PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. To AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 6/01 c:/CIFIC/DateDue.p65—p. 15 THESIS A STUDY OF DECISIONS MADE BY ADOLESCENT GIRLS IN THE UH CLOTHING PROJECT by Anne Elizabeth Field A PROBLEM Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Home Economics of Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE College of Home Economics 1960 THESIS ACKNOWLEDGMENT Sincere appreciation is expressed to Dr. Beatrice Paolucci for her help, guidance, and inspiration; to Miss Jeannette Lee and Dr. Mary Lou Rosencranz for their sug- gestions and encouragement; and to William Kimball for the use of his goals testing instrument. Gratitude is also expressed to all the 4—H girls of Eaton County who so willingly cooperated to make this study possible. 11 TABLE OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT. LIST OF TABLES. Chapter I. INTRODUCTION II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE. CONTENTS III. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IV. METHODOLOGY. V. ANALYSIS OF DATA . . VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX. iii Page ii iv 13 l5 25 37 1+8 50 LIST OF TABLES Table Page I. Rankings of Goals and Per Cent of Close Relationships and Great Differences Between Goals and Reasons. . . . . . 28 2. Goal Choices of Pair of Sisters Compared. . 35 iv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Previous study of the process of decision-making created an interest in the extent to which basic values held by a person influence his economic and non-economic decisions. Major life goals seem to be selected on the basis of an individual's values, and in turn, both values and goals appear to be influential in many of the decisions the individual makes. However, the extent to which values influence many areas of decision—making remains to be investigated. Several years of work with 4—H members and leaders developed an interest in what satisfactions the clothing project offers to these members, and a concern whether this project, as organized, was meeting the needs of the older girls, who selected it. It was decided to investigate the relationship of values and goals to decision—making among 4-H clothing project members. Girls enrolling in 4—H clothing projects have many decisions to make. Those who are older may have more op— portunity to make autonomous decisions, and may have available more alternatives, resources, and ways of utilizing these resources to meet their needs. In the most advanced project, "4—H Senior Miss," which is open to girls fourteen through twenty, members make the followingvkindS'of decisions: . whether or not to enroll in a 4-H club whether or not to enroll in clothing what type of garment to make what pattern or style to select what fabric to select what construction methods to use what accessories to choose, either from the existing wardrobe or from the store Each decision which is made determines, to some extent, the nature of, or necessity for, the subsequent decisions. Certain external factors, such as the formal organization and requirements of the 4-H project, may set some limits within which these decisions can be made, as may the situa- tion of the girl herself in regard to her own resources of time, money, and skill. Various persons and figures of authority mayeihuainfluence her decision. However, it is believed that, within these possible limits, she will make her decisions on the basis of those values which she con- siders most important, and that she will also tend to regard the environmental factors from the standpoint of her values. A preliminary study, conducted as a clothing class project under the direction of Dr. Mary Lou Rosencranz, compiled data on the clothing behavior of ninety-five girls, fourteen through twenty years of age, currently enrolled in A—H clothing projects in Baton County, Michigan. From these girls, a sample of forty girls was selected for more intensive study of goals related to project decisions. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE It was first necessary to determine whether or not the theory that values and goals are closely related, and that they affect the way decisions are made received general support in the literature. The following references indicated support for this theory among social psychologists, economists, and home economists. The close relationship between values and goals and their influence upon decision-making has been discussed by Gross and Crandall, who indicate that values, are more internal and less able to be specifically defined than are goals. They state that a goal is: "Something definite toward which one works. . . . Goals stem from values whether or not either values or goals are clearly defined in the person's mind."l Bonner suggests that values are socially acquired through acculturation. Individual values are similar to social values, but are those which mean more to a particular individual because his self is more deeply involved in them.2 lIrma H. Gross and Elizabeth W. CrandalI, Management for Modern Families (New York: Appleton—Century—Crofts, Inc., 1954), pp- 36:59- 2Hubert Bonner, Social Psychology (New York: American Book Company, 1953), pp. 189:191. 3 Sherif believes we must consider the individual as part of a social group with established values, and that we can better understand his responses if we understand these values, but that we must also take into account individual 3 variations. Cutler, in her study of housing factors, indicated that individual patterns of preferences are con— sistent, for preferred characteristics are related to the values considered most important to the individual. She says: The values in daily living which, consciously or unconsciously, become of greatimportance to the individual, exert a magnetic power which draws the individual toward situations which are most likely to yield positive satisfaction for him. The values in a neutral zone, or of relatively less importance, are given lfiss consideration in goal-seeking activities. Allport's personality theory has placed emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual, the positive elements in his motivation, and the internal consistency of his behavior.5 Woodruff has also suggested a close relationship between an individual's value pattern and his behavior pattern, so that 3Muzafer Sherif, The Psychology of Social Norms (New York: Harper, 1936), pp. 113-142. “Virginia Cutler, "Personal and Family Values in the Choice of a Home," Cornell University Agricultural Bulletin 840, 1947. 5Calvin Hall and Gardner Lindzey, Theories of Personality (New York: John Wiley, 1957), pp. Q77—293. 6 testing for values may help in analyzing behavior. In a later article, he states: A person's values are considered to be his conscious or unconscious evaluation of a given list of basic states or conditions of life, such as having wealth, political power, excitement, living in comfort, main- taining personal improvement, and others. One's evaluation of any basic life condition is popularly said to fluctuate in relation to the circum— stances. For example, we do not value security highly until we become insecure. It may be more correct to say that the functional value of security does not fluctuate, but the verbalized value does. Hence one‘s basic and functional motives do not change rapidly, but the degree of awareness of what those basic values are may be greatly influenced by immediate experience, when such values are seriously involved.7 Nystrom discusses such fundamental human wants which have economic importance as the desire to live, hunger for food and drink, love of the opposite sex and of children, desire for companionship and friendship, tendencies to self-assertiveness and to play and adventure, curiosity and creativeness, the desire to travel, the desire for the beautiful, and the desire to own. He believes all these stem from latent feelings and emotions of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.8 Katona and Mueller believe that motiva- tional forces as well as enabling conditions influence 6Asahel D. Woodruff, "Personal Values and the Direction of Behavior," School Review, L (January, 19u2), pp. 32—42. 