WE EWCA‘E‘iQfiéfi‘L Sé‘fiaimfi
{N KERWEMTH CEEVSTEJR‘!‘ ENGLARS A3
REVEALED EE‘E ‘E‘HE ViC‘é‘OREAfi EGVEE.

mesh far- i'he {name :25 M“ A.
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ficméfiy 3. Rich
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6/01 c:/CIFIC/DateDue.p65-p. 15

THE EDUCAEIONAL SITUATION IN NINETEENTH CENTURI'ENGLAND
AB REVEALED IN THE VICTORIAN NOVEL

Dorothy 3. Rich

AuTHESIB
Submitted to the Graduate School of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied
Science in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
mm 01' ms

Department of English
1951»

F .A ‘ “ u.
‘! Au ‘ ' . '
‘ - I! ,e . 1

q. I. I
A
d. H «D

The tive: itioth cent W" 1‘18 been czill 06'. t} 10 century of education.

The d ev eloy ..e7 tot our not? st: :immls of education began in the Vic-
torian era as on ontgr 4th of the htu.r-..*iit:irim attitudes enrjondored ‘oy

the French Revolution.
How nineteenth cont‘u 13' eat-.cai land. 5.1 ':-.l dm‘elo;:od_, how ““ ey.
affected the novels of the T'e-io.1,_.-..41 he I too nov ... lets mg; have af-

fected. the growth of the e6: acetic mil eye "em in Eirgland-othcsc are the

subject: under consideration in the following tee-gee.

Foreword
Chapter I
Chapter 11
Chapter III
Chapter IV
Chapter 7
Chmtor VI
Chapter VII
Chapter VIII
Chapter II
Chart er I

Bibliograpm!

Education in E aland Before 1832

Progress From 1832 to 1900

Physical Conditions of English Schools

Health Education and Care of the Bed:

The Victorian Curricuhm

Teaching: nothozis of the Victorians

Discijiline in the_Victori_-.n School

Victorim Tonchors'

The Effect of Z-Idncation on the Victorian YYovol

Conclusion

57

'5
s.

7-.....

CHAPTER I

moon 101% m memo) swoon 1832

To ooneidor the educational philoeophy of the Victorian era it ie no-
eeeeuy to delve into the pact to learn what ideals and ideas of education
Mod the nineteenth century. It is important to know wimt the early Vie-
tel-lane inherited from their forebeare,_ and to learn that condition developed
between 1800 and 1832 which led Victorian England to realize that eho met do
loathing to advance her people mentally. ,

England had long neglected the education of her citizene. She can
behind many countries of Europe in providing free public echoole for the once
of the people. Ker endowed echeole furniohod training to the cone of the drie-
“erotic and wealthy middle cleeeee, but no provision had been made for the
children of the working claoeee. ”The State only slowly stepped into ite pre-
per place: more slowly in the case of England than in the case of any other of
the leading European natione.‘1

The development of industry and the growth of eocial unroet at the end
of the eighteenth century. following the FronohJRevolution. had helped to
bring home to the.Europoan mind the need of a.national educational eyetee.

Germany hed.heen the tiret nation to ooe the value of education. the
eerly no 1763, Frederick the Great had not up a public school cysten in Prneeie.

demon reformers saw education as one of the surest way: to develop a happy,

 

1 Henry Oraik, 2333 fitgte in Itg Relation to Education. Fincmillan and Co... Lon—-
don, 1881+, p. 1.

pi.

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proeperoue people with a strong, national spirit. Their schools carried pu-
‘pile through.only the elementary grades, hut'thnt wee more than any other of
the great Moreen etetee did for e long time.

The elew, inborieue etepe which England took toward state education‘
had their beginnings in the apprentice system, prominent in the fifteenth
century. which.provided for industrial education only. During the eixteenth
Century; the Reformation brought demende that peeple be able to read the Bi-
ble. and co rudimentary eohoole‘begnn to appear. The poorer'eleeeee were
eeen elhewed eeide end the grammar echoole of the period.heoane echoole fer
the upper and middle claeeee. The eeventeenth.century eaw the churohteeeune
eenplete control of education. Ehe Canonl of l60h eecured to the church con-
trol of education and led to the establishment during thie century of eone
eeven hundred foundations for primary education.2. fine church continued in
control throughout the eighteenth century; In 1782, Robert Rnikee eetdblieh-
ed the first Sunday school, and soon others were scattered all over the coun—
try;

Toward the clone of the eighteenthcentur‘y the meet exteneive efforte
for ponder education were made by Andrew Bell and Joseph Lancaeter. To them
Ilet.he given the credit for conceiving the idea of come sort of echo-e fer
popular education, and of euhnitting a proposal hy'whioh it udcht be carried
eut. Each wee animated by an earnestness in the cause which went far to arouse
the seal of ethere. hud‘heceuee of pereonal and sectarian Jealousy there grew
up two eppoeing coupe in the domain of education which.colered the thinking of

the people.end the lecieletien for eehoele throughout the entire nineteenth

 

2%" P0 8-

century.
nut 34
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century. Lancaster's followers were the Diseenters; Bell's were the recon-
nised agency of the Established Church. Thus, at the turn of the century,
when England was awakening to the need of doing something about educating her
lessee, progress was inpeded_hy religious controversy between these two groups.

The religioue issue was prominent in connection with the attempt at
legislation made hy Whithread in his Parochial Schools Bill of 1807. This
early attempt to legislate in favor of education for the lower classes was re-
:ected by the Lords, mainly on the ground that it did not place education on
a religious hnsis nor sufficiently secure control to the minister of the pur-
ish. rhe failure of the government to unke provision for any system of chi.
vernal education made it inevitnble that education must he founded on a.volun~
tary effort. As a result, societies were formed to sstnhlish churchpconnected
schools, and in 1831, the fictional Society, representing the Church, was able
to show that there were over 13,000 schools in connection with the Church, of
which.6,h70 were'hoth.day and Sunday schools, having a total attendance of
“09,000.3 This, of course, represented only a feeble beginning, and Just how
feeble the results of such an educational program were, become apparent, when,
ee lets us 1855, a careful and e1dbcrete report was made by the Rev. Henry
Moseley en the Midland District. Creik, in summariring that report, states:

... only'about one in six, even of the children at school, was

found able to read the Scriptures with any'ease. Even for

these the power of reading often left then when they tried e

secular‘book. Of reading with intelligence there was hardly

any: and about one-half of the children who came to school

left, it was calculated, unable to read. Only about one child

in four had mastered, even in the most mechanical way, the art

of writing. ‘Ae regards arithmetic, not two per cent of the

children had advanced as far as the rule of three.
Such.results were almost enough to damp the hopes of the

'3 Wise. vn, 9804986.

Ila

ll

IO‘
N

601‘

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met ardent advocates of the system. Something we clearly

wrong. Even in schools where an apparent organisation was

present, it was often delueive. The children were drilled

into a certain monotonous regularity of movement; but in-

dividual instruction was almost unknonn. The control evil

of the whole was the want of a trained teaching staff; and

its necessary result a want of system, of method, and of

thorough organisation.“

These weaknesses, noted near the middle of the century, reveal hes
slew); progress was being made. The Victorians had inherited from the past
a worn—out apprentice system, a haphazard organisation of Sunday schools, a
uniterial system which had failed because of untrained school men, and s.
religions controversy of such intensity as to cripple any constructive plan-
ning. Small wonder that the earnest reformers who were trying to build an
educational system for Emlnnd found the took so difficult and progress so
slow that it was almost the end of the nineteenth century before England

could claim to hove free public education.

 

‘ Henry Omit, 2133 an“ in it; golfing to Education, p. 32.

th
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(SHAPES-.33 II

inaess mm 18324900

The steps by which free education owes to the English pecple during
the Victorian era parallel closely the path of the Industrial Revolution.
The two movements were closely allied from the year 1802, when the first .
Sir'Rdbert Peel sponsored c.3ill which restricted children's labor in face
teries, and required that reading, writing, and arithmetic should he taught
to then during part of each day. This was the beginning of the factory lea-
ielatien which restricted the employment of children, giving them enforced
leisure which the State sought to fill with education. ”The State thee found
herself face to face with e new task, to which voluntary agencies em! camel
eaten-cuts had proved inadequate: and we have now to watch the gradual and
somewhat timid steps with which she advanced upon the work before her. ”1

firiefly, the first of these 'tinid‘ steps included: the appointment
ef e Select Committee for Inquiring into the Education of the Poor in.the
Hetlepelis, 1816; Committee en.Bndswnents, 1818: Brougham'e Education.Bill,
1820.

The actual beginning of state supported education came-in 1832, when
the sun of 20,000 pounds was set aside for the construction of schools; but
ee there was no security for the efficiency of instruction nor for the main»
tenance of the buildings, a few years later these eetnblicluuente were seen

to be falling into ruin, or serving to house on admittedly inefficient school.2

A“ A

1 Home CMLMMWW r- 10.
2 on. p. 15.

In 1835, a Select Committee on Education, appointed to make e study
of general education, reported their findings. A cmrmnry of that report re-
tool: the following:

About one in eleven children was attending; school; children of the
lower oleseoe who were in schools or any kind usually attended Dame Schools
or Sunday schools, the latter of which were doing more good than am of the
others; Dame Schools were most numerous and worst of all, and for the most
part succeeded only in keeping, the children off the streets; they were taught
by women and a few old men, none of when were trained for this work; they met
in undxolecomo rooms, collars, and carrots: two or three books served all
the pupils; sometimes there were no books at all; the cost per pupil was
four pence per week; the conclusion of the Comittee mo tlmt the 4,722 pun
pile in r-mehecter who attended thee-o schools were very little affected by
their attendanceJ

The next stop was taken in 1839, when 30,000 pounds woo appropriated
and e wpecicl staff of officers and school inspectors comricod the first
Education Department. Training schools for teachers were proposed, but here
no elsewhere, until 1870, when education mo entirely dissociated from re—
ligious control, the sectarian controversy interfered with the proposal. The
contention become so keen that the government was compellec to abandon the
echoes.“

In 18103, the sum of 1+0,000 pounds was given for buildings, toeohere'
houses, grants to poor districts, and the building of Training Colleges.

W—y— W V— .—

3 Bernard Schilling, D :1 Th e on t , Columbia Univer-
sity Press, New York, 19 , p. 19.

" Henry Craik. W. p. 18.

The training of competent teachers was the nation's greatest need, and an
effort was made to meet this need by an aprrontico system copied from the
Dutch schools whordby a selected number of tho older pupils who intended
to later upon the profession of touching wore apprenticed, at the age of
thirteen, to the teacher. After five years as apprentices, they passed to
a training College to receive the professional training necessary to en—
title then to have charge of a school.

But progress in school improvement was not evident as a result of the
1843 legislation. Schilling any: that ”by 1343 an investigator could say
of the Birmingham district that child-men and young persons were entirely dee-
titute of anything which can be called a useful education. Many, especially
children employed in the mines, wore allowed to grow'up ignorant and degraded
almost to idbocility.”5

Cottage Schools wore numerous in large towna; in lShfi, according to
a Committee report, one-fifth of the childron of laborers attended these

schools; the schools were situated in filthy surrounaingo, some in carrots

(9-

which were so crowded that the pupils had to o and throughout the session;
women often ”taught" while doing their other work.

the Common.3ay Schools were better, but they; too, were very poor.
The quality'ef the teaching was so low that the Committee concluded that this
was the only profession which.required no previous knowleégc or qualification.
fiber reported: no order. no system. too many classco, deficiency of books,
peer instruction. and, in at least one instance, 130 children.being taught

in one room.

The Sunday school was apparently the host medium of instruction for

A“ L_._

5 Bernard H. Schilling, 3mg man; and the 01833 Vigtggigns, p. 20.

the common person. Shane were attonfiod by nearly twice as many as all the
other schools together. Eighty-six Sunday'cchoole had a total enrollment of
33,196. Thirty-nine offered evening classes. teaching reading anfl arithmetic
in Addition to religion.

