HOUSEHOL b y Lucila Charneco LIBRARY . Michigan State 1 University " "‘~"-"‘--~ 1"- “? _‘°::-:-:_../ ”1“ ._ fi..--» &"/‘Ti"\‘I 0"\“F‘ I‘IHH' ‘ 1 . I .I ‘1 . '._ . '.’ . . '... r "; ‘T’f'T-IY mormmmq \ Imam s'rm. 61,33.ng rm mama mama” PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 6/01 c lClRC/DateDuep65-p 15 HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT by Lucila G. Charneco A PROBLEM Submitted to the College of Home Economics of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Home Management 1957 ABSTRACT OF HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT by Lucila G. Charneco l. INTRODUCTION--Purpose of this problem 1. Background of Puerto Rico 2. Need 3. Economic point of view U. For whom 11. MATERIALS USED IN HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT .A. Kinds l..Aluminum (cast and rolled sheet) . Cast iron and steel Stainless steel Tin Glass Porcelain enamelware Plastics \TOUIJZ’LAN B. Care of Kitchen Utensils ..Aluminum Cast iron and steel Stainless steel (copper) Tin . Glass Porcelain enamelware Plastics Novi-F‘wmt-d III. SMALL KITCHEN EQUIPMENT A. General 1. Purpose of selecting certain items for discussion B. Small Non-Electric Equipment 1. Pots and pans 2. Knives 3. Beaters C. Small Electric Equipment 1. Toasters 2. Coffee makers 3. Food mixers ii IV. RANGES A. History of Cooking Stoves B. Construction Features Sizes Finishes . Ovens--handles Broiler units . Buying points for ranges \nF—‘CNNH C. Gas Ranges 1. Types, surface, and burners D. Electric Ranges 1. Types of heating units 2. Care of electric ranges V. REFRIGERATION A. Refrigerators 1. Types a. Conventional b. Combination refrigerator 2. Parts a. Compressor b. Condenser c. Evaporator d. Gas refrigerator-absorber 3. Points to consider in buying a refrigerator Cabinet Door Evaporator Shelves . Accessories . Special features rage of food in refrigerator Frozen Unfrozen Butter and cheese Milk and cream . Vegetables Leftovers Leafy and green vegetables of refrigerator Installation Defrosting Cleaning Servicing u. St (0 0 \JT 0 m QOUwfiOWNQOU‘mOWNQOU‘m iii B. Home Freezers l. Types--chest and upright 2. Selection of a freezer Cabinet . Doors and door seals Controls Temperature Insulation Shelves and baskets Freezer signals . Special features . Guarantee and service 3. Use and care of the home freezer HD‘COHJNQJOCTQJ VI. SINKS .A. Types, Sizes, Materials B. Dishwasters 1. Selection Type of opening Type of control Cycle of the machine Machine tub Dish racks Detergent dispenser . Drying efficiency 2. Care of dishwashers 3. Cost of operating dishwashers a. Water consumption b. Electricity c. Installation costs WQLLOD’D) (Q C. Food Waste Disposers 1. Types a. Continuous feed b. Safety factor of locked lid 2. Points in selecting a food waste disposer 3 Care and use of the food waste disposer v11 .' LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT A” Washing Machines 1. Types a. Conventional b. Automatic c. Combination washer and dryer 2. Points to consider in selecting a washing machine iv . Mechanism Finishes . Wringer Controls Water consumption 3. Care and use of washer CLOUQJ (D B. Dryer 1. Types 2. Points to consider when buying a dryer a. Finish b. Door 0. Lint trap d. Special features . e. Safety devices 3. Care and Use of Dryers C. Irons and Ironing Boards 1. Types of Irons a. Steam iron (broiler and drip type) b. Dry iron 2. Points to consider when buying an iron a. Weight b. Wattage c. Special features 3. Ironing boards a. New features D. Ironers 1. Types a. Both ends open b. One end open 2. Points to consider when buying an ironer a. Cabinet b. Size Roll or buck Shoe Controls Safety features H160 an E. Water Heaters 1. Types a. Gas heaters b. Electric heaters 2. Consider the following points when buying a. Size b. Operating costs c. Outside finish Storage tank Insulation . Clean out faucet 9. Safety valve WOC); VIII. FLOOR PLAN FOR WORK AREAS .A. Kitchen 1. Work centers a. Food storage and preparation b. Food cooking and serving c. Cleaning d. Planning center Shape and size of kitchen . Clearance spaces . Utilities a. Gas service b. Electric service (i) adequate wiring (2) electric outlets c. Plumbing 5. Other considerations a. Hot water b. Proper lighting c..Adequate wiring d. Ventilation F'CJN B. The Laundry Room 1. Location 2. Layout a. Preparation center b. Washing center c. Drying center d. Finishing center PART I INTRODUCTION On November 19, lu93, Christopher Columbus discovered Puerto Rico. The settlement of the island began in 1508. Because of the frequent attacks by the Spaniards, French and Dutch, Puerto Rico's economic development during the first three centuries was very slow. Today, the population of the island is about twozuuia quarter million people. .Quite recently the government began an intensive promotion of industrial enterprises. Desirable patterns of living have been created and the general standard of family living has been improved. The present trend in medium and high income level families is toward greater mech- anization in the homes. Among these families ranges both gas and electric, radios, electric washing machines, refrigerators and vacuum cleaners are common. To a lesser extent the low income level family is also buying electric appliances. Recently, municipal, insular and federaliihousing proj- ects have relocated more than thirty thousand families from slum environment. In.the past ten years about forty thousand *Federal implies that the United States government provides assistance. dwellings have been built and more than twenty thousand homes are now under construction. These are being furnished with modern ranges, refrigerators, kitchen cabinets and sinks. The lackcfl‘mineralenuifuel resources and the country's tardy entry on the industrial scene means that Puerto Rico will probably never become as highly industralized as some other countries. It will continue to depend for manufactured goods on those imported from other countries, especially the United States. About six—hundred million dollars worth of goods are imported annually, of which more than ten million dollars are spent on electrical appliances. The cost of equipment in Puerto Rico is higher than in the United States due to the cost of transportation and han- dling. There is a tendency for the people to buy equipment on the installment plan. This makes the costs even higher. The interest charged is sometimes extremely high because the interest rates are not regulated by law. .A study is now being made by the Puerto Rican government to investigate this matter. This study will serve as a basis for installment buying legis- lation. The purpose of this pamphlet is to provide reference material on Household Equipment for Home Economics teachers in Puerto Rico. The overpopulation in Puerto Rico and the struggle of raising the standards of living are the main factors that have contributed to an increasing need for knowl- edge about household equipment. Household equipment is taught in the schools not as a course by itself but as part of the instruction given.hiother areas of home economics. The new trends in the culture are demonstrating the need of giving more emphasis to the teaching of household equipment. Therefore, the Puerto Rican Department of Education is recommending special training in this field for teachers. Puerto Rican families need assistance in making a wiser selection of equipment; they need better information about the correct use and care of household equipment. The author wishes to express her sincere appreciation to Dr. Irma H. Gross, Evelyn A. Zwemer and to the Office of the Personnel of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, for their contribution in the preparation of this pamphlet. References Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Washington 8, D. C., October 3T, lQSu. Puerto Rico Economic Development Administration, Facts for Businessmen, San Juan, Puerto Rico, March, 19SH. PART II MATERIALS USED IN HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT Kinds .Among the most frequently used materials for cooking utensils are aluminum, porcelain enamelware, glass and stain— less steel. There is no one best material. Each one has advantages and disadvantages but cooking utensils should be constructed from materials which heat quickly, retain heat well and distribute heat evenly over the entire surface. .Aluminum is suited for many types of cooking utensils and is the most widely used in Puerto Rico. It is especially desirable for surface cooking. Whether castcn‘sheet,aiuminum distributes heat evenly. Sheet aluminum is made in different thicknesses or gauges. Pans which are made from medium to heavy gauge are very durable. Utensils of very light weight are cheaper, but too fragile to stand up under daily use. Thin metals are satisfactory for pans that are used occasionally. For oven- ware, lighter gauge aluminum may be used, but for topcfi‘range pans we need medium or heavy gauge. Cast aluminum is heavier than sheet aluminum used in pans. It is rigid, does not warp, is very durable and in good quality resists pitting. It.isrmn;often used for baking pans. 5 Brightly polished aluminum ovenware reflects heat so that food browns very lightly. Unpolished or dull-finished aluminum absorbs heat better and produces browner crust. Aluminum is suitable for all types of top-of-range and oven cookery and for many gadgets. It does not rust or chip, is light in weight and is moderate in cost. Since it is a good conductor of heat foods do not quickly scorch. .Aluminum is discolored readily by alkalies in foods, boiling water and soaps. It is easily brightened with weak acids, such as di— luted vinegar, sour milk or fruit acids. There is evidence that the darkening of aluminum has no harmful effect on foods and cooking in aluminum has no harmful effect on health. Do not leave salty foods or liquids standing in aluminum uten- sils; that may cause pitting of the metal. Cast iron is an old favorite material for frying pans and Dutch ovens. It heats slowly but quite evenly. In large pans it is heavy to handle. Cast iron improves with use be- cause fat fills the pores making food less likely to stick and the pan less likely to rust. Some cast iron utensils come seasoned, ready to use; if seasoned, a utensil will be so labeled. Others need to be rubbed with unsalted fat and heated in a warm oven for several hours before using. The weight, color and hot handles are the disadvantages of cast iron utensils. Stainless steel is one of the newer materials. Stain- less steel (a steel alloy) is still rather expensive but practically indestructible. A utensil made entirely of stain— less steel tends to become too hot in spots, so the heat must be kept low to prevent burning of food in top—of—range pans. To improve evenness of heating, copper or aluminum is often applied to the undersurface, or a special heat distributing core is used between two thin sheets of the steel. Overheating turns stainless steel dark in spots. This darkening is permanent, but will not impair the usefulness of the utensil. Overheating also causes warping of the bottom of the pan. Copper is an excellent conductor of heat, but it is seldom used by itself in utensils, because it is harmful to cook food in copper unless it is lined with tin. Tinware is used for measuring and mixing utensils and baking pans. Tinware is steel or iron coated with tin. It is not suitable for top-of—range use. Cheap grades of tinware may have pin-point holes in the coating that cannot be seen until rust appears at these spots. When bright and new, tinware reflects oven heat, brown- ing food lightly. With use, the tinware darkens, and browns food better. Tinware is light in weight and often has a pressed-in, rippled or honeycomb pattern which helps the pan resist warping. Glass is transparent, comparatively easy to clean, in- expensive and it holds heat well. .It breaks easily, however, due to slow heat conduction. Even with heat resistant glass for top-of-range cooking, if there is a sudden change of tem- perature or if the utensil boils dry the glass breaks. Care must be taken to see that the outside surface is dry before putting it over direct heat. Oven glassware should not be used for top-of-range cooking. The advantage of glass for surface use is its transparency. Porcelain enamelware is a glass-like