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ABSTRACT

INFORMAlnGROUP GENERATION AND BEHAVIOR IN
PROFIT ORIENTED FOOD SERVICE OPERATIONS

BY

Diane Vachout Stephens

The presence and influence of informal organiza-
tion(s) among workers have been acknowledged in the life of
a variety of industries. Within the profit oriented seg-
ments of the food service industry, however, management has
appeared to show little concern for or understanding of the
current and potential influences of the informal organiza-
tion(s) upon managerial processes.

In the fields of psychology and sociology consider-
able research concerning small group generation, structure,
and behavioral process has been reported. The objectives of
this very limited exploratory study were twofold: (a) to
examine and attempt to identify the theoretical concepts of
informal group generation and behavior developed by the
behavioral scientists which might have relevance for study-
ing the influence of informal organizations on the managerial
processes of profit oriented food service Operations and (b)
to select and use the most pertinent of these concepts as a

basis for assessing the sensitivity of a few managers of

Diane Vachout Stephens

profit oriented food service establishments in Michigan to
the current and potential influences of workers' informal
groups upon the managerial processes of their respective
establishments.

For this investigation, a sample of eight profit
oriented food service operations was selected from two public
service types of well—patronized table service restaurants
located within the Lansing-East Lansing area of Michigan.
Data for the study were collected through on-premise inter-
views with management personnel. In all cases, the inter-
viewees were persons with major responsibility for managing
the meal service component of the facility. An interview
guide was developed to assure collection of comparable
information about the eight operations selected for study.
Three types of data were sought: Operational characteristics
of the facility, basic employment policies, and opinions of
interviewees concerning (a) the existence and role(s) of
employee informal groups within their organizations and (b)
the influence of these informal employee associations on the
managerial processes of the operation.

Interview data were subjectively evaluated by the
investigator to identify similarities and differences among
facility characteristics, employment policies, and Opinions
of participants concerning the existence and role(s) of
employee informal group associations within the Operations

surveyed. Within and between facility type comparisons were

Diane Vachout Stephens

made in an effort to evaluate the sensitivity of the survey
participants to the current and potential influences of
workers' informal groups upon the managerial processes of
these profit oriented establishments.

Despite the limited sc0pe of this exploratory study
there is reasonable evidence that the theoretical concepts
of informal group generation, structure, and behavior devel-
oped by the behavioral scientists can be meaningfully
applied to the study of workers' informal organizations in
profit oriented food service operations. Related investiga-
tions with larger survey samples are needed to gain more
definitive data. .Suggestions for areas in need of further

study within the same conceptual framework are presented.

INFORMAL GROUP GENERATION AND BEHAVIOR IN

PROFIT ORIENTED FOOD SERVICE OPERATIONS

BY

Diane Vachout Stephens

A PROBLEM

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Institution Administration

1969

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express sincere gratitude to
Dr. Grace A. Miller for her invaluable assistance, encourage-
ment, and patience throughout the long duration of this
investigation.

Appreciation is indicated for the time and COOpera-

tion granted to the investigator by the survey participants.

*****

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LISTOFTABLES..................
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INTRODUCTION.......’............
CONCEPTS OF GROUP GENERATION AND BEHAVIOR . . . .

Group Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Satisfaction of individual needs . . . . .
Secondary bases fOr informal group

generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of informal organizations . . . . .

Group Structure and Behavioral Processes . . .

Derivation of structure . . . . . . . . .
Role differentiation . . . . . . . . .
Role conflict . . . . . . . . . . . .
Internal leadership . . . . . . . . .

Behavioral process elements . . . . . . .
Functions of the informal organization
Cohesion within the informal

organization . . . . . . . . . .
Locomotion within the informal

organization . . . . . . . . . . . .

Size of the informal organization . .

Influence of informal group behavior on

managerial processes . . . . . . . . . .

Drawbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

METHOD OF INVESTIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Survey Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interview guide . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interview procedure . . . . . .