The Committee reported timt those thitute kept the children away from
schools wearineee following long hours of hard work, illness, lack of clothp
ing, and parents' selfishness in not wanting to lose the child's ungos nor
to pay his tuition.6

This reluctance of parento to lose the income from their children’s
labor we: evident all through the '30's and 'hO'e and even as late as 1358.
In manufacturing towns, where the increase in poyulation in the '30's had
been rapid, the educational destitution was couplets. For less than one—
half the children ever entered the door of a Iohool, and those who were
brought in received instruction fibich was of the very slightest use. In
many case: the children were merely taken charge of for so many hours a
éay by nomeono whose health, age. or capacity unfitted him to gain a living
in the most menial occupation.7

In.18h2 an attempt had,bcen made to limit the hours of labor and to
pmifio schools which the chilciren, partially employee, must attend. Again
the religious question elarmei the Hon—Conformiate. who fearoa the Church
was to be given a monopoly of education: again the agitation became so wide;
spread that the government had to withdraw the obnoxious clauses pertaining
to religion. The result was that the Dissentors from now on for a long per»

iet of time resented all state action relative to education, urging that all

._-_.A

‘ me... pp. 20-30.
7 Henry Greik, Th St

 

cuppa-t to voluntary.8

With etppert end attendance both on e voluntary beeie little progress
could be made. Schilling: eteteo that children often vent to work in the fee-
toriee at the age of nine: in 18b5, more than 10,000 children under eleven
were at work in foctoriee, while 167,1M» between the ages of eleven and eigh'.»
teen were time employed.9

In the mince, at this came time, even worse conditione exieted, where
children never saw daylight, working fourteen to sixteen houre per day with-I.
out enough to out. without adequate clothing, oonpletely ignorant of any bet;
ter way of life. As Schilling pointe out:

the training of hie mind would have been difficult even if
he had been offered e. good. education. But the eighteenth cen-
tury had eeldon ooneidered education for the poorer cleeeee.
Nuneroue charitable echoele were available, but no general,
ergenieed eyetem ef popular education exi eted. Teaching the
lower order: was looked upon an e kind of missionary work, e.
charitable not toward n neglected clnee concerning whoee genu-
oral intelligence and capacity e low opinion was held. They
were not in any can euppoeed to be V011 educated ....the oral
teaching of the church we thought to he quite enough: lore
then thie would interfere with ueef‘nl employment, and hen”
the no“ of labor-ere were to be kept in ignorance ... the fear
that educated neuee would be discontented, that near knee-
ledge in the spirit of those tinee rould give the people hope
and oepiretiene to rise out of their clue perhepe did much ,
to hold back popular education. The deeire of those in power
you to impress upon the poor theduty of loyalty and content-
eent, not to educate them ee that they vould not work herd
and mbnieeively for email 3%..th

Although come in power may have favored holding back popular educatien,
there were other: who recognized the need for o more satisfactory eyeten than
tint which existed. How attempts continued to he made to solve the eeemingly

ineeluhle question, but before much conetructive work could he done it was

“A—

"w—v

8 mo. 1». 24.
9 Bernard sunning. WW. pp. 9-30.
m 1314., p. 16.

lO

necessary to inquire into the reeulte of the system up to that point, to de-
termine Just what had been accomplished with the grants of money set aside
annually since 1832 for educational purposes. To this end the Commission of
1858 was appointed. fheir findings showed that little progress had been
made in n quarter of a century.

'i‘rue, about one in eight now had been in ochool at some time, whereas
the number had been one in eleven in 1835. But attendance was not regular
and one eften only nominal. About two-thirds of thoee carried on the rolls
were in the public school; the rest were in private echools whose inefficiency
could not be checked upon, but in moat ceeee was notorious. The conclusion
was that seventy out of every hundred children were growing: up in absolute
ll

neglect so far as the state was concerned.

Accounts of the private schools brought before the Commission were

pitiful; Grail: reports a few instances:

... we read: ’It is impossible to describe the poverty
and decay which everything indicated ... The chief text-
beok seemed to be e kitten, to which all the children were
very attentive.‘ In another the teacher, 'a young mn,
very pale and sickly in appearance,' vorked as a carpenter
during the school hours: 'he ezpreseed a strong, wish to
have an arithmetic book and a grammar for his om improve-
ment.‘ In enother e. wider, seventy years of age, eked out
by her school the pittance granted by the Union. Her te-
tel income was 319.911. 9. week. 'She complained of mail.-
it: to huy neat, and without meet her strength feile.‘

Ne wonder that 'she is very weary of life, and hopes that
her tine on earth will not be long.‘ 2

the commission report told of untrained teachers,discho.r¢;ed servente,
papers, cripples, consumptives in charge of schools. The conclusion was

em that children could not reasonably be expected to rennin in school much

W

11 Henry Oraik, 223g gtgte 1,3 11:5 Belgtigg to Egcyion, pp. #9, so.
12 Me. pp. 50. 510

1].

beyond the age of ten or eleven, since they would then be gainfully occupied.
Therefore, as these children were leaving school with only the little know-
ledge they had gained in a your. or two, they should have an oprortunity to
continue their ethicntion in night schools.

first the knowledge gninedwne woefully little vne evident in the luck
of ability to read intelligently. Reading: was often by somd only, without
my attempt to convey twee-suing.1:3

The Oomission we faced with two problems: how to get the children
into school and how to extend the school system. As a result of the writ of
the Oomiesion of 1858, 19. Revised Code as mssed in 1861 showed three defin-
itely progressive steps: schools crust be held on approved pernises, child.-
ren not have 11 certain number of attendances, and they must pass individual
minetiens in reading, writing and arithmetic. Grants would be made accord.-
in: te resulte of this testing program.“

Oreik discusses at length the strong points and the weaknesses of the
In cede, which not with opposition from conscientious thinkers as well an
inefficient teachers. The wrangling: continued for e decade, during which
the religious issue was also kept alive. Finally, in 1870, an Act was passed
which dissociated public education from religious worship, giving ever the
msgenent of schools to local School Boards, and requiring children to st-
tend school between the fires of five pnd thirteen. This compulsory educa-

tion was not free, but the Education Department paid the fees where poverty

 

1311: Ibid” p. 55. Grail; reports the following written answer to the question:
What is thy duty towards God?"
“Hy duty toads God is to blood in Him, to fering end to
lee! uithold your erts, withold w mine, vithold our sold,
and with w eernth, to vhirchp and give thanks, to put a:
old trash in Him, to call upon Him, to onner Hie old name
and His world, and to save Him truly all the dnyo of w
life's end.‘

1“ Ibid" p. 69.

12

rendered a parent unable to pay the mommt himself.15 In 1891, a law was
inacted making education for elementary pupils both free and compulsory.
finally, after almost a century of bickering, England had arrived at Aden
Smith's conclusion made some years previously: that the government should
be responsible for pepular education.“

Throughout this long, often discouraging struggle several writers
of the ere spoke out strongly in favor of education for the lower classes.
Their epinions and recommendations as presented by Schilling are summarised
here. Coleridge believed that the State met insure instruction for ell
in erder to raise the general standard, that every person not have s. chance
for knevledee and improvement. He called for instruction in morality and
religion. He no entlmsinetic over the system advocated by Rev. Andrew
Bell, whereby the younger were to be inotmctod by the older and more ad.-
vancod pupils so that knowledge would thus overcome the ignorance of oil.

Southey believed that notioncl education was the most inpertant func-
tion of us good govommont. ’30 one should perish for lock of knovledge. At .
the very least, public education should teach people to “read, write, cypher,
and understand their moral and religious duties." With Church and English
parochial schools, ho advocated, along with Coleridge, Dr. Bell's system
whereby one meter could superintend lmndrcds of scholars. He else believed
thet the established English religion should be a port of the basic curricu-
1m.

Carlyle looked upon the lack of on education as a tragic note. "that
there should one man die ignorant who had capacity for knowledge, this I

tell e tragedy." is early as 1835, Carlyle considered trying for e positien

A.“

15 no... 1». 102. -
1‘ Bernard Schilling. WW 1» 37.

13

in the new scheme of nationel education. his recommendations were not exp
truce: children should be taught'the nljhebot and taught to read; teachers
should.be sent everywhere so that there would be no such thing as an English-
men who could not read; there ehould'bo_penaltiee placed on negligent par»
ents: preper behavior should.bo taught along with religious training.

Kinsley believed that it was God's will that children'bo educated
and that the State had the obligation to provide such education. He used
his novel, Altgg;ygggg, to show'the suffering a person would endure to get
en education, end he felt that such sacrifices should not be necessary. He
demanded universal education as s step tounrd universal democracy. Inspir-
ed.hy this belief, he helped Frederick D. haurice found the Working “en's
College, designed to give a libcrel, not a vocational, training to non “con-
selves of unsatisfied end unemployed intellect.“ Based on close fellowship
between the teachers and the students, this college is still alive today.

Like the other humanitarisns, Motthowtkrnold cone to the feeling
that educntion was the way upward for mankind. He stood for reform of ed-
ucation, especially for the middle class. He made his living as an inspec-
tor of schools, and he stood for public, comjnilcon? secondary education. He
held that the best we? to raise the lower classes was to lift the middle
cleee. Hie plan for organizing education from a central minister of educa-
tion down through the local school boards is the plan in use today.

Rudkin, also, felt that it was the duty of the government to provide
educational opmortunitieo, but not to the extent that one would strive to
lift oneself to o higher close. Rather, the aim should be to make men
happier in his present station, end not encourage him to try to rise shove
it. Ruskin had very definite opinions about the organisation of the schools.

opinions ihich seem fairly modern. He called for the school to develop the

11+

physical side of the pupil by touching the luvs of health and ouch exercise
as riding, running, personal defense and. offence, music, and rmnunl train-
ing so that all would have a. respect for central labor as decent and honor—
eblo. Horelity ms to be stressed with emphasis on reverence, humility,
compassion, obedience, truth, accuracy, gentleness, Justice, and honesty.
Ruskin felt that it is better to be ignorant of a thouemid things them to
be immoral. The intellectual side of the pupil was to be developed as
Ml: as possible, with Oprzortunitica for the student to consult the worll's
great minds, the neti onul libraries, the greatest 'boolco. Specific subjects
recomchod were: natural and biologicel sciences, mathematics, history,
and such other subjects as {tilted etuder‘ te could muster.

Ruskin advocated three types of schools: the city school use to
stress mathetmtics and the arts; the coxmtrzr school would ornrimeize natural
history and. mic thuro; ecumen‘o schools would tench plu'eicol ceogjraplur,
astronomy, ecu fl sh raid sczbir(1-. Ruskin was here errahtsizlr ’3 his belief
that wherever postitlo tone! ii. .p: should. include lmwxlcdgo imcdintely hear--
ing on pmcticollife pm: the meta ry of that cell it": in uI-Lich one's living
was to be earned.

Ruskin'e beliefs were also held by William Harris, who said that the
sin 01' education should be the fullest development of individual talents.
He believed that it should be determined that each person is fitted for
and than he should be encouraged to dcvelon his inclination fully. He hold
that each person should learn several handicrafts and have some skill in
fine arts. In advocating that oduco ion should be offered to all men oo-
oording to the capacity of their minds, he was forward in his thinking, and
when he predicted that, as the nineteenth century was called the century

of ooemerco, so the twentieth would be called the century of education, he

15

was accurately foretelling what we have seen come to pass.17

Theta, then. are some of the landmarks ee Victorian England progree-
sed toward universal education. These are some of the frank statements of
the literary figures of the century. But what of the more edbtle forms of
indoctrination which played their part in effecting this progress? I ro- .
for to the novelists and their work, fer certainly the novel, the most pep;
nlar literary form of the Victorian era. had a wide audience to whom it
could appeal. And the novelists, realizing their power and feeling, perv
kept. their duty to mankind, added their voices to the growing demand for
u better educated public, and thus made their contribution. What that can.

tribumion was, the next few Ghaptere will reveal.

17 Moe 1533- 55'1860

CHAPTER III

PHYSICAL COHDIQIOHS OF EEGLISH SCHOOLS

Physical conditions of the Victorian schools Varied according to
whether the school was a public or a priVsto school, and within these two
classes, according to the constituency which the school served.

David Capperfiold himself attended two schools, both private in;
stitutions. which evidence this wide variation. Salem Ziouee, his first
school, was a. square brick building, bare end unfurnished} The second.
school David. attended \ms chosen for him by his Aunt Betsy and Mr. Vick;
ford. Here the surrounding-7s were pleasant and inviting;

. Themes Hughes reports Ton Brown's attendance at both public and
private schools, in his case both rather better then the average for the
time. The village was blessed with a “well-endowed school," s grey stone
building, not mpleasent.3 At nine years of are 'i‘om proceeded to s pri-

h

vote school where the surroundings were more than adequate. He stayed

there till time to enter Rugby, with its large owns and old buildings.
Gerornsss positions, of course, provided pleasant surroundings.

Charlotte Bront'e' mentions in Shirley the "pleasant schoolrooo.” Miss

A A
W —' v—ww—P

1 Charles Dickens. WW. Dodd. Mead
and Co., New York, 19'40, p. 75. Each subsequent reference to this noe-

ll will be to this same edition.

2 me. p. 230.
3 hence Hugues, WW, Macmillan and Co.. London, 1880,

pp. 53—61. Bach subsequent reference to this novel will be to this same
edition.

“men p. 70

5 Charlotte Bronte, g3. 3191, Smith, Elder and 00., London, 1880, p. sci.
Each subsequent reference to this novel will be to this some edition.

17

Sharp was a pupil in 3 young ladies‘ academy which was located in s ”state-
1: old brick house."6 Later she wee a governess in a situation where she
had her own pleasant bedroom opening out of the second-floor school-rose.

The two descriptions of schools which brought the greatest stern cf
inquiry and protest were Charlotte Bronta's description of Lovaod'i‘n £333: 1
m sud Dickens. never-to-be-forgotten picture of Dothoboys Hall in m
W.

