps are rich in red, deficient in blue, and therefore
accentuate the warm colors while subduing the cool colors. They

create a warm atmosphere in which the heat produced may be a problem.

The improved color rendition warm fluorescent tube can be blended with

 

1Luckiesh, Th! Lighting Art, p. 78

Ibid.

27

incandescent lamps. This does not distort colors and it provides a
warm atmosphere. If a cool atmOSphere is desired the color rendition
cool white fluorescent tube may be used.1
Colored lamps also produce an effect of temperature change.
The chromatic light makes a room feel cooler or warmer than it really
is because the light tinges everything. Luckiesh cites an example:
...A theater illuminated in the summertime by a light
which seems bluishpwhite will feel cooler than one in
which light of the warm flame-tint is used. A room
that may appear too cold at night may be warmed by a
yellowish light.2
It is evident that temperature of a room is affected by surface quality
and type of the source (incandescent or fluorescent) as well as the

actual color of light.

Hearing Reaponse
Another response affected by artificial lighting is hearing.
Psychologically, the hearing reaponse may be affected by the noise
associated with a fluorescent tube. A noise may be caused by the
ballast which is defined by Callender as the "Electrical device
required to operate fluorescent tubes."3 However, the noise can be

muted.

11.E.s., Lighting - Keyed to Todgz's Home, pp. 69 - 71.
aLuckiesh, Lighting Fixtures and Lighting Effects, p. 49.

3Callender, A Handbook of Agchitec ural Desi p. 874.

 

28

An occupied classroom is rarely quiet. Shuffling
feet, rustling papers, even sounds from outside the
room contribute a background of noise that is usually
high enough to mask ballast sounds.... This is
substantiated by actual tests. In study halls and
libraries, where the noise level is lower, it may be
desirable to remotely locate the ballasts for these
lamps.1

As long as the ballast sound is controlled, the problem can
be eliminated. However, if any noise is present it may cause
psychological reactions against the fluorescent source. Other sound
problems of fluorescent sources may be caused by radio interference.

The mercury arc in various discharge sources (mercury,

fluorescent) causes a sparking action at the electrodes
which emit low-power radio waves. These waves may be
picked up and amplified by nearbby radios, causing a
'buzzing' interference. This is not cumulative for a
group of lamps, but is related to the lamp producing the
greatest amouat. Also, interference varies over the life
of each 1am .

All of these sense factors should be considered in the

emotional and psychological effects of lighting experiences.

Environmental Influences

Fischer expresses a concern about how new sources and higher
levels of light will affect the appearance of environment. This would
present some questions concerning the psychological as well as the
physical environment created by light. Since artificial lighting is
an essential component of building, the architect should start from

the very beginning to establish some lighting goals. Unfortunately,

1L. A. Roehr, FPower Groove Goes to School,'I Light.Magazine,
XXXII, No. l (1963), p. 17.

2Flynn and Mills, égchitectural Lighting Graphics, p. 211.

O O C I

 

29

today we start with the mechanics of lighting and not the basic
needs. Light is viewed in terms of hardware rather than the effects

to be created.1

Measurement of Emotions
Phillips claims that:

...it is impossible to measure subjective reactions in
quantitative terms. There are no instruments so far
developed that can assist the architect and the
lighting engineer. The best instrument is the eye, and
the best data are obtained by questioning observation
of person and place.2

Influence Upon Emotion

The subject of emotion is one that architects cannot
be qualified to understand with the clarity of the
psychologist, and yet the architect and interior designéi]
is responsible in his art for the creation of environment,
which by common observation has a marked influence upon
emotion. A study of past periods of architecture shows
that this influence has, in fact, always been present,
and that the empirical judgment of the architect has often
achieved the type of environment most suited to a building
program. 0 e e

The architect's role is '...to interpret the findings of
scientists, and utilise the knowledge of engineers in relation to
the needs of his client....'4

...It is becoming more apparent that the architect

should be able to knowledgeably specify performance.