substance fused on top of a steel base by firing at high temperatures. It is smooth and non-porous, easylxnclean until burned food destroys the glass-like surface. Better porcelain enamelware is resist— ant to acids and not so readily marked by metal spoons as the lower grade ware. It is also more resistant to chipping. Quality of porcelain enamelware depends on the number of coats of enamel and the thickness of the base material. Dark blue or gray utensils are often made with a single coat of enamel. Utensils of other colors or white usually have a dark base coat and two or more coats of the surface color, each fired separately. Porcelain enamelware isused for saucepans, kettles and such utensils as mixing bowls. Except for covered roasters, enamelware is not often used for ovenware. For baking pans it gives a high degree of browning. Porcelain enamelware is used for searing meats and frying when it has an especially heavy metal base. Plastics are products of the chemical industry. They contain some of the basic organic elements——carbon, oxygen, hydrogen or nitrogen. At some stage of their processing all plastics are soft and malleable, that is, "plastic,” hence the name. Plastics are formed into building materials or household equipment either by heat or pressure or both. .All plastics are either thermoplastic or thermosetting; within these two major groups are many kinds of plastics just as there are many species within softwood and hardwood lumber. Thermoplastics are the plastics that can be softenedlnlreheat— ing and then reshaped. The temperature at which thermoplastic softens varies within a wide range. Many soften before they reach the boiling point of water (212°F.), a few at a temper- ature as low as 120°F. Like rubber, thermoplastic materials in being reprocessed tend to deteriorate slightly with each reprocessing. Thermosetting plastics become hard, rigid and they cannot be reshaped by heating. Most thermosetting mate- rials withstand heat greater than the boiling point of water (212°F.); some can withstand heat up to the chan point of wood. Care of Kitchen Utensils The first step toward good care of kitchen utensils is to avoid letting any cooking utensils become over—heated with- out food in it. The second step is to prevent food from scorch- ing. Many cooking utensils are easily washed Lfthey'are cared for immediately after use. When this is impossible the soiled utensils should be soaked until they can be washed. When IO utensils have been used for egg mixtures, use cold water for soaking. Soak them in hot water when they have been used for syrupy or for fat mixtures. Wash aluminum utensils in hot, sudsy water, then rub inside and out with steel wool, acid-soap-impregnated scour- ing pads; wash a second time, rinse and dry. If aluminum is discolored, by alkali-food or water, use a proportion of one quart of water and two tablespoons of cream of tartar, put into the utensil and simmer for ten minutes. .An acid food (like tomatoes) cooked in a discolored pan is also effective as far as the mixture reaches in removing discoloration. Wash cast iron utensils in soapy water, rinse well and dry thoroughly to prevent rust. They can also be cleaned with a solution of baking soda and water. Remove burned-on food particles by rubbing with metallic, plastic or rubber cleaning padscn~balls. Stainless steel utensils require little care because of their hard surface. Washing with ordinary soap and water and occasional cleaning with a good scouring powder is recommended. Always wash tinware and dry it well immediately after using. Do not scour or scrape it with sharp tools; such clean- ing methods may cause breaks in the tin coating and the metal base will rust. To clean glass utensils if food scorches or sticks, soak the cooled dish in a detergent or baking soda solution (use three tablespoons of soda to one quart of water) then ll wash as usual. If hard water leaves a whitish mineral depos— it, fill the dish nearly full of water and add two tablespoons of vinegar per quart of water and boil for ten minutes. Porcelain enamelware should be handled with care and should not be subjected to sudden changes of temperature. lee only low or moderate heat when cooking with porcelain enamel- ware utensils. .A wooden spooncn‘fork rather than a metal one should always be used for stirring food cooked in vessels of porcelain enamelware material to lessen the dangercfi‘chipping. Washing in soap suds and water isthe best treatment for clean- ing porcelain enamelware. It has a natural shine which is easily restored after just such washing. When the glass like surface has been destroyed or scratched, then porcelain enam— elware stains very easily and, therefore, one should never use metallic pads on porcelain enamelware. There is a special process that makes porcelain enam- elware acid resistance but it is expensive. Porcelain enam- elware stains quite readily. Should there be a stain in the coffee pot or other utensils, rub it with a paste of baking soda and water. Plastics are cleaned very easily with soap and water. Temperature of water for washing and rinsing should always be warm and never hot. Plastics should not be exposed to excessive heat because they may be destroyed or damaged. 12 References 1. Feet, L. J., and Thye, L. S. Household Equipment. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1955. 2. Practical Home Economics, Vol. XXXII, No. D (February, 1951].) . . PART III SMALL KITCHEN EQUIPMENT In selecting small kitchen equipment one should con- sider the material of which it is made, its construction, its efficiency, its care and its price in relation to all these factors. There are a great many kinds of small kitchen equip- ment. Therefore, only those kinds which need special atten— tion in Puerto Rico will be discussed. Small Non-Electric Equipment Pots and Pans. .A saucepan is a pan with a long handle and is usually made in capacities of four quarts or less. It has "U" shaped handles placed at either side and varies in size from one quart to twenty quarts. .A kettle is a pan with a bail handle. It is designed to hold bulky food, or large quantities as for canning or pre— serving. .A pan should absorb heat well to make maximum use of the heat provided. This property is affected by the shape of the pan and the material from which it is made. Flat-bottom pans are very necessary on ranges where heat is absorbed principally through contact as on the electric or coal ranges. 13 m Similarly, the size of the bottom of the pan should cover the entire surface of the burner of the range. The pan should heat the contents quickly, by conducting and distributing heat well. .Aluminum heats quickly and conducts heat well. Porce- lain enamelware heats rapidly and holds heat well but unless it has a heavy steel base, heat is conducted unevenly; this results in hot spots on the bottom of the pan. Iron, while it heats slowly, cooks evenly and holds heat well. Stainless steel absorbs heat slowly and conducts it unevenly, but many people feel that its other characteristics make it a desirable material for cooking utensils. If stainless steel is clad with other metals which are excellent heat conductors, such as copper or aluminum so as to combine their best features in one utensil, the hot spots develop more slowly. Flame-proof glass utensils for surface cookery heat quickly and cool slowly. This means that foods continue to cook after the utensil has been removed from the heat. A special convenience of glass utensils is their transparency which permits one to see the depth of the liquid and the prog- ress being made without removing the lid. Ceramic ware heats slowly, conducts heat evenly and retains it a long the. This characteristic is desirable for casserole dishes. Pans should produce satisfactory products. Becauyethe aesthetic value of food is important, the product should not be discolored in cooking. Foods which are easily scorched 15 should be prepared in pans conducting heat evenly, or if it is especially delicate, should be prepared in a double boiler. Flavor should not be altered by contact with the material of the utensil. Utensils should be easy to use. They should have good balance and proper weight so that they stand firmly on the range either full or empty, with or without lids and be easy to manipulate when filled. The design of the utensil should make it easy to stir or blend contents. Spouts for pouring from either side of the pan are convenient. Handles should be of a smooth material and finish and should not absorb heat. They should be comfortable to hold and well balanced. Some are especially designed with inden- tation for finger and thumb. The angle of the handle fasten- ing may make a difference in case of lifting and pouring. The length of the handle is important. It may get too hot if it is too short or if too long the utensil might be knocked off the range. Bail handles should have a positive lock on the upright position. A wooden or composition grip on a metal bail is convenient. Lids should fit properly. Those which are made to direct steam condensation back into the pan are most satis- factory as the steam retained within the utensil will hasten the cooking process. Pans should be selected according to their uses. Many are designed for multi-purpose use--as a measure, a mixing 16 bowl, an oven dish, or oven dish which is also used as a serving dish. Most manufacturers make pans of one, one and a half, two, three, four, and six quart capacities. .A few pans have measuring gauge markings. These should be easy to read and easy to keep clean. The space the pan will require on the range is another point to consider. Pans should be easy to clean and easy to store. A well rounded curve between the sides and bottom simplifies the cleaning. Smooth rims and proper joining of handles to utensil eliminates hard-to-clean crevices. Stainless materi- als reduce polishing and scouring. Many pots and pans can be hung on the wall above the range for a very decorative effect. Some manufacturers are featuring handles with special hanging devices. Knives. The best knives are made of high carbon steel. It is a tough, hard metal, takes a keen edge and holds it. The amount of carbon in the steel is measured in points, one point equaling one-hundreth of one percent. Very fine knives have one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five points of carbon. High carbon steel is not stain or rust proof. Vana- dium steel alloys have hardness for a moderately sharp cutting edge. They may be chrome plated. This makes it stainless as long as the protective plating lasts. Stainless steel is an alloy of steel, nickel and chro- mium. This cutting edge is not as good as that of high carbon steel because part of the carbon has been replaced by chromium, 17 and the reduction of carbon lessens the cutting effectiveness. It appeals to the buyer because it holds a high polish, will not rust and is resistant to stains. Stainless iron is an alloy of chromium and iron and is inferior to steel because of the still lower content of carbon. A mark saying "stainless” may mean only stainless rim. There- fore, one should find out of what metal the blade is made. Stamped blades are cut from uniform metal sheets and tapered along the cutting edge by grinding. This is the most inexpensive method of forming the blade. Beveled blades are formed from a steel bar which is thick in the center and tapers toward each edge. Two blades back to back are cut at the same time. The tapering aids in grinding the blade to a keen edge. Forged blades are the most expensive and the best. .A short bar of high carbon steel is heated and then hammered into rough shape by hammers. Forging develops a fine grain in the steel. The blade tapers from back to cutting edge, like the beveled blade, and also tapers from handle toward the lip of the knife. This combines strength at the handle with flexibility near the point of the blade. Hardening is the process which follows the forming of the blade. The blade is heated to a high temperature and then cooled quickly by plunging into water or oil. Tempering consists of heating the blade to a lower temperature than in hardening and cooling slowly. This 18 process prevents the metal from becoming too brittle. Grinding is often done under water to prevent drawing or destroying the