Lowood was based upon the Clergy Dawhters' School established in
1823» by the Reverend Cams Wilson et Coven Bridge. Pounded for the daught-
ere of poor clerwmen, it was an extremely cheap school, and of necessity
plain and cheerless. To this school the four eldest Brontds vent when they
were between the arcs of seven and ten. A cold, hungry, confortless place,
Charlotte's description of it in W7browht an outcry, and she later
said she should not have written it though eyery word was true.8

Hrs. Gnskoll inspected the school at a later date and found it im-
proved over Charlotte's description. or necessity, greet economy had to
be relieved, since parents of students paid barely enough for food and
lodging, and subscriptions did not flow in freely to support this new and
untried whens. Hrs. Gasksll reported that careless cooking rendered food
unpslsteble: cold, mhestod buildings brought illness which wss unattended

in any cases. These illnesses did load to deaths, but records showed that

‘ William K. Thackeray, Egg}: 233,2, Dodd Mead and Co., New York, 19211,, p. 23.
Inch subsequent reference to this novel will be to this some edition.

7 Cherlette Bront'e', W Random Rouse, New York, l9h3, pp. 511-59.
inch subsequent reference to this novel will be to this some edition.

8 flsrgaret Lane, Wm, Little, Brown and 00., Boston, 1953.
me 55-58.

18

Mr. Wilson's concern had amounted to alarm when a fever broke out. He had
secured the help of doctors and procured medicines, and although forty pup
pile had taken the fever only one had died. It was ”re. Gnokell‘e concluo
eion that Charlotte had depicted all that impressed her ne.bnd at the ego
of eight, and had seen little that was good.9

In spite of Hrs. Gaekell'e more tenpornte report, it, along with
Jane Ezra, brought ouch n etorn of protest (Mr. Wilson's supportere were
threatening libel action and old pupils were offering testimony on both
nidee) that her publishers thought it best to soften the harshness of her
seeusntions. Mrs. Gnokell reluctantly allowed A number of passages to be
out and e.pnrngrnph or two added in Justification of Mr. Eileen. With.beth
sides flatly contradicting one another, Margaret Leno's conclusion is that
”it still seems Hrs. Gaokell'e description one not seriously'unjust.'1°
And Charlotte Brontfi herself conceded only that Ithe school may have improv-
ed but to our imaginations things were horrible enough. '11 Indeed the reg;
istor of the school no published in the Journal of Education in 1900 showed
the nunbor of deaths and withdrawals during the first eighteen months of
the school to have been very high: oovontyotvo entered; twentyheight re-
moved; one died there: seven left school and died.12

That Charlotte Brontg could adopt fair attitudes is ehown in the
kind words she had for Mien woolor'e School at Roe Head where she was both

pupil and teacher. the l'oomforteble family atmosphere,'13 along with Rise

9 £2i§,, pp. 59-62.
1° m” pp. 68-69.
11 m" p. 72.
12 mg... m» 69-72-
l’ ]]L§,, p. 92.

l9

Uooler'e talent, inspired in Charlotte a. thirst for knowledge.

Even more telling.- in its influence was the Dickens description of
Dotheboye Hall. He pictured tie crowded cc 1001 room with chore, stained,
and dirty walla, th e broken windows etoprod up with cepv books and paper,
the two rickety decks for the boys, eight of when chnrcd one book. Ea ex-
posed ouch atrocities no turning; sic}: boys out to graze in turnip beds for
an hour or two a day, booting: sick boys, exposing; bore to scarlet fever
and weeping cough to that Squeer's mm son's doctor bill could be hidden
in theirs, puttimt: five boys in one flea-infested bod, furnishing almost
no food and killing the appetite for what little there var with doeee of
treacle and brimetone.m’ His timid picture of crouching and cold little

ecerecrowc caused an immediate reaction. is Dickens himself said in the

promo to W'

... more than one Yorkshire schoolmaster lay: claim to being
the original or Mr. Squeere. One worthv has actually con-
united authorities learned in the law, no to his having good
ground: on which to rest an action for libel... these con-
tentione arise from the fact that Mr. Squoere in the represen-
tative of a class and not an individual. Where immature,
ignorance, and brutal cupidity are the stock in trade of a
smell body of men, and one is described by these character-
istics, all his fellows will recognize something belonging
to themselves, and each will have a. niagiving that the poro
trait in hie own....'i'o this general description...there may
be some exceptions and although the author neither new nor
heard of any in the course of an excursion he made into
Yoflcehire...” affords him much more pleasure to assume their
cxictence than to doubt it.

Kr. Squeore and his school are faint and feeble pictures
of an existing reality, purposely subdued and kept down lest
they should be deemed iorposeible-v—that there are upon record
trials at law in which damages have been sought as a. poor
recompense for lasting aconiee and diei‘imirenente inflicted
upon children by the treatment of the nectar in these places,

 

1" Charles Dickens, Eighglog. Wick-19b2, Harper and Brothers, New York,1868,
up. “Ea—116.11%}: subsequent reference to this novel will be to this
some edition.

involving: such offensive and foul eat-x113 of neglect, cm.-
elty, and disease as no writer of fiction would have the
boldness to imagine—omit! that, since he hos wanted upon
these Adventures, he has received from private quarter:
far beyond the reach of Elle‘iClOTl or distrust, eccmmts
of atrocities, in tho perpetration of which, upon neglect-
ed. or regmdictod chilrt'iron, these schools hove been the
main instruments, very far exceediz-lg; any that apnea}: in
these mama-5

Such schools as Dickens was orpooim: in \g “122mg 23151;le and other
novel.“ were, of course, serving a low-type clientele. Many of the child.-
m were the illegitimate cone of people who wanted only to put them out
of the my, to hear from them as little no possible, and to see thee not
at all. For such parents these schools were no more nor less than dump-
ing grounds for children who, as one villnger told Dickens, would be for
better off sleeping. in a London cutter}? Serving such a public, these
schools were the worst, doubtless, of the time. But mm? others were but
little better; nor did they i‘vrprovo rapidly, for xv mid-century the physi-
cal conditions of the schools were only sofiowhnt improved. over the findings
of the Select Committee of 1835.13

By tho and of the Victorian era. the amber of such establishme at:

as Dotheboys Hell had steadily decreased. How much of this decrease was due

_..._ A

15 m” Preface, pp. 1111. 11'. IV-

16 Samuel Crothere, thlargg of Diego“, Charles Scribner and Son, New
York, 1926, p. 20; ”Pip vent to an evening school taught by an old
ledy who also kept a little etore in the 3am room. Ee didn't learn
very much, for the old lady used to go to sleep much of the tim.‘

Charla Dickene, W. Oxford University Prose, London, 3321;,
p. 1: 'e plain, bare, monotonous vault of a ochoolroon!

Charles Dickens, d Oxford University Prose, London,
1952, Book the Second, 13. 211»: the school va- a. miserable loft in en
unsavory yard, oppressive, disagreeable, crowded, noisy, confusing}

17 Diokene, ‘5 ighglog Nig‘élgyz, Preface, p. xvii.

18 3.1.; Woodward, The Age of Reform, 18154870, Clarendon Prose. Oxford,
1938, Book n, p. :55.

21

to the effect of the novel on the mini-:11". of the public is not measure-
able. Hugh Walker arm's of Dickens: ”The obvious purpose of Figholnig
W is the reform of sohoole...36n1 for his Turf-080 led to still
greater ozoeoo...'2‘ao assailant of an Mneatiooal s;'eton...ou;:ht to be a
reflective person. But of all great Emelish novelists, Dickens was the
loo.“ refluocxti‘wa."19 But, in spot-11:11:. of the 69310 work, £313" Cruse ears
that althomifji some poorlo tizoimht such a bra-.8. place could not exist, the“
who knew did not change him I ickens'j with exaggeration . 1d "the effects
of hit; blow soon in the rapid decromro of catch establislmcnto, thC‘rICd- tlmt

"20 And again: ”2km

it 23nd boon atmci: with nccmrncy as well as $0 rce.
abuses were rofornod...'2}mt much of this was due to the influence of books

vac owned by everybody..."21

.-

19 Hugh Walker, Elle Litcr~ttxro of the Victorian 33:11, Cambrian Univereity
Press, 1921, pp. 685,686.

m m Cruse. Th: v59t2£zfiq§ mg "h! (3;: Rgadlgh". £011,23le. fiiifflin COO.
Boston, 1935, p. 1&7.

21 me“, p. 150.

CHAPT113 IV

HEALTEI EDUCM’ ICE A1113 CARE} 03‘ THE BODY

It in A natural step from the discussion of the physical charco-
terietice of the Victorian ecbol. with ite attendant ill: and revere,
to e consideration of the health education and previeion made for the
phreieel education of the nineteenth century yupil. Those previeiene
varied according to the cleeo of school, but the variation me more pro-
nounce! between the schoole for toys end those for girls.

The novele of the century chow no more organized physical activ-
ity forgirle than mike or eieple some: of b22111 or a play-hour in the
wooing.2 Ghatlotte Bronté', reporting in Vii; otte, doeoribee the eohul
in Brae-ole oe e “foreign school of which the life. movement and variety
mode it e complete and meet charming contract to many English institu-
tione of the come hind."3 .‘i'hie contrast, however, me in the attention
given to the phyeicel well-being of the mile and to the abundant good
food provided, rather than to any organized piveicel education. Dancing,
there on in England, eeemed to be the only organized effort to teach e
phyeioel activity. David Copperfield attended dancing echocl at which he
not little girle free e nearby private school.“ Rebecoo Sharp's letter

of recommendation claimed she could teach dancing: without the sic of e

1 Hazard Lana. W. p. 92.
2 Charlotte Bronte, m. p. 35.

3 Ghee-lotto Bronté', mm, Bigelowe, Brown and 00.. New York, 3.4..
p. 8b. Each subsequent reference to this novel will be to this came

“it 1&0

" Mama. W. p. 258.

{‘3

meter.5

This lack of attention to the physical training-j and health educa-
tion of the girls received but slight consideration except from three
writers, Disraeli, Spencer and Kingsley. Disraeli, writing §i311,in 1845,
describes the horrible conditions under which girls ae young as {our and
five worked in coal mines for as long as twelve to sixteen hours per day.
Inked to the waist, clad in canvas trousers with iron chains fastened to
a halt of leather running between their legs, these girls hauled tube of
coal ever underground roads, laboring in darkness and solitude end living
e verse life than the direst criminal. ‘Iet these are to be—.some are-
the nethers oi’England,‘ Disraeli concluded.6

In 1861 Herbert Spencer complained of the neglect of physical
training in girls‘ schools. Hie dbeervntion was that while boys‘ schools
paid some attention to physical education, girls did not run and,play,
shout or laugh, but countered in ladyliko fashion, nfrnid of producing a
reboot physique. Abundant'vicor was considered pleboinn; e fastidious
appetite and relative weakness were held to be ladylike, and the dread
of mistresses was that their charges might not be ledieo.7

Thirteen years later Charles Kingsley pleaded for less towing
ever desks to do some and Latin and Greek, and for more health education,
genes, dances, songs. fresh air, and play. “Games,“ he said. ’ere eel-
derive to physical and moral healthg' Idancing is the most neturel end

L -A

5 Thackeray. W. p- 111-

‘ 3. Damon. Winn. raucmm. Lupus. lens. n»- n+5.
tech subsequent reference to this novel will be to this same edition.

7 n. -. nouth. WEIR: Harcourt, Brece and o... lee rue.
187“. Pe.153~e e

21+

uholesome'of ell exercises." He also urged cirlo to capy Greek yhysical
traumas

Physical education for boys in private schools followed s totally
different pattern. Neglected in the schools that served the roar. nth; ..
lotice was even-emphasized in the private schools. While Charles Dickens
himself had at smattering of dancing in the eecond school he attended; in
other physical education seems to have come his way. That most schools
fer the lower classes did not offer such health education seems obvious
tron Hr. Bqueer's advertisement for Dothe'boys Roll. In it he offered to
tmh every conceivable subject but no mention is made of health edmstien.
its my rightly Judge that had such instruction been expected Mr. Squeers
mid have offered it. I

he schools serving the—higher middle classes emphasised sports
elnest too much, if we may take the opinion or UingfieldpStrntford. “In.
hefieric scale of values. that exelts physical prowess above truth and
beauty, passed from the fathers to the sons, and the sin of the public
school discipline was more and more diverted from the production of CM
are to that of sportsmen and s.thletee.'9 '.

Kipling suggests this develOpnent of the athlete in mm,
a book which stresses only incidentally the scholastic training of the
late nineteenth century, but deals, at length with the antics of several
toys in s school for the fairly privileged class. Lgymmims class with

dufi'bell sorkouts, marching, and drills is described.10

8 Charles Kingsley, Eggflth and Edmgtigg, D. Appleton and Co., New York,
. 1871}, pp. 83-88.

9 Esue Uinxfielb-Btmtford, Wm, William Morrow end
a... 130' York. 1930’ pe 2980

10 Ward Kipling, W” Charles Scribner's Sons, How York, 1913.
'p- 138. Each subsequent reference to this novel will be to this sens edition.