The engineer should effectuate it. In some cases, the
architect is the lighting designer. At other_times, the
services of an independent lighting [EesignerJ consultant
are called for. Regardless of how the final result is

 

1Robert Fischer, “Keynote Address", Building Research Correlation
Conference, Cleveland, Ohio, May 20 - 21, 1959 (Washington, D.C.:
Building Illumination, 1959), p. 33.

2?hillips, Lighting in Architectural Design, pp. 1.6 — 47.
3:191 . p. 1.5.
4Fischer, “Keynote Address', p. 33.

30

accomplished, these people should be able to create a
total environment that is comfortable, attractive,
economical and above all - suited to the purposes of
those human beings who occupy the space.

The architect, who needs to be the coordinator of all
efforts,.must know how far he Can carry his work alone,
and when he has to ask for consultants; and he must
know how to evaluate advice.2

He works through collaboration with people from many
fields to bring about a successful total design. He
analyzes the problem; he divides it into manageable
segments; he guides his collaborators toward workable

solutions; then one by one, he fits the solution
segments into a total solution for the total problem.3

The designer should create an environment which is emotionally
appealing to residential people as well as business people. ”...The
intuition of a designer is no better than his knowledge; few really
satisfying emotional effects have been the result of chance."

Rudolf remarks that the architect must learn how to make a quiet,
enclosed, isolated space or a space full of hustling, bustling activities,
pungent with vitality. He should be able to make a dignified, vast, and
even awe—inspiring Space. Transition spaces can be created that define,

separate, and join juxtaposed spaces of contrasting character.5 The

l
l. D. Riddle, "Off to School Again," Light Magazine XXXIV, No. 3

(1965), p. 230

2
Payer, QLighting is to Architecture as Architecture is to
Lighting", p. 12.

Blbi e P. 110

APhillips, Lighting in Architectural Desigp, p. 57.

5"The Six Determinants of Architectural Form”, Architectgral_Rgcord,
October, 1956, quoted in Phillips, Lighting in Architectural Desigp, p. 48.

architect and designer

...will have many thoughts which are not immediately
obvious from the plan: color sequences, harmonies or
contrasts, uses of light against dark,...the emphasis
of lighting on a wall or an object, a dimmed passage-
way leading to brightness. Innumerable similar
subtleties which are affected by lighting are often
planned and sometimes determine the plan, but are not
visible on the working drawings - they must be brought
to life by the architect with the help of his
collaborators.l

Residential designing is one area where an environment can be
created by lighting. At the Architectural and Consulting Engineers
Conference at General Electric's Lighting Institute, the chairman,

F. A. Dickey, explained that lighting is not a question of what type
is best, but how you want the lighting to look in a room. Interesting
lighting does not have to be produced by expensive and complex systems.
One way to create interest is by changing the lighting effects with
color.2

“Lighting can augment or mar the beauty of colors in a room.
Just as a color will appear to be modified under the influence of other
colors close by, so also will it be modified under the influence of
artificial lighting."3 One must understand the effect of light
sources on interiors.

Two objects identical in color may appear different

when viewed side by side - one under fluorescent lighting
and the other under incandescent lighting.... If a feeling

 

1
Payer, "Lighting is to Architecture as Architecture is to
Lighting,“ p. 14.

2F. A. Dickey, "Keynote Address," General Electric Lighting Institute,
Cleveland, Ohio, Architectural and Consulting Engineers Lighting Conference,
December 4-6, 1968.

3Myrtle Fahsbender, Residential Lighting, (New York:
D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1947), p. 255.

 

 

 

32

of warmth is desired and fluorescent lighting is to be
used, it is recommended that wall, ceiling and floor
colors be of warm hues.

Incandescent lighting is...generally warm and cheery.
Warm colors - red, orange, and yellow - will be
accentuated. This is especially true if the lamp bulbs
are of low wattage, 10-, 15-, and 25-watt sizes. The
larger size incandescent bulbs, a 300-watt in a floor
lamp for example, give a much whiter light. It is wise
to view colored fabrics, wall and floor coverings under
the type of artificial lighting that is to be used.1

Everyone interested in residential lighting should have
knowledge of basic color facts, and an eye for the use of color in
light. Unless one is thoroughly competent in the use of colored lights,
it is recommended by Fahsbender that white light and tints of light be
used, reserving the free use of color for the designer.2

Every business must consider the emotional appeal of the
environment. This is often done by proper lighting techniques as in
the following examples. This area of the study has been limited to
stores and restaurants because of the psychological appeal necessary
in selling products.