7Asahel D. Woodruff, "The Relationship Between Functional and Verbalized Motives,"£burnal of Educational Psychology, xxxv (1944). pp. 101, 107. 8Paul H. Nystrom, Economic Principles of Consumption (New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1929), pp. 52-61. consumer behavior. Habitual behavior is followed when previous results were satisfactory and the situation is familiar. When previous results were unsatisfactory, the situation is new, or the individual's attitudes change, problem solving behavior is utilized, based on the motiva— tions of the individual.9 Deising suggests that most decisions are not made after much conscious deliberation, but are made on the basis of values and goals held in thought. He says: "Decisions occur almost entirely at the subconscious level or at the threshold of consciousness with only a few steps requiring “10 conscious action. Allport and Cantril found many applications of the Allport—Vernon Values Scale in various situations where general value patterns were correlated with certain kinds of reSponses or behaviors. They state: Several experiments demonstrate a clear relationship between values and conduct. They show that a person's activity is not determined exclusively by the stimulus of the moment, nor by a merely transient interest, nor by a specific attitude peculiar to each situation which he encounters. The experiments prove, on the contrary, that general evaluative attitudes enter into various common activities of everyday life, and in so doing help to account for the consistencies of personality. ll 9George Katona and Eva Mueller, "A Study of Purchase Decisions," The Dynamics of Consumer Reaction, ed. Lincoln H. glark (New York: New York University Press, 1955), pp. 30- 7. loPaul Deising, "Non—Economic Decision Making," Ethics, var (1955). pp. 18—35. 11H. Cantril and G. W. Allport, "Recent Applications of The Study of Values," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XXVIII (1933), p. 272. If values and goals seem, then, to be closely related to decisions made, and, therefore, to observed behavior, is this as true in the field of clothing behavior as it is generally? Several different theories have been advanced as to the reasons for clothing behavior, both in the past and in the present. The authors cited next manifested a strong belief that clothing offered a good opportunity for expression of goals and values, and that such behavior was, therefore, closely related to the individual's value pattern. What indications then, do we have of the importance of values and goals in guiding clothing behavior, especially that of adolescent girls? Hartmann indicated the differences in clothing choices that might be made by different types of personalities classified according to the Spranger Value Profile. He suggests that rational decision making about clothing must consider the interests of both the heart and the head. As he says: Thadeliberate effort to be fully ”intelligent" (in Dewey’s sense) about clothes requires the formation and application of an Optimal Value Pattern; that is, a structure of choice-determinants or principles which jointly produce the maximum good that any sit- uation permits. . . . Clothes are therefore, "valuable" (in the larger psychological sense which embrances more than the narrowly economic) only to the degree that they enhance the value experiences of the persons who wear them or who are otherwise affected by them.12 Finlayson, in studying components of satisfaction important to college girls in selecting sweaters, found a l2George Hartmann, "Clothing: Personal Problem and Social Issue," Journal of Home Economics, XLI (June, 1949), p. P96. strong relationship between components deemed important and the general value pattern of the girl.13 Treece, in analyzing the social—psychological base of clothing behavior, suggested that clothing functions to help achieve certain goals of the self, such as self—expression, self-enhancement, and per— sonality expression to others. Recognition and power may both be gained through clothing behavior, though there is less opportunity for the latter. Clothing may be used to impress others, to gain acceptance in a group, and to indi- cate membership in the group. Clothing behavior may also manifest individual rebellion against group customs. She states: Paths to goal achievement are varied and devious. Clothing is a visible, material object which can be displayed advantageously to others. Because of their materialistic values, and the importance attached to ability to consume by Americans, clothing holds con— siderabli potential for anyone who wishes to impress others.1 The degree of success which clothing fulfills individ- ual needs depends upon the beliefs, perceptions, experience motives, and goals of the family members involved.15 Hoyt suggests that clothing, as with other consumption items, serves to fill needs for psychological security and l3Bliss Finlayson, "An Investigation of Consumer Motivation in the Selection of Sweaters as Related to General Personal Values" (unpublished Master's thesis, Cornell University, 1959). 1“Anna Jean Treece, "An Interpretation of Clothing Behavior Based on Social-Psychological Theory" (unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1959), p. 101. l51bid., p. 1AM. self-expression which may be more important than their more obvious reasons. She says: One of the most conspicuous examples of desire for social approval shows up in clothing. In the United States at least half, and perhaps nine tenths of the appeal of clothes is social. Social importance begins with the outer wear but reaches also what is worn beneath. It is for social reasons that we have so many conventions, it is for social reasons that the styles change, and it is largely for social reasons that people have so much variety in their clothes.16 Since the specific group to be studied were adolescent girls, references were also examined relating to their patterns of values and of choice making. Of particular interest were studies examining the clothing behavior of adolescent girls. Hurlock characterizes adolescence as a period of great adjustment characterized by stress and anxieties. Adolescents must make satisfactory adjustments in the areas of emancipation from home, heterosexual interests, use of leisure time, and a satisfactory philosophy of life. Instability, especially in early teen years, is a sign of growing up. Social approval 17 and group acceptance are very important at this age. Cavan says: "Extreme dependence upon the peer group for approval 1:18 and friendship is a passing phase of adolsecence. l6Elizabeth Hoyt The Income of Society (New York: Ronald Press 00., 1950), p. 51. l7Elizabeth Hurlock, Adolescent Development (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1949f, Chapter 1. 18Ruth Shonle Cavan, The American Family (New York: Thomas Crowell Company, 1953), p. 293. IO Sutton comments that children learn expenditure patterns, as they do other patterns of behavior, by observing their parents and adopting their values. He believes, however, that the high degree of autonomy enjoyed by adolescents today tends to produce patterns of consumption and other behavior somewhat different from that of their parents. The youth may also absorb ideas from the mass culture, such as the quest for security, and may act as opinion leaders for their parents.19 Silverman, studied psychological implications of clothing among nearly four hundred junior and senior high school girls, and found clothing choices were motivated by the desire for comfort, conformity, social acceptance, individ— uality, self-confidence, fashion, sexual attractiveness, and awareness of self. The approval of elder peers was sought to gain attention, affection, love, or employment. Conformity to group standards of dress was very important, but individ— uality was manifested in color, fabric, and design choices. Consideration of their mother‘s ideas on clothing was felt important by ninety per cent, but older girls felt more strongly that they should have more freedom of choice.20 Davis's study of one hundred high school girls sixteen to eighteen years old, showed that seventy per cent felt they had decided for 19Francis X. Sutton, "Comments on 'Careers and Consumer Behavior',” The Life Cycle and Consumer Behavior, ed. Lincoln H. Clark (New York: New York University Press, 1955), pp. 17—20. 