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APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMEM

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MICHIGAN STATE ENWERSWY
Linda May Marston
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6/01 cJCIRC/DateDuepGS-sz

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

By

Linda May Marston

A PROBLEM

Submitted to
the Dean of the College of Home Economics
of Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Institution Administration

i964

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express her appreciation to Professor Katherine
Hart, Chairman of the Institution Administration Department, for advice
given and time spent in the writing, reviewing and revising of this problem.
Without her encouragement and assistance this paper would never have been
completed.

Acknowledgment is also made to Miss Jean McFadden, Instructor, Insti-
tution Administration, who was reassuring at times when the author was

losing confidence.

.'“'A‘A'A'A'A'-..'A'-'A'A'l
I\ I\ l‘ l\ I\ l\ l\ I\ l\ I\ l\ 1‘ l\

INTRODUCTION .
THE COMPUTER . . .

Terminology .
Evolution . .

Growth in the United States .

Government

TABLE OF CONTENTS

0 O I O O l O O 0

Business and Industry . .
Colleges and Universities

THE IMPACT OF COMPUTERS ON MANAGEMENT

THE APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMING .

Computers in Industry . . .
Computers in Agriculture . . . .
Computers in Hotels .
Computers in Food Service .
Simulation .
Cross Charting .
Scheduling .
Food Inventory Control
Menu Planning . . . .
Menu Nutrient Calculations .

POTENTIAL APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS TO FOOD

STATE UNIVERSITY .
BIBLIOGRAPHY .

APPENDIX .

SERVICES AT MICHIGAN

Page

LIST OF EXHIBITS

EXHIBIT Page

i. Cheese souffle recipe, indicating procedures, trip
sequences, and equipment required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2. Cheese souffle, equipment sequence of first
trial 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O 23

3. Cheese souffle, improved equipment sequence . . . . . . . . . . . 2A
A. Flow chart of computer process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5. Flow diagram of hot food station for cafeteria
service line simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6. Flow diagram for subroutine llmove” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4i

INTRODUCTION

In l945, Vannevar Bush predicted the “advanced arithmetical machines
of the future” would be electrical, more versatile than accounting machines,
adaptable for a wide variety of operations, controlled by instructions, fast
in computation, and capable of recording results in reusable form (35). The
past twenty years have produced thousands of computers, each attesting to
the remarkable veracity of Mr. Bush's statement.

In the past eleven years many improvements have been made in the speed
and accuracy of computing equipment (7h). At present, computers are being
used extensively by government and industry, and changes in business activ-
ities during recent years have encouraged the creation of new data-processing
systems (36). In spite of the rapid advances of technology, and the changes
in the capacity and potential of new computers, planning for their use has
not kept pace (25). Industrial and institutional uses of computers could be
extended if more attention were given to scrutinizing the literature to
prevent duplication of effort in developing programs and determining appli-
cations of data-processing equipment.

The purpose of this study is to provide a summary of basic information
from which research of specific computer application may be developed for the
food service department of Michigan State University. This summary has been
achieved by reviewing the literature concerning applications of electronic
data processing, and by soliciting additional information from equipment manu-

facturers and researchers in the food service area who, to date, have not

published their findings. Interviews with selected food service personnel at
Michigan State University provided the author with an understanding of the
time spent in menu planning, payroll computation, ordering and employee super-
vision. An understanding of computer applicability to Michigan State
University food services, as visualized by the food service personnel, was

also attained.

THE COMPUTER

In the past twenty years, computers have evolved into such complex
machines, it is difficult and unnecessary to give a detailed description of
the machines"operations. For the purpose of this paper, it is sufficient
to understand a computer is a system which accepts information, performs
calculations and other required symbolic manipulation, and displays the
results of its work in a convenient form. Information presented to the com-
puter must be in a standard medium, for example, punched cards or tape. The
information received from the computer is also in a standard medium, usually
print.

Today, the more than twenty thousand computers in use in the United
States are running at speeds up to millions of operations per second (35),
The ability of the computers to understand directions and information fed
into them has been broadened by the development of elaborate programming
systems (35). The memories of computers have been improved to the point

where they are virtually unlimited in size over a range of times of recall.
Terminology

The following definitions are presented to provide a standard meaning
for terms having a significance in data processing. It is hoped they will
facilitate communications between the author and the readers of this paper.
All definitions have been compiled from Automatic Data-Processing Systems by

Gregory and Van Horn (36).

I0.

ll.

l2.

l3.

Arithmetic Unit: the portion of hardware of an automatic
digital computer in which arithmetical and logical opera-
tions are performed.

Automatic Data-processing System: a system that utilizes
minimum manual operations in data processing.

Computer: any device capable of accepting data, applying
prescribed processes to them, and supplying the results of
these processes. .

Analogue Computer: a computer which calculates by
using physical analogues of the variables.

Digital Computer: a computer capable of accepting
and operating only on the representations of real
numbers, or other characters coded numerically.

 

Control Unit: portion of the hardware of an automatic
digital computer directing sequences of operations, inter-
preting coded instructions, and initiating proper commands
to computer circuits to execute instructions.

Data: figures, words, or charts that refer to or describe
some situation.

Data Processing: rearrangement and refinement of raw data
into a form suitable for further use.

Hardware: the electronic and mechanical equipment used for
data processing.

Input: the introduction of data into the internal storage
of the computer.