The type and size of store may greatly influence the lighting
plan and technique used. I.E.S. recommends that lighting should be
designed specifically for the type of merchandise displayed. Usually
a combination of fluorescent and incandescent lighting is desirable.

They suggest general illumination from fluorescent sources and accent

lighting from incandescent sources.3

 

1Ibid.

bid. p. 259.

3John E. Kaufman, (ed.), I.E.S. Lighting Handbook, (New York:
Illuminating Engineering Society, 1966), p. 13-2.

33

Once the type of store, class of merchandise to be handled,
and clientele served are determined, lighting should be designed to
suit the character of the store. The creation of the lighting design
to enhance the environmental character is important. Environmental
lighting involves both variation and balance in brightness on
architectural forms such as ceilings, floors, space dividers and walls.

Merchandise should dominate the view by having the highest
brightness.

To attract and retain customer attention, featured

merchandise should be on the order of five times as bright
as its surroundings. Compelling, brightly lighted
diSplays strategically placed throughout the store can
conduct shoppers on a buying tour. Even poorly located
areas can be made sales productive.

The direction of light from luminaires may be direct, indirect,
or a combination of both. According to I.E.S., the distribution in
direct lighting is used to create sharp and dramatic high-lights and
shadows. The indirect system produces a softer, general atmosphere
of lighting, where shadows are not sharply defined and textures and
shapes are less prominent.2

The avoidance of glare is an important consideration in both
window and shop interior lighting. Small areas of high brightness are
often introduced to create liveliness. These differences between

maximum and minimum illumination provide variety. The lighting in

display areas depends upon attracting attention more by variation than

 

llbid. p. 13.4.

Ibid.

34

by uniform lighting. “A prime factor is that the source of light

shall not compete for attention with the merchandise...."1 Lighting

of good quality should be complementary to the display rather than

a competing distraction. Hewitt and Vause site an example of the
distraction of a completely exposed fluorescent tube. ‘Uhen a
fluorescent tube is viewed across its length or vertically, it can
reduce the effectiveness of the illumination due to the eye adapting
itself to the brightness of the exposed tube. In order to overcome

the distraction of the eXposed tube, an unnecessarily high illumination
level on the diSplay would have to be provided.2

It is evident that the character of the shop and the type of
merchandise has an influence on the lighting. Even though the
emotional emphasis varies from store to store, the appeal is promoted
by lighting. -

An emotional appeal is also evident in restaurants and other
public dining areas. Dining areas are divided into three classes
according to mood and feeling. I.E.S. refers to these as intimate,
leisure, and quick service.3

The intimate class consists of areas where people want to visit
and be entertained as much as to eat and drink. This includes cocktail
lounges, and some dining rooms and restaurants. I.E.S. recommends that
lighting levels be directed to table height and in some cases individual

lighting should be used on the tables. Lower brightness levels are

 

la. Hewitt and A. s. Vause, Lamps and Lighting, (New York:
American Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc., 1966), p. 453.

2Ibid.

3Kaufman, I.E.S. Lighting Handbook, p. 12-4.

35

recommended in areas where subdued environment is desired. Higher
brightness levels are used in areas where light environment is needed.1
The leisure class consists of most restaurants and hotel dining
rooms. Here eating is leisurely but time is also important. I.E.S.
recommends lower illumination levels for tables where subdued
environment is desired, and higher levels for tables where a brighter

environment is wanted.2

The quick service class includes lunch rooms and cafeterias,
where eating time is limited. The service is also based on a rapid
turnover. I.E.S. recommends higher levels of illumination for rapid
seeing and for psychologically providing an environment conducive to
rapid production.-3

Food diSplays should be lighted so that attention is attracted
to the details. Lighting levels here should be at least twice that of
the surrounding areas. Food looks better when the lighting includes
a red component. According to I.E.S., ”...incandescent lamps or the
improved - color fluorescent lamps are generally preferred. The light
from these sources contains more red than that from standard fluorescent
or from 'daylight' incandescent lamps.'4

As I.E.S. has eXplained, the lighting used in a restaurant is
determined by the type of service and the desired mood of the environment.