20Sylvia Silverman, "Clothing and Appearance: Their Psychological Implications for Teen Age Girls," Bureau of Pub- lications, No. 912, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1945. ll themselves on their most recent clothing purchase, but that also a little over half relied on their mothers for help in planning and selection of their wardrobe.21 Grace Leask, who conducted a joint survey with Ann Rosner, found that the clothing choices of the one hundred high school girls studied were influenced most by advertising, next by their parents, and third by the peer group. These girls, like those in Silverman‘s study, also wanted both the approval of their mothers and freedom to choose for themselves.22 Vener and Hoffer in studying nearly eight hundred junior high and high school students, found that the approval of the mother and the peer group were very important in clothing choices, with older siblings being somewhat important in some families, and fathers not significantly important. Seniors tended to refer less often to another person as influential in clothing decisions, thus indicating that older adolescents have inter- nalized group norms and developed their own acceptable stan- dards of clothing behavior.23 21Linda Lee, "Decision Making in Clothing Purchases of 100 High School Students in Five High Schools of Morgan County, Indiana" (unpublished Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1958). 22Grace Leask, "A Survey of the Clothing Preferences and Buying Practices of 100 Girls of West Division High School in Milwaukee, Wisconsin" (unpublished‘Master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1954). 23Arthur M. Vener and Charles R. Hoffer, "Adolescent Orientations to Clothing," Michigan State University Bulletin T—270, 1959. 12 The references examined, whether specific studies or general social-psychological analysis (theory) indicate that an individual‘s values and goals do affect the decisions he makes, and are therefore, reflected in hisbehavior, including that related to clothing. It appears that clothing offers an important avenue of self-expression to adolescent girls, and that socially oriented values and goals are apt to be most important in influencing clothing decisions for this age group. CHAPTER III STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The purpose of this study is to examine the values and goals held by certain groups of adolescent 4-H club clothing members and the relationship of those values and goals to the decisions these members make, both in selecting a 4—H project and in selecting a specific type of garment to make for that project. The plan of this study is based upon the following assumption: 8.. C . that basic goals and values remain quite constant over a period of time so that values influential in project decisions would be the same at the time of study as those at the beginning of the project year, that adolescent girls are aware of the goals which are important to them, that values may be inferred from consciously expressed goals. Hypotheses to be tested by this study are the following: 1. Goals and values considered more important by 4-H girls will be more influential than will the less important ones in their project decisions. These girls will give reasons related to certain goals the same relative importance in their project decisions as they give to these goals in a general ranking. 13 14 2. Socially oriented values and goals will be most important in determining the choices of 4—H girls. CHAPTER IV METHODOLOGY Planning for this study began with the results of a previous study, made a couple of months before this study, which had examined some aspects of clothing behavior of ninety-five 4—H girls, by means of a mailed questionnaire. The ninety-five girls were those who answered the question- naire out of a total of 118 girls, fourteen years through twenty years of age, who had enrolled in a 4-H clothing project in Eaton County, Michigan, at the start of the project year 1960. Some girls dropped the project, while others did not answer the questionnaire. Clothing projects in Michigan were currently divided on an age level basis, with those fourteen and over usually enrolled in "Senior Miss," the most advanced project, which offered more possible choices as to the kind of garments that could be made. Most of the ninety-five girls were in this division, "Senior Miss," and most had been high school students during the project year. In selecting the sample for the present study, girls who had not yet attended high school, or who had been in - college during the project year, were eliminated from the list. Then a sample of forty girls, or approximately half of those remaining, was selected. Every other girl was 15 16 selected from the alphabetical list of names. When two sisters appeared together on the list, both were selected, and then two names were skipped on the list. One girl did not wish to be interviewed so another girl in the same age grouping was chosen in her place. The girls were contacted by telephone and interviews which were held in their homes were arranged. Because of convenience eight girls were not interviewed in their homes; three were contacted at a local club meeting and five in some one else's home. When more than one girl was interviewed at the same time, the open- ended questions were asked of each girl individually, the "goals' test" and'reasons checklist" were explained together, and each girl worked on them at her own speed. Each girl‘s ranking of goals was discussed briefly with her at the end of the interview. Otherwise, the individual interviews were held with just one girl, without her parents present during the actual interview except in one case. Each individual interview ranged from forty-five minutes to one and one-half hours, depending on the amount of discussion and the girl's speed in making goal choices. All girls were from fourteen to eighteen years old and all had been in high school the previous year. Their years of 4-H club membership ranged from one to eight years, with an average membership of 5.3 years. More had been members for six years than for any other length of time. The average 1? tenure of 4—H membership in Michigan is 2.5 years, so that the girls in this sample had been in 4-H twice as long as the average member. Twenty-nine of the girls had had some home economics training in school, ranging from one to four semesters, with the average being 1.8 semesters. The literature was reviewed to find by what means it might be possible to discover what goals and values these girls held, and what relationship these goals and values bore to their clothing project decisions and behavior. Finlayson tested three values, the aesthetic, the social, and the practical, which were based on the Allport- Vernon Values Test, in the selection of sweaters by college girls, and in their satisfaction with them. By means of paired comparisons, she offered each respondent a maximum of six opportunities to choose each value. Choosing a value four or more times was considered a high ranking, while choosing it three times or less was considered a low ranking. Components of satisfaction with these sweaters, such as becomingness, which might be explained in terms of these values, were tested by two different means, another series of paired comparisons, and an adjustable pie graph, and the order of preference in each method was compared, with the pie graph proving as accurate as the paired comparisons, and easier to administer if not too many components were to be 24 compared. 