temper. Grinding is the process of thin- ning the edge that is put on the knife. There are four main kinds of ground edges available. .A flat or straight ground cutting edge may be used with forged, beveled or stamped blades. This cutting bevel varies with the purpose for which the knife is used from less than one-sixteenth to one-eighth inch in width. .A hollow ground edge has sides concave like an old- fashioned straight razor. It is the fastest cutting edge and the easiest to keep sharp. It is used on most types of good knives. An imitation ground edge is used on cheaper knives. A.roll ground edge is used on heavy cook knives, cleav- ers and butcher knives where unusual support is required for cutting edge. .A serrated or scalloped edge, as on bread knives, has groups of five ridges running first in one direction and then in the other. To secure a sharpened edge on this kind of knife, it should be returned to the factory for resharpening. The materials in the knife handle should be tough, smooth, and non-absorbent. The fine grain woods, such as ebony, rosewood and beechwood are often used. Painted handles are to be avoided. With plastic handles, the shank is often molded hflxnthe handle by heat and forms a solid piece. These are strong and durable, practically moisture proofzuuiwithout l9 cracks to collect dust. Plastic handles may break if acci- dentally dropped on a hard surface. A.shoulder may protect the joining of the blade to the handle. It is often made in one piece with the blade. .A bolster is a kind of collar cast between blade and handle after they are joined. Ferrule is a collar of pressed sheet metal which is slipped over the end of the handle next to the blade. This is the cheapest method of joining the handle and the blade. The ferrule may lossen and dirt get underneath it. Another factor in the joining of blade and handle is the amount of shank, or tang extending into the handle. When 'Lhe tang runs the entire length of the handle it is called a "full tang." When it extends half way it is called "half 'tang." Generally, full tang is an indication of quality in 23 knife. Large rivets attaching tang and handle are better than small ones. Low priced knives may use a very short tang 'which is secured to the handle only by friction. Kinds of Knives. The paring knife has a sharp pointed blade made two and one-half to three inches long. It gives the best leverage without undue strain on finger muscles. The blade points are of three forms: sharp, spear OF clip POint- The carving knife is used principally on the dining room table but often is needed in the kitchen too. The blade is stiff, thin and about nine inches long. The point 18 long 'fe and thin to assist in getting around bones. A forged kni of high carbon steel is best. 20 The utility knife has a semi-flexible blade and is about five to six inches long. It may have a straight or curved cutting edge. It is used for cutting large vegetables, trimming meat, slicing cold chicken, cleaning fish and for many other kinds of food preparation. It is recommended especially if only one or two knives can be purchased, be- cause it can be used for both paring and slicing. The slicing knife has a long, thin, narrow, flexible blade. It tapers slightly at the point; it is used for slic- ing cold meat, vegetables, bread or cake. The bread knife has a thin, broad, but flexible blade about seven and one—half or eight inches long. It may have a saw-tooth or serrated edge. Hard, high carbon steel is recommended. The butcher knife has a heavy curved blade for strength. .A grapefruit knife may be curved and is often serrated at the edge. .A French cook knife has a straight edge, and firm but tapering point and a blade very wide at the handle end. The handle is placed in line with the back of the blade. In this position the hand will not interfere with quantity chopping of nuts, small fruits and vegetables. The following knives are often recommended for the average kitchen: the paring knife, French cook knife, utility knife and carving knife. Care of Knives. Do not throw knives into a drawer with other utensils. In knocking together, the edges are 21 ruined. Devise a method to keep blades from rubbing against each other. It may be a board slotted to fit knives and glued to the bottom of the drawer. Magnetic bars for wall or drawer are available and are becoming more reasonably _priced. Proper Cleaning and Sharpening. Do not soak in hot water. Wash in tepid water, rinse and wipe dry. Dry from back to blade to avoid cutting the dish towel. If the blade is discolored as with high carbon steel, lay flat on a board and scour it with a moistened cork and scouring powder. This may not remove all of the stains but will improve the appearance. The correct sharpening of knives extends their period of usefulness. The method used depends on the knife blade, equipment available and the skill of the person doing the work. Only steel knives should be sharpened. Silver and silver plated knives should never be ground or whittled be- cause the soft metal is not intended to be ground. Knife sharpeners may be divided into two groups: those which realign the cutting edge of a blade, as the sharpening steel and those which regrind the cutting edge. A sharpening steel and combination oil stone of seven by two by one inches are excellent for high-carbon steel knives. Metal discs are suitable for low-carbon steel knives. Proper Use of Knives. Use each knife for its intended purpose. 22 Do not use a knife to chop food In a metal container. This dulls the knife and mars the utensil. Use a wooden cutting board in slicing or cutting. Never use knives for any purpose other than cutting or slicing food. Knives may be harmed by a sudden change of temperature. Do not heat the blade in a flame. This destroys the temper of the steel and the blade cannot be kept sharp. Do not leave knives in hot water. Beaters. The two types of beaters most commonly found on the market are the whisk and rotary. The whisk is effec- tive in incorporating large amounts of air and gives a maximum volume but a coarse texture. It may be made of five wires, each wire forming a long oval and all wires brought together at the top to make a handle or it may take a spoon shape. Wires should be fastened smoothly and securely to the frame to make cleaning easier and to increase the durability of the beater. The handle may be an extension of the frame, or the ends of the frame may be fastened into a wooden handle. .All handles should be shaped to fit the hand comfortably. Whisk beaters require a good deal of energy because all the work is done by the operator. Rotary beaters are of steel with four or more circular or elliptical agitators which revolve in a vertical plane. The advantage of the beater depends in part upon the ratio of the gears in the pinion to the gears in the drive wheel. A ratio of one to four is most commonly found. This type of 23 beater will do four times as much work as the operator. Beaters should be durable in construction, with smooth, rust-resistant finish. Agitators of stainless steel, a steel electroplated with copper and then with nickle are the most satisfactory. Ball bearings increase the ease of manipulation of the beater. Any beater must fit closely to the bottom of the container in order to work efficiently. Small Electrical Equipment When selecting small electrical equipment look for: l. A.suitable material: heat resistant glass, rust- proof and non-tarnishing metal, acid-resistant porcelain enamel. 2. Controls which are heat resistant, clearly marked, conveniently placed and easy to operate. 3. Well insulated area surrounding the heating unit. A. Detachable parts or accessories easy to remove, to clean and to replace. 5. Tight-fitting covers. 6. Non-scratching bases. 7. Heat resistant handles, usually plastic, with good comfortable grip. 8. Extension cords and appliances with the "Ulfl'seal. The Ul.Seal of the Underwriters Laboratories, in the United States attached to an appliance, cord or imprinted upon the metal nameplate means that the equipment has been tested for electrical safety. ELL Toasters. There are two main classes or types of toasters. The turnover or reversible side type has the heat- ing element in the center. The slices are placed on either side of the element, and when one side of the bread is toasted the slices are reversed by flipping, turning by hand or by turning one rack. The oven or well-type toaster toasts bread on both sides at the same time by heating units located at either side of the rack. Features to look for: 1. Controls to regulate browness. 2. Removable crumb tray for easy cleaning. 3. Three or more guard wires on each side of partition to prevent "warping" of the bread. u. Well-insulated bottom to protect table. 5. Heat-resistant push button on handles for safety. 6. Non-tarnishable finish that is easy to clean. Coffee Makers. The percolator type is one in which the water heats and is forced upward through a tube. The boiling liquid then sprays down over ground coffee in a perforated, covered basket at the top of the pot. The vacuum coffee maker type has two bowls. Water is forced from the lower bowl into the upper bowl which holds the coffee. When most of the water reaches the upper bowl, the heat is held constant for a few minutes. When the heat is shut off, the liquid coffee returns through the filter into the lower bowl. 25 Features to look for: l. Bowls with wide mouths for easy cleaning. 2. Non-drip spouts for easy pouring. 3. Well-balanced construction to prevent tipping. u. Materials that will not tarnish and can be easily cleaned. S. In completely automatic coffee makers a two heat unit-~one for brewing and one for keeping the coffee hot-~is used. 6. Tight-fitting cover that will not fall off when pouring or allow steam to escape. 7. Well-insulated bottom on heating unit to protect the table. I 8. Protective device to shut off current if water boils away. 9. Heat-proof handle, with a good comfortable grip. lO. Seamless construction for easy cleaning. 11. In percolator, the coffee basket with tight-fitting spreader to prevent grounds floating off top into brew. Food Mixers. The mixer may have one, two or three beaters. Single beater machines have a planetary action circling the edge of the bowl as well as a rotary action. The majority of the mixers have two beaters and these rotate in a fixed position. To prevent packing of food and to give greater efficiency, beaters are being designed to give more coverage to the width of bowl and to follow its contour. 26 Beaters are held in position by catches, springs or screws. To simplify removal of the beaters some mixers have a beater ejector on the mixer head. A variety of speeds is desirable. Mixers may have a different number of speeds. Speeds may be indicated by number, by type of mixing jobs, such as whipping cream, creaming shortening, or by both number and description. The location of the speed control is important. It should be visible and easy to reach. Numbers on the control should be large and clear so that they are easily read. Some mixer heads can be detached from the base to use in another container. If the mixer head can be removed it should be easy to detach and remount. There are many features to look for when shopping for a mixer. One is the size of the appliance. The type of task to be performed with the mixer will help to determine the size of the mixer to select. If very heavy batters are to be mixed, or if large quantities of food are to be prepared then the larger machine witheamore powerful motor will probably be chosen. Consider too, the storage of the mixer. Storage that requires lifting or stoop- ing is not desirable. Generally, mixers have one or two bowls. The larger bowls have capacities of three to four quarts and the smaller bowls of one to two quarts capacities. These bowls should be of heat resistant materials for many tasks involve hot foods. 