Magnetic-tape Storage: a storage device of metal or plastic
tape coated with magnetic material.

Output: the process of transferring data from internal
storage of a computer to another storage device.

Program: a plan for the solution of a problem, including
plans for transcription of data, coding, and absorption of the
results into the system.

Read: to copy, usually from one form of storage to another.
Storage: a device capable of receiving data, retaining them

for an indefinite period of time, and supplying them upon
command.

Evolution

In the time it takes you to read this sentence, an electronic computer
could perform three million mathematical operations (38). The tremendous
grOWth of electronic computers is called, by many authors, the second indus-
trial revolution. The cause of this revolution has not appeared as an
invention created overnight; the computer has a long history (38).

One of the earliest forms of computing equipment is the abacus, devel-
oped approximately 5000 years ago, and still in use in many parts of the
world. During the nineteenth century, Joseph Jacquard automated a loom by a
series of cards with holes punched in them. The insertion of various combina-
tions of cards into the loom created different designs--the basic idea of
modern computers. At about the same time, a man named Wolfgang von Kempelen
built a chess-playing machine called the Maelzel Chess Automation. The man
and his machine became known throughout Europe, and it was several years
before it was discovered there was another man hidden inside the machine.

Von Kempelen's invention doubtless spurred other inventors to develop similar
machines, and by I9Ih a Spaniard had succeeded in building a machine capable
of playing the game. Before this time, an English scientist, Charles Babbage,
worked for years to develop a machine to do mathematical calculations to
twenty decimal places. Babbage died in l87l without completing the machine,
but his plans were strikingly similar to many modern computers appearing in

the United States about I9AS (55).
Growth in the United States

Computers have experienced a rapid growth in the past twenty years (34).

The I962 domestic market for computers was approximately three billion

dollars (38). Three areas in which computers have found widespread applica-

tion are government, industry, and colleges and universities.

Government

 

The computer has become of sufficient importance to the government to
warrant the establishment of the Interagency Data Processing Committee (38).
A total of forty-three agencies, including the Department of Defense, the
Atomic Energy Commission, the Department of Commerce, the National Aeronautics
and Space Agency, the Post Office Department, and the Federal Income Tax
Bureau are users of computers.

Included in the areas of application of computers in government are
mathematical calculations of the census, and computation of individual income
taxes. Computers are used in military research, development, and tactical
and strategic methods (38). It was a computer which enabled us to develop a
hydrogen bomb before the Russians (38). The exact trajectory of space vehi-
cles is plotted by the computer, and the mathematics required to determine
the course of space flights would be impossible for men to calculate in a
reasonable amount of time.

The increasing use of computers in government has raised some inter-
esting questions, the answers to which will only be known after several years
of use., Will the use of computers by government limit decisions only to
those people who have a knowledge of computers, and can these men influence
the decision of the computer by the writing of the program (34)? Whatever
the answer to these questions, it is evident computers have entered govern-

ment and will remain an integral part.

Business andfiindustry

Almost from their inception, over fifteen years ago, it was expected

electronic computers would eventually be applied to problems of business and

industry (55). The technology took hold in business, and its total sig-
nificance is still difficult to evaluate (A9). The birth of computers in
business was in the Major Appliance Division of the General Electric
Company in I95A (60). By l96I there were over 6000 large computers in use.
Computers have found application in banking establishments, insur-
ance companies, department stores, supermarkets, and drug stores. Hotels,
turnpikes, communication agencies, and advertising establishments have all
found computers applicable to their businesses, but computers have been
found equally applicable to jobs in oil refineries, chemical plants, steel
mills, and airlines. The high—volume capacity, speed, and accuracy of the
computer make it a welcome addition to most businesses and industries (38).
The speed inherent In computers makes it possible to test new policies
or manufacturing programs in hours rather than waiting months for the
actual application and possible failure (38). It is predicted most

businesses will be using computer simulations of their organizations by I966.

Colleges and Universities
Accompanying the tremendous growth of computers in government and
industry was the inevitable inclusion of computers in colleges and univer-
slties. The computer was first applied to mathematical and scientific work,
and later to business and the training of future executives (38). Computer
centers, located in many colleges and universities, train students in com-
puter use and carry on research.
Many problems face university computing centers. Financial problems
are pressing in many schools, and the computer centers must depend on underpaid,

inexperienced students for a large part of their operating staff (57).

Training is often superficial, problems often ill-conceived and poorly
programmed, and research shallow.

When looking at the problems faced by most college and university
computer centers, we must realize computers were first introduced in colleges
and universities about I956. After only seven years 5l8 digital computers

have been installed in 294 American colleges and universities (57).

THE IMPACT OF COMPUTERS ON MANAGEMENT

Management installs computers for diverse purposes. For example, the
purpose of many modern data-processing systems is to provide a framework for
decision making activities (55). Decision making, which has always been per-
formed by people, can now be performed by computers. The ability of the
digital computer to make decisions is often described as one of the charac-
teristics of this type of equipment. In addition, computers are utilized to
tie together the channels of communication present in the management processes
of planning, operating, and reviewing (ll). Computers improve communications
by eliminating the passing of partial information from one department to
another and the resulting duplication of effort (67). According to Schultz
and Whisler (64), in a few years creative thinking may be the greatest advan-
tage of computers over men. It is difficult for one man to tell another how
he thinks, and thus communicate his creative ability, but it is possible to
determine the exact manner of creative achievements of the computer. Finally,
computers are used to enable large companies to be operated with the efficiency
of small companies (6h).