‘ Procedure for Analysis of the Interview Data .

iii

Page

ii

28
29
30
33
34

Page

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Facility Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Total organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Local Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
,Employment history of the interviewees . . . . 39
Employment Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4O
Hiring policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Job training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Worker evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Employee promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Channels of communication . . . . . . . . . . 44
Employee socialization . - . . . . . . . . . . 46
Informal Group Associations . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Group generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Group structure and behavioral process . . . . 49
SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

iv

TABLE

1.

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Organizational Characteristics of Two
Types of Food Service Operations
Selected for Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Communication Channels for Information
Flow Between Management and Employees in
Two Types of Food Service Operations

.Selected for Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page
1. The basic communication process . . . . . . . l6

2. Informal group grapevine communication
pattern 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 19

vi

INTRODUCTION

The Operation of any business is by nature a group
activity, the success of which is dependent upon and in
large measure controlled by the attitudes, activities, and
relative influences of two basic subgroups: (a) persons
charged with the responsibilities of leadership and control
within the business and (b) persons employed to perform the
routine production and service tasks necessary to the func-
tioning of the enterprise. Coexistent within the Operational
structure are two distinct systems of organization: (a) the
formal organization: the system of consciously coordinated
activities of two or more persons and (b) the informal
group(s) or organization(s): the network of personal and
social relations which are not defined or prescribed by the
formal organization (28).

According to Davis (10), every formal organization
has one or more informal organizations and the informal
organization(s) cannot be abolished or reduced to surrender.
Davis (9) believes that both formal and informal organiza-
tional systems are necessary for group activity.

Formal organizations are bmpersonal, composed of
members who bear ideal relationships with each other, and

are usually parts of larger COOperative systems (28).

According to Brown (4), informal organizations among workers
exist permanently because they arise naturally and spontane-
ously from the 'face to face' interaction of peOple.
Behavioral scientists term the formal organization a
'secondary' group and the informal organization a 'primary'
group (4, 30).

The presence and influence of informal organizations
among workers have been acknowledged in the life of a vari-
ety of industries and described in.the texts of some instruc-
tional materials (7, 8, 9, 28). However, little research has
been reported in the area of informal groups within the food
service industry p§£_§g, Further search of the literature
in the area of food service management has revealed that in
the profit oriented segments of the industry management has
appeared to show little concern for or understanding of the
current and potential influences of informal organizations
upon managerial processes.

In the fields of psychology and sociology consider—
able research concerning small group generation, structure,
and behavioral process has been reported. Within these
disciplines researchers have agreed to the synonymity of the
terms primary group and informal organization as defined
above.

The objectives of this very limited exploratory
study were twofold: (a) to examine and attempt to identify
the theoretical concepts of informal group generation and

behavior developed by the behavioral scientists which might

have relevance for studying the influence of informal orga-
nizations on the managerial processes of profit oriented
food service Operations and (b) to select and use the most
pertinent of these concepts as a basis for assessing the
sensitivity of a few managers of profit oriented food ser-
vice establishments in Michigan to the current and potential
influences of workers' informal groups upon the managerial
processes of their respective establishments.

The concepts of group generation and behavior
selected as a base for this study of workers' informal
organizations in profit oriented food service Operations are
identified and described in the first major section of this
report. The second section details the survey procedures
used to sample a very limited number of food service Oper-
ators relative to their Opinions concerning the current and
potential influences of their workers' informal groups on
the management of their respective business Operations. In
the remaining sections the survey findings are summarized
and discussed, conclusions are drawn, and suggestions for
further exploration of the relationships between formal and
informal organizational systems of profit oriented food ser—

vice Operations are given.

CONCEPTS OF GROUP GENERATION AND BEHAVIOR

Behavioral scientists generally agree that there are
many principles involved in the formation of group associa-
tions and the develOpment of group behaviors. However, these
scientists also believe that the interdependence of and the
interrelationships between human needs and the social factors
and forces inherent in the environment are the essential
determinants of the nature of group associations and their
resultant behaviors.