27 A turntable or platform is mounted on the base of many mixers to hold the bowl. The bowl turns freely on this turn- table. In another type of mixer the bowl is stationary be- cause a planetary type of beater action is used. When the small bowl is used the platform stays in the central location. But if the larger bowl is used the position of the platform may be changed. Shifting the platform is simple. The mixer stand should be stable and not tip when the head is raised and the bowl is on the base or has been removed. The hand mixers are convenient for homemakers without adequate storage space for a regular mixer. They can perform the light mixing jobs. Roomy, well shaped handles are impor- tant for comfort. Some hand mixers have a device for resting the mixer beside the bowl. The shape of the bowl and the shape and size of the beaters and the closeness of the beaters to the edge of the bowl effect the efficiency of the mixer. 28 References . American Home Economics Association, "Selecting Cooking and Baking Utensils?“ Copyright 1955. . Bement, Lewis D. The Cutlery Story. Massachusetts: The .Associated Cutlery and Industries of America, 1950. Feet, Louis J., and Thye, L. S. Household Equipment. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1955. Practical Home Economics, Vol. XXIX, No. 1 (June, 1951). . U. S. Department of Agriculture, "Pots and Pans for Your KitchenTIBulletin No. 2,.August, 1950. PART IV RANGES The evolution of the kitchen range in Puerto Rico is very interesting. There is no study or research available on the subject. Gas and electric ranges have been used only during the last twenty-five years. The lower income families continue to use wood in their cook stoves. Buttflmanewerfuels are used by families of higher economic income. ’Nihshappened in the cities first; later it spread to the country districts. Previous to the Second World War, charcoal was the material mostly used by low and middle income families for cooking meals. The upper middle and high income families used kerosene or gas (if the city had this facility) and electric ranges. When the Second World War broke out the price of charcoal rose to such a high level that the low and medium income level fam- ilies were obliged to procure a cheaper cooking fuel. Except for a small percentage of farm families today, the trend has changed toward the gas and electric range. Gas ranges are being used in small towns and cities as gas companies have developed bottle gas with a delivery service to replace the tank. In the new housing development projects, the electric range is becoming very popular. It can be considered as the range most widely used. 29 30 Construction Features The frame of a gas or electric range is almost entirely made of sheet steel welded or bolted together with a minimum of joints. The exterior finish is usually white, baked-on porcelain enamel, although some models are available in color- ed porcelain enamel and stainless steel. The more expensive models have titanium-type porcelain enamel on the topeuuiback- splash. This type of porcelain enamel is more resistant to staining by food acids. Door and drawer handles and switch knobs are made of plastic because of its low heat conductivity, or of metal insulated from the hot surfaces. Adequate insulation is necessary for efficient use of heat and for keeping the kitchen cool. The materials commonly used to insulate ranges are mineral wood, glass wool and spun glass. The outside and the inside of the oven are covered with porcelain enamel. Sizes, Table top ranges are available in three gen- eral sizes, the apartment size range, the thirty-inch range and the standard range. The size of the apartment range is from eighteen to twenty-four inches in width, twenty-seven inches in depth, and thirty-six inches in height. It is equipped with three or four surface units or burners and a standard size oven. This type of range is used in kitchens where the floor space is limited. The apartment range is the cheapest of all types of ranges. The thirty inch range has 31 four standard surface units or burners or three units and a deep-well cooker. It may have an extra large oven or the standard size oven with a storage compartment at the side. The standard size range is the most popular size of range. It varies from thirty-six to sixty inches in width,, mostly thirty—eight to forty inches in width. Standard ranges are available with four units or burners in a cluster, thus providing a maximum amount of usuable table space. Another type has a central table space, with two units or burners at both sides; thus providing flexibility in the use of larger— sized utensils. The standard range provides one or two ovens. Finishes. The outside finish of the range is porce- lain or synthetic enamel with chrome or stainless steel. If the top and the back are made in one piece with rounded cor- ners cleaning the range is an easier task. The range top often is made of acid resistant porcelain enamel. Ovens, Ovens may be lined with chrome or stainless steel but most of them are lined with dark porcelain enamel. The door should close tightly to prevent loss of heat with a lock—stop to hold it open. The oven vent carries out the volatile products of baking and should be located so that walls will not be stained or discolored. The oven should have sturdy, rust-resistant oven racks that have lock-stops to prevent dropping or tipping when racks are pulled forward. The insulation, to retain heat adequately, should cover all sides and top of the oven and should not sag, shift or settle. 32 The insulating materials most commonly used are fiberglass and rock wool. They may be used in flexible blankets or in bats cut to fit the walls of the oven. The burners or units are sometimes built into the work area counters and the oven is placed in the wall or a high cabinet. These units are ex- pensive to install, consequently most suitable for new homes for the higher income level group. A variety of sizes of ovens is available, the choice depending upon personal pref— erence. Ranges come with one or two ovens. The general con- struction, lining and kind of insulation have an important effect upon the efficiency of the oven. This is especially true of the insulation. The lining of the oven should be of a material that is rust resistant and durable. Dark blue speckled with white porcelain enamel on steel is used in practically all domestic ovens because it will maintain a good surface and appearance throughout the life of the range. The shelf supports are often an integral part of the side walls of the oven. Shelves should be made of non—rust- ing heavy gauge wire or steel with rust-resisting finish and strong enough not to sag. The oven door should be well in- sulated, tight fitting and counter—balanced. An oven vent is necessary for steam to escape. It usually opens into the reflector pan of a surface unit in the electric range. Handles should be metal or heat resistant plastic and switches should be located in a safe and convenient place. 33 Broiler Units. Broiler units differ considerably in gas and electric ranges. Gas ranges feature a separate broil— er compartment which is either immediately beneath the oven and uses the same burner, or to the side of the oven with a separate burner. Roll-out broiler racks and smokeless broiler construction are excellent conveniences. American Standard Requirements state that the broiling area should be centrally located with respect to the burner, the distribution of heat shall be uniform over the entire broiling area, the tempera- ture of the broiling compartment shall reach five hundred and thirty degrees above that of the room within sixteen minutes. In the electric range the broiler unit is the top unit of the oven. Broiling is cooking with radiant heat; the elec— tric unit is adapted for this type of cookery. The broiling unit is usually turned on "high" before the food is placed in the oven to allow the heating coils to reach the maximum tem- perature. In high—speed broilers preheating is unnecessary. The broiler pan is usually set about three to four inches below the coils. Buying Points for Ranges. l. Finishes: The outside finish that is porcelain enamel, chrome or stainless steel. .Acid—resistant porcelain enamel is desirable. Top and back splash are in one piece, with rounded corners for easy cleaning. 2. Handles and Switches: Look for metal or heat re- sistant plastic handles, control knobs and switches located 31+ in a safe and convenient place. Have automatic oven control checked after installation. u. Oven: One piece oven lining for ease of cleaning. This may be made of chrome, stainless steel, or dark porce- lain enamel or may be removable linings of aluminum foil or porcelain enamel. Door which closes tightly to prevent loss of heat with counter balanced spring to hold it open. Oven vent to carry off volatile products of baking and located so that the walls will not become stained or discolored. Six to eight oven shelf supports for varying positions of racks. Sturdy rust-resistant oven racks that have lock- stops to prevent dropping or tipping when rack is pulled for- ward. Flat or closely spaced bars in oven racks so pans won't tip. Adequate insulation, to retain heat, should cover all sides and top of oven and should not sag, shift or settle. A special symbol on the name plate of the range indicates the distance at which a range can be safely installed from walls or cabinets. S. Broiler: Porcelain enamel or aluminum broiler pan, large enough for needs and easy to clean. Porcelain enamel, aluminum or chromium-plated steel rack in broiler pan, removable for cleaning. Narrow slits or holes in rack to protect drippings from direct contact with heat. 35 Supports or glides at several positions to adjust location of broiler pan. Gas Ranges .A reliable guide to select a superior gas range is the 'TIP" label,Certified Performance symbol. CIDmeans that the range has met the American Gas.Association standards for extra safety, efficiency and durability. The types of gas burners available are standard size, the large or giant size and the automatic type. Ehnumn‘valves are designed to control the amount of heat which the burner will give. This ranges from very low to very high depending on the control setting. Some burners have three click posi- tions for full, simmer or keep-warm flame adjustments with many variations. The center parts of the burner are control- led separately from the outer ones. Outer and center points may be operated together to produce high, medium and in-be- tween heat. Center parts alone give low heat for simmering and for keeping foods warm. In the thermostatically controlled type burner, exact cooking temperature can be selected and maintained throughout the cooking operation. Gas appliances are simple in construc- tion and consequently, repair costs are low. The operation Costs depend mostly on local gas rates. 36 Electric Ranges In 1880 the first experimental electric cooking equip- ment was made, but it was not until 1900 that an electric range was given serious consideration. Electricity was being used for lighting purposes in many American homes and the growing interest for more uses of electricity resulted in a demand for an "electric range" for cooking. By 1920 porce- lain enamel paneling was being featured and in 1926 porcelain enamel finish was used for the whole exterior. Ovens that were insulated were also an added feature of this time. In 1933 the table-top range was introduced and by 1937, no legs could be found on many models. Electric ranges are made in the same sizes as ranges using gas for fuel. There are two types of surface and oven heating units: the open coil and the tubular. The tubular type is the most common type of unit, although there are several different makes. The tubu- lar is a flattened tube of metal with one or more coils of nickel-chromium wire embedded in magnesium oxide powder. Electric surface units have a wide range of heats. The usual wattage of a six inch unit is between eleven hun- dred to sixteen hundred watts. Eight inch units have a wat- tage between sixteen hundred to twenty-one hundred watts. Two oven units are found in most ovens. One is at the top and the other at the bottom of the oven. The total power capacity varies from thirty-eight hundred to fifty-seven 37 hundred watts in the standard size oven. The oven temperature is automatically controlled by a thermostat. Most electric ranges are supplied by a two hundred and twenty-five voltage system. Care of Electric Ranges. It is most important in the care and use of a range to read and follow the instruction book and keep it for future reference. The manufacturer usually knows what is best for his product and the life of the range will be lengthened by following the instructions. A few simple rules can be applied to cleaning the range. 