Since the I9A0's the technology of computers has begun to take hold in
American Business (#9). The technology, however, has outstripped man's
ability, or at least his willingness, to comprehend and control it (32).
Although intrigued by the capacity and potential of computers, people have

failed to plan adequately for the application of the machines. Suitable

l0

applications for electronic data-processing systems are limited only by the
ability of computer users to see clearly the scope and power of the new
technology (8).

When a business or industry makes the decision to install an electronic
data-processing system, the industry should be aware that change for change's
sake is not acceptable in electronic data-processing (24). Before installing
a system, it is necessary for management to determine the present costs of
the business, the areas in greatest need of improvement, the areas to which
electronic data-processing can be applied, and the type of system needed (24).
In addition to analyzing the problem, management must clearly state its
objectives in installing a data-processing system (67). The objectives
should include both the short- and long-range plans, and the assignment of
responsibility for attaining the objectives. One of the greatest initial
contributions of a computer to a business or industry is the discipline which
the installation demands in the understanding of the operation; a computer
can tolerate no ambiguities (59).

The effect on the organization has only begun when the computer is
first Installed; the changes following are generally greater than recognized
(66). After a computer has been installed in an operation, management will
find certain radical changes taking place in administrative practices (49).
By and large, it is management that determines the success or failure of the
electronic data-processing system (74). Management finds itself pressured
by the system to make changes in the direction of centralization of decision
making, control and co-ordination. Information used for decision making in
an organization will, of necessity, be quantified for use in computers (66).
Planning periods and communication times will be shortened by the use of

computers, thus reducing poor decisions caused by internal time lags in the

ll

flow of Information. Management may find its entire concept of decision
making has changed after the installation of a computer.

Other changes which must be faced by management are: the increasing
frequency of multiple entry points into the organization, the multiple sources
of potential managers, the apprenticeship as a basis for training managers
becoming less common, the training of top-management to be taken over
increasingly by universities, the appraising of middle managers becoming more
precise (49). Before installing a computer management should be aware that
these changes are to be expected if success is to be achieved with the data-
processing system.

Although the installation of a computer will affect all levels of
management, middle-management will be most affected. Extensive programming
of computers will be concerned with the daily tasks of present middle-
management (64). Because many of the present decisions made by middle-
management are routine, determined by formal policy, system structure, and
precedent, these decisions are especially applicable to programming for com-
puters (34). Computers may result in the professionalization of middle-
management, and the consequent simplification of the change between middle-
and top-management positions (64).

The impact of computer installation on management presents many problems.
The problems are peculiar to each operation and demand a high degree of judg-
ment, salesmanship, and organizational ability on the part of the head of
the electronic data-processing operation (I). He must take time to study ‘
the company's over-all objectives and operations, and the factors involved
in successful electronic data-processing installations.

For those companies contemplating a change, there are seven areas of

planning which generally are the sources of conflict and, therefore, deserve

_l2

special attention. The areas are: an inept approach in dealing with others-—
conflict caused in part by a concentration on problems rather than solutions;
methods analyst's interest in the equipment being greater than his interest
in the company; a manpower shortage in the changeover; management pressure
for early installation; a lack of participation by supervisory employees; a
lack of planning for transfers and reclassified personnel; an insufficiency
of information of what is needed and expected (53). Among the recommendations
for the success of an electronic data-processing installation is the sugges-
tion for the inclusion of at least one member of each group affected by the
change in the automation planning committee. Because supervisors play a key
roll in the success or failure of the system, special attention should be
given to educating them (53). All workers should be shown the reasons for
the changes to electronic data-processing and the effect it will have on each
worker. The use of tact in the installation of a computer system can deter-
mine its acceptance by the company as a whole.

Although computer installations have a great impact on management,
successful installation is possible through an understanding of the problems
usually faced by management. Implementing recommendations for an installation

of the system will increase the probability of satisfaction.

THE APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

During the past two decades, the applications of computers have

increased far beyond the expectations of business men of the I940's. Even

a man as clairvoyant as Dr. Bush would not have predicted twenty years ago
the wide range of computer application. It is not the purpose of the author
to try to discuss all the present computer programs--just those of partic-
ular significance which might be adapted to food service. Selected computer
programs have been drawn from industry, agriculture, hotels, and food service
as applications potentially usable by the Michigan State University Food

Services.
Computers in Industry

If management has taken the precautions suggested in the previous
section, the installation of a computer can result in many varied and suc-
cessful applications. To date, however, many industries have not taken these
precautions and, as a result, are not realizing a profit from the installa-
tion of computers (l2). The more mathematical and computational a particular
business or industry, the more likely is the application of automatic com-
puting machinery (9). However, there is nothing about a computer which limits
its capacity to manipulating numerical symbols; it can manipulate words as

well (65).
Many of the present applications of computers in industry are mathemat-

ical and computational in nature, but non-mathematical applications are being

13

l4

included in several programs. Electronic computer applications used by
Industry Include: accounting distribUtion, budgeting, cost accounting, file
maintenance, labor distribution, manufacturing scheduling, operational
analysis, ordering, billing, payroll processing, report pneparation, sales
analysis, shop-load scheduling, and inventory control (8).