The principles of group generation and behavior
described in this section of the report are derived from the
work of the behavioral scientists and are intentionally
limited to those concepts which, in the judgment Of the
author, may be fundamental to understanding the nature and
influence of workers' informal organizations within the

profit oriented segments of the food service industry.
Group Generation

For purposes of discussion, information related to
the formation and characteristics of informal groups has
been divided into three parts: the satisfaction of individ—
ual needs or the primary motivating force for group genera-

tion, secondary bases for informal group generation, and

some possible types of informal organizations which may
exist within the organizational structure of a business

enterprise.

Satisfaction 9: individual needs

Each individual has needs which he either consciously
or unconsciously seeks to satisfy. Sutermeister (35), writ-
ing from the work of Maslow (27), classifies human needs
into three categories: physiological, social and egoistic.
The physiological needs are basic drives such as hunger,
thirst, exhaustion and the need for personal safety. Social
needs reflect a desire for love, affection, affiliation and
belonging. Needs for recognition, knowledge, status,
achievement, self-respect, and the respect of other persons
are defined as egoistic needs.

There is a hierarchical order of appearance for the
three types of individual needs. The physiological needs
are the first to demand satisfaction, followed by the social
needs, and finally the egoistic needs. Once any need is
even partially fulfilled, the next higher need becomes the
predominant motivator of an individual's behavior.

In American today, a person who has a steady job is
likely to have satisfied his needs for food and shelter.
Thus, the physiological needs no longer serve as prime
motivators of behavior. It is at this time that the social

needs and perhaps the egoistic needs become increasingly

Emportant. These social and egoistic needs can be satisfied
only through association with other individuals (12).

Membership in an informal organization within the
work environment can provide satisfaction of social needs,
for the person belongs to a definite group and is liked by
the other members. An informal group can also give recogni—
tion, status, and respect to a fellow employee for his
knowledge, achievement, and competence in a specific field.
In this manner an individual is granted some degree of
egoistic need satisfaction.

Research findings reported by Friedman and Having-
hurst (15) and Schachter (32) provide support for the theory
of social and egoistic need fulfillment. Friedman and
Havinghurst have shown that employees do recognize the impor-
tance of association with other peOple within their work
environment. .Schachter discovered that if an individual
becomes anxious or fearful in a situation his social need
for affiliation increases.

Despite the evidence that membership in an informal
organization can satisfy an individual's social and egoistic
needs, the Opposite may also be true. Group members can
prohibit individual need fulfillment if, in actuality, they
do not fully accept an individual. Also, it is possible for
a person to have needs which demand too much from the other
individuals in the group and the members are unwilling to

give enough of themselves to satisfy this person's needs (5).

Secondary bases for informal
groupggeneration

 

Although it is generally acknowledged that the
primary motivational force underlying informal group
association is the desire to satisfy the social and egoistic
needs of individuals, there are a variety of other personal
and environmental factors which also influence the nature
and membership of informal groups. The personal factors
which influence group generation, as expressed by some
authors (28, 40, 41), are similarities of age, education,
sex, marital status, race, religion, and ethnic origin. The
physical proximity of peOple within their work environment
will either enhance or restrict the rate of interaction
possible between them (33, 41). .According to Homans (19),
the higher the frequency rate of interaction the greater the
similarity among individuals will become. Persons perform-
ing like jobs tend to be more highly integrated than do
persons with diverse activities (4). Such persons would
share a common interest in and knowledge of the job and
either possess or aspire to a similar degree of proficiency.

The personal and environmental similarities men-
tioned above are essential catalysts for informal group
generation. These factors partially determine the general

membership characteristics of the group formed.

Types of informal organizations
There are three types of informal organizations

identified as friendship—kinship, cliques, and subcliques.