1. Daily care is essential. Spills should be wiped up immediately with a dry paper towel. 2. The porcelain enamel parts may be washed with warm soapy water when it is cool. Never wash it when hot or warm. 3. Chromium plated parts require washing, drying and rubbing with a soft cloth. h. Foods spilled on the surface units should be burned off by merely heating the unit. 5. Crumb trays and storage drawers should be washed with warm soapy water periodically. 6. Spill pans should be kept clean. 7. Wipe up food spillage in the oven after the oven cools. 8. Never scour the range with anything but a fine abrasive. It should also be noted that an electric range 38 should always be used on a circuit carrying a voltage that is designed for it. To protect against shocks, the range should be grounded. 39 References l. Peet, Louise J., and Thye, Leonore S. Household Equipment. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1953. 2. Practical Home Economics, Vol. XXXII, No. A (February, 195E). 3. What's New in Home Economics, May, 1957. PART V REFRIGERATION Refrigerators Types, Today's refrigerators are of two types, the conventional and the combination refrigerator-freezer. Both types of refrigerators provide space and temperatures suitable for storing fresh foods. The difference between the two is as follows: in addition to fresh food storage, practically all conventional refrigerators provide space and temperatures suitable for freezing ice cubes and desserts and for short— term storage of frozen foods. The combination refrigerator- freezer also provides space and temperature suitable for freezing small quantities of fresh or cooked foods and for long-term storage of frozen foods. The conventional refrig- erator may have a small vertical ice cube compartment or evap- orator or a horizontal frozen food compartment. In this type one cannot expect to keep frozen foods in peak conditions for more that two or four days. Many true freezer compartments have a separate refrigerating system and maintain a tempera- ture of from zero to five degrees fahrenheit. Some have special controls to lower the temperature to twenty degress below zero for quick freezing of foods. True fahrenheit tem- perature refrigerators often have separate controls for the to In storage area and the freezing compartment. Others have only a single control for the storage area. The temperature of the general storage area is designed to stay at 38 to h0°F., re- gardless of outside conditions and the freezing compartment. In the electric household refrigerator, refrigeration is accomplished by causing the refrigerant to change from a liquid to a gas and back again to a liquid. .As the liquid refrigerant circulates under low pressure through coils adja— cent to the food compartments, it boils (changes to a gas), absorbing heat in the process. Then, under increased pressure the gas changes to a liquid, giving up heat. Parts, The refrigerating mechanism of a refrigerator includes compressor, condenser, expansion device and evapora- tor. An automatic device that starts and stops the motor as the temperature changes, controls the temperature. The con- trols can be set by the user for the desired temperature. Compressor: The compressor is the heart of the refrig- erating mechanism, the part that keeps the refrigerant in circulation. A hermetically sealed unit consists of motor and compressor sealed in a gas-tight compartment. .A separate motor is required for operating a condenser fan. There is no danger of refrigerant leakage. The unit needs no oiling for the lubricant is sealed in. The unit must be returned to the factory for repairs and replaced entirely if the motor fails. A compressor unit that runs no more than fifty percent of the time in a temperature of 90°F. when no freezing is U2 being done will give best all around performance. Freezing results are best when the unit runs without stopping during the entire freezing period, so that heat is removed from the food continuously until the freezing load is reduced to stor- age temperature. Condenser: The condenser is the mechanism in which heat absorbed by the refrigerant is removed. In general it consists of coils with heat-discipating fans and it may be a fan-cooled or gravity type. In a fan-cooled condenser, a motor-driven fan forces air through the coils to cool them. A gravity-type condenser is set at an angle so that the nat- ural flow of air can cool the coils. Compressor units with gravity-type condenser usually cost slightly more to operate than those with fan-cooled condenser. Evaporator: The evaporator is made of coils through which the refrigerant circulates. The coils may be in the form of tubing attached to the liners or they may be stamped into plates that are used as liners or as dividers or shelves. The area of the evaporator surface is onecfi‘the factors that determines how efficiently a refrigerator will operate. AllryUuarfactors being equaltdmarefrigerator with the largest evaporator surface is one to be preferred. A.small evaporator must have a much lower temperature than a large one to produce a given refrigerator air temperature and requires more exten- sive compressor operation. E3 Points to Consider in Buying a Refrigerator. 1. Cabinet: Seamless construction of lining with rounded corners for easy cleaning. Porcelain or synthetic baked enamel finish outside. Inside of cabinet lined with porcelain enamel to resist scratching, chipping, absorption of odors and dis- coloration or staining. Floor of the interior acid-resistant porcelain enamel. Type and thickness of insulation. 2. Door: Sturdy hinges, easy-to—close door. Location of adjacent counter space determines the choosing of a right hand or left hand door. Handles--conveniently placed, easy to manipulate. Gasket--attached around interior edge of door to pro- vide tight fit and retain cold and moisture. Gasket may be of vinyl plastic, synthetic or natural rubber. 3. Evaporator: Smooth, non-rusting metal construction, easy-to—clean. Adequate ice cube capacity. Trays of aluminum with metal or plastic dividers. Clearly marked temperature controls, easy—to-set. Door across front of evaporator to prevent loss of cold air. A. Shelves: Shelves that are easy to remove, replace and clean. Shelves of rust-resistant metal or glass. Uh Arrangements to allow for bottles, containers of dif- ferent sizes, bulky fruits, vegetables, meats. 5..Accessories: Fruit and vegetable hydrator pans of porcelain enamelware or aluminum should be seamless, easy—to- clean, tightly covered. Sometimes plastic is used for these pans. Meat tray of aluminum, glass or plastic. Should have ridges or a rack in bottom so air may circulate around and below meat; deep enough for thick cuts of meats. 6. Special Features: Evaluate in terms of convenience and cost. Front foot pedal to release door. Automatic door closing. Sliding divider and adjustable shelves. Automatic ice cube maker. Ice cream conditioner. Butter compartment. Water cooler. Color--inside or outside. Juice dispenser. Storage of Food in Refrigerator. A.modernrefrigerator provides adequate protectionikn~all typescfi‘food that require refrigeration. For best results, load according to manufac— turer's directions. Here.is a typical set of loading rules. 1. Frozen foods are stored, and ice cubes and desserts are frozen, in the freezing compartment. Some refrigerators L15 provide zero temperature in the freezing compartment which allows proper home freezing of limited amounts of food. 2. Unfrozen meat, fish and poultry should be stored right under the freezing compartment, in the meat compartment. If there is no meat compartment, put meat in storage and de- frosting tray'and cover lightly with waxed paper. Unlessmeat is to be used within forty-eight hours, it should be frozen for storage. Fish and cheese should be wrapped tightly in aluminum foil or heavy waxed paper to prevent odors from be- ing transferred to other foods in the refrigerator. 3. Butter and cheese should be stored on the top shelf. Butter for daily use can be stored in the butter compartment if provided. A. Milk and cream should be stored on the shelves pro- vided for them. They should be placed in the refrigerator at once to forestall bacterial growth and to prevent loss of riboflavin. 5. Vegetables with heavy skin, fruits and leftovers are stored on any of the lower shelves. These shelves provide proper cold for gelatin dishes and eggs. Leftovers should always be stored in covered dishes. Never store bananas in a refrigerator. Berries need air circulation; spread them out on a plate and cover lightly with waxed paper. Do not wash berries or remove hulls until just before serving. 6. Most leafy and green vegetables require high humid- ity. Store them in the crisping pans. Wash, trim wilted U6 portions and drain before storing. Remove tops from root vegetables before storing. 7. Follow instruction manual as to whether foods should be covered. Care of Refrigerator. Installation: When refrigerator is installed be sure that it has plenty of air circulation for most efficient oper- ation. Leave two or three inches at the back and more at the top so that heat from the compressor can be dissipated. Leave enough space at the side for easy moving of refrigerator. Leave plenty of space at the hinge side for easy open- ing of the door, if it is to stand in a corner. Remove all pasteboard and other packaging materials, such as rubber bands or twisted wires which hold shelves in place during shipping. Clean refrigerator thoroughly before using for the first time. Defrosting: Understand the different types of defrost- ing. They are: entirely manual in the freezing compartment with automatic defrosting in the fresh food storage compart- ment; completely automatic; completely manual with defrosting push button. The automatic defrosting does not mean automatic cleaning. Defrost according to manufacturer's directions. It is best to defrost when frost is no more than one-fourth of an inch thick. Thick frost acts as insulation and prevents LL? maintenance of proper temperature. Food must be removed from the freezing compartment before defrosting. Alwaysadlow'frost to melt; do not use a sharp tool to dislodge it. Defrosting can be speeded by placing deep,fdcm;pans filled withlufl;water in the freezing compartment. After defrosting, wash and dry all freezing compartments and wash and refill ice trays. Empty, wash and dry defrosting tray. Reset control. Some refrigerators come equipped with a defrosting device. Similar devices may be purchased as attachments for other refrigerators. These devices are not recommended be- cause they permit temperatures to fluctuate during the defrost- ing period to levels that are unsafe for storage of frozen foods. Cleaning: Clean regularly. During defrosting is a good time to remove food, wash shelves, crispers and cabinet interior. Wash with warm water to which a little baking soda has been added. Use one tablespoon for each quart of water. Be sure that all glass has been warmed to room temperature before washing. Ice trays and ice cube dividers should be washed in lukewarm water, never scalded because they have a coating of wax to make ice cubes easy to remove. Wipe off any spilled food immediately. Wash plastic parts in warm water, not in hot water. The exterior should be kept clean with a mild soap and water. Rinse and dry and apply a thin coat of wax and polish immediately. Keep the rubber gasket on the door clean and 118 free of grease. Never use soapy water on gasket. The fan type condenser, usually found in the motor compartment of older models, should be cleaned with a stiff brush or hand attachment of a vacuum cleaner. Servicing: Call serviceman when motor is noisy, when proper temperatures are not maintained or mechanism will not operate. AVOid unnecessary service calls by making sure the refrigerator: Is plugged into electrical outlet, Is not overcrowded, Is level, Has sufficient air space above and behind it, Evaporator does not have a heavy coating of frost. Home Freezers Generally speaking, home freezers fall into two classes: the chest type and the upright type. The chest freezer is the height of the average base cabinet with a tap opening. The upright has the shape and size of a refrigerator and opens at the front. If equally well built, the two types will operate equally well. The choice depends chiefly on one's preference and floor space. The mechanism is very similar to the mechan- ism of the electrical refrigerator but maintains much lower temperatures, from zero to ten degrees below zero fahrenheit. Selection of a Freezer. 