One of the most widespread applications of computers in industry is
payroll processing. To figure payrolls using the IBM l40l computer, a pay-
roll card containing the following information is punched: card columns l-4,
clock number of the employee; columns 5-7, type number indicating the type
of deduction; columns 8-22, last name of the employee; column 23, first
initial of the employee; column 24, second initial of the employee; columns
25-30, rate of pay; columns 31-32, number of dependents; columns 33-39, total
pay to date; columns 40-45, total income tax taken to date; columns 46-50,
total social security taken to date; column SI, ”x” punched if social secu-
rity is not to be taken; columns 52-59, social security number; column 80,
card code (58). A summary card is also prepared including the following
information: card columns l-4, clock number of the employee; columns 5-7,
type number; columns 8-l3, rate of pay; columns l4-20, total pay to date;
columns 2l-26, total Income tax to date; columns 27-3l, total social security
taken to date; columns 32-38, total amount of pay due (gross); columns 39-45,
net pay due; columns 46-52, total pay to date including this pay; columns
53-60, social security number; column 80, card code.

The Ford Motor Company's Manufacturing Services located in Dearborn,
Michigan applies its computer to payroll, sales analysis, and inventory (3i).
The computer does both the hourly and salary payroll for most of the Ford

Plants in Michigan. The hourly payroll includes between 65,000 and 70,000

employees per week. Each Ford plant furnishes the basic payroll authorization

IS

and weekly time reports to the central data-processing division. The time
cards are key punched and sorted by employee badge number and converted to
magnetic tape. Three tapes are processed through the IBM 705 computer: the
hours worked tape, the new hire master tape, and the previous week's employee
master tape which includes the badge number, name, social security number,
department, rate of pay, deductions, earnings to date, and deductions to
date.

Computers are capable of diverse applications. Routine decisions can
be programmed and made automatically. The major steps in programming decision
making or problem solving are: erecting goals, detecting differences between
the present situation and the goals, finding processes relevant to reducing
the differences, and applying these processes to solving sub-problems before
attempting the entire problem (65). Computers will affect decision making
in an organization by quantifying the information used for decision making
and broadening the scope of these decisions. Information technology will also
shorten the planning period and depersonalize decisions (64). To avoid making
the decision process rigid, a new approach to the programming of decisions has
been introduced. The Bayesian approach allows people to use their own judg-
ment as if it were statistical information (l6). In this way, human intuition,
experience, and cleverness can be combined with basic information to reach the
decisions. In many industries middle-management ls spending too much time on
routine decisions which could profitably be computerized.

For industries with a number of decentralized operations, inventory
control can be time consuming, and if inefficiently carried out can be a
source of drain on potential profits. Inventory control programs are avail-

able from the International Business Machines Corporation, and can be applied

l6

to many businesses (44). Westinghouse uses nationwide inventory control by
electronic data-processing, and it has resulted in a decreased level of
inventory across the country (l2). In a manufacturing concern, the data-
processing department uses a copy of the packing list from the shipping
department to prepare key-punched cards indicating the order number, quantity
shipped, and charges. A seven-part invoice form is processed with the simul-
taneous recording of inventory (40).

The output of data-processing divisions of various companies differs
depending on their needs. For example, as the canning industry has grown,
the need to develop a computer program to forecast sales analysis has become
of great importance (70). A program was devised using the order sheets
written each day, The order detail cards are held until required for the
preparation of the sales analysis. The program output includes the sales
analysis, the quantity ordered, the customer code number and a variety code
number.

The General Electric Company was the first corporation to use computers
in the management aspects of industry. In I953, a computer was installed in
the Major Appliance Division at Louisville, Kentucky and a program written
to balance assembly lines and feeder lines (60). Two main objectives in
developing a program to control production lines are: to collate orders and
arrange them in appropriate sequence for the most economical manufacture,
and to set up each machine for the particular orders to be filled (I2).

It is not surprising industry has applied computers to such a variety
of uses. Because industry is concerned with making a profit, and because
computers appear to be a potential for increasing net profits, the growth of

computers in industry over the past decade has been tremendous.

I7
Computers in Agriculture

Although the application of electronic data-processing is not as wide-
spread in agriculture as it is in industry, in the past five years computer
programs have been utilized to aid the farmer. The farmer has to analyze
production, distribution, supply and demand, economic growth, yield, time of
harvest, climate, and prices (2). One of the optimal uses of computers in
agriculture, at present, is the capability of selecting crop rotation, and
types and numbers of livestock considering the resource limitations of the
farm. Computers assist the farm manager in organizing a farm by suggesting
the best plan for planting and harvesting corn, oats, soybeans, and hay (2).

The state of Michigan has instituted a mail-in farm account system,
whereby a farmer can maintain accurate records of the monetary income and
output of all aspects of the farming operation. In this way, a farmer can
determine what areas of his operation are yielding a profit and what areas
a loss. The objectives of the mail-in farm accounts project include
business analyses, trend information, and case studies (2i). Michigan
State University utilizes the CDC 3600 electronic computer to calculate
annual financial statements and quarterly and annual reports which are
mailed to the farmer.

