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A HISTORICAL SURVEY OF EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY COLONIAL
INTERIOR DESIGN AS EXEMPLIFIED BY INTERIOR
WALLS OF HOUSES IN'WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA

BY

Sandra Feldpausoh Goran

A PROBLEM

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

HASTER.OF ARTS
Department of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts

1966

ABSTRACT

A HISTORICAL SURVEY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY COLONIAL
INTERIOR DESIGN AS EXEMPLIFIED BY INTERIOR
WALLS OF HOUSES IN WILLIAMSBURG. VIMINIA

by Sandra Feldpausch Goran

Photographs of the fireplace walls of fifteen rooms
of Hilliamsburg. Virginia. houses were used to study and deter-
mine the characteristics of Colonial design. The findings of
this study correspond with descriptions presented as back-
ground information of the decorative interior details from
the literary sources. in examination of representative
rooms of Williamsburg houses confirms the particular styling
of the interior design details known as Colonial.

The rooms of the Williamsburg houses can be divided
into three groups, progressing from the simple to the more
elaborate: - (1) rooms with combinations of a comics, chair
rail and baseboard, (2) rooms with a dado. and (3) rooms with
fully-paneled wainscotting. The treatment of the over-mantel
on the fireplace wall was determined by the amount of paneling
and moldings used. There were no examples of walls finished
with wallpaper or fabric. Fireplace moldings were composed
of three materials: marble, stone and wood. Marble fireplace
moldings were used in the less elaborate room interiors and

in houses having fully-paneled walls. Wood was painted and
plaster was treated with whitewash.

 

 

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ACKNOWLEDGHENTS

I would like to acknowledge the invaluable help
given me by Hr. Paul Buchanan, Supervisor of Architectural
Research and Records and Colonial Projects Designer, Wil-
liamsburg, Virginia. He suggested the list of houses used
in the study as being representative examples and permitted
the use of the Progress and Research Photograph Albums in
his office.

I wish to express gratitude to the members of my
committee, Dr. Mary Gephart, Hrs. Stephanie Winkler, and Mrs.
Mabel Cooper Skjelver,for their guidance through this research
problem. The personal interest in my study by my advisor,
Dr. Elinor Nugent, gave me the desire to continue when time
seemed to be unavailable. Her patience and kind manner is
envied by the author of this study. I wish to extend sincere
appreciation to her.

The encouragement of my parents and understanding
of my husband was needed and always welcomed. They helped
me find the answer to my concern for care of Lynette and
Jamie so I could continue and complete this study. Too, I

thank my children for their good behavior and ready love.

ii

TABLE OF

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . .
LIST OF TABLES . . . .
LIST OF PLATES . . . .

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

IV.

INTRODUCTION. .

CONTENTS

Statement of the Problem.

Methodology .

Definition of Terms .
Review of Literature.
Focus of the Study. .

THE CONTRIBUTION OF WILLIAMSBURG TO
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURI COLONIAL

Historical Background .

Restoration .

Summary . . . . .

DESIGN. . . .

DESCRIPTION OF REPRESENTATIVE
CENTURY COLONIAL DETAILS USED
WILLIAMSBURG HOUSES . .

Fireplace and Kantel.
Wall Treatments .

Holdings and Paneling

DoorS........
smaryeeee

DESIGN DETAILS FOUND IN

Summary 0 e 0

iii

THE

EIGHTEENTH-
IN

INTERIORS OF
SELECTED HOUSES IN WILLIAMSBURG . . . . .

"d
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09

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H
UNU‘IUIN H

14

17
18

(D

Chapter Page
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . 44

0 O O O O I O O O O O O O 44

O 0 O O 0 O 0 O O 0 O O O 45

O O O O O O O O O O O O O 4 6

O O O O O O O O 48

swam O O O O 0
Conclusions . . .
Recommendations .

BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table ' Page

1. Interior design details of the fireplace
wall in living rooms of fifteen rooms of
00101113]. Williamsburg, Virginia. 0 e e e c e e e c 39

LIST OF PLATES

Plate Page
I. Various Fireplace and Room Arrangements. . . . . . 21
II. Five Baseboards. , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
III. Five Chair Rails , , , , , . , . . . . . . . . . . 27
IV. Four Interior Cornices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

V. Fireplace Wall of the Powell-Waller'House,
Williamsburg, Virginia 0 g o e o o e e e e e e e 35

VI. Fireplace Wall of the Peyton-Randolph House, -
Williameurg, Virginia 0 e e e e e e e e c e e e 36

VII. Fireplace Wall of the Peyton-Randolph House,
Williameurg, Virginia 0 e e o e e e e e e e e e 37

vi

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

In this mid-twentieth century there is an increased
interest and use of architectural details and interior
furnishings to capture the essence of our Early American
heritage. The houses of the eighteenth century offer to
contemporary designers and builders a source of inspiration
and detail which is expressive of the ideals and standards
of a new and vigorously developing country. It is perhaps
the desire to acquire the strength and stability as.wsll as
the beauty of the past that contemporary architects and in-
terior designers turn to the Colonial period.

The restoration of Williamsburg, Virginia, in the
late 1920'slbrought the merits of Colonial design to the
attention of twentieth-century designers and builders. The
restored houses and public buildings created not only a
source of inspiration, but also a basis for the study of
the design of a past era.. Through a utilization of this
source, it is possible to determine and summarize the char-

acteristics of the design which is known as "Colonial.".

 

1A. Lawrence Kocher and Howard Dearstyne, W lliams-
bur : Its Buildi s and Ca ens (New York: Holt, ne art
an n8 on, no” 9 P. '

3:;

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study is to determine the char-
acteristics of Colonial design as expressed in the details
used in the interiors of houses built in America during the
eighteenth century. By examining and summarizing the treat-
ment used for fireplace walls in the living rooms of a
selected group of original and restored houses in Williams-
burg, Virginia, it is possible to identify the characteristic
interior design style of the Colonial period. The assumption
guiding this study is that the interior design details found
in the houses of Williamsburg, Virginia, are examples of the
eighteenth-century Colonial period in America.

Details of interior design are compiled and sum-
marized as an aid for those interested in creating furnish-
ings and interiors for contemporary homes using adaptations
of eighteenth-century Colonial design. The use of such
details can assist in capturing the spirit and feeling
evidenced in the houses of Williamsburg where the furnish-
ings were in harmony with the basic structural and archi-

2 It is hoped this study will contribute

tectural qualities.
information for the use of designers of interiors, whether

professional designers or interested homemakers.

 

2"The Williamsburg Tradition," Williamsburg Repro-

ductions, May, 1965, p. 7.