Another area where lighting is needed to create an environment

is in a performance setting. Proper lighting for stage presentations

 

11h d. p. 12-5.

36

extends beyond visibility to the achievement of artistic composition
and production of mood effects. These functions of stage lighting

for theaters and churches rely on the manipulation of various qualities,
quantities, colors and directions of light.

“... In the theater, all lighting is planned to serve the
audience, and the manner in which the observer reacts to light
determines the design of stage lighting....'1 Stage lighting effects
the audience by setting the mood of the performance and following the
action on the stage. 'by far the most important function of light on
the stage is to assist in creating an unconscious, convincing reaction
of dramatic quality on the audience...."2

"... The first visual impact of scenery and lighting must set
the stage for something extraordinary...."3 To set the mood for
something special the house lights should be dim and there should be
a warm, glowing light on the curtains. This light commands full
attention.

... Beyond a doubt, this magic touch is created by means of light,
living light revealing living actors. Light is magic in the
sense that it can command attention, establish mood, enrich the
-setting, and create composition. Light might be said to paint
with the painter, act with the actor, and create with the

director and playwright. Used with imagination, light is,
indeed, the magician of the theater.4

13. a. uccendlese, g Syllabus 9f Stage Lighting, (New Haven
Connecticut, fihitlocks Book Store, Inc., 1931), p. 34.

albid.

3Semuel Selden and Hunton Sellman, Stage Scenegz and Lighting,
(New York: Appleton-Century Crafts, Inc., 1959), p. 215.

elbid.

37

The lighting approach must be subtle and restrained in a

play.
Emphasis of a character or an area of action should be
by a slight increase of intensity rather than by a shaft of
light stabbing the murky gloom. [Exceptions would be
dancers and soloistéE] Above all, movement of dimmers can
be so slow that the audience are made aware if a shift in
emphasis without, so to speak, seeing it....
A similar slow change in which the lighting is reduced can
bring a sense of oppression, or a change from general lighting to
Spot lighting can allow a character to dominate the scene. The slower
the change, the more the character will dominate because the reason will
not be apparent. There are also instances where lighting must be
changed even though there is no action. Bentham feels that it is common
sense to hold interest by continually adding light when the action on
stage is static.2
According to Selden and Sellman there is evidence that higher
levels of illumination make people more alert.3 we know by experience
in the theater that audiences enjoy a sophisticated comedy in bright
light more than they do one in which the lighting is at a lower level.
“... Bright light for comedy and dim for tragedy is an old but useful
rule....'4

The control of color is just as important as the control of

quantity of light.

 

1
Frederick Bentham, Stage Lightigg, (London: Sir Isaac Pitman
and Sons, Limited, 1950), p. 270.

?;pig. p. 271

3Selden and Sellman, Stage Scenegy and Lighting, p. 219.

4Ihid.

38

... In producing plays in the fifteenth century not only
was quantity of light different in comedy and tragedy,
but colors differed also. Warm colors were used for
comedy and cool ones for tragedy. This conception of
color is still in general use today, but there are many
exceptions in which color is used intelligently in
defiance of this rule.1
The effect that artificial lighting has on an audience is also
important in churches. It is necessary to create a mood; however,
the mood and feeling differs somewhat from a theater.
Skillfully used lighting can make worship services
more meaningful and enhance the architectural design of
the Space. The lighting can mold and give depth, and
can subdue or accentuate, or perhaps change its accent,
as the service proceeds. In certain interiors it can
add a fourth dimension: a suggestion of the infinite."2
In lighting the interior of a church, certain focal points
must be chosen. It is possible to have a little brightness on the
rafters or beams or these can be left dark so that the accent is on the
people in the pews. Decorative features in the front of the church
can also be lighted for emphasis. It is important that lighting be
arranged to give minimum glare when viewed from any angle. I.E.S.
feels that this is particularly necessary when there is a platform for
religious services at one end of the room and a stage for religious
drama at the other end of the same seating area.3 It 15 not only

important to light certain focal points, but the right amount of light

is necessary to coordinate emphasis and mood in a church.