Crosfields and Calthrop Limited, a cattle feed manufacturer in Liver-
pool, England, is using a computer to program methods of buying and mixing
products for animal feeds (4). The program provides a daily guide of what
to buy, according to availability and price, and evolves recipes conforming
to the nutritional requirements of the animals at the most economical cost.
Once devised, a program such as this might be modified and applied to human

nutrition.

l8

Computers in Hotels

In the past three years, the application of computers has been extended
to the hotel industry. All major accounting systems were studied by the
hotel industry, and the final applications include guest accounting, regis-
tration, mail information, guest charges, restaurant billing, telephone
charges, valet charges, night audits, and checkout (20). Accounts receivable,
accounts payable, and payroll are also programmed (26). The Holiday Inns of
America have programmed their payroll for 5,800 employees (23). The payroll,
involving as many as fivepayroll deductions for each employee, can be calcu-
lated and printed by means of the computer in less than four hours (23).

Many hotels have applied computers to the calculation of food and bev-
erage control. The control covers the entire area of food and beverage
handling, from planning menus and determining the food requirements through
the end results of relating item sales to cost (20). From the known sales
data comes much of the knowledge used to plan optimum menus in the future.
The food control report has ten columns of information containing l) the
menu item code, 2) the menu item description, 3) the number of covers sold,
4) the number of portions sold, 5) the number of portions prepared, 6) the
number of portions leftover, 7) sales, 8) the cost of goods, 9) the gross
profit, and IQ) the cost of leftovers (l9). Maintaining the food and bev-
erage report can be simplified by the installation of a National Sales-Tronic
cash register. The cash register automatically records charges made in an
IBM card punching machine. At the time of billing the customer, the cashier
is simultaneously itemizing each meal and creating a punched card record of

sales (I0).

19

Computers in Food Service

Computer applications peculiar to food service are few in number. The
majority of programs which apply specifically to food service have been written
in the past two years. Included in this group are cafeteria service line simu-
lations, kitchen layout cross charts, employee scheduling, food inventory

control, menu planning, and menu nutrient calculations.

Simulation

 

Simulation is defined as the setting up of a model of a real situation
and performing experiments on the model by manipulating numbers or other
symbols (46). It appears simulation has possibilities for studying the effect
of changes in layout or operating procedures before any change takes place.
In her doctoral thesis, Knickrehm (47) showed the potential uses of the simu-
lation technique to determine the effect of changes in layout and operating
procedures on the time customers spend in a cafeteria service line, the rate
of flow of customers, and the utilization of facilities (46). The data used
in the simulation showed the inter-relationship of the operations and had a
frequency distribution for each condition studied.

Data were collected in a single-line cafeteria, and service times for
each station were obtained by using a stop watch. The stop watch ran from
the time a customer entered a station until he had given his order or placed
his selection on his tray. For each station Knickrehm calculated the mean,
standard deviation, and number of readings required for a 95 per cent confi-
dence level (46). Cumulative frequencies of service times were plotted for

each station.
Two computer programs were written by Knickrehm; one program used empiri-

cal data for selecting service time, and the other program used theoretical

20

data. They were written in Fortran language from flow diagrams of the
cafeteria layout, and results obtained from using empirical data in program
I or theoretical data in program II were similar. Appendix Exhibit 5 illus-
trates the flow diagram for the first section of the hot food station. The
programs calculated l) the average total time in the system; 2) the average
total waiting time; 3) the average total service time; 4) the average service
time at each station based on the number of people actually requesting ser-
vice at the station; 5) the average waiting time at each station; and 6) the
number of people requesting service at each station. Knickrehm used four
subroutines to generate random numbers, calculate service times, establish
times for each position and service clock, and time for beginning of service
at each station. Appendix Exhibit 6 illustrates the subroutine ”Move”
establishing the time for the position and service clock.

The service of l000 customers was simulated by the two programs after
the system had been operating long enough to obliterate the effect of initial
starting conditions. Each program included three simulations, and there was
as much variation among the simulations of each program as there was between
the two programs (46).

Simulation is a scientific technique developed by industry and now used
by the food service industry to improve the efficiency of operations. Through
the technique of simulation, the model of the system can be easily manipulated,
whereas it would be impractical or impossible to perform the actual experiments

on the system represented. -

Cross Charting
A satisfactory kitchen layout is one in which materials in production

move a minimum distance, shortening production time, decreasing employee's

2l

effort and fatigue, lowering labor costs and materials-handling costs, and
aiding in simplification of supervision. Because the problem in food pro-
duction is one of planning the most efficient layout for a variety of menu
items and a number of different pieces of equipment, the cross chart has
been utilized to plan the layout.

Gottlieb and Couch (33) extended the study of the cross chart method of
layout planning to test a number of menu items typical of those served in an
institution kitchen. Factors important in the study included the distance
between pieces of equipment, importance of the menu item, production time,
labor cost, and the value of additional or duplicate pieces of equipment.
Because there is a large amount of data collected for cross charts, computers
are used to produce the charts and calculate the efficiency percentages.

To simplify the explanation of the cross chart method only one menu
item will be charted. Exhibit l illustrates the item chosen. The item,
cheese souffle, has eight ingredients requiring a number of processes and
using several pieces of equipment. The cross chart lists the equipment used
on the horizontal and vertical axes to indicate both backward and forward
movements. Exhibits 2 and 3 illustrate the cross charts of the preparation
of cheese souffle. A diagonal line on the chart separates the two listings
of equipment; the upper field shows back-tracking movements and the lower
field forward movements. Movements made to adjacent pieces of equipment are
noted by recording the appropriate number adjacent to the diagonal line. The
more efficient the kitchen layout, the more numbers will appear below and
adjacent to the line, indicating the predominance of forward trips made

chiefly in the sequence of equipment arrangement.