Methodology

This is an historical and descriptive study of
eighteenth-century colonial interior design. In addition
to literary sources, it is possible to utilize the actual
structures of this period which have either been maintained
or reproduced in the restoration of one of the most impor-
tant towns of the eighteenth-century Colonial period in
America. Williamsburg was the capital of the Commonwealth
of Virginia from 1699 to 1780. The town became a political
and social metropolis and reflects this role in its archi-
tectural development.3 Ideas and ideals of the nation were
focused in Williamsburg as the great statesmen verbally and
physically fought for and won their independence from England.
Williamsburg offers an authentic and unique source for study
because of the efforts since 1926 to reproduce exactly the
structures of the Colonial era.5

After examining the available literature pertaining
to interior wall treatments of houses in Williamsburg,
Virginia, photographs of fifteen rooms of fourteen houses
were selected and used during a visit to the restored city.

These photographs formed a basis for a description of eight-
eenth-century Colonial wall treatments and interior design
details found in the fireplace walls of the living rooms.

 

3Kocher and Dearstyne, op. cit., p. 3.

4Kenneth Chorley, Williamsbur in Vir inia (Williams-
burg, Virginia: Colonial ams urg, Incorporated, 1963),
PP. 1']. e

5Kocher and Dearstyne, op. cit., p. 45.

4

. A representative list of living rooms was taken from
Part II of Whiffen's book, The Eighteenth-Century Houses of
Williamsbugg.6 Marcus Whiffen was a member of the staff of
Colonial Williamsburg as an architectural historian from
1954 to 1959. Part II of his book is a pictorial survey of
thirty-two of the eighty-three original houses in Williams-
burg’s restored area. These photographs were from the
Progress and Research Photograph Albums7 of Colonial Williams-
burg.

Photographs of representative living rooms for this
study were selected and permission for this use was granted
by Paul Buchanan, Supervisor of Architectural Research and
Records and Colonial Projects Designer, Williamsburg, Vir-
ginia. Buchanan has been associated with the restoration
program since 1950, a period of sixteen years. These rooms
were chosen according to information relative to this study
which was found in the Progress and Research Photograph
Albums. These albums collected at Williamsburg contained
pictures taken during various phases of the restoration or
preservation of each building from its start to its completion.

Incorporating the suggestions of Buchanan, fifteen
rooms of fourteen houses were selected fbr'this study.

These rooms included a fireplace wall which was considered

" 6Marcus Whiffen, The Bi hteenth-Centu Houses of
Williamsb (New York: ROII, RIEeEEET, and NInsIon, Inc.,
I535}, pp. 59-185.

7Progress and Research Photograph Albums. Williams-
burg, Virginia: Colonial Williamsburg, Inc.

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representative of eighteenth-century colonial interior
design.

From literary sources an outline compiling the
details of the interior design was developed for use in
studying these photographs. The details studied include:

(1) the divisions of the wa11--paneling (wainscot or dado),
moldings (cornice, chair rail, baseboard), fireplace (mantel
or over-mantel, molding), and (2) the decoration of the wall--
actual materials (paint, whitewash, wallpaper, fabric).

The details gathered from literary sources were
described and some illustrations were included to identify
the Colonial details. The outline of the compiled interior
design details of the fifteen rooms presents further identi-
fication of the characteristic interior design style of the
Colonial period, and the characteristic features which express
the qualities of eighteenth-century colonial design are sum-

marized.
Definition of Terms

Various terms are used in the description of eight-
eenth-century architectural details. These need to be de-
fined to promote an understanding today of the meaning of
these terms as used in the eighteenth century.

The term Colonial Williamsburg designates the time
when Williamsburg was the capital of Virginia from 1701 to

1779.8

 

8"The Historical Background," The Architectural Record
(December, 1935), pp. 160-61.

The restoration program restored the architectural
details by using new materials to duplicate the original or
preserved the object by retaining the original through the
use of ordinary repair.9

The livipg room is that part of the house used to
entertain acquaintances.10

The terms wainscottipg and gggp are used to refer
to types of paneling that are wood coverings applied to the
wall area in varying amounts.11 Paneling that extends from
the baseboard molding to the ceiling is referred to as
wainscottipg. Paneling extending from the baseboard molding
up three to five feet ending with the finishing molding,
dado cap, is referred to aswainscottigg or $293.12

The terms comics, dado cap, W or W,
and baseboard refer to types of moldings of wood applied
horizontally to various areas of the wall.13 The cornice is
applied to the area at the angle of the wall and ceiling.14
The dado cap is applied to the wall as the finishing molding
at the top of wainscotting or dado.15 The chair rail or sur-

 

9William Graves Perry, "Notes on the Architecture,"
The Architectural Record (December, 1935), p. 370. -

10Whiffen, op. cit., pp. 46-51.

11Norman Morrison Isham, A Glossa of Coloniaerrchi-
tectural Terms (The Walpole SociEt5T'ICESTT‘BETTE5:577"""

12Kocher and Dearstyne, op. cit., p. 25.

13Isham, loc. cit.

14Ibid.
15Whiffen, 0p. cit., p. 81.

 

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base is applied half-way up the wallor at "chair height" as
a protective molding where there is no paneling.16 The base-
board is applied to the are: at the bottOm of the wall.17

The fireplace molding and mantel or overbmantel
are the components of the area around the fireplace and the

area above, respectively.18
Review of Literature

Interest in the restoration of Williamsburg, Vir-
ginia was reflected in the many writings which presented the
various facets of the Colonial city. Many articles focused
upon the architecture, the gardens, colonial cookery, life in
the eighteenth century, and the progress of the restoration
program.

Numerous magazines presented the newly restored
and rebuilt.houses through pictures and descriptions. Two -
issues of House and Garden819 presented articles on the out-
standing features of the houses of the restored city; both
named and described the fireplace wall and the window detail- '
ing. The thirty-one page coverage in the 1937 issue20 also

 

16Kocher and Dearstyne, loo. cit.

17Isham, loc. cit.

18M' 1

191?.thel A. Reeve, "Inside A.Virginian Colonial House
:3.O%g-g;lliamsburg,f House and Gardens (November, 1933),

2°”Williamsburg, What It Means to Architecture, to
Garden ,-to Decoration," House and Gardens (November, 1937).'
PP . 37- . '

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

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named proportions of the rooms and furnishings, and the un-
usual color schemes. It was also pointed out that the Williams-
burg houses and public buildings contribute generously to a

catalogue of fireplace designs. Two issues of the Ladies Home

21

Journal presented relative pictorial descriptions of the

exterior and interior of two houses in Williamsburg. In both

articles the photographs depicted the details of the fireplace

wall.22 Interest in the indispensable traditions of Colonial

architecture persisted as the restoration progressed.