2“Finlayson, op. cit. 18 Woodruff tested the value references of college students and professors, both in their verbalized rankings (what they said was most important in a list of values), and in their functional rankings (the way they ranked the same values by means of a series of paired choices). He found that the two rankings tended to agree in more mature people, but that the functional rankings in which the individual compares each value with each other value but only conSiders two values at a time seemed more stable and indicative of how the person really felt. The fifty—four college students, who were slightly above the age of the group to be studied in this project, ranked the values as follows (in order of descending preference): home life, friendship, social service, personal improvement, security, comfort, religion, intellectual activity, society, excitement, political power, and wealth.25 Allport and Cantril, in analyzing applications of the Allport—Vernon Values Test, caution that, since a preference for one value is at the expense of another, ranking does not measure intensity of feeling about each value. Therefore, one individual's score for one value cannot be compared directly with another individual‘s score. They explain: If A receives 57 for his economic value, and if B scores 42 for the same value, it does not necessarily follow 25Woodruff, "The Relationship Between Functional and Verbalized Motive," op. cit. 19 that A is more economic than B. The two scores do not represent absolute levels of interest, but signify only that in the case of A the economic value plays a rela- tigilytmggzSpigméfizngagglifig.8%8 hierarchy of interests In other words, one cannot ask two individuals to rank a list of basic values from first to last in order of prefer- ence, and then assume because Individual A ranks one value first, and Individual B ranks it second, that it is of less importance to B than to A. Individual B may feel more strongly about several values than does A. The only point one has established is that this value would probably be the first one A would consider in making a decision, while B, in having to make a choice in which both his first and second ranked values were involved, might encounter some conflict, but would probably choose on the basis of his first ranked value. Since individuals vary in the intensity of their feelings, we need to be careful about making assumptions as to the relative strength of their attitudes. In gathering data, Lazarsfeld suggests the open interview offers the most flexibility in getting truthful answers from the respondent with a minimum of understanding. Predetermined questions give structure and cohesiveness to the interview, but the opportunity for both interviewer and respondent to ask further questions may help to clarify both questions and 26 Cantril and Allport, op. cit., p. 272. 20 answers and help prevent misunderstandings which result in erroneous assumptions.27 Warner and Lunt suggest the interview establishes a social, reciprocal relation between the interviewer and the respondent, and information is always gathered in the con- text of this relationship so that the facts obtained are affected by it. The objective of the interview is to get the respondent to discuss his behavior easily and freely, and the possibility the interview offers of accomplishing this, off- sets the danger that the relationship established may bias the information given.28 Good suggests that in selecting a problem for study, some important criteria to apply are: novelty, importance for the field represented, personal interest and training,. availability of data and method, special equipment and con- ditions needed, sponsorship or cooperation, costs, hazards and handicaps, and the factor of time. All of these criteria were applied as yardsticks to the proposed problem idea. It was decided that inspite of the possible handicaps of lack of time and statistical knowledge, and previous acquaintance with some of the girls which might possibly add some bias to 27Paul Lazarsfeld, "The Art of Asking Why," National Marketing Review, I (Summer, 1935), pp. 32-43, reprinted in Public Opinion and Propaganda, D. Katz, D. Cartwright, and S. Eldersveld. 28 W. Lloyd Warner and Paul S. Lunt, The Social Life of a Modern Community (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941), pp. 45-53. 21 interviews, this problem would be feasible, interesting, and worthwhile to study.29 It was originally planned to use the Allport—Vernon Values Test to determine the values most important to the girls, and then, in order to establish the importance of their values in their decisions, to compare these with the reasons they stated as most important in their decisions to enroll in the A—H project and to choose certain garments to make. A copy of the Allport—Vernon Values Test was examined in the Michigan State University Department of Psychology, but the department advised that the test not be used with high school girls, since the questions it contained were developed for those with at least some college training, and. contained terms and concepts that would be unfamiliar to most of the younger age group. The researcher then decided to use a values test devel- oped by William Kimball in a doctoral study under progress at the University of Chicago.30 Interviews for this study had been conducted in Eaton County a few years previously with fifty farm couples. The researcher had assisted Mr. Kimball by interviewing the farm homemakers, and so had some experience in administering this test. Pretesting on a few younger teen agers indicated that this test was easily 29Carter Good and Douglas Scates, Methods of Research (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954). 30William Kimball, Doctoral study in Progress, University of Chicago. 22 understood by this age group. Since goals were believed to grow out of values and to be closely related to them, a determination of which goals they considered most important in life would also indicate which values they held. It was believed, therefore, that the decisions they made regarding project enrollment and selection of a garment would bear the same general relationship to their values. The test consisted of sixty-six paired choices, so that each of twelve statements was compared with all the other eleven statements. These were then ranked in order of number of times chosen, to present an indication of what goals and values each girl felt was most important. Each statement represented a different goal, and the twelve goals included were: To be reasonably free from worry about health and basic necessities for myself and my family To have influence with people To have people think well of me To do things for people To have as much freedom as possible in the way I live my life To do new and different things often To have friends To have happy family relationships To do what is right according to my beliefs To have things neat, orderly, and designed to save effort To have as many good things as possible To do things well 23 In the class study of ninety—five 4—H girls done previously, a number of reasons had been given by the girls in response to open-end questions as to why they had enrolled in the 4—H project and why they selected a certain garment to make. On the basis of these responses, a check list was prepared for the present study, including several possible reasons for enrolling in the 4-H project and for choosing a garment to make. Each reason was related to one of the twelve goal statements and each goal had at least one corres— ponding reason. For example, the reason for taking the project, ”My family believes I should take this project," and the reasons for selecting a certain garment to make, "Make something my mother liked," and "Make something the rest of my family liked," were related to the goal, "To have happy family relationships." The girls were asked to rate each reason as "Very Important," "Somewhat Important," or "Not Important" to them in their decisions that year to enroll in the project and to make the specific garment they had just completed. Some open—ended questions on the decision to take the 4—H clothing project at time of first enrollment, and at the beginning of the current project year, and the decision to make a specific garment were asked at the beginning of the interview. The values test was explained and administered next, since it was felt there would be less bias if this was 2A answered before the open—ended questions concerning reasons for decisions were asked. The girl ranked the reasons for the project and garment decisions while the interviewer com- puted her goal scores and ranking so the girl could see these at the end of the interview. Most of the girls seemed extremely interested in this. Last of all, some open-ended questions on clothing behavior and roles were asked in relation to another study which offered some valuable insights into the beliefs and clothing interests of the girls. Copies of all the questions used in the interview schedule will be found in the Appendix. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF DATA In order to determine what effect goals and values con- sidered important by these girls had on their project decisions, the relative importance accorded each goal and its related reasons were compared. Because many girls produced ties in the total number of choices of some goal statements, it was not possible to consider the goals accurately on the basis of individual rankings alone. Therefore, the raw scores of the number of times each goal was selected were used in analyzing that data, and the number of times a specific goal was chosen over other goals by an individual was considered the indicator of its relative importance to her. In order to be able to compare the reason choices, which were not made on a numerical basis, arbitrary weights of "10.5" for "Very Important,” or "6.5" for "Somewhat Important," or ”2.5" for "Not Important," were applied to each reason, according to the way the girl answered it. The mean numerical weight of all the reasons related to a particular goal were then computed, and compared to the raw score of choices of that goal. Where a difference of not more than 2.5 existed, a close relationship between goals and decisions was assumed. 25 26 Differences of more than 6.5 between goals and related reasons were characterized as "great differences." Consistency of reasons for decisions and goals was analyzed on an individual basis for each girl in the study, 31 since, as Cantril and Allport have pointed out, we cannot compare the score of value preferences for one individual directly with the score for another, but must take into account individual variations in intensity of feeling. There- fore, the difference between the numerical weighting of each goal and of the reasons related to it was computed as described in the preceding paragraph, for each girl rather than computing consistency between total goal and reason scores of all the girls. It was believed that if a girl tended to accord the same relative importance to reasons for a decision which appeared to be related to a certain goal as she did to the goal in general, this would indicate a relationship between life goals and values, and decisions in the 4-H clothing project. For example, the reason for joining the club "to help others" was believed to be related to the goal "to do things for people.” A close relationship between a goal and reasons for choosing the project and garment related to that goal was indicated in 42 per cent of the comparisons. This ranged from a htgh of 68 per cent of the individuals showing a 31Cantril and Allport, op. cit. 27 close relationship in goals four and nine,"to help people" and "to do what is right," to a low of 8 per cent indicating a close relationship in goal eleven, "to have as many good things as possible." When the total number of times each goal was chosen by each girl were added together to get a total score of prefer- ence for each goal, a pattern of ranking of goals was estab- lished for the entire group. When this order of importance of the goals for the group as a whole was compared with the order of the closeness of the relationship between goals and reasons given, in nine of the twelve cases the rankings were identical as shown in Table 1. With the exception of the fourth and sixth ranking goals, which showed a close relation— ship for M8 and 43 per cent of the girls, respectively, all seven goals ranked at the top of the preferences showed a close relationship for more than half of the subjects. In part, this might have been caused by the tendency of many ' rather than "somewhat," girls to rate more reasons as "very,' or "not important." There seems to be evidence of closer relationship of goal to strength of reasons given in decisions, for those goals which are most important to the group as a whole. Also when the areas of greatest differences between goals and reasons (those with numerical differences greater than 6.5) are examined, it is seen that the highest per cent of difference occurs with those three goals ranked lowest 28 TABLE 1 RANKINGS OF GOALS AND PER CENT OF CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS AND GREAT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GOALS AND REASONS fl r‘—‘ Per Cent of Per Cent of Rank Individuals Individuals Goals by Indicating Indicating Total Close Great Group Relations Differences To do what is right according to my beliefs lst 68 5 To have happy family , relationships 2nd 55 3 To do things for people 3rd 68 O To be reasonably free from worry about health and basic necessities Ath A8 10 To have friends 5th 60 O To do things well 6th 43 3 To have people think well of me 7th 58 0 To have things neat, orderly, and designed to save effort 8th 18 13 To have influence with people 9th 33 13 To do new and different things often 10th 15 35 To have as much freedom as possible 11th 13 55 To have as many good things as possible 12th 8 55 29 by the group. Differences were indicated by thirty—five per cent of the girls with the tenth ranked goal,"to do new and different things often,‘ while over half, fifty- five per cent, showed great differences in the two goals ranked last, "to have as much freedom as possible," and "to have as many good things as possible." It is inter- esting to note that with three socially—oriented goals, H "to do things for people,” to have friends, and "to I have people think well of me,‘ there were no girls indi— cating as great a difference as 6.6 points between goals and reasons for their project decisions. This might indicate these socially—oriented goals, whether ranked high or low by girls, were closely related to their decisions. When individual patterns of consistency are studied, the number of close relationships indicated by each girl ranged from one for a sixteen year old girl, to eight for a seventeen year old. The latter was the only girl who was not interested in seeing her goal rankings, remarking that she did not mean to be conceited but that she was quite sure of what she thought was most important. The patterns for the youngest girls (seven who were four- teen) and the oldest girls (five who were eighteen) were studied separately, but the samples were too small to draw any significant conclusions. There was, however, a 30 tendency for the older girls to show more close relationships between goals and reasons than for the younger ones, possibly because they were more sure of their beliefs and more definite about what was important to them. The most important goal for these girls was "to do what is right according to my beliefs,” which was different from the interviewer‘s expectation. Often, in verbalizing goal preferences at the start of the interview, the girls did not mention this, but in the functionalized ranking made through the paired comparisons, this came out first. Goals next in importance were, in order, "to have happy. I family relationships,‘ "to do things for people," and "to be reasonably free from worry." This same pattern was followed by the youngest (fourteen year olds) and oldest (eighteen year olds). Although these two age groups were too small for conclusive analysis, it was noted that the older girls varied from the average ranking shown in Table l by placing "to do things well" and "to have people think well of me" ahead of "having friends,‘ while the younger girls ranked "having more freedom and more good things" ahead of "doing new and different things” in the lower categories. The fourteen year olds seemed to give more emphasis to freedom, possibly because they were at the age when they desired more freedom but were not yet able to attain it. The greater emphasis given "to doing what was considered right" and "to happy family relationships" by the girls and the 31 lesser importance given to freedom, suggests possibly these girls were more concerned with satisfactory adjustment to a philosophy of life than to emancipation from home and other restraints. Most of the girls, in considering family rela— tionships, indicated they were thinking primarily of their family of orientation, and only two girls, one