25

But it is in such schools as Samuel Butler's Roughborough and Thomas
Hughee' Rugby that we see the organized games which every boy was expected
to enjoy. Butler records the hatred he felt for cricket and football be-
cause he woe not up to playing; physically.11 Hughes records with nostal-
gia the football teams on the Rugby field, and recomoonfis football and
cricket as great builders of'toam ploy, nnd.boxir~ as a'buildcr of.charaoe
ter.12 Hughes. observation is upheld in some measure by'Vingfield-Strat-
ford: “The strength of the public school system lay in the training it
'provided for the younger eons of the aristocracy...tho power of command
that the system engenéered not only furnished the army...with officers
who were..;breve and poyular...but was of inostimdble value in the work-of
em'pire buildi. J13

In summary, our conclusion here can be that while little attention
was given to physical and.henlth education for girls, or for‘boye of the
lower class, competitive games and sports received no mmoh attention in
the"pper oleee schools as to call forth a degree of concern. Interscholé
aetio and intercollegiate meete'becan about the middle of the oentury and
gnnee‘became eo eboofbing that teachers invented e new word. 'ethletioien,“

to describe the situation.“

 

11 Samuel Butler, mum, Random House, New York, 19b3,
p. 176. Each subsequent reference to this novel will be to this some

" edition.

12 Hughes, 29;; gm: 3:“ gchgg; am, :39. 299. 351+.
’3 Vimflolé-Stmtforfi. W. p. 298.

1" Edwin iv. Pahlow, 23330;; qug gage; turg, Gin and 00., Do eton, 1932,
p. 685.

CENT 3’11 V

THE} VICTORIA}! CURRICTFLUM

Health education was not the only subject neglected in the nine-
teenth century echool. Although Mr. Squeere volunteered in his adver-
tising to provide “instruction in all long-mace, mathematics, spelling,
geometry, astronomy, trigonometry, metzrnphy, algebra, single stick,
writing, fortificrifition, end classical literature,"1 we are not naive
enough to mppoee that he could provide all this even if he had been in-
clined to try. Indeed, his very grouping of the subjects leads us to
believe he was not fully emre of their mature. When we read that he
assumed flicholms that he could ”advertise education by i-Ir. Squeere, and
an. nsaiotonte without invifi: any nesi etante' because “it's done all
the time by all the m.etere“2 we realize that the curriculum offered
did not mean much. Later, as we observe his methods, we find that it
meant even loan.

What, in general, did the public schools and schools for the poor-
er clnseee teach? Mainly reading, writing, and cyphering, if we can
Judge by the secondary sources and by the novels themselves.

At aid-century Sir Welter Besant said, "Board eclnole think A m
educated who can spell. In that all the pmpl. want? Are they content
to know nothing of history, economics. government, trade? 11' they want

531 education, send representative: to the School l‘Sor-au'de.“3

1 Dickens, 335E151 Higklebz, p. 35.
2 me p. 132.
3 3.7. Routh, England Undo; Victoria, 33. 183.

In the peroretion to Ihmley'e lecture on Lot tor. :- "’
W, given at South liencington ‘riueoum, May lit, 1860, the need for
”ions! instruction was stressed. It was pointed out that although read-
ing, writing, and cyphering were neceeeary, a Romm boy of the fourth
century had been taught those subjects plus some Creel-z. Nineteenth cen-
tury education must take note of the fact that science now ruled all,
that nodern civilization now rested upon piveical sciences, that even
the poorest boy would confront problems of science on every hand, that
no effort was being made to prepare him to meet these problems, that loi-
me not be a part of wow primary education, and that ever;r school;-
moter not be a center of genuine scientific knowledge gained through
personal acquaintance with the facts."

Quite an order in 1860, when the Comittee of 1351 had found two
and one-half percent of the, private school teachers etill signing; their
ceneue returns with a marl-:15 Even the tutors of cone repute, or the
fnthcre with Cambridge decrees, such an the Reverend Bronté', could
scarcely achieve thie._ 'L‘he m‘olic school was aywarontly doing well Just
to teach the three R's.

The novels reveal that Pip went to an evening school taught by an
eld'lndy uho also kept a little store in the same room. He didn't learn
very much, for the old lady need to go to eleep meet of the time. But
he did learn the alphabet, and he was very proud when he foamd he could
6

put the letters together to "race words.

“ m0: P- 11‘9- ,-
5 Edgar Johnson, Charles: D Ck!) Pi .Trn'fi and Trixmeh, Simon and Schne-
— tor, Blew York, 1952, Vol. I, p. 291.

6 Samuel Hookerd Crothere, W p. 20.

   

m

The afford to 13m to read, at least well enough to read the Bible,
extended to adults. In Adam Bodg, an old schoolmaster took adult students,
an eighteen to thirty years of age, into his home and taught them to read,
to write, and to do sums) Devil's Dust in m learned to read in the
factory school anal seized upon books as a means of escape from his degra-
dation.8

luv Cruse tells us that soon after the 5;,ueon's accession, a class
of readers are so whose numbers incr ass-ad through th ”W’s—people who
wanted romances and escape from heir hmndmn lives, who read. cheap new-

papers, such as the. Yoligo Cg 591:3. and Lloyd's I‘r

   

line}: *3”
They read avidly accounts of crimes and stories where virtue was rewarded
and crim wished, but. where the villain ma still the most interesjting
character. Miss Crime says, "Even when we reach. film decent workingm
we shall die-cover only here and there a rcmlor";a class of workmen Itrlv;
inc to elevate themsolves by pemsinc Keaton, Locke, watts, Shelley, Cor?»
1:10. Alton Locke is tyulcal of this bookhhnngry’city worker.9

The reading of novels by young people was sharply scrutinized, and
man: novels were forbidden, out, or read aloud to them with the objection-
able parts deleted. An example of the novels handled in this way in 233.9.
Wm. George Eliot was exgmrgatcd or forbidden. Poetry was
especially QUBBHGBB-ble and Byron Wu definitely haboo. Virgil and M11-

km 1191:! no reassurance, according to Miss Cruse, and Shakespeare not b.

VT “'7

7 George, 31101:, W Dada, Mead and 00., New York, 1916, p. 179.
5 Amy Cruse, Ina v;ggg;;gn§ and.Thg§g ggfldigg. p. 120.
9 m. p. 121;.

road from Boutiler'c e .ition.1°

Such core extended to boys in private schools as well as to girls.
The accepted private school curriculum for boys included English, mtho—
mtica, Lat-in, French, permansmp, and some factory. Samuel Butler ro-
cordc that music received no kind. of encouragement at ng‘h’borow'h.n
As we find no reference to it in other school programs for ”boys, we can
safely conjecture that it was not included in their mrricultm.

is as revealing: as my novel of the course

 

of study proscribed for a “coy. There is recordoa the stern applicntion
to Latin Grammar and to Euclid, with the conclusion: "the class ion and
geometry constitute that culture of the :3" :16. which prepared it for the
reccjpt 10:. of my subsequent cmmdz and ”all (gentlemen learn the coma
things. Latin 12:: port of the «location of a g;ontlorrzan.'13 To becomo a
, by fierce; my;
Mus; m}. g “wring, by 'i‘x'lor; Aesop's .‘*‘ablo;; WW; and the

dictionary, sifico there woro so fox-r books available. Greek history,

'-

oforr o" the “o

 
  
 

   

gontlczmn, Ton mo czjvoccd to €331,

    

. riation doctrine, and Latin literature provocl to 'bo of little 11:3 to
him, since he did not. become proficient enough to teach, and it was
found that he needed ‘ooold-zoopim and calculation to enable him to earn

9. urinal“

 

1° Jilin pp. 53-39-
11 Samuel Butler. W p. 183.
12 George 3110:, W. Thoma I. Craven 09., New York,

3.4., p. 127. Each subsequent reference to this novel will be to thin
some edition.

13 33.11.. p. 150.
1“ MN P. 1270

30

liefgfie is a. satisfactory ezrmble of a girl these alert mind should
have received the effort wasted. on her brother. {Tot satisfied to learn
only drawing and en‘oro iiicry, she tin'igji-xt herself Latin anti Euclid. Jane

‘

Eyre, in adr‘ition to the piano and. drax-ringg stucied Coldsmith‘s Victor:

 

2: Home anti 0- ms boon-Jo proficient in French.

George Eliot was fortunate in the teachers she had in the villain
boarding“; schools \zfliidz she attended. SY'Le made the most of the manger ed.-
ucntion offered to tjzirls in those dare, mid, using: her excellent mind, to-
cnxne a self-educated woman. Charlotte ."Z‘ront'c4 was to. it reading, writing,
and nritlmetic by her father. E'I'ien she and her sisters were turned owner
to their aunt, Nice Ernnwell, to be tn~..11t the household arts, while Rever-
end. Bronte tnmfnt Patric}: Latin and Greek. But Charlotte learned French
at Elise Woolcr's and boom-1e proficient in he lrnmmge during; her ctry in
Brussels. These two women were the excortionc rather than the rule, how-
ever, for most English (girls: were satisfies"; to Know music, dancinz‘, print-.-
111; and! embroidery, having: little interest in Histomr, geography, fren—
mx, or arithmetic.

tiirgfielééfitrntford gwointe out: "A feature of the time was. the
stress laid on accomplisfmcnts. References. in diaries arc continorilly
being; made to performing: on the horn, trying the new pianofcrte, or ctuf -
ing Italian." ”Lady Aileebury, writing; in 1310, thus delivers herself:
‘I...ahoninete the modern caucation of females. The érift 9f 3 13 to
make them artists and nothing else, which. if they are to em their bread,

might 'be useful. E'he mind and morale are never thought about, the head

is crnmfull of rubbieh."15

AA__ ___._4_ M.-

wfi

15 1m Wingficld—Stratford,

 

31

Of all the 'femnlee,' only the governess seems to have needed to
earn her bread by using her‘brain, and even she wns not expected to know
very much. Fine needlework was prized more highly by her_employer than
e.knovledge of science. Jane Eyre needed to be able to paint. play end
eing, net pureee. and read French‘booke, but neither ehe nor her charges
were expected to vent to learn more. ‘300 eager e. thirst for knowledge
wee not e womanly quality, and no ouch would not attract a. husband. Ae
.Antheny'?rellope pointed out, the instruction e girl needed wee how’te
yleeee her future husband-.11“ te darn, make good tea, dreee neetly, end
keep the huttone eewed on.“

Me ettitude prevailed far into the century. The formation of
the Governeeeee Benevolent.deeooietien in lel and the openinc of Queen'e
Gellege for the training of gererneeeee in IBM were etepe toward the
improvement of the etetue of women teeehere. By 1862 it wee generally
recognized that better education of ween no the reel key to improved
eenditiene for governeeeee,- emi the growing tendency to trein teachere
for sebe oeueed ‘merneaeing to grow into e profession instead of e
niefertune.'17 But it had taken more than half the Victorian era to e-
chieve thie.

In.generel, we can safely conclude thnt_the curriculum wee limited
to the‘hareet of neceeeitiee for the poorer cleeeee and to dabbling in
the erte and various ledylilce ec-compliehnente for the girls, and that it _

extended to popular classical education for the boys of the upper classes.

 

1‘ Anthony Trollope, 033.1 Fag , Alfred A. Knapf, Kev York, 1950. p. 294.

17 mm Heft.

‘. - 9 , Columbia University Preee. How
reek,1929: p. l78.

 

CHAPTER VI
TEACHING ‘EITHODS OE? TEIE VICTORIAE‘IS

Although the greatest need of the nineteenth century teachers m
e better knowledge of the subject matter, on improvement in their tench-
inc methods would have been helpful, too. 'Ihe material which they did
know was passed along, to their charges in some very unusual were, indeed.