22

EXHIBIT l.--Cheese souffle recipe, indicating procedures, trip sequences,

and equipment required

 

 

 

Ingredient Process Trip Equipment

Nonfat Dry Milk Weigh I Table
Salt Weigh, transfer Table

to sink 2 Sink
Water Measure, mix

milk, salt and

water 3 Bain-Marie
Margarine Weigh 4 Table
Flour Weigh, add to

heated margarine, 5 Range

stir into hot

milk Bain-Marie
Cheese Weigh, 7 Table

chop, 8 Chopper

stir into sauce, 9 Bain-Marie

remove to table lO Table
Frozen Egg Yolks Weigh, beat, add

to sauce
Frozen Egg White Weigh, beat, ll Mixer

fold into sauce l2 Table

bake at 3000 I3 Oven

product out l4

 

Source: Regina Gottlieb and Mary A. Couch, l'Using the Cross Chart in Plan-
ning Kitchen Layouts,” Journal of The American Dietetic Association, XXXVI,

No. 6 (June, I960), 586.

 

23

EXHIBIT 2.--Cheese souffle, equipment

sequence of first

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

trial
44 Q) "'8
c ._ ms.
0 L HI._.I.In
2"‘0 to *- «H -—::-o.
0‘03 2 a) 0 m0 -
a: 0.3m a) o I L CL :uuN—L
LL me —- I: U'I c a) CL'UDO°-IUI-
8“ .5 f3 8 ii To .5 2 8°F‘5‘5
T0 -— u) I— 0 ac no 2: u a. II—
Ingredient
Issue 0 O
_ Sink 2 I I
use 4,
Table l ,07 12 5 a
Oven 13 1 0
Range 5 I 0
Bain-Marie 3 6 9 3 1
Mixer ]] \\\; 1 0
Chopper 8 I 0
Product \y
Total
Vertical I l 5‘ I l 3 l l O }*\. 6
Total “To” ‘
TEIBS l l 4 . l l O O O O 8
Source: Regina Gottlieb and Mary A. Couch, ”Using the

Cross Chart in Planning Kitchen Layouts,” Journal of The
American Dietetic Association, XXXVI, No. 6 (June, I960),

 

587.

 

24

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXHIBIT 3.--Cheese souffle, improved equipnent sequence
T5
44 q.) -- O
c .— to I.
q) I. HLL In
2' '- Q) L (U H -- C: O.
c: -o 3 e :z u m o -
a: a) In CI. I q: L- 0 3 u H N-— L.
LI. I— U'I Q. C -- x O) 01 C 'U 3 0°— (DI—
m- 0 ‘- -° .5 .5 c v EDI-3+5
T0 -5 ES ,3 I2 an :2 :2 <5 (L III-
Ingredient
Issue 0 O
Chopper 8 l l
IBain-Marie 9 3 6 3 2
.7 . ‘
Table I '0 I2 5 I
Sink 2 I O
Mixer II I 0
Range 5 I 0
Oven I3 I 0
Product I4 I 0
Out]
ota
Vertical l I 3 5 l I l l O 4
T0“! "'0" I I 3 LI 0 o o I 0 IO
TrIps
Source: Regina Gottlieb and Mary A. Couch, ”Using the

Cross Chart in Planning Kitchen Layouts,‘I Journal of The
American Dietetic Association, XXXVI, No. 6 (June, I960),

 

587.

 

25

To improve layout efficiency, those pieces of equipment with the
greatest number of trips between them can be placed to minimize back-tracking
and by-passing. Efficiency is considered to be the ratio of the number of
trips forward to the total number of trips. To evaluate the layout for trips
deviating from the equipment sequence, forward trips are weighted according
to the number of pieces of equipment by-passed. The back-tracking trips are
weighted by twice the number of pieces by-passed.

When calculating a number of menu items, a computer can be utilized by
translating the cross chart into the machine language of numbers. The pro-
gram is fed into the computer, and the output appearing on cards or tape is
re-coded and printed, enabling the researcher to make interpretations and

applications of the results.

Scheduling.

Purdue University, a resident institution housing and feeding most of
its students, has developed a computer program which schedules the student's
classes and his hours of employment in the dining halls. The hours worked
in the resident halls are fed into the computer in the same manner as the
academic courses. Waiter hours, scheduled by the computer, conflict with
academic courses less than 20 per cent of the time. In the case of a con-
flict, the computer prints a note on the student's schedule advising him to
see the Fdods Manager (II).

The semester before employment is desired a student may arrange for
employment with one of the residence halls. If a two-hour lunch period is
needed, a ”travel time” course card may also be fed into the computer. The

employment requests along with the requests for activities or intercollegiate

26

athletics are added to the student's academic courses and scheduled on the
computer.

A list of potential student employees is forwarded to the Registrar,
fed into the computer, and sent to the Foods Manager as a ”class list” of
employees. The system requires cooperation between the academic areas and
the residence halls. If the Foods Manager ignores the needs of the academic

areas, a workable program will not be possible.

Foodlnventory Control

Food inventory control can be a difficult problem for a large food
service operation. The Memorial Hospital in Wilmington, Delaware, has
improved its food inventory control by computer programming to such a degree
that the staff now plan and prepare 48,000 meals per month with a maximum
overage of five servings per meal (23).