of whom was engaged, indicated they were thinking primarily of their future family. From literature cited on adolescents, it had been expected that social approval and having friends might have been ranked higher than they were. Cantril and Allport's caution must be remembered, though, because some girls indicated all the goals were important to them, even those they ranked quite low.32 Reasons checked by at least seventy-five per cent of the girls as very important reasons for taking the 4-H clothing project, included the following, in order of decreasing preference: To learn to make new things To learn how to dress correctly To learn how to get along with others Gives me sense of accomplishment Learn easier, more efficient ways of doing things Can help others in club .Can have better clothes Can be in activities and meet new people Learn to choose my own garments I buy \OCIJNChU'I-F—‘UJIUH No girl checked numbers 1, 2, A, 6, or 8 as not impor- tant in her decision to join the 4-H clothing club. Reasons indicated as least important included, in order of increasing preference: 32Cantril and Allport, op. cit. 32 21. My family believes I should take this project 20. Have position of leadership in club 19. Win recognition for what I do Both winning recognition and having a leadership posi- tion were more important to the eighteen year olds, and least important to the fourteen year olds. This may be related to the realities of the present 4-H program which offers more opportunities in both these areas to older members than to younger ones. Among the most important reasons, learning how to dress correctly was most important to the fourteen year olds, while having better clothes and helping others were more important to the eighteen year olds. In deciding to make a specific garment for that year's project, over seventy-five per cent of the girls indicated the following reasons were very important, in order of decreasing preference: 1. To make one of better quality than could be purchased 2. To learn the best way to make that type of garment 3. To make something practical for many situations A. To make something she considered suitable to wear No one checked numbers 1 and A as not important to them, and all those eighteen checked number 1 as very important to them, as well as checking "saved money over bying this garment” as very important. This response may be related to the fact that all these older girls had made formals or party dresses, where with skill and experience a considerable saving might be affected over purchasing a well made, expensive garment. 33 Reasons indicated as least important in deciding to make the specific garment, were, in order of increasing preference: To make something their friends made To follow a new fashion trend To have a garment like others were wearing To select something that could be made easily, without any problems or worries No eighteen year olds checked any of these four points as very important reasons in their decisions. These goals oriented toward social values, such as happy family relationships, helping others, friendship, social approval, and influence with others, were given strong emphasis for the most part, but other goals, such as doing right, security, and doing things well were consid— ered equally important. At least half the girls suggested eight socially oriented reasons as being important in deciding to enroll in the clothing project, and five 'socially oriented reasons as important in selecting a garment to make, nonerated as the most important. Reasons related to social values which were considered important by at least half the girls were: For Taking the 4—H Project For Making a Certain Garment Learn how to dress correctly Make something mother liked Learn how to get along with Make something the rest of others the family liked Can help others in club Help make a good impression Can be in activities and - on others meet new people Have a garment like others Can learn from others were wearing Like to work better in a group To be with friends 34 Most of the socially oriented reasons for making the garment were rated somewhat important, rather than very im— portant by the girls. From these ratings of reasons, it seems that social reasons, such as, working with others, meeting new people, et cetera, seem to be more important reasons for deciding to become a 4-H club member, while the decision to make a certain garment seems to be governed more by the desire to accomplish, to create, and to have better garments than can be purchased. Since seven pairs of sisters were interviewed in this study, their replies were analyzed to see how similar they were. It was found that the number of close relationships between goals and reasons each indicated was nearly the same, not varying more than one. However, the goals and reasons to which these applied, and their preferences for certain goals and reasons, were quite different. A difference of two points or more in goal choices was indicated in six to eleven goals for the seven pairs. In fact, two unrelated girls, interviewed in sequence, who were later found to be very close friends, had closer scores on goal and reasons preferences than did any of the pairs of sisters. Only one pair, 3A and 35, seemed to be quite close. Table 2 presents the raw scores of goal choices for the seven pairs of sisters. Younger sisters tended to choose friends and good things more often, while older sisters were more apt to select influence and doing right. Perhaps the younger girls were yet less .mcoapmosv moaono ooafimm wCHnSU mawow nozuo on oocoaomopm CH Hmow wasp oopooaom anew some mosau mo tones: one monoom .poumam powCSOh H N ”acumen hopao H o "mom 35 NO\ m H OH HH : m 0H m w m m m o m o m H m o 0 Ha s HH m an a m o m HH s 0H m s as m OH on e w m m o w m s Haoz swears oo on o m manfimmoa mm mwcfinp coow made mm o>m2 09 m w upommo o>Mm qhHHoUpo sumo: mwcanp o>mn 09 0H m pawns we use: co on m m newcmsoflumaoa hHHEmm hand: o>mn 08 N HH mucofihm o>mn 08 s 0H eoemo swears nachommfic can So: on 09 H o canflmmom mm Eocoohm Sosa mm o>m£ 09 w : oHQomQ pom mwcflnu op 09 w m o5 mo Haoz xcflnu oaaooa o>mn 09 m m cosmSHmcH m>ms 09 OH m hhhoz Eonm oohm handsommoh on 99 O O M O N O N O N O N U hflmm a once m sees a than 0 than monoom < pawn mamoc Qmm¢mzoo mmmBmHm mo mH¢m mo mMOHOmo A¢Ow m mum¢9 36 sure of themselves, and so were more conscious of needing material possessions and of wanting friends, while the older girls had developed more self—confidence and individ- uality, were more sure of their own beliefs and values, and enjoyed leadership and having others come to them for help. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This study of forty adolescent 4—H girls pointed out which major goals were most important to them in life, and indicated some relationship between these important goals and the 4—H project decisions made by the girls. Over half of the girls indicated a close relationship between important goals and project decisions; one—fourth to two-fifths indi- cated some slight relationship; and a few, from three per cent to six per cent, indicated a great difference between major goals and project decisions. Very little correlation was shown between the least important goals and project decisions. This may indicate that a more important goal or value is more influential in a decision, but it might alsofi indicate that a goal which is ranked lower in preference could still be important to the individual, and could still influence decisions in certain areas of behavior. For example, the goals of "doing new and different things often" and ”having as many good things as possible" were ranked low, but reasons related to these goals, such as "having new experiences" and ”having more and better .clothes" were rated very high in the decisions to take the 4—H clothing project and to make a certain kind of garment. 