Ibid.

2Kaufman,pI,E.S. Lighting Handbook, p. 12-1.

3;bid 0 p 0 12-2

 

39

In lighting both theaters and churches, the main function
is mood which includes the emotional and psychological effects on an
audience. Since mood is so intangible, it is difficult to accomplish
the desired environmental effects without careful analysis.

In conclusion, the appearance of an environment can be
enhanced or marred by artificial lighting. It is important to
consider lighting as part of the environmental design, rather than
as an afterthought. Often the mechanics are planned and the
effects are forgotten. The installation of just hardware does not
make an environment emotionally satisfying. The total lighting
effect in any environment must be planned to suit the individual
situation. The environment does not happen by chance, but it must

be created.

V. Summagy: Psychological Importance Collected From Datg

 

It is necessary that the psychological importance of the
artificially lighted environment is understood. The light should
achieve the most appropriate psychological use of variety, unity and

clarity.

Lighting Used to Create Variety of Mood

The eye reacts to variety by adaptation, and variable changes

in the lighting are stimulating. The Space may need a variety of lighting

40

systems to promote different moods and different emotional states.
Light, therefore, is a variable factor, and changes

in color, direction, and diffusion affect the subjective
impression of the environment. whether emitted by a
natural or artificial source, changes in the concentration
of light, or in the general characteristics of light
emission, often induce subconscious reaponses in the
observer.

Phillips concludes that the lighting problem can be met in a variety of
ways, and the architectural solution is capable of wide and varied

interpretation.2

Lighting Used to Achieve Visual Unity

Phillips feels that unity in a work of architecture results
from appreciation of all the design considerations, so that a unified
theme dominates the individual parts. Decisions made by the architect
will affect unity and must be appreciated. Unity should be considered
in the individual space, in the way one area connects with another
and in their inter-relationship. The choice of lighting system must
be decided with unity in mind. Then the final result depends upon
close cooperation between the architect and the lighting engineer.
Cooperation is necessary to ensure that the equipment is designed with
the over-all concept of space contributing to architectural unity.
The lighting should appear as a total aspect of design, where nothing

is removed without disrupting the unity.3

 

l
Flynn and Mills,,Arghitectural Lighting Gggphics, p. 40.
2Phillips, Lightigg in Architectural Desigg, p. 51.

31bide p. 55 - 56.

w

41

Lighting Used to Change Clarity of Form
According to Phillips "... the effect upon the individual's
emotional state may not be so clearly defined as that produced by
other contributing factors....“1 He continues to say that in a
building the natural light enters through Openings that control the
entrance of light. This gives a specific pattern of light and shade
to the interior surfaces. When artificial light sources are added to
the interior, it is important not to destroy the clarity of form
created by natural daylight. The solution must produce a clear
definition of the interior. A straight wall should appear to be
straight, and its connection to the floor and ceiling should be
defined. A surface should appear as a surface and its texture should
correspond to the previous experience of similar textures. There is
a sense of dissatisfaction when such information is distorted which
may lead to frustration and disillusion.2
In conclusion, “... the fundamental relationship between light
and 'seeing' is not only a factor in visibility, but can be a
controllable element of emotional consequence."3
It is this emotional aSpect of the lighting problem
that provides the real challenge to the imagination and
creative judgment of the individual designer. It requires
him to understand the various psychological requirements
of vision and satisfy them with comfort and within a

suitable psychological and architectural framework. This
means that the design analysis of the lighting system must

 

1Ibid. p. 54.

2Ibid.

3Flynn and Mills, Architectural Li htino Gra hics, p. 40.