Host ridicule of these was "r. floucers' method of teaching—if
we no: dignity it with that term. Who can ever forget the ludicrouenese
of his instruction in "bottinney'u‘by having the pupil wood the garden.
Or his definition of e horse—with the acconunnying instruction to 'go
out end rub him down." 'G-l-e-e—n' end 'v-i-n-dn-e-r' soon spelled e
Jo) fer the unfortunate boy who drew those words for hie lesson.1

Such e fen-fetched system is, of course, typically Dickens. end
we feel that some of the methods he describes stem from the unfortun-
ete experiences he himself had suffered. For instance, Dickens hed et-
tended e Dene School, upstairs ever e drer'e shop, kept by e grin on
ereetere who was the inter model for Mrs. Pipchin. then Charles shoved
puelmt ever hie lesson, ineteed of help, he received e poke in the
had with e hard knuckle.2 Hie leter experience at Mr. Gilee' school
nee e fine one, for Mr. Giles proved to be e kind tutor. His two and
ene-helf__yee.re at Wellington House Academy were sonewhnt hotter than
the ever-go. elthouch here the sensitive Dickens was more inpressed with

the sadistic punishment given by the headmaster, the conings and waiting

“—7

1 Charles Dickens, Nichol“ Eickle‘oz, p. .120.
3 Edge: Johnson, flaglgg 3322:6213, v01. 1, p.13.

\J
b)

of pine with rulers, than with the subjects and methods of teachinch

'i'hese unhappy experiences come out in W when,
under the watchful eye of Mr. and flies Murdetone, David became ”sullen,
dull end dogged,” and could not do the "smelling stuns,” nor recite from
senor: the granular, history, and geography.“

The first school David attended reflected the pictures Dickens
held in his mind of the Academy. Here David was subjected to the lumil—
ietien of veering a sign fastened to his boo}: reading, “Take care of hits.
Be bites.“ the cruelty of his having to wear this sign before his new
friends, the canines, the delight Mr. Orealzle tool: in seeing the boys
writhing end crying, the headmaster's catering to the wealthier pupil.
and failing; to stand haze}: of the teachers-cll these eyieodosprohably
stewed from Dickens' unhappiness at Wellington House Modem}

In W Dickens presents pupils half asleep or in
a state of waking stupefsction under the supervision of. ”teachers «mi-
mated solely by good intentions-“no idea of executionu-n lamentable
Jmhle was the upslmt of their kind of endeavors.’ Mult pupils were
taught to read from the New Testament. They had no idea of the meaning.
It was “a Jumble of a school wherea...spirits Milled very night... But
en Bends: night, the author informs us, the unfortunate infants were
handed over to the prosiest and worst of all the teachers. She would
held forth upon the 'Se'pulchre," using the word five hundred tines but

never once hinting: at what it meant, while the poor little halbsick,

3 hm. pp. #7. as.
h Dickens, Dogs} Connerfield. p. 51.
5 me. one 55-85-

34

sleepy children were exchanging diseases. Sven in ”The Jumble,” os Dickb
ens christened it, an exceptionally sharp boy could learn something and
impart it better then the teachers, could rise tolhecome o. Jumble teach!-
er, and from there could go on to a better echool.6

'Ihis better school, newly built, was like mm? others throughout
the country. Here the schoolmistrcss, ic‘s'iss Poacher, required. on—the-spot
conjugation of verbs need in ordinary conversation.7 This catechism of
pupils is an excellent exceple of satirical hmnor, but as E. Salter Davies
points out: “Headstone (the decent school master Who became a. murderous
villain) and Miss Peecher...represent a type of elementary teacher that
was doubtless familiar enough in Dickens' day, but is new happily almost
extinct."8

A new theory of educating young minds impelled Dickens to write
ironically in W: ”Tonsil these boys and girls nothing but M.
Facts alone ere wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out every-i
thing else. You can only form the minds of reasoning animals upon Pacts.
lIothing else will ever be of any service to them”? And in a plain,
bare, monotonous Vault of n schoolroon Thomas Grnrlcrind observed fir.
HcChoakunchild teaching. The author romance that this teacher and. some
one hundred forty others hmi lately been turned at the 89.139 time, in _
the some factory, on the same principles like so mny pianoforte legs.
Each had. been put through an imcnee variety of subject matter, had on-

svered volumes of head-breaking; questions. ”If he had. only learnt a

4‘.

6 Dickens, MW, Book the Second, Ch. 1., 79. 21k.

7 3283-. P0 2180
3 mg,” Introduction, p. :17.

9 Dickens, Hard Times, 13. 1.

35

little less, now infinitely better he might have taught mob more.” And
Dickens bewaile ”the mechanical art and mystery of educating the reason
without etoopim to the cultivation of the sentiments and effoctiono.'1°
Hi; comment that children must never wonder about anything is reminiscent
of the poke on the head with a launcklo which he had received in his first
zonal.

Dickene' ”happy time" with tie. Gil-ea is reflected in the new school
to which David Capperfiold was sent, which was "gravely ordered on a sound

' and ruled by democratic principles. 'l‘ho hem’naeter we the

system,
"kindest of men" to whom David became deeply attached. ‘i'ho boys were on;
couraged to be good students, to enjoy a. 5006. athletic program and. plen-
ty of liberty, and to become well thought of by the villemro. Unéer thin
hem: alien, David became the head ‘ooy in the school and was almost son-
17 when his schooldmrs came to an ené.n

Thackeray in another author who reveals his om unhappiness in
school in his later novels. Although, no Walker points out, ”.110 school!
found no referee: in Eheokem,”12 indirectly he was pointing out the
weaknesses of England'e eeuoatlonel system in W. Ro‘oeeca't
herbazerd method of teaching; left moh to be desired. Ber method was
to leave her pupils alone, imoring the younger girl whose interest in
nature study was never encouraged by her teacher. The brigfixter pupil
interested Re’oecca, om}: they read together Smolletthi‘ielcling, Grey, and.

2.

Voltaire because Rebecce. .zereelf enjoyed the reading.

 

1° Egién. P0 61‘. . ' ' .. .
11‘ Dickens, 2332M Cgmgrfiielg, pp. 230-261;.

 

36

Mary's picture of. Swiahtail Acudew with its hazing and bull:-
ing was copied from his unhappy experiences at Charterhouse. lmt time
null-owed hil picture and in She 139323.. 3 he describes Founders' Day at
Grey Friars with o. kindly uoe‘lzelcie.13

Rudyard Kipling put this some nostalgic flavor. into W...
recalling little of the academic work except the tefiend ems, but ro-.
mooring the pranks, the eocial contacts with the teachere, and the pun.
iehnente meted out Jutly and accepted at being: deeemd.1b

George Meredith show how the methods of Richard Feverol'e {other
failed. as the parent sought to mould the boy from without, instead of
alluring him to develop naturally from within.

Thoma Hughes euggeete indirectly that the private school could
be improved. He reveals that the one Tom Brown attended was kept by a
tenth-n with another as second master, but most of the work. and CI-
pecielly the discipline. was in the hand- of two ushers, one of when no
always with the bore. Those ushers were not gentlemen. were poorly edu-
cated. and were interested only in gaining o. livelihood. They encouraged
tulo-‘boering and favored the tie toys, raking them into bullion. Mes
Ink” a thoughtful confection men hesavo. flLet who will hear their
louone. but lot a. superior person be with them at ploy and at rent."15

it Rugby, Tom found the fair treatment and the manhunt. acted
out by the Doctor to be just and good. {the talks, chapel exercises,
einginc, and prayers were inepiretionel. The use of psychology in giving

Tom o. younger boy to defend was evidence of the thoughtful administration

.77

13 m" p, 687.
1" mung. We pp. 153-15“-
15 Hughes, Tom Brown'eichool Days, 1). 62.

37

e! the school, as was the supervised study arranged for the lower forms.“

Perhaps we can look upon Charlotte Bronte es the author who pre-
sented the most vivid picture of what e well-ordered school should be like.
There is no we: of measuring the effect of her work, but the schools she
described in W W, and W, based on her Brussels
teaching: experience. must have stimulated some reflective thinking in
England.

In mun pleasant ochoolroom with books in order; a school
feast with children and teachers in holidzrr attire filling the church-
yard and garden: the rector, scholars and teachers ell enjoying: ample
food, music and a light-hearted good time—here is n picture for more
pleasant than any givenus by the men of the period.17

In W, Miss Bronte meet have startled her reader with
some new ideas: “it is often well to not on one'e own Judgment and to
lead parents rather than to be led by than" and “the fitness of a pre-
feeeor is not a matter of 35,9318 Proof of e young man's ability in
handling his charges was noted by the visiting principal the observed the
professor‘- we: of seizing the upper hand, of getting command of his
elsee and being able to cope with e few Heart-elect" girls who had nede
plans to enhrrase him. Not only was there admiration for his ability to
handle his pupils, but also for his method of scaling his teaching down

to his pupile' intellect.

1‘ ma” pp. 117-209. _
17 Charlotte Bronte, m, pp. 2147, 367, 501.

1'8 Charlotte Bronte, The mgogogg, Bigelow, Brown and 00., how York,
n.d., P. 67.

38

Miss Bronté' paints her moot vivid picture of a. private school in
m e picture both pleasant and disturbing. Although there were
any things wrong with Mme. Roger's school, Miss Bronte! was still able
to say that ”many on austere English school-mistress would do vestly well
to initete her.”19

'A strange, frolicsome, noisy little world was this school: greet
pains were taken to hide chains with flowers...Ench mind was reared in
slavery; but, to prevent reflection from dwelling on this fact, every
pretext for physical recreation was seized and made the most of. There,
es elsewhere, the Church strove to bring up her children robust in body,
feeble in soul, fat, ruddy, hole, Joyous, ignorant, unthinking, aqueo-
tionina.'2°

Pupils could not be gore-coed, to do too much; long and severe hen-
tel application they would not bear. Whereas on English girl would hind
herself to a task till completion, these girls Just said it was too hard
or too boring. They would beer my amount of snrceon or nomds to their
self-ereopect, but they would stage a mall riot over three additional
lines to a lesson. They were ”gaining: knowledge by n mmlously easy
nethed...not asking very rapid progress in anything; taking it easy.‘
'Ihe real head labor was done by the teachers to save the pupils. It was
“a foreign school of which the life, movement, and variety ends it e com-

plots and most chewing: contrast to may English institutions of the

mo kind."21

A

fl W,—

” Charlotte Bronté', m. p. 83.

2° on... p. we.
21%.. P0 8h-

39

ii. mac‘s oysters was to see to the yhysicnl well-being of the yu-
pils, keep them honey, and provide abundant good food, pleasure and hol-
idays. She maintained her own unbroken pejulority with the 1)u}.:ile at
any cost to the teachers, taking: to herself only that was pleasant and
requiring her lieutenants to take cnrc of any annoying crisis. If any
teacher had appealed to Eiedmc for help she hould have been sent away.
Teachers could not be weal: or wavering: or the puyils would rebel and
sould persecute the teacher, who would be forced to leave. There were
so many. teachers available in Brussels at this time that Madame would
have found it much easier to get replacements than to deal with an un-
happy situation. She had her Spies and ruled by heartless espionage,
but as she maintained an outwardly charming, attitude her patrons were
satisfied. This satisfaction reached its (grand climax each year in the
birthdnq {Ste in Mademe'e honor—a commend performance in which every-
one had her special partozz

{The only genuine working period of the school your was the lost
two months, which were given over to yrepnration for enmimtionc pre-
coding the distribution of prime. ’i'hen everyone worked hard getting
ready for a Show; erhibition for the public, and all moans were fair
to this ent'i.23 Examination day was a grave (Log of importance, and the
results preor-mzbly were satisfactory since T-Tacime Roger's school con-
tinued to thrive, and Charlotte Bronte'hereelf returned there to teach

for the sum of sixteen pounds per year.

A--_ h

22 ms... pp. 83. 9h. 1149.
23 122.21.. p. 179.

1:0

One voice which Spoke oizt strongly in Efivlnnd for 3 Christine ed-

ucation for even the poorest class was that of Tom 21., who said in the

Prefatory Iiienoir to éltgg Leaks:

I know all thnteis doing in the m of education», etc..

but I do assert that the disease of degradation has been
for the last #0 years increasing faster than the remedy.
And I believe, from experience, that when you put workmen

into human dwellinre, and give them a Christian education,

so far from wishing diacententedly to rise out of their
class. or to level others to it, c motl; the aprosite
takes placey They become sensible of the dignity of work,
and they ‘beain to see their labor as 9. true Calling in
God's Churchqut your friend wishes to see what can he
made of wrlmen's bruins, lot bin, in Gocl's none, 50
dam to Harrow Neald, and. there see Hr. W80. that

'- he has done with his own notional sd1oolboye.' I have his

opinion as to the cnuabilitiee of those minds, which we,
c.1393. new so sodl r neglect. '

Each man has power to educate and use whatever facul-
ties or talents Goc‘. has given him, be they less or more.
Thin is the divine equality which the Church proclaim.
and nothing else proclaims no she does.2

These equal powers and faculties were not being educated very eel].

in nineteenth century England, mostly for lack of teachers adequately

trained for the Jc‘o.

A

A- A “A

2" Charles Xincsles‘. WW. ”ncmfllan and 00.,
London, 1911, Prefntory Memoir by Tan H.

CHAMBER VII

DISCIPLINE IN THE VICTORIAN SCHOOL

Had the Victorian teachere’ methods been better, their discipline
probably would not have been so severe. Lacking proper knowledge of
lubject latter and methode of interesting active young minds, any n
teacher resorted to brutality to keep control of his charges. Bored
with mch learning by rote and dull reading aloud, many a pupil invited
the excitement of punishment to relieve the nonotow of hours in echeol. .