Many books mention the value of the restoration pro-
gram and the merits of the architecture of Williamsburg.
Gowans, an analyst of the colonial Spirit in America, points

out the value of Williamsburg as a source of study in his book

Images of American Living.23 Gowan states:

The Williamsburg buildings mean many things to
many people. To some, they mean wealth, the
wealth of early Virginia that built them, the
wealth of twentieth-century America that restored
them. To others they mean a style to copy. But
their greatest significance remains historical.
They are deliberate dramatizations in America of
men s power to organize their environment mean-
ingfully; they are the first works of and for
men consciously delighting to feel Ehemselves in
command of the world they inhabit.2

 

21"Brush-Everard House," Ladies Home Journal (October,
1952). pp-e46-47.

22"Nicolson House," Ladies Home Journal (February,
1955). pp- 50-51-

23Alan Gowans, Imaoes of American Livin (Phila-
delphia, New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, I§é4).
24Ibid., p. 135.

Hamlin, Professor of Architecture, Columbia University, also
regarded the buildings as valuable sources. He states:

Williamsburg, of course, had the most sophisti-
cated, the most elegant capital of them all.

Now rebuilt in as close a reproduction of the
original as the existing foundations, contempo-
rary engravings and descriptions could make pos-
sible,...the reconstructed buildings show a
quality in the pr0portion of window and wall, an
originality and daring in the use of carved forms,
a dexterity in the handling of arched and square-
headed openings which is all unique in America.25

Watterson in Speaking of the Governors' Palace in his book,
Architecture26 stated: "The interiors, the furnishings, and
the very beautiful gardens of this building have made it a
shrine in early Americana." Hatterson further voices the

praises of the colonial architecture of Williamsburg as he

writes:

The restoration of Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia,
affords a unique opportunity to see early eight-
eenth-century Virginia architecture at its best.
Not only a few buildings, but an entire portion
of the city, about a mile long by one-third of a
mile wide, has been restored to its condition
before 1810....Along this street are many old
houses and taverns, as well as Bruton Church,
carefully rebuilt or restored, completely cap-
turing the atmosphere, as the aspect, of the old
city. 7

Kimball, the Director of the Pennsylvania Museum and His-
torian of the American Institute of Architects, stated:

"Williamsburg, at the Revolution, was a town of beauty and

25Talbot Hamlin, Architecture Throu h the Ages (New
York: G.P. Putham's Sons, 19535. pp. 530-51.

26Joseph Watterson, Architecture (New York: W.W.
Norton and Company, Inc., 19 0 .

 

 

27Ibid., p. 301.

\r.

10

of architectural significance; its major buildings were
milestones in history of American style, its Palace Garden
perhaps the most beautiful in America."28

The work of Kocher and Dearstyne, Williamsbugg:
Its Buildings and Gardens29 described the restoration.
Exterior and interior architectural details found in the
houses and public buildings were presented. This book
was done under the guidance of the Colonial Williamsburg
organization. Also under their guidance the comprehensive
presentation of Williamsburg's public buildings entitled,
The Public Buildings of Williamsburg30 was done by Marcus
Whiffen, architectural historian. His later book, Th2
Eighteenth-Century Houses of Williamsburg31 included detailed
descriptions of the original houses in the town. 'Gowans
states that Marcus Whiffen's writings have been classical
sources on Williamsburg since their appearance. The book
written by Kocher and Dearstyne and the work of Whiffen
were recommended by Mr. Paul Buchanan, Supervisor of Archi-
tectural Research and Records and Colonial Projects De-
signer, Williamsburg, Virginia. Considered as good repre-
sentative sources for this study, these writings were the

major sources for Chapter II and III of this study.

 

28Kocher and Dearstyne, op. cit., p. 11.
291bid.

3OMarcus Whiffen, The Public Buildin s of Williams-
burg (New York: Holt, Rinefiaft, and Winston, Tnc., I§535.

31Whirfen, The Eighteenth-Century Houses of Williams-
burg.

 

 

11

The Williamsburg Restoration, Incorporated has
periodically published catalogues, Williamsburg Reproduc-
tgpng?2of the available authentic reproductions of the
interior decor of the important historic city. The organiz-
ers of this crafts catalogue attribute the lasting interest
and harmonious results in Colonial interiors to the effective
use of proportion, detail, and symmetry. The structures,
gardens and interiors are based on geometric designs. They
state:

Grace of proportion and rhythm of pattern, hon-

est use of materials, subtle harmony of varied

designs; these ancient concepts are as applic-

figigStgwgogzg;:rigziggoagsthey were to towns and

Interior design studies have been very few and none
has been completed utilizing the houses of Williamsburg,
Virginia. Sisson completed a thesis entitled, "A Study of
Architecture, Interior Design and Furnishings of Selected
Houses in the United States in the Period of 1890-1920."34
This study, concentrating upon a period of rapid industrial
growth and arChitecture in the United States, was undertaken

to analyze the architecture, interior design and furnishings

of selected houses in New York, Philadelphia and Chicago.

 

32Williamsburg Reproductions (Williamsburg, Virginia:
Williamsburg Restoration Inc., 1965).

33Ibid.

34Marian B. Sisson, "A Study of Architecture, Interior
Design and Furnishings of Selected Houses in the United States
in the Period of 1890-1920" (unpublished Master’s thesis,
Drexel Institute of Technology, 1964).

12

It was also the purpose to determine to what extent, if any,
there existed a correlation between the architecture, interior
design and furnishings of these houses. A similar study util-
ized as source materials a group of houses in southwest

35 The purpose of Cannon's study was to locate and

Georgia.
preserve a record of selected Greek Revival influenced houses
in southwest Georgia, together with certain pieces of furb
niture used by their original owners. It was believed that
a partial reconstruction of life in the nineteenth century
for a selected number of people might be realized if written
descriptions and visual records of the architectural features
of theil'houses and of their furniture were compared with
those in standard sources and presented against a background
of contemporaneous state, county, and family history.
Although these studies are not concerned with the
Colonial period, they do show an interest in interior design.
The value of an examination of historic houses was brought
out by Kenneth Chorley, the President of Colonial Williams-
burg, Incorporated, when he stated: "That the Future may
learn from the Past."36 I
General works on the architecture of Williamsburg
appear but architectural studies researching for Specifics

are limited. Therefore, determining the characteristics of

Colonial design as expressed in the details used in the

 

35Margaret Cannon, "Southwest Georgia Houses of Greek
Revival Influence and Their Furniture, 1820-1890" (unpublished
Master's thesis, Florida State University, 1963).

36House and Gardens, LXXII, loc. cit.

13

interiors of houses built in America during the eighteenth
century is the purpose of this study.

Focus of the Study

This study of Colonial design is directed toward a
compilation and presentation of the decorative details which
are eXpressive of interior.house design during the eighteenth
century. Through an examination of the living rooms of houses
which were either built in the eighteenth century or restored
to their original state, it is hoped that a better definition
and understanding of Colonial design may be achieved.