42

be extended far beyond the scope of simple illumination.1

VI. .The Future of Psychological Effects of Artificial Lighting

"It is vital to the future progress of man that he develops
a technology which will substantially duplicate indoors the climate
conditions that are optimum for man. Lighting is a most important
element of this optimum c1imate.'2

Over the sons past, natural light has, of course

been the dominant illumination under which the psysiologic

action spectra have arisen. The duplication of this light

within the range of its variations would therefore seem to

be a logical goal of illuminating engineers until further

research dictates an improvement.
The goal of duplicating daylight may never be completely achieved in
the future. It will be difficult enough to duplicate the physical
characteristics, but to reproduce the same psychological reaponses
with artificial lighting may be impossible. Some psychological and
emotional reaponses to daylight conditions are not understood, so
until they are studied further they cannot be duplicated. It is to

be hoped that more research.will be done concerning psychological

and emotional effects of artificial lighting.

 

lipid.
2Logan, Relationship of Light to Health; P. 2.
3

Richard J. Wurtman, Biological Implications of Artificial Lighting,
National Technical Conference, Phoenix, Arizona, September 9 - 12, 1968

(New York: I.E.S., 1968), p. 6.

CITE BIBLIOGRAPHI

44

CITED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:
Bentham, Frederick. Stage Lighting. London: Sir Isaac Pitman

and Sons, Ltd., 1950. pp. 142 - 182, 250 - 272.

Callender, John Hancock, ed. A Handbook of Architectural Design.

New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1966.

Fahsbender, Myrtle. Residential Lighting. New York: D. Van Nostrand

Company, Inc., 1947. pp. 229 - 259.

Flynn, John E., and Mills, Samuel M. Architectural Lighting Graphics.

New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1962.

Hewitt, H., and Vause, A. S. Lamps and Lighting. New York: American

Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc., 1966. pp. 420 - 483.

Kaufman, John E., ed. I.E.S. Lighting Handbook. New York: Illuminating

Engineering Society, 1966. pp. 5-1 to 5-17, 10-1 to 12-21.

Illuminating Engineering Society. ‘Tpe I.E.S. Code - Recommendations for
gpod Interior Lighting. London: Illuminating Engineering

SOCiety, 1961. pp. 1 -' 8o

45

Illuminating Engineering Society. Lighting - Keyed to Today's Home.

New York: Illuminating Engineering Society, 1960.

Larson, Leslie. Lighting_and Its Design. New York: Whitney Publications,

Inc., 1964.

Luckiesh, Mathew. The Lighting Art. New York: McCraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc 0 , 1917 e

. Lighting Fixtures and Lighting Effects. New York: McGraw-

Hill Book Company, Inc., 1925.

McCandless, S. R. .AESyllgpus of Stage Lighting. New Haven, Connecticut:

Whitlocks Book Store, Inc., 1931. pp. 34 - 44.

Phillips, Derek. Lighting in Architectural Desigp. New York: McGraw-

Hill Book Company, Inc., 1964.

Selden, Samuel, and Sellman, Hunton. l§tage Scenery and Lighting.

New York: Appleton-Century Crafts, Inc., 1959. pp. 215 - 227.

46

Reports - Published:
Fischer, Robert. lgpynote Addresp. Building Research Correlation Conference,
Cleveland, Ohio, May 20 - 21, 1959. Washington, D. C.: Building

Illumination, 1959.
Logan, Henry L. Relationship of Light to Health. National Technical
Conference, Minneapolis, Minn., August 21 - 26, 1966. New York:

Illuminating Engineering Society, 1966.

. Trends in Electric Light Source Development and Utilization.

 

Building Research Correlation Conference, Cleveland, Ohio, May 20 -

21, 1959. Washington, D. C.: Building Illumination, 1959.

Wurtman, Richard J. ‘Biological‘Implications of Artificial Lighting.
National Technical Conference, Phoenix, Arizona, September 9 - 12,

1968. New York: Illuminating Engineering Society, 1968.

.trticles in Journals or Magazines:

Anderson, John. ”Lighting." Interiors, October, 1952, pp. 86 - 113.