37 38 Individuals to whom these goals were somewhat important might find that the 4-H clothing project offered them opportunities to fulfill them, and these goals might, therefore, function as more important determinants in 4—H clothing project decisions than in other areas of decision making. Likewise, the goal of "being reasonably free from worry" was ranked quite high by most girls, but appeared to be quite‘Tmportant in project decisions. Possibly the girls do not feel the need of security in the 4—H project situation, or perhaps other goals, such as"approval of family and friends,"'beliefs of what is right,” and "the desire to work with and to help others" are more important in controlling behavior in the 4—H club experience. The first hypothesis, that goals and values considered more important will be more influential in project decisions and that reasons related to certain goals will be accorded the same relative importance as the goals, was partially supported by the data. The six goals ranked in the upper half of preference by the girls were closely correlated with reasons for project decisions by about half or more of the girls, and in some cases, girls indicated that reasons related to their most important goals were not considered important at all in making clothing project decisions. The greatest number of differences between an important goal and related reasons was found with the goal "to be reasonably free from worry,’ which did not seem as relevant to the project situation for many girls. All goals do not seem to 39 be equally influential in producing responses in all situ- ations, and some seem to relate more to certain types of behavior than to others. This accords somewhat with Finlayson's findings that one value was reflected much more in clothing responses than were the other two tested.33 It is possible that a different method of ascertaining reasons, such as paired comparisons or some other method which forces the subjects to rank reasons preferentially, might produce a clearer and more accurate picture. The second hypothesis, that social values would be more important in project decisions, was only partially sup— ported by the data. Two goals centered on relationships with other people "to have happy family relationships"and "to do things for others," and ”to have others think well of me," were in the middle area of preference, and one, ”to have influence with people," ranked quite low, averaging ninth place for the total group. In general, this was ranked higher than the average by girls currently more active in 4—H club leadership, and one girl placed it at the top of her list. Some girls, who said filling a leadership role in the club was an important reason for joining, indicated they liked to help younger members, but disliked being thought of as a leader. Since happy group relationships, the desire to do what they felt right, and helping others were most important to these girls, it may be that girls who value such ideals are 33Finlayson, op. cit. ranked high, two, "to have friends," 40 more likely to remain in 4-H work. Social reasons were much more important in deciding to join the club than in selecting a garment to make, thus indicating that different motivations may be involved in these two areas of decision. Implications of Study The 4-H clothing project, as presently organized, appears to offer opportunities for girls to meet their goals. However, many times, the things which have been emphasized in A-H clothing work in the past were not the things these girls considered most important. Winning recognition for what they do, while more important to older girls who have more chances for recognition, did not seem as important to all the girls, while a sense of accomplishment seemed to be quite important to most of them. Perhaps more attention needs to be paid to ways of helping all girls find more satisfaction in what they accomplish, and less attention paid to special winners. Some girls may aim much higher than do others and possess the necessary ability to reach their higher goals; but girls who will never be expert sewers or dress revue stars need to be challenged to the limits of their skill and find satisfaction in meeting that challenge. Also, since being in new activities, going places, and meeting new people was so important to these girls, per- haps recognition in the form of trips, large or small, is the best kind of reward. One girl who had achieved quite Al high honors last year in clothing contests, mentioned her chief reason for joining again was to try for a chance to go back to State this year--not just to be a winner, but because of the fun she had and the new people she met. Interest indicated by these girls in learning to dress correctly and in learning easier, more efficient methods of sewing, suggests that these points should receive increased emphasis in the clothing project, especially for older girls. The present de—emphasis on the old ”one perfect 4-H method" should continue. Requirements are important as guidelines, but they should not become immoveable walls. For example, the construction of tailored suits is not recommended until the girl has had two or three years of advanced work, and, in most cases,this seems to be a good idea. Yet one girl who was just starting in advanced projects had attended evening school tailoring classes with her mother to learn to make her suit. Another, also in her first advanced pro- ject, had made a suit she could wear to school dress-up functions, whereas the previous year she had stayed home when she did not have anything good enough to wear. The uniqueness of the individual and his particular needs and desires, need to be taken into account, both in setting project standards and in departing from them. Perhaps more attention should be given in the beginning projects, with ten and eleven year olds, to teaching good but simple construction methods so that girls have the security A2 of knowing basic methods to obtain satisfactory results in what they make. Then, through the intermediate years of the Junior Miss projects, in which twelve, thirteen, and some fourteen year olds enroll, other methods of performing the same construction details, such as different ways to hem or finish seams, should be introduced where practical, so that girls may be made aware that usually there is more than one good way to obtain good results in sewing. Since the fourteen year olds in this study were the most interested in learning to dress correctly, possibly good standards of dress, relevant to current teen fashions, could be best emphasized during the Junior Miss, early teen years. When girls fourteen through twenty enroll in Senior Miss, they should be actively‘encouraged to try new methods and dif- ferent types of patterns and fabrics than they have tried before. Their creative interest and the desire to learn new things and to make challenging garments, which were indicated as important interests, should be stimulated. Many girls at this age are extremely busy with school and social activi- ties and part time jobs; but perhaps optional activities could be introduced into advanced projects, such as making one‘s own pressing aids, remodeling garments, and altering ready—mades could be introduced. Girls in this age group, who need a more extensive and varied wardrobe, could well have more emphasis on total wardrobe planning and coordination, possibly with the aid 43 of wardrobe checklists as part of their project. Information should be given them on which garments offer the greatest money savings in home sewing, since most girls do not have unlimited time to sew, and yet the older ones in particular were very interested in making clothes of a quality better than they could afford to purchase. Girls should have chances again to take part in judging activities, with more judging emphasis on buying ready—mades to get the most for their money, and with sweaters, undergarments, shoes, and hose included as well as regular garments. Judging contests in the past have concentrated largely on construction, but such activities might be included as the selection of a fabric for a specific pattern, selection of a garment or accessory to fit into a certain wardrobe, or the best kinds of seams or hems for different types of fabrics and garment uses. More girls indicated ”to do what is right according to my beliefs” was more important than any other goals. Perhaps we need to emphasize the ideals of the 4-H movement more, and also to give older members more chance to express and clarify their beliefs. Since helping others was also very important, perhaps the age for official junior leadership could be