The extreme brutality of Mr. Squeerc to the nnfortximzte and friend-L
leee children in hie care main provides the most horrible literary err;
ample of viciouenese. From the time Squcore etnrted on the journey to
hie echool the cruelty began. Ill treatment of sic}: boys, little food
while Squeere ate his fill, one drink for. the entire group, no warmth
although the little bore cried with cold.,-—.thc torture of such a Journey
to the children can only be imcined.

Arrived at the school, the children found that further crueltiee
were the custom. Beating of the boys whose fathers were behind in their
pay, canines for writing critically of the school, taking of gift: end
lettere from the boye and using; their money as his cum—ell then and
any other injustices were the rule rather than the exception. Beetingu
end caninge until Squeere was too tired to lift the cane were in store
for any boy who went against him. The poor children had no way to re-
port thie brutality, since they were only allowed to write e. circular
home at Christmetime, saying they "never were so happy and hope they

may never be eent for."1 One of these "happy. boys sneezed one day and

A

1 Dickene, Ficholae Hicklebz, p. 148.

1&2

“Mr. Squcero lmocl-ced him off the tron}: with o. blow on one side of the
face and knocked him on again with o. blow on the other."2 Again,
Bqueere “looked at the little boy to see uhethor he was doing wthing
he could beet him for. As he happened. not to be doing: anything at all,
he merely boxed. his care and told him not to do it minim":3 Such me
the treatment of the children,-—while Squc‘ere put on n. soft voice and.
an air of careful consideration for his boys in the presence of visitors.

David. Copperfield had been cent to ”the school where they broke .
the boy's ribs with wiwpplmj‘f,"u where an large majority of the 'boye (os-
pecinlly the analler once) were hit with. the cone-u—holf the establish-
ment wee writhing, rm}. crying before the day's work began and almost all
before the day me over," and where ”Mr. Cren‘xtlo had. a delight in cut-
ting at the boys—like the satisfaction of a. craving sir-apatitefs

Dickens had- encountered this :nmi olmont himself in fir. William
Joneo' school, where the teacher mjoyod Baiting: palms with rulers, and
droning; the bozr'e' pnnte tight and caning; them. Mr. Jones punished. the
day pupile has then the booming: pupils, for those who returned home
each evening would tell their parents of the brutal treatment.6

Other authors who reported cmingo and infliction of bodih’ pain
include Thackeray, who remarked that such bullying and torture vere the

accepted thing and I'it would he ungontlenanlike to resist it.” Kipling

4 ‘4 4_._ ._ _. _ ‘L

rvw VT ————er-— W

? m, p. n3.

3 m" 1!. oz.

“Dickens, Wall. 10. 66.

£1113“ p. 86. ‘ ,

6 Edgar Johnson, Qharleg Digitog 3, Vol. 1., p. 118.

7 i'heckerny, Imimrgig, p. 56.

“Ported CPJfi-Mifi in ft'LIZ“;;DI‘.d $11. Thomas 31115316 9., perhz'vfxs, {fiVRs-t the
moat suthcntic picture of acccytcd fora: of fiufiishnent in pee in pri-
vate institutions for the better class of boys. Students at Rugby were
”floated for éirect and willful breach-as of rules," "float-:28. for bully-
ing." and ”thrashed so'as to garnish and not have» to c7139]. because they
saw Iona good in him.”8 Enchas believed thrashing is good for some boys.
and that severe physical pain is the only way to deal with some casert
Rugby, like most other private schools, had what fitg‘naa terms a
'dadblo set of masters—uthe lawful ones and the tyrants, rewponsibla to
no one.'9 These tyrants were the "face" 30 put the younger students
thrcugh such severa hazing that by our present-day standards, adminis-
trativo interference would anew necessary. Boxing was recommended fbr
dettllng arguments, but rarely aid the lawful masters take a hand.
Nuishnmnt of a less brutal natura was givan ta girls, but often
with more deep-sentad effect. The humiliations which Charlotte Brant;

us

wne svre :robnbly marked sensitive girls nor germanently

  
 

racords in
than the canines administered to the boys. Thor-:0 mtmiliating punish;
manta inclu or! forcing a large air). to stand. tn the center of the room,
making Jane stand on a stool for 31 If an hour. not permitting the girls
to speak to the malty pupil, calling the {girls ‘bxthelr BUMP..MS in; an
unpleasant manner, placing the word ”slattern' on a.cir1's forehead and
pinning untldily folded articles to bar shoulder because 511 was not neat
enough. ’0: lupus: of attention or errors in pronunciation the girls

var. sent to the foot of the class. The young ladies woro'bcdkboards,

 

3 Hughes. Wm. pp 206-208-
9 m. p. 158.

1m.

and not in stool“ an a form of punishment, or they were switched on the
non): with a bunch of twigs. A brand and water diet was the punishment
for blotting an exercise. The school dinciylino was so strict that all
not rise as at a. signal whenever the herd entered. Largo cirla were
permitted to abuse smaller once and com: them out of their share of
food, so that ”fogging," as it was practiced in the 'boys' schools, must
havo had its countorgart in female establishments.

”any and severe were the rules laid dom by the school!!! govern-
ing hoard. But probably more cruel was tho fear planted in the young
mind. that thoir oouln would be lost, that hell and eternal dalmatian
war. in store for their wicked young hearts. they were so uncanny in
thoir carthly stat. that dying young was to ”be hoped for, nine. Etern-
it: would surely be better if they would yreparo themselves by prays“,
Bibi. reading, and tho cultivation of a. humble attitude.

i‘ho effort of the Lowood Board was to mice their girls nimble,
genteel, and precise. They worn to be “hardy, patient, self-denying.'1°
Humiliation was the weapon 'to mortify in those girls the lust: of tho
{lo-113:” Tho desire that the Lowod girl: follow plain and simple ways
extended so far as to forbid curled Mire-mu if it curled naturally.

This extreme rrogmm designed for the building of clmracter in
fioor orphans did not extend to all classes. George Eliot's novels show
the use of extra lose-one an punishmentp-on extra page of M for
cleaning a door, for example. In fact, a longer lesson was a. favorite

punishment even for the boys in private schools.

 

10 Charlotte Brontg, W, p. M.
n M'O p. 1‘50

45

The efforts to build character in both the public and private
schools of the era were successful, according to Wingfield-Stretford.
'The efforts of the great reforming her-.dmstere had not extended to the
intellectualizing of the public schools. It is seldom that there is
supply without doe-mend, and he parental demand was not for intellect,
but for character. And character the public schools did suprly to an
extent unapproechable anywhere else in Europe. The large emomt of
power delegated to the boys thenselvee, under the r's'xonitoriel system,
engendered habits of commnd and roejmneibility.'12 .

With this state-neat from an eminent authority, we must conclude
that the system, which included monitors, rage, hazing, and may other
questionable practices, helped the English Empire to reach its full
growth.

12 Esme Uingfield-Stratford, ghgee fingers: Victorimg, p. 279.

CHAPTER VI I I

VICTORIAN EXACHERS

The teachers of the Victorian era merge all the way from Mr.
Squeere of Nighglg g Higlg‘bz to the well-loved M in fiction, and from
Cherloe Dickene' first 'grin old creature“ of a teacher to Mice Woole r,
who inspired Charlotte Bronte in real life. The consideration of these
instructors, their position in life, and their contribution to their
charges, met include thepublic and private echool teachers, the tun-
tore, end the governeeeee.

The non-litereiv materiel reveals particularly the poor rrepnr-L
etion of the public and private school teachers. The Select Committee
of 1835 had revealed tint the Demo Schoole were presided over by women
and e for old men, and the Committee flatly etoted that “in 1835, in.
Manchester, not a single Dame School teacher was educated for her. on:-
pleynent.'1 And we further recall that ”as late as 1851, two and one-
helf percent of the cchoolmetors and mistresses in private schoole
signed their census returns with a mark}:

Yet, in 1851, twenty-five Training Colleges bed been established
and 6,000 pupil teechere were being, trained for the work. Grail: etetee
that these training colleges had secured the devoted energy of non of
great ability, but in spite of this, the education offered was very

narrow. “The teaching; of the schools was in the hands of men who had

 

1 Bernard Schilling. WW. I» 19-
2 Edgar Johnson. WW. Vol. I. p- 291.

1&7

ecnrcely any training, and who had often turned to the work becnuee all.
other work had turned nus-2;," from menu"3 Older pupils were set to teach-
ing the younger ones, and after their period of apprenticeship, they
peeled on to one of the Training Colleges, often on scholarships. Thur,
England tried to lift the educational standards by encouraging premie-
ing elementary poplin, end by neeieting teachers in the Training Gol-
legee to improve their knowledge and return to the school: to lift the
etuderde there. The plan succeeded in adding a current of vitality to
the educational eyeten.“

The Cemieeion of 1858 reported the schools etill in the hands
of untrained teachers, ”recruited only from the rank: of those who had
failed in other path: or 11:..“5 nearly e third of the children of the
country were going to echool to teacher: who were 'dregginz on e nicer-
e‘ble end hopeless existence of the hardest (ix—emery.MS The Rovieed Code
sought to change all thie, end-in doing so occasionally dealt e hard
blow to e. decent Dame's School.7 In demanding trained teachers in the
public schools the State took e fire step forward. even them the
training in no my moored efficiency in the echoelroom. The em
tion of pupils periodically by a. State ermziner was therefore instituted,

hut the pressure on pupils end teachers alike produced a bed remlt.8

m ._. 4 ~ _.n__..

 

#8

On tho whole, however, the preparation and effectiveness of the teach”!
improved following 1870, and by the fourth quarter of the century much
had been done to correct the worst evils of the schools and the instruc-
tore.9
Novels of the period did not neglect mention of the public school
teacher, but refer more often to the private school teachers ant}. to the
governosees. Thomas IIughee, in Tom Brown's School 3953, says the fun»
danentel difference between the private and public school is that the
private school believes in constant supervision outside of school hours.
“Let who will hear their lessons, but let a superior person ”be with than
at work and 3313me 3mm. than romtks that, although the prlvato
school he attended was kept by a gentleman, with another as sooona Iss-
tar. mat of the work was in the hands of two usher-s, who vors not con--
£10m, who were poorly educated, who were there only to make a. 11713 g,
the encouraged talc-bearing, and'iho turned the hie boys into bullishu
Charles Dickens attended s. private school, Wellington House Loa-
éew, for about two and. one-halt years. It was “somewhat better than
the surges school of its class because its Welsh owner, Mr. Killian
Joan. though no great scholar himself, had. tho Judgment to employ eon-
potent msterh'lz Such private schools for both boys and girls were
scattered all over England, making: a modest living: for their owners.

In the case of git-15' schools, there were so many that a large m’ber

 

1’ Eden! John-on. W. po “8-

1*?

failed. In fact, Charles Dickens' mother sought to start such a school.
with no oxpericnco and no training, but there was no response to tho
slsborats sign which she had made to advertise her new venture.13 Even
Oherlotts Bronté', with her well-trained mind and foreign school expor-
ionoo, received not a. single letter of inquiry in response to her adver-
tissmonts for pupils.1h
St. John Rivers helped Jane Eyre establish a private school of.
good repute. There were undoubtedly many such throughout the country.
Their organization and control suffered. by cosmzirison with private .
schools on the continent, if ya can. twice Charlotte Bronte's Opinion.
In Brussels, 3-5183 Brontél saw a well-:ordered school for boys and one for
girls, which she describes in W. Elias Brant/é says of tho hand-o '
mistress. “Many an mmtero English school-mistress would do Vastly well
to imitate her-and I believe mmxy. would be glad to do so, if exacting
English parents would let them."15

But some of the English parents were not at 0.11 enacting. George

Eliot stated in W, "The schoolmasters who are not
clergyman are 1». very low set of men amorally...men who havs failed in
.16

other trades most likely. Samuel Butler remarked that the headmas-
ter souldod boys after himsolf. Those she did not appreciate his effort
were givsn no chance; any boy who did not worship him and follow blindly

was destined to mihappiness in school.17 In describing: Swishtail Seminary

 

13 mg... 1:. 20.

1“ Margaret lone, W. p. 201+.
15 Charlotte Bronté', W. p. 83. -'

1‘ mm. W. 29.46.

17 Butler, Egg g1 All Flog}; p. 153.

50

for boys, Thackeray recorded much bullying by the teachers and much honing
of younger boys with the approval of the teachers. ”Torture in a public-
ochool is as much licensed as tho knout in Russia," l’hscksrey romsu‘llrod.18
“locking; shoes, toasting brood, and tori-ring in general were offices
doenod to to nocosssry ports of every young Englishman's odnontion,‘ he
”51.19

How mild. those criticisms seem as we approach tho one whom voico
oriod out the loudest against the low-principled schoolmstoro of tho tins.
David Copperfield, sent to a school near London, ”tho school whore they
'oroko tho boyo' rim)?” recalls tho cruelty of his reception thoro, tho
lack of understanding: on the part of all but one of the teachers. In ro-
cnllins the bully, tar. Creaklo, David (andLDickons) says, '1 am sure when
I think of tho follow now, :3 blood rises meninst him with tho diointoh.
outed indignation I should feel if I could have lmownnll about him with-
out having over been in his pomr; but, it rises hotly, because I know him
to have been an incapable brute, who had no more right to"'bo possessed
of tho grout trust ho hold. then to ho Lord High Admiralé'm Fortunatoly,
David later wont to a school which was 'grmroly ordered on a. sound sys-

‘22 whore tho headmaster was s kind non, where the boys lived accord-

tom,
the to democratic principloo with plenty of liberty. Hero David formal

o. close attachment for the hood of the school and was so httppy that ho

 

’8 mosey. mum. p. 56.