Fisher, W. S. ”New...and Different.“ Light Mggazine, XXXII, No. 1
(1963), pp. 10 "' 150
Johnston, Ruth M., and Parks, Robert E. “Color and Appearance.“ Color

Engineering, IV, No. 6 (November - December, 1966), pp. 14.

47
LaGiusa, Frank. "Menu for Lighting.“ Light Ia azine, XXXVII, No. 2

(1968), pp. 17 - 23.

Maycumber, S. Gray. "Fluorescents Comes of Age." Color Engineeripg, II,

No. 4 (April, 1964), pp. 13 - 15.

Payer, Ernst. "Lighting is to Architecture as Architecture is to Lighting."

Light Magazine, room, No. 2 (1968), pp. 9 - 11..

Riddle, W. D. “Off to School Again.” ‘Light Magazine, XXXIV, No. 3 (1965),

pp. 22 "' 23.

Roehr, L. A. “Power Groove Goes to School." Light Magazine, XXXII, No. l

PERTINENT BIBLIOGRAPHY

49

PLRTINENT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:

Bell, Louis. The Art of_lllumination. New York: McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Inc., 1912.

British.Lighting Council. Ipterior Lighping Desigp Handboo . London:
The British Lighting Council, 1966.

Hapkinson, R. G.; Petherbridge, P.; and Longmore, J. Daylightipg.

London: William Hienemann, Limited, 1966.

Luckiesh, Mathew. Artificial Light - nfluence on Civilization. New

   

York: The Century Company, 1920.

. Light and Shade. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1916.

Lyon, John A. M. Luminous Surfaces for gpchitecturalghightipg. New York:

Illuminating Engineering Society, 1937.

Kohler, Walter, and Luckhardt, Wassili. Lighting in Architecture.

 

New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1959.

Sharp, Howard M. Introduction tp_Lighting. New York: Prentice-Hall,

Inc., 1951.

50

Stevens, W. R. Principles of Lighting. London: Constable and Company,

Limited, 1951.

Rgports - Published:

Artificial Light and Its Application in phe Home. Mariquita Dygert,
chairman. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1932.

Griffith, James W. Trends in Natural Light Source Development app
Utilization. Building Research Correlation Conference, Cleveland,
Ohio, May 20 - 21, 1959. Washington, D. C.: Building Illumination,

1959.

Wright, Henry. Lighting as Architecture. Building Research Correlation
Conference, Cleveland, Ohio, May 20 - 21, 1959. Washington, D. C.:

Building Illumination, 1959.

‘ggticles in Jqprnals or’Magggipes:
Allison, R. C. "White Whiter than White Fluorescent Agents." Color

Epgineering, V. No. 4 (July - August), pp. 41 - 45.

Allphin, Willard. “Further Studies of Sight Line and Direct Discomfort
Glare.‘ Illuminating Engineering, LXIII, No. 1 (January, 1968),

pp. 26 - 29.

Anderson, John. "Lighting in Design.” Interiors, October, 1952, pp. 146 -

154.

51

Barcees, C. A. "Illusion and Illumination - A Working Team in .

Architecture.” Illuminating Engipeering, LXIII, No. 6
(June, 1968), pp. 306 -' 307.

Bergson, Maria. "Color Application in Lighting.a Interior'Desigp,

October, 1957, pp. 207, 222, 236, 239.

Drexler, Arthur. "A General Consideration of Lighting Effects." nte r

Ewing, Gerald B. "Creative Light Design." Interipr Desigp, November,

1959’ pp. 114 " 121.

Harrison, Laurence S. "Esthetics in Lighting." Illuminating Engineeripg,

LXIII, No. 2 (February, 1968), pp. 54 - 58.

Hart, A. L. I'Innovation...Inside and Out." Light Magazine, XXXIV, No. 4

(1965): PP: 4 "' 5°

Hepler, Bobby L. "Ballroom Lighting - For Come What May." Illuminating

Engineeripg, LXIII, No. 2 (February, 1968), pp. 49 - 51.