1. Cabinet: Porcelain or synthetic enamel or stainless steel exterior. M9 Porcelain enamel or rust-resistant aluminum interior. Rounded corners for easy cleaning. 2. Doors and Door Seals: Well-built, tight-fitting doors, durable non-rusting hardware. Freezers may have more than one door, or a single door and several inside doors to prevent escape of cold air. Gaskets of rubber or plastic may be single and narrow, double for a double seal or single and wide. Handle on chest cabinets should be counter-balanced or have some other device to hold door open. Tension to keep door tightly closed and maintain a good seal. Door and lid that fasten easily and accurately. 3. Controls: Well-marked controls and temperature indicator. h. Temperature: Temperatures range from zero to ten degress below zero fahrenheit. .All parts of the freezer should maintain even temperature. 5. Insulation: Type of insulation used: glass wool or glass fiber is the most common. 6. Shelves, Baskets or Drawers: Sturdy wire baskets with handles, racks or drawers for convenient storage. Bas- kets are convenient, but are heavy to remove when full. Racks protect frozen baked food from crushing. Drawers are used in upright freezers but top drawers may be difficult for short persons to reach. 7. Freezer Signals: Buzzer, bell alarm or signal 50 light to attract attention when current is off or temperature rises above normal operating temperature. Check signal regu- larly to be sure it is in working order. 8. Special Features: Special features to evaluate be- fore buying: a. Chart for recording contents of the freezer. b. Recessed storage space in doors of upright and lid of chest freezer. c. Adjustable and sliding shelves in upright freezers. 9. Guarantee and Service: The dealer's ability to comply with any guarantee and to give prompt service is also a factor in deciding the home freezer to buy. Use and Care of the Home Freezer. The purpose of pack— aging food for freezing is not merely for ease in handling; it is primarily to keep food for long periods of time. Food not adequately protected from moisture loss will lose quality and nutritive value in storage. Therefore, vapor proof pack- aging must be used. There are several kinds of moisture proof packaging. Use the manufactuer's directions for loading the home freezer. .Authorities agree that a storage temperature no higher than zero degrees fahrenheit is needed to maintain satisfactory quality in frozen foods. Defrosting must be done before there is more than one- half of an inch of frost over a considerable area of refrig- erated surface. Defrosting about once or twice a year is SI enough. When defrosting, remove all food packages and dis- connect the freezer. Place packages on trays, pile them as close as possible and cover with chilled blankets or news- papers. Scrape off as much frost as possible. Use cold or tepid water for washing the interior. .After defrosting and cleaning are completed, connect freezer and let it run half an hour to bring the temperature down before returning the food to the freezer. Take an inventory of the packages of food and place older packages at top to be used first. 52 References l. Peet, Louise J., and Thye, Leonore S. Household quipment. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 19552 2. U. S. Department of Agriculture, "How to Choose and Use a Refrigerator," AIS-36. 3. U. S. Department of Agriculture, "Home Freezers, Their Selection and Use,"TBulletin No. EB. PART VI SINKS There are many kinds of sink arrangements. Some kit- chen sinks have double basins and drain counters and ample storage space. Special model sinks have one shallow and one extra deep well for laundry purposes. .A single swing faucet often supplies both basins with hot or cold water. Sinks are made of a variety of materials. The most common is porcelain enamel bonded to either steel or cast iron. Stainless steel sinks are also very attractive and serviceable. Under-the-sink cabinets are available in wood or steel in a variety of colors. .A special accessory for the sink is a device which replaces the standard faucets. It has a swing faucet, a tank for holding liquid detergent, and a hose to which is attached a nylon brush for washing dishes or a wire brush for pots and pans. The flow of water through thehose is controlled by a push button. A press of the button produces aerated suds for washing and when it is released, hot clear water rinses the dishes. There are many other accessories to make manual dish— washing easier. Rubber drain racks and trays are useful for stacking dishes. Foam Sponges and efficient detergents all help to speed up this everyday task. 53 SA The kitchen Sink has many variations. It may be small and simply equipped or large with ample storage facilities. However, the newest type is the electric sink. The complete electric Sink includes an automatic dishwashing machine and an electric garbage disposer as well as basins, faucet and counter space. Food waste is scraped into the electric dis- poser to be finely ground and flushed down the drain. Dishes are placed in the dishwasher to be washed, rinsed and dried automatically. The electric sink may be purchased as a com- plete unit or the various components added as desired. In selecting a sink the dimensions should be checked to avoid expensive plumbing adjustments when the dishwasher and dis- poser are installed. Dishwashers There are two main types of electric dishwasters. The front opening type provides the top surface as‘a working counter. Most people use it as the place to collect the dishes for washing, prior to the loading of the machine. The racks are movable; this space can be used as a place for put- ting the racks when they are out of the machine for loading and unloading. One disadvantage of the front opening type is that it requires space for the door to swing down when Opened. Limited space in the kitchen may make this type un- Suitable. The top opening type does not require extra floor Space for the opening of the machine. The space required is 55 above the machine and must be adequate for the lid to swing upward without hitting a cabinet overhead. The lid of the machine provides a temporary working area. During loading and unloading the lid must be open. In some machines the lid raises automatically during the drying period. The controls are easy to manipulate. Some controls indicate at what stage in the total cycle the machine is operating. The controls should operate automatically for the complete cycle. However, it is desirable that it also be possible to operate the machine manually. One might wish to use only part of the cycle, as the washing and rinsing without drying on a hot day, or the heating period only if a dish warmed is wanted. Dual controls make the machine safer. The location of controls should be at a place which is easy to reach and easy to read. If there are small chil- dren it is preferable to have the controls in a high place. A square or rectangular shaped tub has a larger capac- ity for the same outside dimensions as a round tub. It also makes it possible to put large vegetable dishes, bowls or pans into the corners and, therefore, gives more versatility for irregular shaped dishes in the racks. The depth of the tub is enough for two racks. The bottom one should be deep enough for the largest dinner plates to stand on edge. The upper rack should take tumblers easily, even the iced tea tumblers. The total capacity of the tub should be enough to wash all dishes from one regular meal for the family. The 56 lining of the tub should be smooth. The dishracks for holding the dishes Should be of a material that will stand moisture, and prolonged heat. The construction of the racks should be simple in design. It should be easy to position the dishes into the racks. There should be adequate space between the supports to take dishes with some curve. The plates and flat pieces are washed in an upright position. Tumblers, cups and curved pieces are washed in an inverted position so that water can run out. If one of the racks must be removed for loading the lower rack, as in some top loading machines, the opening through which the loading must be done should be large enough to permit entrance of the large plates, even after one side of the lower rack has been filled. This top center rack should be easy to put in and take out, either when empty or loaded. The basket or holder for the silverware may be remov- able. It should have a flat bottom so that it can be set on the table. The silverware is put into the basket for washing in an upward position, spoon bowls and fork tines up and should not be overcrowded. The detergent dispenser should incorporate a measuring device so that the correct amount of detergent will always be used. ltshould be located so thattfluadetergent will not fall directly onto the dishes, but it will be dissolved before cir— culating. The detergent used in automatic dishwashers should be one with a low sudsing ability, therefore, a special dish- washing machine detergent should be used. S7 A few machines are manufactured which do not have a drying period when heat is added to the chamber. This type of machine dries dishes by the accumulation of heat from the wash and rinse waters. Many of the machines have heat applied to the chamber during the drying period. Care of Dishwashers. Read and follow manufacturer's directions for the proper care and use of the dishwasher. It is necessary to scrape the dishes to remove scraps of food left on them. Most of the machines will do a better job if the dishes are rinsed before putting them into the dishwasher. Cost of Operating Dishwashers. The total hot water used is from six to nine gallons per cycle. The total amount of electricity used depends upon the number of times one uses the machine during a month and local electric rates in the community. Portable models are least expensive to install. These models require an attachment to the hot water faucet of the sink with a special faucet adaptor which comes with portable machines and an electrical outlet near the sink. The water is drained by hooking the drain over the edge of the sink. Permanent installation might mean added plumbing and wiring. These costs should be considered in the total machine cost. Food Waste Disposers Types. The food waste disposer is an electrically driven unit which is installed directly below the sink drain. r ‘0" 58 Food wastes are emptied through the sink drain into a hopper, which has a capacity of one to three quarts, depending on the model. .At the bottom of this hopper are blades or hammers which revolve and force waste material against shredders, cutting it into fine pieces. .A stream of cold water from the Sink tap must be kept running continously to carry waste down the drain and to harden grease so that it may be broken into pieces to avoid clogging of pipes. Most of the disposers are the "continuous feed" type that is, waste is fed into them as they operate. The electric switch may be under the sink or at a convenient wall location. For this type, several manufacturers have a synthetic rubber or plastic stopper which can be used as a plate scraper, then as a baffle to prevent splash back and to deaden noise during operation of the disposer. Another type of disposer is one with a safety cover (metal) which serves as a sink strainer, a stopper and also as a switch to start the operation. One food disposer, confronted with a batch of food waste difficult to handle with the blades rotating in one direction, automatically reverses direction of the blades. Shredding, cutting and pulverizing actions, all three, are employed by some units to make quick work on any type of food waste. Another model even "combs" fibrous material so it can be cut up in pieces more easily. Faster action is being achieved, and more emphasis is being placed on quite, vibra- tionless operation. The units are assembled with cushioned ‘ .0." ‘ 59 connectors and resiliant mountings so there is no metal against metal. Points in Selecting a Food Waste Disposer. 