The friendship-kinship type consists of only two or three
persons who have a very close personal relationship (28).
(Cliques are composed of more than three individuals who
commonly interact and mutually accept one another as group
members (9). Cliques are further divided by Schein (33)
into horizontal, vertical, and mixed types. Using the work
place as an example, members of a horizontal clique are all
from one location and similar employment standing. Persons
from one location but different work levels constitute a
vertical clique. The mixed clique is made up of a cross
section of peOple from both diverse work locations and dif-
ferent employment levels. It is highly probable that more
than one clique will exist within an organization and, when
a member of one clique forms personal ties with members of
another clique, the resulting informal organization is

termed a subclique.

Group Structure and Behavioral Processes

Inherent in the formation and continuance of every
informal organization there is a pattern of social positions
occupied by the members. The manner in which such a group
of persons elects to function together constitutes that
group's behavioral process (20). Both the structural devel-
opment and the modus Operandi of the group are greatly
affected by and significantly dependent upon the relation-
ships between the existing social positions of the members

and the group's behavioral process. Within each of these

elements there are a variety of associated factors which
singularly or collectively may influence the character of

the group formed as well as its behavioral process. In the
discussion which follows the more dominant factors have been
identified. .For clarity of presentation, the factors related
to group structure are given first followed by the factors

concerned with behavioral process.

Derivation 9: structure

The structural patterns arising within an informal
organization begin with the extent of homogeneity or hetero-
geneity of the membership. The term homogeneity is used to
express the degree to which individual group members have
common characteristics (3). .Since no two persons are iden-
tical, the term heterogeneity refers to the characteristic
differences which exist among group members. Heterogeneity
among individuals in a group causes role differentiation and
role conflict. In turn, role differentiation brings about

the evolution of group leadership.

Role differentiation. A role is defined as the
social position which an individual occupies during his
interaction with others (9). Hare (16) presents the thesis
that the group shares a set of expectations concerning the
behavior associated with each position. Members of a formal
organization are told what their expected roles are to be
while persons belonging to an informal organization learn

what type of behavior is desired through experience and

10

social interaction with companions. Each individual also
discovers that some forms of behavior and the accompanying
roles are definitely not acceptable. It is a person's under-
standing of his role in relation to the remainder of the
group that aids the individual in determining his responsi-
bility to the group (2).

Possible roles for members of_a group have been
classified into three categories: task roles, group build-
ing and maintenance roles, and individual roles. Task roles
are those which assist the group in the definition and solu-
tion of a common problem related to a given task by coordi-
nating and facilitating members' actions (2). Likert (26)
terms some plausible task roles as those of initiating-
contributing, information or Opinion seeking, coordinating
ideas or activities, evaluating progress, and recording. It
is probable that not all of these task roles would be neces—
sary to develOp every group action contemplated by an infor-
mal organization. The essential task roles for a given
problem situation are determined by the nature of the prob-
lem under consideration.

Building and maintenance roles are aimed at perpet—
uating, strengthening, regulating, and maintaining the group
as a distinct entity (41). The types of roles associated
with the growth and perpetuation of the group include
harmonizing, compromising, setting standards or ideals,
observing, and following (26). Such roles pertain to the

social and emotional climate of the group.

11

Individual roles are assumed by a person to satisfy
his social or egoistic needs and not the requirements of the
group (41). Aggression, domination, recognition seeking,
and blocking are types of individual roles which have little

effect on the cumulative group behavior.

.Role conflict. The informal organization is com-
posed of individuals who are a part of a larger or formal
organization. The formal organization as well as the
informal organization has a distinct set of expectations
regarding an individual's role. -Should the.role require-
ments of these two groups differ greatly, a mental state of
role conflict exists for a person. The most striking case
of role conflict occurs when both the formal and the infor-
mal organizations demand total loyalty. In most instances,
the individual will attempt to harmonize his behavior to fit
the desires of both groups and thus alleviate the discrep-
ancy. The alternative is for the person to select the group
which is most attractive to him, pursue the role required by
that group, and remain in the conflict situation (9). In
most cases, the two roles can be adjusted to fit either
group's wishes but in the event that the influence of the
two organizations overlaps greatly, conflict is the natural

result (22).