Judd, D. B. "Studies of Illuminating and Viewing Conditions in the
Colorimetry of Reflecting Materials." Cplor Engineering, II,
No. 5 (May, 1964), pp. 14 - 17.

52

Kiesler, Frederick. "Endless House and Its Psychological Lighting."

Interiors, November, 1950, pp. 123 - 129.

Langewiesche, Wolfgang. "Good Light." House Beautiful, July, 1963,

 

P13- 40 ' 45’ 52 - 53.

Lutz, Chester A. R. “Church Lighting." Illuminating Engineering, LXIII,

No. 2 (February, 1968), pp. 43 - 46.

Manchester, Harland. "Electroluminescence - A New Kind of Light.“

The Reader's Digest, February, 1958, pp. 96 - 99.

Nielsen, Bodil W. “Designed Light." Contract, February, 1963, pp. 40 - 43.

O'Donnell, C. A. "Space Age Living...Step One." Light.Ja azine, XXXIII,

No. 2 (1964), pp. 13 - 15.

Riddle, W. D. "How We Used the Panel Fluorescent Lamp.“ Light Magazine,
XXXII, NO. 3 (1963), pp. 28 " 29.

. "Lighting...Science and Art." LightNMagazine, XXXIII, No. 2

(1964). pp. 22 - 23-

Strongin, Oscar. “Tritium - Luminous Light." Qplor Engineering, II, No. 2

(February, 1964), pp. 13 - 15.

52

Kiesler, Frederick. "Endless House and Its Psychological Lighting."

Interiors, November, 1950, pp. 123 - 129.

Langewiesche, Eolfgang. "Good Light.” House Beautiful, July, 1963,

PP- 40 - 45: 52 - 53.

Lutz, Chester A. R. I'Church.Lighting." Illuminating Engineering, LXIII,

No. 2 (February, 1968), pp. 43 - 46.

Manchester, Harland. "Electroluminescence - A New Kind of Light."

The Reader's Digest, February, 1958, pp. 96 - 99.

Nielsen, Bodil W. "Designed Light.“ Contract, February, 1963, pp. 40 - 43.

O'Donnell, C. A. "Space Age Living...Step One.“ Light Magazine, XXXIII,

 

No. 2 (1964), pp. 13 - 15.

Riddle, W. D. "How We Used the Panel Fluorescent Lamp.” Light Magazine,
MI, N00 3 (1963), pp. 28 "' 290

. "Lighting...Science and Art." LightLMagazine, XXXIII, No. 2

(1964): PP. 22 - 23.

Strongin, Oscar. "Tritium - Luminous Light.” .gglqggEngineerng, II, No. 2

(February, 1964), pp. 13 - 15.

  

1031;067:625

53

Psychologica143bstracts:

 

Ball, Richard J., and Bartley, S. Howard (Michigan State University)
Changes in Brightness Index, Saturation, and Hue Produced by
Luminance, Wavelength, and Temporal Interactions. Journal
of the Optical Society of America, Vol. 56, No. 5, 1966,

pp. 695 - 698.

Bishop, Harold P. (Tufts University) Separation Thresholds for Colored
Bars with Varied Luminance Contrast. Psychonomic Science,

Vol. 5, No. 6, 1966, pp. 237 - 238.

Freeberg, Norman E. (Princeton) Shadow Effects in Recognition of Complex
Textured Surfaces. Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol 22, No. l,

1966, pp. 251 ~ 256.

Frost, B. J., Subjective Colors: An Objective Color Artifact. Journal

of Psychology, Vol. 60, No. 2, 1965, pp. 251 - 254.

Mullick, Jaladhar, Effect of Illuminations on Depth Discrimination.

Indian Journal of Psychology, Vol. 39, No. 4, 1964, pp. 173 - 178.

Torii, Shuko, and Vemura, Yasuko (University of Tokyo) Effects of
Inducing Luminance and Area Upon the Apparent Brightness of
the Test Field. Japanese Psychological Research, Vol. 7,

No. 2, 1965, pp. 86 - lOO.

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF HOME ECONOMICS
EASOT LANSING, MICHIGAN

'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII '

 

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