There also seems to be confusion in the use of the
term "Colonial" with the term "Early American." "Colonial"
has been used repeatedly to explain and discuss interiors .
that are "Early American." This unintentional misuse of
terms causes confusion on the part of salesmen as to what
their customers actually want; relatives, neighbors and
acquaintances find themselves discussing two completely
different aspects of interior design. This study is an
attempt to lessen this confusion by trying to establish
the characteristics of the Colonial period.

The restoration of Williamsburg, Virginia, has brought
the merits of eighteenth-century design to the attention of
contemporary designers and home furnishers, and created a
basis for study. Through an examination of historic Williams-
burg and interior design details, this study will strive to
present the characteristics of eighteenthpcentury colonial

interior design.

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CHAPTER II

THE CONTRIBUTION OF WILLIAMSBURG TO
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY COLONIAL DESIGN

Historical Background

Williamsburg was distinctive as the seat of govern-
ment and as the cultural center for one of Britain's largest
and most powerful colonies; its size belies its importance
in shaping the history of America. Williamsburg's political
significance is intimated in the Capitol; its prestige for
the Crown in the Governor's Palace; its cultural role in
Bruton Church and the Wren Building of the College of William
and Itiary.l

Williamsburg served as the capital of Virginia
from 1699 to 1780. It was during these years that the cap-
ital experienced historical and architectural significance.
The town was originally settled as Middle Plantation. In
1699, when the capital was removed from Jamestown to Williams-
burg, it was renamed in honor of King William III. In 1780
the capital was moved to Richmond and then Williamsburg fell
into decline.

 

lKocher and Dearstyne, op. cit., p. 3.
2Ibid.

14

15

During the period Williamsburg was the center of
colonial activity, it was a small college town and market
place for the major part of each year. Twice a year the town
was crowded with people intent upon serious business as well
as activities for the fun-loving. Usually this was the time
when the legislature met and the courts were in session. The
town actually doubled in population and every available Space
was used for lodging in the taverns, inns, and private houses.
Very important peOple made their appearance at the capital
during these "publick times." Banquets, balls, lawn fetes,
displays of fireworks, horse races and fairs were held for
the amusement of the people as well as to encourage trade.
Although Williamsburg was not a large trading center, the
skilled craftsmen and the shopkeepers made certain the finest
goods of the colony and the latest creations from England
were available.3
Many manufactured goods were imported frmm England
as late as 1752. When the Stamp Act and other restrictive
measures were passed, the tense relations with England led
to a decrease in the number of imports and an increasing
demand for the home crafts and manufactured goods. Williams- /
burg produced furniture, candies, coaches, saddles and
harnesses, jewelry, shoes, hosiery, and wigs.4 I
The cultural position Williamsburg held in the
colony was due in part to the presence of the College of

 

31bid., pp. 3-4.
#Ibido , Po 40

U

16

William and Mary. This college was founded in 1693 as the
second oldest college in the colonies. The college and the
government of the town worked together. Members of the
college were even represented in the House of Burgesses.
Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, James Monroe, John
Tyler, John Marshall, Edmund Randolph and other'men impor-
tant in America's past were students of this college. George
Hythe was one of the prominent members of the faculty. He
was the tutor of Thomas Jefferson and founder of the first
course in law at an American college.5
The site and position of the College was an asset
to its students, the townSpeople, and the colonists. It
was in the center of the social, cultural, and political
life of the colony. The students saw and experienced at
first-hand the operations of colonial society and government.
Bruton Church also had its part in the cultural
role Williamsburg held in the colonies. Between 1711 and
1715 the church was erected so it would be adequate to
serve as court church of the colony. This building became
the center of religious life in the capital. Students,
governors, members of the Council and the House of Burgesses,
and aristocracy of the town and nearby plantations came to
listen to the sermons. Church events brcught people together
dressed for the occasion and many came for'the purpose of

displaying their best attire.7

 

6

1?
Restoration

The historical value of Williamsburg was recognized
by Dr. W. A. R. Goodwin, late rector of Bruton Church, who
became interested in the preservation of an important land-
mark in the nation's history. He persuaded the late John
D. Rockefeller, Jr. to invest in a program of restoration.
Originally the project, begun in 1926, was to recover'the
significant portions of an historic and important city of
America's period. This has been broadened to include an
interpretation based upon the recognition of Williamsburg's
importance in the formulation of American political thought,
education, commerce, fashions of the New World, and religion.8

This program required a vast staff of experts.
Architects, archaeologists, landscape gardeners, builders,
town planners, historians, lawyers, engineers, decorators
and many others were employed. The entire area of land that
originally comprised the city was purchased or contrclled.
This area was then studied from the very depths of the earth
through the construction of entire buildings. Whenever it
was possible, the first desire has been to preserve the surb
viving work by ordinary repair and then secondly, to restore
the old forms by new work.9 As the project continued, new
information was constantly being discovered and the buildings

were authentically reconstructed as well as more correctly

reatoredc

 

8Ibid., p. 45.
9Perry, op. cit., p. 370.

4’

18

Summary

Williamsburg served as the capital of Virginia
.from 1699 to 1780. It was during these years that the
capital experienced historical and architectural signifi-
cance. During "publick times" the legislature met and the
courts were in session; the town doubled in size. Banquets,
balls, lawn fetes, displays of fireworks, horse races and
fairs were held for the amusement of the people as well as
to encourage trade. The latest goods from England were on
hand as well as furniture, candies, coaches, saddles and
harnesses, jewelry, shoes, hosiery and wigs produced by the
craftsmen of the town.

The cultural role Williamsburg held in the colony
was in part due to the presence of the College of William
and Mary. Important men of America's historic past were
students of this college. Bruton Church served as court
church of Virginia, furthering the town's cultural role. ‘

The historical value of the town was recognized by
Dr. W. A. R. Goodwin, late rector of Bruton Church, who
interested the late John D. Rockefeller, Jr. in restoring
Williamsburg. Employing a vast staff of experts, restoration

began in 1926 and has continued up to the present time.

CHAPTER III

DESCRIPTION OF REPRESENTATIVE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY
COLONIAL DETAILS USED IN WILLIAMSBURG HOUSES

The architecture of Williamsburg, Virginia, was based
on the mode of building already established in eighteenth-
century England. This architecture had been "adapted to
the Nature of the Country" by the local builders and crafts-
men. It became definitely Virginian.1 A brick house built
in Williamsburg in the eighteenth century would not have
looked out of place if the same building had been placed on
English soil. This was not true of the frame house. In
England the utilitarian structures, such as mills, barns,
and cottages were frame; but the Virginians, contrary to the
thinking of the Englanders, favored frame houses and believed
highly sophisticated designs could be executed in timber.2

The working details used by builders of the early
eighteenth century for composing their building designs were
obtained frcm builders' handbooks published in London before

1700 and there were not any complete designs for buildings.3

 

1Kocher and Dearstyne, op. cit., p. 10.