Internal leadership. Every group, whether informal
or fonmal in nature, has some type of leadership. Within

the informal organization, through the process of role

12

differentiation, the group creates its own leaders (19).
The structure of the group is not static but dynamic and
changing with the demands of the group. Thus, leadership
is not a trait which is possessed by an individual but is
dependent upon the situation and the group (4). The indi—
vidual who is granted a position of informal leader is,
therefore, the person best suited to handle a specific
situation and conforms most closely to the leadership role
expected by the group (19).

There may be more than one leader at any one time
within an informal organization. According to Davis (9),
skill, age, seniority, and freedom of movement are all
possible causes for leadership selection in the work envi-
ronment. The highly skilled individual may serve as the
group's leader when the situation requires his knowledge of.
the task: the man with seniority can offer his experience
with wages; the mobile Worker can give the group information
about the activities taking place in other locations.

According to Schein (33), there are two major types
of leaders which are distinguishable in the informal orga—
nization: the £a§k_leader and the gggigeemotional leader.
The task leader assists the group in satisfying its job
related functions while the socio-emotional leader helps
individual members satisfy the social and egoistic needs for
which they sought group membership, and help solve their
personal problems. Usually the positions of task and of

socio-emotional leader are occupied by different persons.

13

The socio-emotional leader, though well liked by group
members, is not considered capable of contributing adequate
ideas or assistance to the group's task functions nor is the
task leader able to be of aid to the group's psychological

welfare (18).

Behavioral process elements

Once the structure of an informal organization is
generated the group begins to behave as a united whole
rather than as a conglomerate of individuals. The nature
of the group behavior which evolves depends in large measure
upon the interrelatedness of four important elements: the
basic functions of the informal organization, the force
emanated by cohesion within the group, the locomotion of the

group and the size of the group.

.Functions 9£_the informal organization. The estab—

 

lished informal organization has four basic functions: the
perpetuation of cultural values, the provision of social
satisfaction, communication, and social control. Each of
these functions manifests specific types of behavioral
phenomena, yet no one function exists without the influence
of the remaining three.

Every informal organization has a characteristic set
of cultural values which are passed on from member tO>member.
These are the perpetual or constant values which keep the
group united despite the entrance of new members and the

exit of old members. Thus, each individual must learn the

14

values held by his group and adhere to them tolmaintain
membership. ‘Work methods, customs, an occupational language,
ceremonies and rituals, and myths or beliefs are all forms
of cultural values for the employee (28).

Occupational languages may take the form of a jargon
or technical language, or an argot. .Among highly skilled
workers, a jargon consists of words which are not a part of
the layman's vocabulary. The jargon is specific to an
occupation and the objects used within that field of work
whereas the occupational argot is develOped by the use of
substitutes for words in daily communication (4, 28).
According tonMiller and Form (28), the argot, by abbreviat-
ing a long phrase, may serve a semi-technical function. No
matter what the occupational language form is, a technical
jargon or an argot, the form serves the social function of
identifying the group members and setting them apart from
persons associated with other informal organizations.

Within the work group, ceremonies and rituals have
little technical orientation but are merely ways in which
the ideas and beliefs of the group are passed on to the
membership. Initiation rites, manifested through teasing,
requests for favors and the running of errands, can be ways
that the group demonstrates to the new member that he is a
novice to the job and has much to learn (28). These tests
determine an individual's resourcefulness and potential
contribution to the group. .Rites of passage are ceremonies

used when a member must leave the group. Such ceremonies

15

may take any form from joking or a farewell handshake to a
planned celebration. In any case, the action is meant to
recognize the separation of the member. .Rituals which dis-
play the unity of the group are termed rites of intensifica—
tion (4). .Activities such as private jokes, a like article
of clothing worn by all, group dining, or group recreation
outside the work place occur between rites of initiation and
passage. -Rites of intensification not only solidify the
group but also reaffirm membership for all participants.