lowered from fifteen to fourteen so that more girls who were qualified could participate in this. More help should be given leaders in understanding the interests and aspirations of youth, but this should not be used just as a tool by the leaders alone. The great interest 2m of these girls in examining what they themselves thought, indicates that more attention could be paid to why something is done, as well as how. All advanced projects, in other areas as well as in clothing, should offer members more op- portunity to understand their own values, and to make their own decisions, based on these values. Why could not all leaders discuss with these girls their goals, and how they can adapt their project to meet those goals. Some discussion of this in project groups might help girls become more aware of their own goals and how they are or are not meeting them. Sometimes making too fancy formals and party dresses is discouraged; yet the questions on roles and the previous study indicated girls feel "best dressed” in such garments. So per- haps we should emphasize ways of helping them be glamorous at less expense, and in home sewing, with garments within their range of time and skill. Girls also indicated meeting new people and learning to get along with others were important reasons for'project en} rollment. County events, such as dress revues, have usually been planned with an eye to smooth operation and rapid judging; but they might also offer more opportunities for girls to get acquainted. Interest in this and in correct dress might be met with special pre-revue programs for older girls on style, manner of dress, and grooming, with these girls assuming the responsibility of helping the younger ones in their clubs, who look up to them. 45 Some changes in judging might help to give all girls more of a sense of accomplishment, but just how to do this is dif— ficult to perceive. More forms for members to fill out is not a good idea, and yet a girl might, at the start of her project, indicate what new things she planned to learn, and then report on this at the end of the project. A garment on the wall which receives an “A,” "B," or "C" ribbon can hardly measure all the girl‘s aspiration and accomplishment, and this situ- ation prevails with most projects. Since no girl indicated a sense of accomplishment was not an important reason, perhaps the older girls, at least, already experience this satisfaction in good measure. Further research in this area, through another method of examining decisions, might delineate more carefully the part different values play. Perhaps a value scale, age graded to this group but similar in nature to the Allport—Vernon scale, cpuld be used to check against project decisions. Com- parisons might be made between younger and older members, or tests of the same members over a period of time might measure changes and continuity of values and goals. Values important in home sewing decisions and in purchase decisions might be compared in testing to see if similar motivations predominate in both situations. A comparison of satisfactions received from membership in other projects besides clothes might yield valuable insight on decisions made in other areas of the 4—H program. Such research would make clearer the relationship A6 of values and goals to daily decisions of these youth, as well as shedding more light on their needs and beliefs. Other groups besides 4-H members could be studied to offer more insight on the relationship of values to decisions. Perhaps a sample of homemakers could be compared with a sample of girls, or could be studied separately in an attempt to see how closely their values correlate with their purchasing decisions. It seems entirely probable that individuals and families spend money, not for bread, shoes, and furniture as such, but for satisfactions, and these satisfactions may well be determined by the values the individuals and family consider most important to them. The relationship of basic values to purchases, budgeting, or effort expended to acquire material possessions would provide a challenging field for investigation. Both the person's values and the record of his economic decisions would need to be investigated and some method found of correlating them. It seems certain that as the number of possible material alternatives for economic choices in the form of a greater variety of widely advertised goods increases, at least for most American families, that this will become an area of greater concern for families and for those who work in the field of family life. Also, as changes occur more rapidly in society, many individuals may become more confused and uncertain about what they believe, and some may accept unquestioningly the values of others in which they do not really believe. It is 47 important for home economists and others working with families to understand better the relationship between values and decisions, in order that they may help families to clarify their own goals and to make their own decisions in such a way that they find satisfaction and purpose in fulfilling some of their goals. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Bonner, Hubert. Social Psychology. New York: American Book Co., 1953- Cavan, Ruth Shonle. The American Family. New York: Thomas Crowell Co., 1953. Clark, Lincoln H. (ed.) The Life Cycle and Consumer Behavior. New York: New York University Press, 1955. Good, Carter,and Scates, Douglas. Methods of Research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1954. Gross, Irma H., and Crandall, Elizabeth W. Management for Modern Families. New York: Appleton—Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954. Hall, Calvin S, and Lindzey, Gardner. Theories of Personality. New York: John Wiley, 1957. Hoyt, Elizabeth. The Income of Society. New York: Ronald Press, 1950. Hurlock, Elizabeth. Adolescent Development. New York: McGraw—Hill Book Co., Inc., 1949. Sherif, Muzafer. The Psychology of Social Norms. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1936. Warner, W. Lloyd, and Lunt, Paul S. The Social Life of a Modern Community. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941. Articles Cantril, H., and Allport, G. W. "Recent Applications of the Study of Values," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XXVII (1933), pp. 259-272. Deising, Paul. "Non-Economic Decision Making,” Ethics, LXVI (1955). pp. 18-35.. —— Hartmann, George. "Clothing: Personal Problem and Social Issue," Journal of Home Economics, XLI (1949), pp. 295- 298. ' 48 49 Lazarsfeld, Paul. "The Art of Asking Why," The National Marketing Review, I, no. 1 (1935), pp._32—43. Reprinted in Public Opinion and Propaganda, Katz, D., Cartwright, D., Eldersveld, S , and Lee, A. M. New York: Dryden Press, 1954. Woodruff, Asahel D. "Personal Values and the Direction of Behavior," School Review, L (1942), pp-32-42. . "The Relationship Between Functional and Verbalized Motives," Journal of Educational Psychology, XXXV (1944), pp. 101-107. Unpublished Materials Davis, Linda Lee. ”Decision Making in Clothing Purchases of 100 High School Students in Five High Schools of Morgan County, Indiana.” Unpublished Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1958. Finlayson, Bliss. "An Investigation of Consumer Motivation in the Selection of Sweaters as Related to General Personal Values.” Unpublished Master‘s thesis, Cornell University, 1959. Leask, Grace. "A Survey of the Clothing Preferences and Buying Practices of 100 Girls of West Division High School in Milwaukee, Wisconsin." Unpublished Master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1954. Treece, Anna Jean. ”An Interpretation of Clothing Behavior Based on Social Psychological Theory.” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1959. Bulletins Cutler, Virginia. "Personal and Family Values in the Choice of a Home.’I Cornell University Agricultural Bulletin 840, 1947. Silverman, Sylvia. "Clothing and Appearance: Their Psycho— .logical Implications for Teen Age Girls." Bureau of Publications, No. 912, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1945. Vener, Arthur M., and Hoffer, Charles R. "Adolescent Orientations to Clothing." Michigan State University Bulletin T—270, 1959. 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