19 M. r. 557. .
1°flicker“, W, p. 65.
21' nu... p. 86.

22. m. .. p. 230.

51

me ghost eorry when his school days came to an «(1.23

But Dickens reserved his most scathing: description for Squeers,
head of Dotho'boye Roll. In the preface to 1571933153; Nigglebz, Dicker“
tells how he became interested no a boy in a. pupil who come home from
a private school with a. mppumted abeceeo which the teacher had ripped
Open with on inky penulknifeep This incident otimileted his interest in
eohoole and provided the activating force for his visit, incognito, to
learn Just 11cmr bad the schools really were. Such schools as Dotheboyl
Hell oerteinly existed; such masters es Squeere were numerous: ouch e—
tmcitee had been hoard of by othero. 2"":11- Johnson states, "Dickens,
never claimed, in fact. to be a pioneer who forreted. out hidden evils.
The abuses he exposed had been heard of by thousands. It was part of
hie strength that what he told his readers they already knew to be
ere-.02“

30 young man with any tort of oeneibilitiee could be employed by
such a. pereon as Squeere, and Nicholas Hickle'by could not rennin long
in an establishment which he characterized as “a den where lordld orn-
elty...rune wanton. and youthful misery stalks precociouez'uhere the
lightness of childhood shrinks into the heaviness of @0325 The W
for thie position was five pounds per year; Hioholne left to take e. po-
dtion as a private tutor at five shillings per week. But the life of
e tutor me not pleasant either, if we w Juice by CherlotteBronte’,

who in Shirley he: a. young man my, “A tutor I will never be again...

4. A - . , ‘__‘

23 Bid... 9- 25"-

zf’ Eds?! Johnaon, I, I)- 2910

 

25 Dickens. W p. 335.

Not again will I sit habitually at another-'3 table—mo morebe the sp-
pondsge o: e. fanily.'26

These mlo ”appendages" to the families of the well—to-do and
upper middle-class are not so frequent as their female counterpart, the
governess. Boys were often sent to schools, but girls were usually in-
structed at home, and in the nineteenth century the governess became n
firmly established institution in families of clergyman, tensors, and
tradesmen, so well as the higher classes. The importance- of the governess
is proved both by the census flan-es and by her frequent appearance as
heroine or minor figure in the novels of the period.”

'i‘ho origin of the governess so a distinct ring} separate class of
wearing: woman was the servant who booms the mn‘satl‘lld and evolved. into
the teacher. Often these women not} ma no try. ins, and were little
more then paid errand girls. Some, with n smattering of education, were
a. shade above servants, although sorrxetims paid less. In this position
of “neither fish nor fowlu they were snubbed both by. their eta-players and
by the servant class. Treated badly by their pupils, mistreated by the
mothers, relegated to attic rooms with no company, no friends, end no
recreation, they lived s. lonely life—.the worst which could befall A
girl if we may Judge by references from the novels which sought to pre-
sent her plight. There was even a lack of books and reading materials
fer the governess in many households. Robeson Sharp recorded: '1 had

w choice of amusement between as volume of sermons and a panphlet on

rfi ———-—‘-,,

26 Charlotte Bronte, m, p. 501.
’7 Vanda Hoff. Wines. 2» 153.

the corn Invades Drab, indeed, was the life of the teacher.

'i'he Brontgs probably did more than am! other writers to expose
the dreary existence of the governess. i2mrlotto end Emily had hated
their experiences as school teachers, both calling: it "gnflgtm‘y." is
they (lid. not naturrlly carsfor children, teaching: ‘rfllE nm'thims; but a.
'dslightful task” to thema

Charlotte did not care for her ozoneriencc as a governess, o3;
pecislly that feeling of being: neither e. servant nor a part of the family.
Her experiences in Brussels, though more to her liking, were not plos-
smt enough to make her accept s teacher’s post in Manchester st 100
pounds a year. She had earned as little as 15 ymmtis, and 20 pounds
with it pounds deducted for laundry, so. for the times, the Manchester
offer was good. But Chm-latte declined and took to writing novels in-
stead.

Many another young women was not so fortunate. The daughters of
inpovorishod gentlemen and of clergyman had little else to turn to for
a livelihood. The girl who must follow this profession had no illusions
about her future. Charlotte Bronté_m~oteto Hrs. Gaskoll: ”I hate and
_ her the very thought of govemessship...no one but myself 18.35111? be
utterly averse my whole mind. and nature are for the explozmentJBO

Jone Eyre expected to be treated colrily and stifi'ly. The tutor
in Shirley was treated with dignity, but not drawn into the circle. He

occupied as humble position, labeled as "servilo."31 The position of

 

”3 mommy. W. p. 91.
29 merger“ Lane, ghe Bronte" §tgg . pp. 135, 150.

3° wands soft. WW. 1» 157.
31 Charlotte Bronte, W. p. 367.

54

teacher or caveman: was called “going into service” in fiho Min 93, 113!
11933.32 aebecoa sharp, perhapsfiosentod this eel-vile position more
than any other heroine. She complained. that for two years she suffer“!
insults and outrage no on articlod pupil in the young: lsfiice' acacia-m
she attended, only to faces the hog-d lot of a governess whore “I suppose
I shall be treated moot contemptuously. Still, I must born: 21:: hard lot.
as well as I can} In taro-run: tho contempt in which :- -e ems: held} Ro-
bcccn said the ”was diatominogi to who myself are viola—is it not a.
poor aovomcss's duty?" And rod-min she says, ”He poor {:cvomossos are
used to slighto of this torn”:3 _
This oontcxrrpt was not imr-xfinoci on Rebecca's zort, for governess“
worn objects of scorn from both ends of the social scale. In 1m
2m, one yomxg mm says, ”Hang it, the: family's low enough already,
without 233;. .A governess is all Very well, but 1'8. rather have a lady

" The housekeeper at

for my siotcginolav...Let her know her station.
Amelia): remarks. '1 don't trust them governess”; they're neither one
thing nor t‘other. they give themselves tho hairs and hupntarts of
ladies, and their wages are no better than you and. 1119.0“

Although port of the discontent of the novomeoses came from
their position in the household, much of it ome- from the inoorrigibil;
ity of their charges. to the boys delighted in permeating their tu-
torn, so the girls thought the govomeooos should be goody-natured in

tho face of all sorts of inpwlent behavior. The your; toaclmr was at

4—;

32 Eliot, er rt 1 o the mo ’, p. 15.

33 mummy. Mm t". ~ . pp :23. 79. 111». 157-
3“ mg” pp. 73, 76.

55

the mercy of the children. Bullied and tensed. she often was not phys-
ically equal to the task of smearing than, as witness Anne Bronte, who
describes the children's outrageous behavior in 5421933355 In {3:1—
£23930 Iron}: Clavering kicked his governess's shine so fl orooly thnt
he completely ovomaetered her. Here often than not the employers did
not want their children Finished or forced. and failed to support the
governess in her efforts to get better response to lessons, as well as
better behavior. G-ovemeeoee were ordered to walk behind their charges
a few paces, were sent from the dinner table Grid-E, were sent on menial
errands, and were dismissed if their charges capriciously became tired
of their-loosens. With all the )mrrlships'nttendant to this profession,
it is small wonder that the question yes asked in Elicholag Hidrlebz of
an orgh'm about to be ofiwfvronticod as n. teacher: "You hove not been
brought up too delicate1y_ for that, } hopot...}’ou must try it and if
the life is too hard perhaps dresgémgidmt or tremor-Ivor}: will come
lighten'36 Elizwjielgfirotford says. ”If a wife left her ims‘o-md, it
was seemed that this could only be with e blzclqgm-mri of _he deejeot
dye...v‘ao would shortly obofidonhefi pennilose, to the Thames or the
schoolmomJj? However, a few happy govomosooo are on record. M,
who won the children's love and respect and who we invited to Join the
family circle occasionally, in one of the rare ormplem

To be able to fill the position of a governess one needed to be

A‘ ‘4‘

35 Vanda Hoff, WW. '9. 169.

36 Dickens, Eggnog}: Hicgshlgggz, p. 33.

37 Time Wingfield-Stmtford, flags meme.“ Victgrggm. p. 163.

38 Elizabeth Gaakoll, m, Oxford University Press, London, 1906, p. 111.

u —- -v

[I

qualified to teach :1. variety of 311-. iocto. The 3133.33 of schools mte

letters of rccomeniation which 11 stofi. more 3900 111333113123 than an en-
:oloyer 113d .11 ri.:7§1t to expect. $116171 iotto: :1. '3333 11:12: orton wrote to
roco~1mond 2:.(3‘aocco. Sharp. 1:111 servo no or. «3:111:10: _

Either of t? ago two you; * 113.1113 13 warfootly (41139113331

to instruct in Greek, Latin, and. the rudiments of Hebrew;
in mathematics and history; in Spanish, French, Italian,“
and geography: in music, vocal and instrumental: in dame.-
1213 without the aid of o. nostor; mt in the oloocnts of
natural sciences. In the use of the globes both are pro-
flaianto
The additional i:.1forr:13tion is given that one (girl also I-mowo tho S rigsc
Immune and. the o1 on auto of constitution: -.1 1114, but no she is only 9151:.»
teen and of pleasing opjooomanco, 3132113319 she would be objectionable. It
in 611-3536333694 that olaer ones, pitted with mollpox, mm? be more accept-
31:10.39
In addition to the schoolroom activities, those young {girls of-
ten had to tot-re £1111 chore of__t‘no fo 313.1; ’1(3€r19‘:!0"‘3 sowing; far into
the ni.<-21t. SW71]. vomior th'1to.Co-.re:rnoss:(~3? Bonevolont 23.53. «sci :13t.. on was
formed, lorrely r13 :1 remit of tho 3'3. otor inn novels $2.115.ch5 (1:7-
eorinc in ”9:13.021 and. otho'o marine}. (:.-:113 to offer; oom- security for those
unfortunrto middlo—clnog woman.
The entire system 113152.111: .3631 these men 3110. women womod to 111--

struct tho :ro1~.t11 of England was unfort'tmz:.to both for them am}. for their

charge a .

 

39 whammy. W. p. 111.

CW‘I‘ER II

THE "“ .301” 0;? mUCATION 021' THE VICTORIAN ITOVLIL

The extension of education to the lower classes resulted in a.
wider reading yublic and :9. growing demand for reading material. There
was 11 greater interest in newopxpcrs, magazines, and novels. Hatthev
Arnold stated in 188 , ”The influence of poetry and literature appear:
at this moment diminishing rather than increasing. The newqwnpere
have e good deal to do a with this. The ling...“ a world, nndpoople
who read it daily hardly feel the necessity for rending; o. book....But
literature hae in itself such powers of attraction that I am not ever
nnxiouo about it.“ That he (no not need to be anxious about e a.- .
oline in reading, especially of the novel, has been amply demonstrat-
ed eince 1884. In fact, all thmugh the Victorian era the growing
literacy of the English people had unlocked the door: of the well-
Itecked librarian in the big houeee of the eighteenth century. Reade
ing, eepocinlly aloud, one much in favor.2

Thin widened audience included the middle and lower clones of
people who were not educated well enough to cape with complicated na-
teriol filled with cleeeical reference: and preeented in on intricnte
form. Therefore, while interest in poetry and other literary form
night he diminishing, the demand for simple novels which all could un-

derstand was increasing. This 110311119: demand necessarily lowered

 

1 Leonard Huxley, e6... ho Educ. Ch '6: re he 1"

' W, Smith, Elder and 00., London, 1912, p.250.
‘ 3m. WingfiemnStratford. W. p- 292-

literery etenderde.3

Although thie growing public demanded less sophisticated thence
and treatment, they denuded e higher moral tone. Quinlan eaye thie
wee on ore of advance in decency, religion and education, and on ore.
of decline in drunkenneee, profanity and vulgarity.“ In an effort to
edhere to the demande of a moral, virtuone peeple, with when appear-
eneee weighed heavily, writere and publishere alike strove to keep in
line with Victorian convention. One of the requiremente cat by the
Victorian reader wee that the good met flourish while the wicked perk;
iehed. 'Vritere of fiction...flew in the face of experience and nor-
elity by contriving that virtue ehould be rewarded and vice puniehed.'5

Pei-hope no other novel corld meet the demands of__the_ Victorian
audience better than W. Hritten in eimple lam—urge, about
plain, country people, it presents as unsophisticated e theme and plot
ee we are likely to encounter. Free tron classical allueione which
night henper reading cloud in the fenily circle, it note with force-
fulneee the demnd that good met win over evil. Dunetan and Holly
Ferrel: meet their Just fates; Godfrey ie punished in proportion as he
hue done wrong; even the eid Squire not be deprived of mdchildren
n e. punish-out for hie negligence in rearing hie om cone. 0n the
ether hand, Bilee end Eppie eehieve pure happineee. Finally, Dolly
Vinthrep ie there to voice the eiople philoeophy which could guide the
Y iotorien to final happiness. Simple and unaffected. thie novel, ee-

elcimed by many ee George Eliot'e beet, was pleasing to the average

 

3 Maurice J. Quinlnn,.-Iigtg;1g,r, upgpme, Columbia University Press, New
tork..191n, pp. 253-280.

“94.4..