.Certain myths and beliefs are created about the work
situation to preserve group values, provide a reason for the
social system, and maintain morale. An example of these
factors at work in a group of employees who consider skill
to be very important and find that the formal organization
is attempting to delimit that skill in some manner, would be
a tale of a mythical man of great skill and ability. This
story tends to fortify group morale and action (28). Brown
(4) claims that beliefs and myths are primarily incorrect
but remain unchanged when corrections are known. They are
influential to group action, form a conceptual whole of
which no part can be changed, and are partly determined by
the social climate of the group.

The second function of the informal organization is
to provide social satisfaction for the membership. .As pre—
viously noted, the very basic reason for group generation is
the necessity for satisfying individual social and egoistic

needs. Through affiliation with others, a person receives

l6

recognition, status, and increased Opportunities for further
interaction (9).

Communication is the third function of the informal
organization. Through the develOpment of systems and chan—
nels of communication, group members are kept informed of
events occurring among themselves and within their environ-
ment (9). Some degree of horizontal communication is
essential for OOOperative group action and support of
individual members (21, 24). The ease with which communi-
cation takes place helps to determine the emotional climate
of the informal organization. The pivotal influence of
qualitative and quantitative communications on informal
group behavior is frequently underestimated.

The basic communication process involves six parts:
(a) sender, (b) encoding, (c) transmission, (d) decoding,
(e) receiver, and (f) feedback. These parts and their

ordered rotation are schematically illustrated in Figure l.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.Sender Encoding Pa Transmission Decoding Receiver

 

 

 

 

 

 

Feedback

 

 

 

 

Figure l. The basic communication process.

 

17

The sender must put the message into some form of
code which he believes the receiver will understand. Lan-
guage is most commonly selected, although actions or sym-
bolic gestures are possibilities. Once the code form is
chosen, the media of transmission must be decided. Among
members of an informal organization the customary communi-
cation code form is language and the transmission medium is
more likely to be oral than written.

Once the message has been expressed by the sender to
the intended receiver, the decoding process must take place.
The higher the degree of experience and awareness which the
sender and receiver have in common, the greater are the
chances that the message will be decoded and understood by
the receiver as intended by the sender (31). Thus, similar-
ities between the two parties increase the effectiveness of
communications (37).

Without some form of feedback from receiver to
sender, the communication circuit is incomplete. Only
through feedback can the sender learn the accuracy with
which his message has been received and understood. A two-
way communication process which includes transmission and
feedback allows the sender to adjust further behavior to
meet the demand of the situation. The transmissive accuracy
of the message conveyed and the confidence level established
between the parties are usually greater in a two-way communi—
cation system than in a one-way process without feedback

(23. 25).

18

Three common types of behavior are displayed by the
members of an informal organization: technical, social, and
socio-technical. Technical behavior is purely task related
requiring no verbal interaction; behavior which does not
relate in anyway to the actions of the formal organization
is termed social. Socio-technical behavior demands some
degree of communication which is related to the task at hand
(28). .Although technical and socio—technical behaviors do
take place among members of an informal organization, social
behavior is by far the type which occurs most frequently.

The social relationships among individuals give rise
to a form of communication called rumor while the internal
communication system of the informal organization is termed
the grapevine. The grapevine, like its source the informal
organization, cannot be abolished. .Davis (9) believes that
the nature and effectiveness of the grapevine is dependent
upon the situation at hand. It is most active when the
information to be spread concerns friends, is known to be
of interest to others, or is current or new (28). The
staler or older news becomes, the less likely it will be
a subject for this communication channel (38).