Complete and fully effective food control presently requires much
laborious and time-consuming effort. Food control reports are often obtained
too late to be of value to the food service. Sayles (28) of Cornell Univer-
sity has prepared a preliminary report on food inventory control programming.
With refinement this report could be utilized by food services as a guide in
computer programming to maintain an up-to-date food control system.

The boundaries of control, as presented in the Sayles' report, start
with debits to transfers to various areas and credits to transfers-suspense,
which in normal account distribution is cost of sales. The boundaries end
with a final credit to transfers and a debit to cost of sales-food. Before
computations can be undertaken, the Food Service Manager must know the
following: I) the value of all transfers associated with the area, 2) the

value of prior and present inventories, and 3) the value of all waste.

27

Menu Planning

Joseph Balintfy, Associate Professor of Operations Research in the School
of Business Administration at Tulane University, has developed a computer pro-
gram for writing normal and modified hospital diets. The research is
supported by the National Institutes of Health, and a Fortran program for
the IBM I4l0 has been developed.

When planning menus the dietitian is concerned with three main objectives:
l) achieving high customer satisfaction, 2) providing nutritionally balanced
diets, and 3) meeting the constraints of the budget. These three objectives
can now be significantly improved by the use of the computer (6). Menu
planning by computer not only improves the quality of menus, but also aids in
reducing food costs.

Computers can insure that all nutritional requirements are met by the
diet each day, and the preferences of the customers are considered. By stor-
ing data of the variables which enter into the daily planning of menus,
computers process these variables against mathematical decision rules which
have been programmed. The computer then prints the day's menu, assuring it
is the lowest cost menu feasible, satisfying all nutritional factors. If an
item appears on the menu which is unsatisfactory to the dietitian, she can
type out a message to the computer telling it to strike the particular item
and substitute one of her choosing.

A schematic drawing (Exhibit 4) illustrates the entire computer process.
There are four sets of information placed in the computer's memory: data on
food prices, recipes of menu items, nutrient composition of foods, and
customers' frequency preferences. The food price information should be as

up-to-date as possible. The nutrient calculations can include as many

28

EXHIBIT 4.--Flow chart of computer process

 

 

 

 

 

I PRICES RECIPES NUTRIENTS l
PRICE RECIPE
TAPE TAPE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I
NUTRIENT
* ‘REQUIREMENTS
Ir

 

 

 

"I
\7
4'
I
I
I
_I

PATIENTS' *
FREQUENCY

COMPUTER l
RATINGfi

I7

L.P.
SOLUTION

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—-——-------

 

MENU PLAN

\‘_’//,»--.l

b-——-——----_—

A

 

ADJUSTMENT

ON-LINE ______ ENTRY
" RESTRICTION

 

 

 

 

Source: Joseph L. Balintfy, ”Mathematical Programming for Menu
Planning,” Paper read at the Industrial Engineering Hospital
Seminar, Ann Arbor, February, I964, p. 2i.

29

nutrients as desired, including essential amino acids and unsaturated fatty
acids. The recipes describe the menu item as a detailed list of ingredients,
along with the quantities in IOO gram portions. The portion size for the
menu item can be adjusted if management wishes to increase or decrease the
serving size. The mathematical programming to handle these four menu plan-
ning factors is available to hospitals interested in the technique from the
Tulane School of Business Administration and the Touro Infirmary of New
Orleans.

The print-out sheet of the computer takes 40 seconds to produce, and
includes each menu item and its cost, the nutrient content of the menu and
the percentage amount by which the menu meets the Recommended Dietary
Allowances. The regular menu can then be easily modified to produce menus
higher or lower in calories to compensate for the needs of different types
of customers. Any other revisions desired for special dietary problems may
be produced, with the resulting menus still meeting the Recommended Allow-
ances at the lowest possible cost.

The program developed by Balintfy planned menus which more consistently
met the Recommended Dietary Allowances of the hospital patients and reduced
food costs approximately 25 per cent when compared to the menus developed

by the dietitians (6).

Menu Nutrient Calculations

The Veterans Administration Hospitals, faced with the problem of frequent
calculations of menu nutrients, have used computers to undertake this labori-
(M15, tine-consuming, and costly operation. Twenty-eight of the one hundred
and seventy Administration Services are now participating in the computerized

process (l6). Regular and modified menus for patients and domiciliary members

30

are analyzed on the basis of fourteen nutrients. Daily and weekly nutrient
averages are printed by the computer for each type of diet. Presently, the
system is designed for dietetic planning and management.

A master deck of cards for each food item are maintained at a central
processing center. Each card contains the code, gram weight, percentage of
water, and nutritive values for the food item. Also maintained at the
processing center is a set of description cards containing the item number,
its nomenclature, and the household serving portion. The computer combines
the set of description cards and master deck cards to print a listing called
the ”Nutritive Value of Foods Catalog.”

The hospitals calculate eight different types of menus, the types coded
one to eight. The days of the week are also coded one to seven, Sunday being
number one. As a result, the print-out sheet of the computer includes
columns showing the code for the type of diet and the day of the week.

The centralized calculations of menu nutrients have many advantages:
accuracy, saving of professional time, ease of operation, standardization of
nutrients calculated and sources of nutrient figures, increase in the number
of nutrients calculated, and content figures for individual food items rather
than classes of food. The use of computers in calculating menu nutrients has
proven not only possible, but also advantageous when compared to manual calcu-

lations.