5 meme Whitfield-S ratford, @ngEpprnest Yicqtorione, p. 58.

59

Victorian, whose Judgment of its value is often upheld by modern readers
and critics.

The Victorian mind responded favorably to direct appeals to the
emotions, and the novels, especially those of Dickens, made use of the
emotional approach. Such sentimental scenes as the meeting of Imcie
end her father or the death of Lucie'e son in W are
likely to Jar on the mdern render. But we remember that Dickens hin-
eelf was s. very «notional man and that apparently he was writing for
en enotionploving public. That hie method was successful is attested
by the extreme popularity of his novels and hie readings, and there is
no knowing how great hie influence was in effecting the referee he sought.
Aw Cruse tells us that many abuses were reformed end thgt much of this,
was due to the influence of books. Dickens' public was an enormousene.
He was pepulnr with all classes and his hooke'brourht them together. _.
People were no longer in two classes by the 980% ‘The spread of edu-
cation and establishment of free libraries had ends as difference in their
reading habits. _The relation between the Rich and the Poor had entored
on as new phnee.'6

Ii‘his dawning consciousness and deepening concern for the social
evils of the time gave rise to the problem novels or novels of purpose,
and these 'teosne prominent and popular. It is 311311 Walker's opinion
that “questions between capitol end labour, the evils of the workshop
and the factory, the sins of trade unions and horrors of interpersnce,

when they become the motive of the novels, are apt to beget characters

‘ w Cruse. WW 1». 150.

60

which are rather the incarnation of intenperence...than simple human
beings. And on for the objection to the novel of purpose is fully
Justified.” Tron so: nrti etic sense he may be right, but the novel of
purpose made its no: and. Justified its existence in Victorian England.
novelists pointed 11-3..th conditions which all know to be present, and
what Edgar Johnson awe of Dickens rm: Tossibly be said of others of
the Victorians: ”Dickens never claimed, in fact, to be a. pioneer who
ferreted out hidden evils. The abuses he expo sod had been heard of by
thousands. It was part of his' strength that what he told his renders
they already knew to be true.“8 he Diokene' readere were legion, we
can rightly conclude that his books and those of other Victorian novel-
iste did influence profoundly the ego of reform in England.

One other effect on the novel of the new: social attitude met
be noted. ‘i‘hnt ie the use of realism in theme, in setting, in dialogue,
and in character. Heroes were such people as poor “more, ordinary
factory owners and workout, or school teachere-u-the commonplace pereon
rather than the lord of the manor. 0! all those characters, one etende
out no a. distinct new type of heroine-Aha governess. She appeare fre-
quently in the Victorian novel because she could be presented as of
genteel backgromzd; she could be depicted as oypressod by her employers,
her pupils, and the solvents in the home. Often ehe was insulted,
olightod, mode miserable. 3111; love could come to her; she could. even
marry her employer and be nieed to the aristocracy. Such a romantic

figure could not be overlooked in the emotional ntmOSphere of the novel;

7 M mm, W. p. 957.
8 Edgar Jehneon, W, Vol. I, p. 291.

61

and how oaaily she fitted into the formula of virtue rewarded!

Often real governesoeo turned author and used their pong to do-
noribo the lot of these Victorian working women. Examples are Anna
Bronte, Aggog Ggoz; Lady Bloosington, r32 ggvegggsq; Mrs. Janogon, eo-
oaye on governosoeo and other working women; and Charlotte Bronte, £333,
Efififib The last-named did tho most toward ndking the governess an inn
telligent horoino, creatina a woman of dignity and force. "Tho result
of the woolth.of literary material concerning the governess between .
1332 and 1850 was a wider interest in all classes of working women...
That lébour should‘bo no disgrace was the final accofiplishment of the
governess in literature."9

By way of conclusion, we may say then, that these were the of-
tootc of the new education on tho Victorian novel: a wiaer reading
public composed of peeplo of siMpler tastes who demanded loss OOphii- ,
ticated writing: somewhat lower literary atandaréa; higher floral stanfil

ards; inclusion of realistic presentation of nocial problems; and the

introduction of a new type of hero and heroine.

 

9 mum Herr,

 

CFJxPTIIR X

COXCLUSIOK

Of all the Englishmen who helped to crystallize educational idea:
the two who probably contributed the most wcro John Locke and Matthew
Arnold. Locke was termed, by Thomas. P. Hcill, the seventeenth century
Angelo Patri,1 whose advanced Opinions in the field of educational
theory and method arc still among the objectives aimed at, rather than
achieved, by educational refomero.2 Locke‘s; purpose who tho individ-
ual education of n gentlcm'c con, not the formation of a school eye-

ton, but Son-e Thoughts Concerning Education, published in 1592, is a

 

landmark along the road of educational prom-lac. 3-htthow Arnold applied
mom of Locke's ideas for the training of the individual to the educa-
tion of the group.

Arnold, no the insycctor of English schools and the investigator
of educational systems on the continent, was a critic of educational
ideas and methods who could appreciate the boot in them while amassing
their defects. His voice deserved to be heard more tlmn arr; other in
nineteenth century Enclmd, and yet he long; regarded himself no one
crying in tho vildornoec.

Yet in the course of years his voice ins made itself

heard more widely than the voice of many another who

wrote on education. In him was something: of tho proph-
ct...Ho saw popular education develop in mzmr wys

‘._ _‘.

w...

1 Thoma P. Noill, W Bruce Publishing 00., Mil-
VBUkGO. 1949. Ch. v0

2 Charles H. Eliot, , o h S nt d E
Qogtggiog, Tho Harvard Classics, Vol. 37, introductory note, p. it.

63

during his lifetime, not nlwgrs on the lines he desired;

but while various practical details which he advocated

in the subjects and mamas of teaching have been left

aside, the larger ideals at which he would have educa-

tion sin have constantly shaped the developments of pop-

ular education during the years that have mssed since

his desthJ

In general, these ideals were the some as those expressed by t he
novelists of the period. Arnold pleaded for: a general raising of the
education level of the people as a. whole; the lifting of the culture of
the teacher, and the inprovement of the teacher's situation, both so to
paynent for services and so to position in the commity; the develop-
ment of character by means of disciplinary training: and exposure to the
finest thoughts of the arse, especially as expressed in good poetry;
teaching a pupil ideas and ideals, not merely information; and follow-
ing s gradual, natural method of teaching so that pupils might learn
with ease and hairpins”. Merv of these ideas are reminiscent of Locke,
and nest of them find more than one chmion moons: the Victories: novel-
lflt.e

If we look for a preponent of the idea that the, educational lev-
el of all the pearls? should be lifted ”we my site Disraeli, as he en—
pressee the horrors of beloncime: to the lowest class; Kingsley, as he
shows Alton locks struggling to get an education; or Dickens, especially

in it

 

If we seek one who advocates lifting the culture of the teacher
and of holding him in better esteem so that he use have s. more profound
influence over his charges ve my name Charlotte Bronte, whose contin-

ental teachers did enjoy a better position t!" can did the teachers in

 

3 Leonard Huxley, «1., E C e t
W, Introduction, pp. v, vi.

61+

England; Thackeray, whose clever, \mmoral Becky Sharp strwglod deepen-
atoly to rise in society: and Dick-ens, who sfimcntos a wholesale house-
cleaning: of small-minded, 1mmdtured teachers.

If we consiicr character devolof‘wcnt thrombi}: careful Ci sciplinc,
we think of the kincl, thomjhtful teacher of Jone 3-1370 at Loucccl; the
rcntls pmisl—mcnt of Syria in gi;~...r,, .‘Trrrxg; the clog-cl sermons 3,215 31'1-
vste tall-ts which influenced 'i‘om Dram; thcunclorstrmding mar-tor who
dealt out Just punishment to Stalk; and Co. Conversely, we have the atm—
Just punislmsnt meted out to Davis. Cepterfiold and to the schoolboy:
in Nigholgg Rigzglg‘oz, with its accomrargring ill effects.

Some of these same enamelss urhold the idea that children shou :3.

t
L

'\

be happy while they are learning. Jane byre's pujil, David at his second
school, the children in Charlotte Bronte's Brussels schools, Ruth's 1m.-
pils, the older girl who studiecl under Becky Sharp's mtpervisiom—sll
these progressed faster under hrq‘py circumstances than Dickens' many
characters did under adverse conditions.

lbs Victoria“! novelists held the develo::zent of clmracter to be
more important than the accuzrrulntion of information. Hr. arse-{rind came
to see the fallacy of placing too much emplmsis on more statistics in
11g 9, 21.2- gg. lbs loci: of character in I’endcnnis is the result of a mother's
adulation. Richard Fovsrel's weolmccs is the result of}. father's syn...
tea which did. not allow for the natural development of a boy, which via;
lated nature and natural impulses.

Locke's four objectives of education were, in this order, virtue,
wisdom, good breeding, and learning. .‘Iearly two hundred years later

Matthew Arnold gave the sin of concation as follows:

What a man seeks throurh his educ:.-.tion is to (rat to
know himself and the world; next, that for this knowledge

65

it is before all things necessary that he acquaint him elf
with.tho'best which hns'besn thought and said in the world;
finally, that of this host the classics of Greece and Rome
form n very chief portion, and the portion most entirely
satisfactory. with these conclusions lodged safe in one'c
mind, one is staunch on the tide of the humanities.

The Victorian novelists, too, were "staunch on the siéc of human-
itios,“ and thoir thinking, as revealed in the novels of the porioa, is

found also in the best educational philosoPhy'of the twentieth century.

1% {Elfin P0 2&3.

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York, 92 o

 

3".9111, T102293 P., 3:22:03; of tizov??cvilvcrn TEini. Bruce I'Lfblicfizm co., 3311-
Wilkes, 19130,

Pal-2102:, Edwin ‘21., mgrongonturo, Gin. n.- and Co., Boston, 1932.

(2311211211,! imricc 3., Victorian! £122.33, Columbia U21 varsity Press, Rm:
v .4.- 1 '2)1
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Rcuth, H .V., 22712222" ndor Victorig. Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York,
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own '7‘ ntio } Pentax-.2, Mac: aillnn Co., 1'ch York, 1937.

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, Ea'illiam Morrow and

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1932- - . . - . 2

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300:: IV. 0:1. 2.

11. 1.222271.“ "W“: 22 "

I L!Q‘A“. {Add

Brontt'a', Clisrlotto,~."1-.irlcv, 922.122.521.22: onri Co., 2.02.52.22.11:

V l’ctt£,31:olow, rmrn and. Co., 116... Tori-z, 21.6..
457:24‘0-9012, 31.2; 9102:, 2‘20 .121 anti Co., $2.92.: York, n.d.
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Eronto, Baily , 33’: t’rrri 2.." Roi}? tg, 3:2me3 House, 13:22.: York, 19123.
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Knopf, New York, 1947,01» V and VI.
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gm: 2p og, Oxfo. '20. University Press, London, 19214..
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The. I’Ars' no Dav . , Dodd, Mood am}.
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Gaol-.oll, 33.1 robot}: 0..“ Ruth, Oxford 17221722222521? li’goor, London, 1906.

Hurhc s , Thomas ,

 

, Macmilln. ..22.d Co. , London,1380.

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£1,151.23, CEL--...2..os, .2112: ..-C2c.'.""."-1101‘ r2222. .-.-ot.. Macmillan om. Co., 115.,

“nag“, 19110
Kipling, Rudyard, W, 012.22.21os Scri'hrter'o Sons, Ifew York, 1913.

Meredith. 0002:5262. 211.2. Ordealg 31107-222326 omnrcl, Charles scribnor'a Sons,

1792;: Yo r1: , 1“,»... ,

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111.22. 121212;, Killian. 21935622295238, Voglt-LLFnir, 308.5, 3302.6. .32.“... Co., I’ew York,

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2119 3!. atom: Q; [ogfimgggim Macmillan and Co., London, 1930.
TrolloPa, fmt‘ao 13', Crlez 1’15]. ', klfred A. 1310,2213, 370w York, 1950.

 

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