Utilizing primarily an oral transmission medium, the
grapevine is flexible and, more often than not, information
is distorted as it is transferred from person to person.
Initially, news spreads rapidly among a few group members,
yet not every person forwards the information to someone

else. The normal communication pattern for the grapevine

19

is the cluster chain where information is usually forwarded
to members of the group by only a few individuals (9). As
schematically illustrated in Figure 2, information forwarded
to persons B, C, and D by person A reached persons E and F
only because of person D. Person G received the information

only because of the forwarding efforts of person F.

9
G

9
990
0

Figure 2. Informal grapevine communication pattern.

The phenomenon of rumor stems from the grapevine.
Allport and Postman (l), in writing about the basic psychol-
ogy of rumor, state that rumors serve to explain and reduce
emotional tensions felt by individuals when accurate news is
unknown and incomplete information is all that is available.
A rumor, as it spreads, undergoes the process of leveling,
sharpening, and assimilation. ,Leveling refers to the
shortening of the content or reduction in the number of
details included in the rumor as it passes between indi-
viduals. The selective perception of the contents of a

rumor by an individual, which affects his retention and

20

reporting of the rumor, constitutes sharpening. .As a person
hears a rumor, he assimilates parts of the subject matter
according to his personal attitudes and interests and, thus,
through the process of assimilation, an individual tends to
complete or alter portions of the rumor as he sees fit.

.Rumors are usually considered by management as the
negative contribution of the grapevine. Generally, rumors
carry incorrect information which can damage the formal
organization if not controlled or counteracted. Neverthe-
less, no matter how important or trivial a rumor is, it does
carry a message permeated with the attitudes of the persons
involved.

.Ideally, the most effective way to prevent rumors is
to keep all channels of communication Open, thereby allowing
accurate and total information to reach the informal organi-
zation (17). However, this high degree of Openness is not
always possible. Once a rumor has begun, it should be
quickly and effectively dealt with by getting to the cause.
.An active rumor cannot be stOpped in midstream, but it can
be forced to dwindle into oblivion through the release of
accurate and complete information. When this action has
been taken, the need to pass false information no longer
exists (9).

The fourth function of the informal organization is
that of social control. Psychologists and sociologists seem
to agree that the informal organization, through its very

presence, exerts some degree of social control both

21

externally upon the behavior of those individuals who,
although not members of the same group, are in contact with
the informal organization and internally upon the behavior
of the membership (9, 16, 28).

External control can best be exemplified by the
influence exerted upon the formal organization through a
particular action taken by the informal organization. The
exact effect of such action depends upon the situation and
the nature of the action.

Internal control occurs through the formation of
group norms. Norms are merely standards of behavior the
group expects of its members in different circumstances. In
some ways norms are related to role differentiation, but the
term norms refers to specific actions rather than to general-
ized behavior. .For a norm to be effective it must have the
approval of all group members. Once there is group consensus,
norms serve not only to guide individual behavior, but to aid
a group to gain definitive identity (30).

A group expects all members to conform to the estab-
lished norms. .An individual's actual compliance with the
norms of the group depends upon his attraction to the group
or the personal importance of his membership and the degree
of attractiveness he perceives the remaining members feel
for him (11). Tannenbaum (36) presents the concept that the

more attracted an individual is to the group, the greater

the chance that he will conform to group norms. The more

22

closely knit the group is, the greater the possibility of
strong rejection of a non-conforming member.

There are four choices available to the individual
who differs from the group norms: to conform, to change the
norms, to remain a deviant, or to leave the group (16). In
the majority of cases, a person will confonm because of his
attraction to the group. To change the norms requires a
high level of communication and the achievement of group
consensus is uncommon when only one person differs from the
remaining members. Should a person elect to remain a devi—
ant, he faces either temporary or permanent rejection by the
informal organization. If the differences between an indi-
vidual and the group are minor, he may not choose to leave
the group. .Major differences which are not reconcilable
usually cause the person to seek a group which better suits
his needs and normative ideas.