1. Check the capacity of the septic tank if disposer will empty into it. If the tank is five hundred gallons or less, it is not advisable to install a disposer. 2. Check size of drain opening in sink. Disposers may be installed in sinks having three and a half or four inches drain, or in a larger drain by using an adapter. 3. Check with the dealer not only the cost of the unit, but also for the cost of installation as it requires services of an electrician and a plumber. u. Check cold water supply since cold water supply must be kept running continuously during operation. Care and Use of the Food Waste Disposer. Follow the manufacturer's directions as to items disposer can handle and the way to operate the disposer. 60 References I. Peet, L. J., and Thye, Leonore S. Household Equipment. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1955. PART VII LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT Washing Machines Iypgs, There are three general types of washing ma- chines on the market as classified by the American Laundry Manufacturer's Association. .An automatic washer is power driven and washes, rinses and extracts water from the clothes automatically. The conventional washer, or non-automatic washer, includes washers with wringers, with spinners or with collapsible extractors and washers with no means of extracting water from the clothes. .A few years ago, the combination washer-dryer type appeared on the market. Points to Consider in Selecting a Washing Machine. 1. Mechanism: .All washing machines provide a mechanism for soil removal. The agitator type is usually used in the conventional washer. The pulsator, the revolving drum or the bouncing tub may be found in automatic washers. In the agita- tor type, the agitator with blades or fans fits over a central post, carries clothes back and forth as ltturns. .hithe bounc- ing tub type, the inner tub bounces up and down. .Clothes are pushed against the sides of the tub. Water is forced through the clothes. The cylinder type machine has a perforated cyl— inder that revolves, lifts clothes on baffles or ridges and 61 62 drops them to the bottom of the cylinder. In the pulsator type, the pulsator with rubber fans fits over control post, moves up and down, circulating water through the clothes. 2. Finishes: Porcelain or synthetic baked enamel or a combination of both on the outside. .Acid and alkali resistant porcelain enamel, aluminum or stainless steel tub. .All surfaces should be smooth with no rough edges on which fabrics might catch. 3. Door or Cover: Tight seal and strong catch on front-opening washers so that water cannot leak out around the door. Hinged cover or a hook for hanging removable cover on side of tub on top-opening models. Close-fitting cover with rubber gasket to prevent splashing from top-opening washers. u. Wringer: Emergency release to stop and separate rolls. Soft rubber rolls are easy on buttons; rolls of hard rubber, however, extract more moisture from the clothes. 5. Controls: Clearly marked controls that are easy to reach and turn. Temperature and time controls on automatic washers for regulating water temperatures and length of washing period to suit fabric and amount of soil. Controls which allow repeating or skipping of parts of the cycle. 63 6. Drain: Clog-free drain. Gravity type drain may be satisfactory for conventional washers but a water pump speeds draining. The number of gallons and temperatures of water re— qui red to operate washer. Consider the capacity of the water hearter in relation to this. Care and Use of Washers. These are the most important stegas for the use and care of the washer. 1. Follow the manufacturer's directions for the proper use: and care of the washer. 2. Tighten belts and screws on the washer frame from time to time. 3. If the machine needs to be oiled, follow the manu- f‘Ei-Cturer's directions. Keep a tag on the washer showing Wruare and how often to oil and the kind and amount of oil PC) use. Note on this tag the date of the last oiling. u. If the washer for any reason has lost oil from aTWDund the gears, have the machine checked by a reliable '38 rviceman. 5. Have repairs made by a reliable serviceman. 6. Daily cleaning and frequent waxing help to preserve appearance of the outside of the washer. Dryers Types. Clothes dryers, either gas or electric, are InaCie with a large rotating drum or cylinder inside a counter 61+ heigflnt cabinet. Clothes are placed inside the drum and tum- .bleci as the drum revolves. .Air is heated by an electric heat- ing; element or gas burner. .A fan or blower circulates air to spewed drying. The warm, moisture-laden air goes through a lirrt trap and out of the dryer, through a vent to the outside In. some models, the moisture and lint are dispersed through a water drain. Points to Consider When Buying a Dryer. l. Finishes: Exterior should be finished in porcelain or‘ synthetic baked enamel. Smooth, easy-to-clean surfaces, rounded corners. Metal, porcelain enamel, zinc coated or galavanized PC>int on interior of drum. 2. Door: May pull down or open at the left or right. Side-opening door may be more convenient because clothes bEISket or cart may be placed directly under opening for easy handling of clothes. 3. Lint Trap: Wire mesh lint trap is found in most dI‘IVers. Look for easy-to-reach location and easy removal for Cleaning. A. Special Features: Interior light. Signal to show when dryer is on or off. Pull-out switch for stopping dryer without changing c:Ontrol s. Heat and time control for any fabric or load. 5. Safety Devices: The motor fuse guards against 2.2.7; “9". 65 motxbr overload or a stalled motor. The reset "protectomatic" guards against overheating and automatically shuts off motor and heat. The door switch stops the dryer completely when the doc>r is opened and starts it again when the door is closed. Motor control switch prevents heat operation without motxor operation. 1 Gas dryer controls: the automatic pilot switch allows gass to flow to the main burner after the pilot is operating. Pilot switch minds the pilot flame. If the gas pilot is; not ignited within minutes it will automatically shut off the gas supply. Care and Use of Dpyers. I. Read the instruction book and follow manufacturer's directions. 2. Dry clothes together which take about the same drying time. 3. Dry heavy clothes first, medium Clothes next and lightweight clothes last because this cuts the drying time fOr‘lighter clothes. h. Clean lint trap after drying each load. Clean Efiltire dryer every month or two as necessary. 5. Clothes can be removed from dryer while still damp. This eliminates sprinkling before ironing, shortens drying time and lowers the utility bill. 6. Avoid overloading. It leaves clothes wrinkled and wastes electricity or gas. . EVEDV. 66 7. Do not put clothes which have been dry cleaned with vol.atile or inflammable solvents in the dryer. The fumes are eitJder dangerous, poisonous, flammable or both. Irons and Ironing Boards The new irons are streamlined, made of polished metals witlicflnmmm-plated or copper—toned trhn. Handlesarerualonger tuliformly black butareenmdlable Mia variety of colors. Thermo- stsats are sensitive to temperature adjustments necessary for the: new fabrics. Temperature can be controlled according to U18 fabric requirements. Some of today's irons are designed ik>r right or left hand use. Types of Irons. There are three types of irons, the dry iron, steam iron and the combination dry and steam iron. TTua steam irons are of two types, the boiler typeznuithe drip tYpe. The boiler type heats all of the water in a reservoir tO a.steaming temperature before steam is ejected through (mnenings in the soleplate. The drip type iron feeds the water dPOp by drop inside of the heated soleplate. Hence, the water is instantly converted into steam which is then emitted through cJIDenings in the soleplate. Rain water or distilled water is strongly recommended for steam irons. Hard water will form a mineral deposit which eventually will interfere with the flow Of water and steam. Points to Consider When Buying an Iron. Weight: The weights of irons vary from one and a half 67 pounds for travel irons to three and a half pounds for a steam iron. New automatic irons have been introduced that weight only two and a half pounds. Wattage: Wattages are so nearly the same on all irons that heating times are fairly established. .Automatic steam irons are rated from one thousand to eleven hundred watts and heat to a high temperature in two or three minutes. Travel irons are rated as low as five hundred watts; they start to heat instantly because the soleplate is so light in weight. Special Features: I. Some irons are designed so that the steam chamber can be easily removed. 2. Cords which are readily changed for right to left hand use. 3. Dual thumb rests on handle, no matter which hand is used. A. Soleplate and reservoirs which are made of stain- less steel to prevent rust and corrosion. S. Rounded or tapered heels to facilitate ironing backward as easily as forward. 6. Separate water container, mounted on ironing board and connected to iron, permits hours of steam ironing. IroningyBoards. New Features in Ironing Boards: 1. Ironing boards have easy rolling wheels to eliminate lifting. 68 2. Unlimited height adjustment from twenty—four to thirty-six inches. 3. Steam-deflecting vents to direct steam away from board. u- Enough knee and leg room. 5. All steel ironing boards which open and close. 6. Sixty-one percent open mesh ventilated top for moisture to escape downward. Ironers Iypgp. There are two types of ironers: the type on which the roll is open at the left end and is fastened to a frame at the right or it may be supported at the center with both sides open. Open ends are especially useful for ironing shirts and dresses. Controls which bring the roll and shoe together may be operated by hand, knee or foot. Controls which leave the hands free to guide fabric are most conven— ient. A slow speed on the roll is helpful during the learn- ing period and for ironing heavy fabrics. Points to Consider When Buying.An Ironer. l. Finishes: Rust-resistant outer finish, especially if the ironer is to be put into a basement. Synthetic baked enamel cabinet finish or a well designed wood cabinet to go with other furnishings in the room. 2. Size: Suitable for space available in the home. 3. Roll: Muslin cover, removable for cleaning. 69 Pad which fits smoothly over roll, length of roll ranges from twenty-one to thirty inches. The wider the roll the less need for garment adjustment. u. Shoe: .Aluminum or chromiumgplated or steel shoe, easy to clean. 5. Controls: Controls that are easy to reach. Thermostatic temperature controls that may be set for fabric to be ironed; Two temperature controls--one to regulate heat and one to regulate pressure. 6. Safety Features: Emergency release which allows rol.ls to be turned and shoe to be lifted from roll in case of power failure. I Insulated shoe edge or finger guard to prevent burned hands or fingers. Signal light to show when current is on. Pilot light or automatic switch that turns off current when cover is closed. 7. Special Features: Rods for hanging ironed articles. Lap guard. Extension shelves., .Adjustable casters. Lock stop casters. Small size roll for sleeves. Permanent lubrication. 