2Whiffen, The Eighteenth-Centupy Houses of Williams-
burg , p. 85.

3Kocher and Dearstyne, op. cit., p. 23.

19

20

Very few directions were included of the "orders of archi-
tecture."

These eighteenth-century colonists created an en-
vironment comparable with that found in England. The
exteriors and interiors of their houses proved the colonists'
knowledge of the latest decorative practices of England.
Furniture, fabrics, finishing materials, and many accessories
were imported from the mother country. Also, many of the

colonial artisans had been trained in England.

Fireplace and mantel

The plan of the eighteenth-century house was deter-
mined by the placement of the fireplace. Varying from the
early placement of the fireplace in a central location,
fireplaces were located either outside the room wall or
within the room,as shown in Figures 1 and 2, Plate I. The
corner fireplace and fireplaces centered in walls on either
side of a central hall are illustrated in Figures 3 and 4.
Figure 5 shows an early central fireplace plan which was not
used during the later period.5

Fireplaces were the only means of heat for the house.
Corner fireplaces were the most popular in the colonies and

Williamsburg. This resulted in the need for only one chimney,

 

41bid., p. 25.

5Interview with Paul Buchanan, Supervisor of Archi-
tectural Research and Records and Colonial Projects Designer,
Williamsburg, Virginia, September 3, 1964.

VARIOUS FIREPLACE

7-.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7/////,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

21

PLATE I

ND ROOM ARRANGEMENTS

Fireplace built outside the
room wall

Fireplace built Within the wall

Corner fireplaces

Fireplaces centered on walls on
either side of a central hall

Fig. 5. A central fireplace

EZZZZE......hall or end passage

- . . . . . .fireplace opening

22

since the fireplaces could be placed back-to-back in rooms
beside one another.6 :

At the beginning of the century the openings in the
fireplace were large, but these openings decreased in size
by the end of the century. By that time, wood had become
scarce and better construction improved the efficiency of
the fireplace.7

A variety of materials were used to frame the fire-
place Openings. In early versions, a beam of heavy oak
or a brick arch was over the opening of the fireplace. At
the time of the Revolution the iron lintel was becoming more
common. Much of the stone used for the mantels was imported
from England for suitable materials were not found in this
area of the colonies. A native "white stone," found nearby
at Fredericksburg, Virginia, was often used as a substitute.
Marbles and other stones were commonly used in the private
houses. Wood was used for the mantel facings and the same
treatment was further carried above the fireplace to provide
an overbmantel of paneling. The woodwork was separated from
the opening of the fireplace by a plastered brick frame
which was of various widths. Brick or the "white stone"

was used for a hearth. The hearth was usually flush with
the flooring.8

 

6Kocher and Dearstyne, op. cit., p. 27.
71bid.
81hid., p. 28.

23

Usually the space over the fireplace was decorated
with paintings of a landscape or a portrait. Maps or map

prints were also framed and placed over the fireplace.9

Wall Treatments

The walls of the rooms in eighteenth-century houses
‘were usually plastered with a combination of oysterbshell
lime, river sand, and animal hair.10 Today a builder secures
the moldings after the plasterer has completed his work. In
the Williamsburg houses the woodworking was finished by the
carpenter and then the plasterer applied wall covering. The
plaster was applied against the trim and reduced the relief
or salience of the trim. Hence, there is a subtle transition
between the two materials which is a definite characteristic
of eighteenth-century interiors.11

Plaster was whitewashed and not painted.12 White-
wash is a water paint that was and still is made by slaking
quicklime in water. This lime-wash was often colored by the
addition of various pigments: copperas to make the wash
green, ocher for a yellow hue, and archil to obtain a deep
blue shade. Milk and buttermilk were also occasionally
added as vehicles in these washes of color.13 It was the

 

9Interview with Paul Buchanan, Sept. 3, 1964.
1°Kocher and Dearstyne, 0p. cit., p. 25.

11Whiffen,The Eighteenth-Gentupz Houses of Colonial Wil-
- liamsburg,=p. 84.

laInterview with..Paul Buchanan, Sept. 3, 1964.

13Kocher and Dearstyne, pp. cit., p. 31.

24

custom to whitewash once a year and some families did so
more often for sanitary reasons.14

Wallpaper became a substitute for whitewashed walls
during the second half of the eighteenth century. Wallpaper
was introduced into the houses of Williamsburg in the mid-
sixties. It was first imported into Virginia by George
Washington for rooms in Mount Vernon in 1757. Sources indi-
cate a wide variety of papers was available. This item was
found in the Virginia Gazette in 1771:

A NEAT and ELEGANT ASSORTMENT OF PAPER.HANGINGS,

of various Kinds, and of the newest Fashions,

for Staircases, Rooms, and Ceilings; namely,

embossed, Stucco, Chintz, striped Mosaick,

Damask and common....
In addition to these varied papers, Chinese designs were
favored during one period.16

Wallpaper was used Sparingly. One reason for the
Sparse use was the presence of arsenic in the paste used
to secure the paper to the walls.17 People were hesitant
to use this dangerous material. Another reason for the
infrequent use of wallpaper was the condensation which was
present because of the structure of the walls. In the

frame houses, the plastering was put over the hand-split

lathes nailed to the studs. In the brick houses the plaster

 

14Ibid., p. 25.

lSWhiffen, The Eighteenth-Centupy Houses of Colonia
Williamsbur , p. 84.

16Kocher and Dearstyne, op. cit., p. 26.
17Buchanan, Sept. 3., 1964.

25

'was put directly on the brick walls. Hence, the Virginians
'were troubled with condensation. Only three rooms in the

houses of Williamsburg yielded fragments of wallpaper.18

old 8 d Panel

‘The use of moldings and paneling in the interior room
designs can be divided into six stages. These six stages,
progressing from the simple to the elaborate and more
costly are: plaster walls using a chair board and base-
board; plaster walls using a cornice, chair rail and base-
board; paneling above the fireplace; wainscotting around the
room; the whole room paneled; and marble fireplace surround
or mante1.19 Pictorial examples as presented in Plate II,
III and IV, show the baseboards, chair rails and cornices
in the styles used by the Williamsburg carpenters.20 1

Full-length wainscotting or paneling was used in a
few of the houses but was customarily found in the public
buildings. It was used as a protection from the condensa-
tion on the walls.. The "dwarf" wainscot or dado was con-
structed to the height of three to five feet from the floor.
This type of treatment was more commonly used in both the
private houses and public buildings. When this dado was used,

paneling was sometimes applied to the area over the fireplace--

 

18Whiffen The Eigpteepth~Centupy Houses of Colonial
Williamsburg, p. 54.