POTENTIAL APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS T0 FOOD SERVICES

AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

The preceeding sections of this paper have discussed numerous applica-
tions of computers in areas such as business, industry, agriculture, hotels,
and food service. Michigan State University Food Services could profitably
adapt many of the applications discussed by utilizing the facilities avail-
able at the University Computer Laboratory. The more recent acquisition of
a CDC 3600 system and an IBM l40l data-processing system have been a sub-
stantial improvement over past facilities. While both are high-speed
electronic computers, they are designed to accomplish different types of
calculations. In general, the CDC 3600 is suited to scientific analysis and
the IBM I4OI is suited to business data processing.

The IBM I4OI computer was developed to provide a system which combined
the functions of reading, punching, printing, calculating, and summarizing
(30). The system bridged the gap between the advanced punched card units
and the stored programmed systems. The l40l, which is a medium-scale system,
has been programmed for complicated billing operations, invoice numbering,
central inventory control, and summary punching (30).

The Agricultural Experiment Station, the Communications Research Center
and the Computer Institute for Social Science Research have developed a
number of statistical programs for the CDC 3600 computer. As of May, I964,
programs included: analysis of variance, factor analysis, simple correlations,

means, standard deviations, moments, variances and covariances of variables

3l

o (L». Husk: N
.

v .

32

and sums of squares and cross products, least square fits to arbitrary .
functions, frequency distribution analysis, pattern analytic methods, and
other programs available on request.

Efficiency is a goal toward which all food services should strive,
and equipment layout is an important factor determining efficiency. Appli-
cations of the CDC 3600 and the IBM l40l might include cafeteria line
simulations and kitchen layouts. These programs could be profitable in
planning dormitory food services in the future, and could be presently
useful in existing installations with mobile equipment.

A third program which could be applied to the Food Services in the near
future is the menu planning program. By interviewing selected food service
personnel, the author was made aware of the fact there was difficulty in
planning menus for the dormitory complexes serving male and female students.
The menus must satisfy the caloric requirements of both groups, as well as
special diets desired by some students to lose weight. The program developed
by Joseph Balintfy to plan menus by computer can print-out menu variations
to meet the needs of these groups. In addition, the program would enable the
food service supervisors to know whether the menus offered were meeting the
nutritional requirements of the students each day.

A fourth program concerning the scheduling of student employees in the
food services could be applied to the larger dining complexes on campus, to
good advantage. The program is available from James F. Blakesley, Adminis-
trative Coordinator of Schedules and Space, at Purdue University.

Payroll computation, which at present is only partially figured by
computers at Michigan State University, could easily be converted to complete

computation. A program similar to the one described on pages l4 and IS of

33

this paper could be calculated on the IBM I4OI computer available on campus.
The payroll can be calculated for employees on the hourly and salary pay
scale with as many deductions as necessary for each employee. The program
could save valuable supervisory time, and possibly result in greater
accuracy for payroll computation.

Additional programs which may find potential applications in the food
services include: sales analysis, inventory control, ordering, accounts
receivable and payable. An inventory control program which could be adapted
to the needs of the food services is available from the International
Business Machines Corporation upon request. Sales analysis programs, if
utilized, would aid the food service supervisor in planning the number of
servings of each menu item to be offered. One food service employee inter-
viewed stated a need for such a program. Dormitory food services constructed
in the future may profitably be equipped with a National Sales-Tronic Cash
Register, if such a program is undertaken.

The potential application of computers to food service is limited only
by the ability of the food service personnel to recognize a need and an area
of possible application. The programs discussed in this section are those
which could be applied in the immediate future as they are available from
other universities or IBM. Applications drawn from industry, hotels, or
agriculture could be applied to food service with the aid of an experienced

programmer.

IO.

ll.

I2.

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APPENDIX

39

4O

EXHIBIT 5.--Flow diagram of hot food station for cafeteria
service line simulation

 

SET C (3)
SUBROUTINE
MOVE

I

”0 ccr(2)..>..c(3)

\l/Yes

c(3) = ccr(2)

l

L_‘> C(3)2.CCF(3)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

No Yes .
cca(3) = ccr(3) ccs(3) = c(3)

 

 

 

 

I I

CALL SERVING TIME
FOR HOT FOOD, FIRST
SECTION SUBROUTINE

 

 

 

 

C (3) refers to clock 3

CCF (2) refers to the time a customer finished service at .
station 2

CCB (3) refers to the time a customer can begin service
at station 3

Source: Marie Emma Knickrehm, ”Digital Computer Simulations
of a Cafeteria Service Line,” Microfilm of Doctoral thesis,
University of Wisconsin, I962, p. 94.

 

4l

EXHIBIT 6.--Flow diagram for subroutine ”move“

 

START

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

s I = II
N = N-l
N0 ‘ C(I-I)2'_C(I+I) (Yes
C(I) = C(I + I) (:0) = w - I) +0.2
II = II + l é______g_
;. Yes 4
ll:_.NC , 951/
No II = 2
No ,
~ > N = o (————

 

 

 

J/Yes

RETURN

 

 

 

 

”N” refers to the number of times the cycle will be
executed each time the subroutine is called

”I” refers to the position of clocks being compared

Source: Marie Emma Knickrehm, I'Digital Computer Simu-
lations of a Cafeteria Service Line,” Microfilm of
Doctoral thesis, University of Wisconsin, I962, p. 96.

 

 

     

WWW

Problem
M. S. 1964

Marston, Linda May

I Applications of Computer Programming

   

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