70 Water Heaters A plentiful supply of hot water is necessary for the operation of the modern laundry and kitchen equipment, and for personal use. Select the water heater on the basis of quality and performance. Engineers at Iowa State College recommend a fifty gallon tank for a farm family of four per- sons. The average family in the United States uses a thirty gallon water heater. .Additional amounts should be added for an automatic dishwasher, an automatic clothes washer, and for guests. It is recommended that the temperature controls main- tain water temperature between IUO and 160°F. Some water heaters have a control for adjusting temperatures; others are built with a two-temperature control, providing correct temperatures for personal use and kitchen use. Water heaters should be located as close as possible to where the most hot water is used because when water pipes are shorter, less heat is lost and hot water is delivered quickly. Iyppp, The types of water heaters are gas and electric. The gas water heater is heated by a burner. .A special vent for removal of burned gases is required. .All automatic gas water heaters having input rating of five thousand British Thermal Units should be connected to an effective vent. Most gas water heaters have a faster recovery capacity than electric water heaters, therefore, they do not require as large a storage tank. Electric water heaters may have one or two 71 heating elements. There is always one element placed near the bottom of the tank and a second unit may be placed near the top. Heating elements are of two types. The immersion type consists of a tubular insulated element inserted through the wall of the tank into the water. This type is less ex- pensive but may collect lime in hard water. The external type elements may be tubular and are fastened around the out- side of the tank to help prevent lime formation inside the tank. Points to Consider When Buying a Water Heater. 1. Size: .According to the family needs. 2. Operating Costs: Compare operating costs for both gas or electric water heaters. 3. Outside Finish: Exterior finish usually synthetic baked enamel, which is smooth easy to clean and serviceable. u. Storage Tank: Tanks lined with Monel metal, glass stone, aluminium alloy, copper and porcelain enamel are espe- cially resistant to corrosion and also reduce rust problems. Galvanized steel tanks have lowest initial cost but they may corrode. .A magnesium rod may be inserted in a galvanized tank to help prevent corrosive action. 5. Insulation: Thickness of insulation is important. One to one and a half inches of glass fiber is sufficient. 6. Clean Out Faucet: Outlet at bottom of heater for removing lime and sediment from tank. 7. Safety Valve: Tank should have a pressure relief 72 valve to prevent excessive water pressure within the tank and a temperature relief value to protect the heater from exces- sively high water temperature. Both valves should be checked periodically. 73 References 1. Michigan State University, Cooperative Extension Service, East Lansing, Folder F-229, 1956. 2. Peet, Louise J., and Thye, Leonore S. Household Equipment. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1955. 3. Ruud Manufacturing Company, All About Modern Home Launder- ing, Pittsburgh, Pa., Copyright, 1953. PART VIII FLOOR PLAN FOR WORK AREAS The Kitchen Work Centers. The well planned kitchen should contain three work centers: the food storage and preparation center, the cooking and serving center, and the cleaning center. The food storage and preparation center includes the refrigerator, with ample work surface for the preparation of foods. The cooking and serving center has the range; it also is planned with sufficient work surface for serving food. In the clean- ing center is the sink, with work surfaces for cleaning vege- tables and washing dishes. Work should flow in one direction. Steps will be saved if the work centers are so arranged that the homemaker moves continuously in one direction in preparing meals. The starting point is the food storage and preparation center, planned around the refrigerator. Since most people work from right to left, equipment is often so arranged that the flow of work goes from right to left. It is desirable to have a continuous surface between the work centers. Locate sink and dishwashing center between the two other centers, if possible. Water is used both in the preparation and cooking of foods. Therefore, for greater convenience the sink and 7’4 75 dishwasher center should be located between the food storage and preparation center and the cooking and serving center. Some authorities recommend that another center be added to the kitchen. This is called the planning center; it is furnished with a desk, a telephone, shelves for cook books and drawers to keep accounts. The location of the plan- ning center depends upon the size and shape of the kitchen. Size and Shape of Kitchen. Most kitchens lend them- selves to one of four basic types of arrangements. These types may be modified to suit the shape and size of the room, location of doors and windows and so forth. The four basic types of kitchens are: l. The "U" shape, and its modification, the broken "U" type. 2. The "L" Shape and the broken "L" type. 3. The wall or pullman type. D. The one wall type. The "U" kitchen is the most efficient for a small kit- chen. Avoid both too little or too much counter surface. The counter space between the refrigerator and sink is recommended .by the University of Illinois Small Homes Council to be between four to seven linear feet. This spacing is most efficient. Between the sink and range they recommend not less than four nor more than six feet of counter space. Between range and refrigerator from four to nine linear feet are recommended." "Kitchen Planning Standards Circular, Series C 5.32, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. 76 For greatest efficiency, these are the standards for maximum and minimum lengths for counter surfaces. There are specific requirements for wall and base cabinet storage space. .As a basis for determining the amount of storage space necessary, the number of bedrooms in the home has been used as a yard— stick. One person per bedroom plus an additional person for the master bedroom, is called the normal occupancy of a home. Studies show that six square feet of storage space in wall cabinets is required for each person at normal occupancy times, plus twelve square feet for entertaining and accumula- tion. Base cabinet storage requirements are measured on a lineal foot basis. Generally, base cabinets should occupy all space beneath the wall cabinets not already occupied by range, sink and refrigerator. Clearance Spaces. The correct space between counter surfaces and wall cabinets is determined by the height of the worker. Standard base cabinets are now thirty-six inches high to correspond to the established height of standard ranges and sinks. There should be sixteen inches clearance between the counter surface and the bottom of the wall cabinets. This is sufficient to clear the top of the food mixer and yet keep the wall cabinets as low as possible to permit easy reaching of all shelves. Research has shown thatfkn‘the average woman of five foot and five inches, 3 lower work surface is more convenient. ,A worker of this height works most easily at a counter thirty—two and a half inches above the floor. When 77 wall cabinets are located over the cooking surface of the range, a clearance of twenty-two inches between the surface of the range and the bottom of the cabinet is recommended. Utilities. Gas Service: Gas is clean, convenient, efficient, quick-heating and reasonable in cost. Check all gas appli- ances for the blue seal of the American Gas Association; this means that the appliances meet the minimum safety standards. Electric Service: Adequate wiring is very essential for good electric appliance performance. The range, hot water heater, the washer, the ironer, each should have its own in— dividual circuit with no other appliance on it. The functions of the electric service is to supply current for automatic controls, motor power and heat. The automatic electric water heater and the range require individual, twenty-three hundred volts-~thirty ampere fuse circuits. They need heavy duty cir- cuits. Check the electrical appliances for the seal of the Underwriters Laboratory. This means that the appliance meets the minimum safety requirements. Plumbing: Plumbing is a water transportation system, to carry water from one place to the other. Piping is gen- erally galvanized steel pipe, brass pipe or copper tubing. Good plumbing although expensive, is a worthwhile investment and saves money on a long time basis. Other Considerations. Hot Water: .A sufficient supply of hot water is 78 essential to good kitchen operation. The main thing is to have an adequate supply of hot water available. Proper Lighting: Proper lighting is another important requirement of a well-planned kitchen. Each work center should luive its own lighting fixtures. There should also be good general illumination from celing lights with conveniently placed wall switches. Adequate Wiring: It is essential that the well-planned kitchen have a sufficient number of electric circuits. The amount of electricity one circuit can supply is limited. Too many appliances operating at a time on a single electrical circuit may overload that circuit and cause it to get out of service. However, if the appliances are attached to more than one circuit all will work without interruption. Special heavy duty circuits are required for the range and the water heater. Electric outlets, at least a double outlet for portable appli- ances should be provided on each wall. Do not put all Outlets on the same circuit. Ventilation: The well-planned kitchen is complete with a ventilation fan to clear out cooking odors. The Laundry Room The following factors should be considered when plan— ning the laundry area. Location. The laundry area should be as close as pos- sible to the source of hot water, thus providing optimum 79 temperature for best laundering results. Careful considera- tion should be given to installation costs, such as plumbing and wiring. A.tie-in to existing plumbing and drain pipes provides a saving in construction. Some pieces of laundry equipment need individual electrical circuits for proper op- eration; this should be included in the plans. Convenience should always be weighed against costs, as sometimes this would compensate for the higher installation cost. First floor utilities have been popular in the past few years as they provide a saving of steps and stair climbing. The laun- dry can be done at the same time as other household duties. In the kitchen-laundry washing duties can be combined with kitchen activities. This is ideal from the standpoint of solving plumbing and drainage problems. Located in the bath- room, the laundry appliances are nearer the source of the majority of soiled clothing. .A tropical climate would rec- ommend a separate room for the laundry area. Wherever the laundry is placed it should be convenient for the user with adequate space for best usage. Layout. The layout of the laundry room uses the same principles as for kitchen planning-~setting up work centers and placing in proper order for efficiency and ease of working. There are four work centers in the laundry which are the prep- aration, washing, drying and finishing centers. Preparation Center: .All work prior to washing, in— cluding sorting, mending and stain removal, takes place in 80 this section. Equipment needed is a counter or table space, a sink, and a storage cabinet. Washing Center: The automatic washing machine does all the laundering functions of washing, rinsing and damp drying. If a conventional washer is used, there may be laun- dry tubs in this area. Drying Center: The dryer eliminates many weary muscles from handling wet clothes from washer to line. The dryer is the one piece of equipment needed here because it serves all the functions at this center. Finishing Center: This is the final step in the laun- dering procedure where sprinkling, pressing and folding are done. Some articles need only folding for storage from the dryer while others need pressing on the ironer or with a steam or dry iron. A.shelf or table and a rod or rack with hangers should be in close proximity to ironing facilities. Make careful plans for the laundry areas. .Allow ade- quate space around sink and ironing areas. Regardless of shape, the most usuable laundry area is the one which has equipment arranged to provide the best flow of work with the least amount of steps and ample wiring for equipment operation and adequate illumination. A well-planned laundry is essential for saving time and energy in laundering. .A well-planned laundry insures the best laundry procedures. 81 References 'l. Peet, Louise J., and Thye, Leonore S. Household Eguipment. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1953} 2. United States Department of Agriculture, "A Step-Saving 'U' Kitchen,"Home and Guide Bulletin No. In. 3. University of Illinois, "Kitchen Planning Standards," University of Illinois Bulletin, Circular Series Index No. C5.32. lllllllllll||l|||l|1|l|l|4||||||I||H!IIIHHHIIlillllllllll 31293 02429 2603