39311011311311. Sept. 3., 19640

eoWhiffen, The Eighteenth-Centupy Houses of Colopia;
Willim mburg, pp. 7 -

 

 

26

PLATE II

 

 

FIVE BASEBOARDS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FOUR INTERIOR C ORNICES

29

the mantel or over-mantel, to the ceiling. This area was
then decorated with landscape or portrait paintings or map
prints which had been framed. The most common wall treat-
ment was the baseboard, cornice, and a heavy, waist-high
protective chair rail.2l

Whiffen points out an observation of the character
of the eighteenth-century trim. The cornice prefiles show
that the use of the re-entrant right angle and the vertical
face was avoided. There was also a tendency to avoid a
segment of the circle in both convex and concave moldings.
The half-rounds were slightly flattened. Whiffen states:
"This is certainly not due to any technical deficiency on
the part of the eighteenth-century craftsman, but to his
dislike of mechanical effects--and to an eye for detail which

our century, in its haste, so rarely develops." 22
Doors

Doors in the Williamsburg houses were usually no
more than one and one-eighth inch thick. The design of these
depended on the placement of the panels. The most common
types of door paneling had six panels or four panels. The
most used six-panel door was arranged, reading from top to
bottom, in the following order: two small, two large and

two large panels.23 The eight-panel door was arranged

 

21Kocher and Dearstyne, op. cit., p. 25.

22Whiffen,The Ei hteenth-CenturyiHouses of Cglonial
Williamsburg, p. 8 .

231bid.

.15

30

With two small panels at the top, two large, two small and
finally two large panels at the bottom.

Less frequently used panel arrangements were the
eight-panel door arranged with two small panels at the t0p,
two large, two large, and two small panels at the bottom.
Two panel doors and four panel doors were popular but the

two panel doors were used on cupboards.24

Summapy

The plan of the eighteenth-century house was largely
determined by the placement of the fireplace. The area
around the fireplace was treated in a decorative way to make
the fireplace wall one of the dominating features of the
interior design.

A variety of materials framed the fireplace openings--
marbles, a native "white stone," and wood. Sometimes wood
was further carried above the fireplace to provide paneled
over-mantels. The Space above the fireplace was usually
decorated with paintings or a landscape or a portrait. Framed
maps or map prints were also used.

Six stages of wall treatments, progressing from the
simple to the most costly were: plaster walls with a chair
board and baseboard; plaster walls finished with a cornice,
chair rail and baseboard; paneling above the fireplace;
wainscotting around the room; paneling throughout the whole

room; and marble fireplace surround or mantel. The plastered

 

2'4 Ibid.

Q

31

area of the walls was usually whitewashed, but wallpaper
was present in a few of the houses.
The doors were of a paneled design. Four, six,

and eight panels were found in a variety of arrangements.

CHAPTER IV

DESIGN DETAILS FOUND IN THE INTERIORS
OF SELECTED HOUSES IN WILLIAMSBURG

Fifteen living rooms of the houses of Williamsburg
were selected for this study. The Specific houses were sug-
gested as being representative by Paul Buchanan, Supervisor
of Architectural Research and Records and Colonial Projects
Designer. The selected group of houses was taken from those
pictured and discussed in Whiffen's book, The Eighteenth-
Century Houses of Williamsburg. Whiffen was architectural
historian of Williamsburg from 1954 to 1959. With Buchanan's
permission, photographs were used from the Progress and Re-
search Photograph Albums in his office at Williamsburg to
acquire the necessary data. These albums contained pictures
taken during various phases of the restoration or preserva-
tion of each building from its start to its completion. The
selected rooms were chosen according to the existence of
information relative to this study in the Progress and Research
Photograph Albums and the inclusion of a fireplace wall.

The rooms used as a basis for study were selected
from the following houses located in Williamsburg: Nelson-
Galt, John Blair, Orrell, wythe, Benjamin Waller, Palmer,

Brush-Everard, Powell-Waller, Carter-Saunders, Taliaferro-

32

33

Cole, Peyton Randolph, Ludwell-Paradise, Tayloe, and Captain
Orr's Dwelling.

From literary sources an outline was developed for
studying details of the interior design in the photographs.
These details were categorized as; (1) the divisions of the
walls and (2) the decorative treatment of the walls. Within
the wall divisions there were different stylings of paneling,
moldings and fireplace areas. Panelings were three and one-
half feet high (dado or wainscot) or extended from floor to
ceiling (wainscot). Moldings were used as cornices, chair
rail, and baseboards. The fireplace areas, consisting of the
moldings and the over-mantel, were treated in a variety of
ways. Plaster, pictures, paneling, wallpaper and fabrics
‘were used for the over-mantels. Moldings were of wood,
marble and stone. The decorative treatment of the walls
and moldings included whitewash, paint, marbleized and
natural finishes. This outline was to assist in a deter-
mination of the characteristics of Colonial design as found
in the interiors of houses built in Williamsburg during the
eighteenth century.

Looking at the interior design details of the selected
group of rooms, five were finished with a wood cornice,
chair rail and baseboard. One room had simply a WOOd base-
board. The fireplace moldings of three of these rooms were
of wood which was treated with paint. In one of these
examples the wood was carried to six feet from the floor.

Two of these fireplace moldings were of marble. One molding

34

surrounding the fireplace was of stone. The overbmantels
of these six fireplace walls were plaster which was treated
with whitewash.

Five rooms had a three and one-half foot "dwarf"
wainscot or dado of wood on the fireplace walls. 'The wood
material was treated with paint. In each example the room
was finished with a painted wood cornice and baseboard.

In one room the baseboard was painted to imitate marble.
The fireplace moldings of the five rooms were of wood. The
material was preserved with paint. Three of these rooms
had paneled over-mantels which were painted. Plate V shows

1 One over-mantel

an example of a fireplace of this style.
was plaster treated with whitewash. The fifth over-mantel
contained a picture that covered the entire mantel area.

Four living rooms had fully-paneled wood wainscotting
on the fireplace walls. The wood material was treated with
paint. In each example the room was finished with a painted
wood cornice and baseboard. The fireplace moldings of two
rooms were painted wood. Two fireplace moldings were of
marble. Plates VI and VII Show examples of represenéative
styles of the marble fireplaces.2

In the fifteen selected rooms there were no examples

of wallpaper or fabric used on the overumantel. There were

no examples of the wood materials treated in a natural color.

 

ilProgress and Research Photograph Albums. Williams-
burg, Virginia: Colonial Williamsburg, Inc.

has

PLATE V

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIREPLACE WALL OF THE POWELL-WALLER.HOUSE,

WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA

36

PLATE VI

     

    
    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
   

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FIREPLACE WALL OF THE PEYTON-RANDOLPH HOUSE,

WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA

37

PLATE VII

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.' ~'- . ~ " 104.1...13‘333: .
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FIREPLACE WALL OF THE PEYTON-RANDOLPH HOUSE,

WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA

38

The findings of the outlined details for studying
the photographs were summarized in Table 1. Fifteen rooms
‘were finished with a baseboard and fourteen rooms with a
cornice. Five rooms had chair rails, five rooms used a
three and one-half foot dado and four rooms completely
paneled the fireplace wall. Ten fireplaces had wood molding
surrounding the opening, four rooms had marble fireplace
moldings while one room used a stone molding. Seven rooms
had paneled over-mantels and seven had plaster over-mantels.
In every example the plaster was treated with whitewash.

One overbmantel was decorated with a picture covering the
entire area. There were no examples of fabric or wallpaper
on the walls. In every example the wood materials were.
preserved with paint. One baseboard was painted to imitate
marble. There were no examples of wood treated in a natural
color.

The findings of this study are supported by literary
sources. Whiffen3 and Kocher and Dearstyne4 confirm that
paneling and moldings are used in varying amounts on the
fireplace wall in the living rooms of Williamsburg. Rooms
'were finished with simply a baseboard or rooms were finished
with a baseboard, chair rail and cornice. Other rooms had
wall paneling with a dado and wainscotting extending from

the baseboard molding to a point three to five feet up the

 

3Whiffen, The Eighteenth-Centupy_Houses of Williams-
burg, p. 81.

4Kocher and Dearstyne, cp. cit., p. 25.

39

3 Table 1. Interior design details of the fireplace walls in
living rooms of fifteen rooms of Colonial Williams-
burg, Virginia

 

 

Decorative Treatment of
Walls and Moldings

 

 

 

Interior Design Number of
Details Rooms White- Paint Marble- Natural
wash 126
N N N N
Divisions of Walls
Paneling
Floor to ceiling 4 - 4 - -
3% feet high 5 - 5 - -
Moldings
Cornice 14 - 14 - ~
Chair rail 5 - 5 - -
Baseboard 15 - l4 1 -
Fireplace Area
Over-mantel
Plaster 7 7 - - -
Paneled 7 - 7 - -
Picture 1 - - - -
Wallpaper - - - - -
Fabric - - - - -
Molding
Wood 10 - 10 - -
Marble 4 - - - -

Stone 1 - - - -

 

40

wall and ending with the dado cap. Walls of some rooms
were paneled with a wainscotting extending from the base-
board molding to the cornice molding.

The fifteen rooms used in this study can be divided
into three groups; (1) rooms with combinations of a cornice,
chair rail and baseboard, (2) rooms with dado, and (3) rooms
with fully-paneled wainscotting. Furthermore, these groups
progress from the simple to the more elaborate or decorative
in wall treatment. The simple yet unique use of decorative
moldings in the first group can definitely hold its place
with the decorative rooms using a dado and the still more
elaborate fully-paneled rooms. These harmonious results
are attributed to the effective use of proportion, details,
and symmetry. The interiors are based on geometric designs.
The writers of Epliéamsburg Reproductions5 attribute lasting
interest to the "Grace of proportion and rhythm of pattern,
honest use of materials, subtle harmony of varied designs...."6

Kocher and Dearstyne7 validate the findings that
varying treatments were found on the fireplace mantel or
over-mantel. A plaster overbmantel was used. Paneling
reaching from the fireplace molding to the cornice molding
'was also evidenced. Kocher and Dearstyne further confirm
this finding when they state that in some cases when a dado

is present, the area above the fireplace is emphasized by

 

5WilliamsburgReproductions.

6Ibid., p. 7.

 

7Kocher and Dearstyne, loc. cit.

41

paneling extending to the cornice molding.8 In one room a
picture decorated the overbmantel and confirmed the informa-
tion learned from Buchanan's interview. He stated that
paintings were found above the fireplaces.9

When combinations of the baseboard, chair rail
and cornice were used, the overbmantel consisted of plaster
applied to the wall area. When the dado or "dwarf" wainscot
was present, the overbmantels in three of the five examples
‘were found to be paneled. Rooms with fully-paneled walls
had mantels that were paneled. It is apparent than that the
treatment of the overhmantel was determined by the amount
of paneling and moldings present in the room.

Of the fifteen rooms of the houses of Williamsburg
there were no examples of walls using wallpaper or fabric.
This finding is confirmed by Buchanan, who stated:

Wallpaper was used Sparingly. One reason for

the sparce use of it was that people were hesi-

tant to use wallpaper in their'homes for arsenic

was present if the paste used to secure the paper

to the walls. 0
Whiffen also states:

In frame houses the plastering was done over'hand-

split laths nailed to studs. In brick houses the

plaster was laid directly on the brick walls.

This helps to account for the condensation by

which, Jefferson tells us, Virginians were so
much troubled; it also accounts, in no small

 

8Ibid., p. 28.
9Buohanan, Sept. 3, 1964.
101bid.

 

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42
Eziiure, for the complete disappiprance of
y wallpaper in brick houses.

Whiffen accounts that only three fragments of wallpaper
have been found in Williamsburg houses, although a wide
variety was available. Kocher and Dearstyne have reported
only one house evidencing the presence of fabric hangings.

Literary sources confirm the findings that fire-
place moldings were composed of three materials: marble,
stone and wood. {ocher and Dearstyne support the additional

finding that marble moldings were found in the houseslz

and
not used only in the most pretentious buildings like the
Governors' Palace. Rooms designed with simply a baseboard,
chair rail and cornice used marble moldings as well as fully-
paneled rooms.

In each of the selected fifteen rooms where wood
was used it was preserved with paint. Kocher and Dearstyne
confirm this finding with the words: "Interior woodwork was
occasionally left in a natural state, but more often it was
painted."13 In every instance the plaster was whitewashed.

This use of whitewash is validated from the literary sources

and Buchanan's interview.

 

llWhiffen, The E t
ggh eenth-Centugy Houses of Colonial
Williamsbur , p. 81.

12Kocher and Dearstyne, loo. cit.

13Ibid.

43

Summapy

Photographs of fifteen rooms of houses of Williams-
burg were used to study and determine the characteristics
of Colonial design. The findings of this study cormeSpond
with descriptions of decorative interior details as presented
by literary sources. An examination of representative rooms
of Williamsburg houses confirms the particular styling of the
interior design details known as Colonial. Paneling and
moldings were used in varying amounts on the fireplace wall.
The rooms of the Williamsburg houses can be divided into
three groups, progressing from the simple to the more elabo-
rate; (1) rooms with combinations of a cornice, chair rail
and baseboard, (2) rooms with a dado, and (3) rooms with
fully-paneled wainscotting. The treatment of the over~
mantel on the fireplace wall was determined by the amount
of paneling and moldings used. There were no examples of
walls finished with wallpaper or fabric. Fireplace moldings
were composed of three materials; marble, stone and wood.
Marble fireplace moldings were used in the less elaborate
room interiors and in houses having fully-paneled walls.
Wood was painted and plaster was treated with whitewash.

‘t

CHAPTER.V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summapy

Photographs of fifteen living rooms of houses of
Williamsburg were selected for study and determination of
characteristics of Colonial design. Permission to useethese
photographs from the Progress and Research Photograph Albums
of Colonial Williamsburg was given by Mr. Paul Buchanan,
Supervisor of Architectural Research and Records and Colonial
Projects Designer, Williamsburg, Virginia. An outline com-
piling the details of eighteenth-century interior design was
developed for studying the photographs.

The interior design details which were utilized in
the decoration and finishing of living rooms in houses of
Colonial Williamsburg were presented and summarized. All
of the selected rooms had baseboards and the walls of fourb
tsen of the fifteen rooms were terminated with cornices.

Five rooms were finished with a chair rail, five rooms had

-a three and one-half foot dado and four fireplace walls were
completely paneled. Ten fireplaces had wood molding surround-
ing the opening, four rooms had marble fireplace moldings
while one room used a stone molding. Seven rooms had paneled

overbmantels and seven had plaster overbmantels. In every

44

45

example the plaster was treated with whitewash. One over-
mantel was decorated with a picture covering the entire
area. There were no examples of fabric or wallpaper on the
walls. In every example the wood materials were preserved
with paint. One baseboard was painted to imitate marble,
and there were no examples of wood treated in a natural
color.

Conclusions

An examination of selected rooms in the houses of
Williamsburg, Virginia, built during the eighteenth century
has led to these conclusions concerning the characteristics
of Colonial design:

1. Paneling and moldings were used in varying amounts

on the fireplace walls of Colonial houses.

2. The fireplace walls of living rooms of Colonial
houses can be divided into three groups from the
simple to the more elaborate and decorative in
wall treatments-rooms with combinations of a
cornice, chair rail, and baseboard; rooms with a
dado; and rooms with fully-paneled wainscotting.

3. Treatment of the overbmantel was determined by
the amount of paneling and moldings on the fire-
place wall. The overbmantel was finished with:

a) plaster when combinations of the base-
board, chair rail and cornice were applied

to the wall area;

5.

7.

8.

9.

10.

46

b) plaster or paneling when the wall was

finished with a dado;

c) paneling.when the wall was fully-paneled.
Framed pictures were used to decorate the mantel.
Eighteenth-century wall finishes in Williamsburg
houses were plaster or paneling, contrary to
popular belief that wallpaper and fabric fre-
quently decorated the wall.

Fireplace moldings were composed of three materi-
als: marble, stone and wood.

Marble fireplace moldings were used in private
houses as well as the public buildings.

Marble fireplace moldings were used on walls
designed less elaborately as well as the more
decorative fireplace walls.

Wood used in Colonial houses was preserved with
paint and sometimes painted to imitate marble.

Plaster walls were treated with whitewash.

Recommendations

Investigation for this study revealed little informa-

tion depicting the details of interior architectural design

of eighteenth-century houses has been compiled. Photographs

and reliable descriptions were not readily available.

It is recommended that composites of pictorial examples

and descriptions would be of value and use. Composites could

include details of the Colonial period: the design and

47

styling of fireplaces, the arrangement of bed-chambers,
window treatments, eighteenth-century furniture and furb
nishings, characteristic colors of paint, wallpaper and
fabric, costumes, and life in the eighteenth-century.
Private houses, plantations and pubTuzbuildings could be
researched for information important to a knowledge and
understanding of the traditions of the past. The seminar
devoted to the Colonial period and the restoration of Wil-
liamsburg which is presented by the College of William:
and Mary each summer would offer a basis for further study.
Researching details of interior design of other
architectural and historic periods is further suggested.
The interior and exterior architectural designs of America
would also be of value. Such studies would be a means
not only of providing information concerning the design
characteristics of the past, but also a means of preserving
the nation’s architectural heritage.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Charley, Kenneth. Williamsbu in Virginia. Williamsburg,
Virginia: CoIonIaI WIIIIamsEurg, Inc., 1953.

Gowans, Alan. Ima es of American Livin . Philadelphia, New
York: J. B. LIppIncoII Company, 1964.

Hamlin, Talbot. Architecture Through the Ages. New York:
G. P. Puthan 8 one, 9 .

Isham, Norman Morrison. A G case of Colonial Architectural
Terms. The Walpo e cc 6 y, .

illiamsburv: Its

Kocher, A. Lawrence, and Dearstyne, Howard. W
Buildin s and Gardens. New York: HoII, RIneEaEE and
- WInston, Inc., I§6I.

Watterson, Joseph. Architecture. New York: W. W. Norton
and Company, Inc., I950.

Whiffen, Marcus. The Eishteenth-Centu Houses of Williams-
burg. New York: HoII, RIneEaEI, ana WInston, Inc.,

Whiffen, Marcus. The Public Buildin s of Williamsbur . New
York: HolI, RIneEaPE, and WInsEon, Inc., I558.
Articles and Periodicals
"Brush-Everard House," Ladies Home Journal, LXIX (October,

1952)) 46'70

"The Historical Background," The Architectural Record, LXXVIII
. (December, 1935), 360-5.

"Nicolson House," Ladies Home qurnal, LXXII (February, 1955),
- 50-10 7

Perry William Graves. "Notes on Architecture," The Archi-
’ tectural Record, .LXXVIII (December, 1935). 5333817

49

206 040425 S’

 

5O

Reeve, Ethel A. "Inside A Virginian Colonial House in Old
Williamsburg," House and Gardens, LXIV (November,
1933)! 29-90

"Williamsburg, What It Means to Architecture, to'Gardening,
to Decoration," House and Gardens, LXXII (November,

Unpublished Material

Cannon, Margaret. "Southwest Georgia Houses of Greek Revival
Influence and Their Furniture 1820-1890." Unpublished
Master's thesis, Florida State Univers ty, 1963.

     
   
 

Sisson, Marian B. ~'
and ,7m, sh 7
State; -””
haster's thes .

ior Design

. United
Jolished
:chnology, 1964.

    
 

  
  

 

./‘.\

, Drexel Institute 0

 

Williamsburg Re roductions. Williamsburg, Virginia: Williams-
burg RestoratIon Incorporated, 1965.

Other Sources

. Personal interview with Paul Buchanan, Supervisor
of Architectural Research and Records and Colonial

Prggects Designer, Williamsburg, Virginia. September 3,
l9 .

Progress and Research Photograph Albums. Williamsburg, Vir-
ginia: Colonial Williamsburg, Inc.

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF HOME ECONOMICS
EAST LANSING, MICHIGAN

 

 

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