.Communication plays an important role in the estab-
lishment of conformity among members of the informal orga—
nization. Through communication, the norms which are
initially derived represent the consensus of the membership.
.Moreover, a group requires not only behavioral conformity,
but also conformity of attitudes, Opinions, and beliefs (5).
-Festinger and co-workers (13) have shown that the rate of
communication changes with varying degrees of pressure
toward uniformity within the group. When Opinions held by
group members differ, communication increases to those indi-

viduals holding the most extreme views. As pressure for a

23

unifomm group and the communication rate increase, the

actual change toward the desired conformity also increases.

Cohesion within the informal organization. The
established informal organization is a cohesive group. All
the factors of group generation and behavior are related to
this concept. Festinger gt_§1,1 define cohesiveness as
". . . the total field of forces which act on members to
remain in the group." For example, the degree of cohesion
existing among group members can be increased when the per-
sonal characteristics and job assignments of the members are
similar. Proximity of group members enhances the opportu-
nity for interaction and thus, promotes cohesiveness among
these persons. Conversely, workers distant one from the
other in characteristics, location, and tasks display little,
if any, cohesiveness (39).

Mills (29) presents the thesis that cohesion results
from an emotional state of common attachment to the group
and an affection for each member which is shared by the
entire group membership. When the informal organization
no longer satisfies the personal needs of its members to
the degree that it once did, cohesion among the members

decreases (6). Likewise, as cohesion lessens, the conformity

 

1Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter, and Kurt Back,
Social Pressures in Informal Groups: .A Study of Human
Factors in Housing (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950),
p. 164.

24

of attitudes and behaviors of group members will decrease
because conformity is the result of cohesion (30).

The most comprehensive study of group cohesiveness
within the work environment has been done by Seashore (34).
Findings from this study show that members of groups exhib-
iting a high degree of cohesiveness expressed less anxiety
about managerial pressures and support from the organization,
considered their jobs more prestigious, had greater opportu-
nity to interact because the size of the group was smaller,
and had worked longer in the specific job than members of
groups displaying a low degree of cohesiveness. Group mem-
ber similarities of age and educational background had
little effect on the degree of cohesiveness of the groups

studied.

Locomotion within the informal organization. Group
locomotion is a concept which involves not only the whole
group but also each individual member (30). First, it refers
to group effectiveness: the ability of a group to satisfy
its purpose, whatever this may be. Secondly, locomotion
concerns group efficiency: the success a group has in
satisfying the individual needs of its members (40). For
group locomotion to occur, there must be some degree of
cohesiveness among the members for them to work together
toward their common purpose and for them to feel that the

group is efficient in satisfying their needs.

25

§i§§.2£ the informal organization. As previously
noted, the informal organization is composed of persons
having direct 'face to face' relations. (Communication among
the membership is vital to the maintenance of such personal
associations. As the size of a group increases the amount
of participation possible for each individual decreases,
thus causing a degree of dissatisfaction for those persons
who cannot participate as actively as they desire. Group
consensus becomes increasingly difficult as the number of
peOple involved grows. Group membership which develops
beyond a number which can maintain satisfactory personal
interaction inevitably subdivides into smaller groups in
search of more satisfying personal associations (16).

.There is no way of estimating the ideal size of an
.informal group. Each group will consist of a membership
only as large as it is possible for the informal organiza—
tion to fulfill its four basic functions: to perpetuate
cultural values, to provide social satisfaction, to commu-
nicate, and to maintain social control (9).

.Influence g; informal group
behavior 9n_managerial

processes

In the preceding discussion there have been subtle
references to the possible difficulties caused by the infor-
mal group within the formal organization. This section will
bring these drawbacks to the fore and present the benefits
created by the informal organization which may influence

managerial processes.

26

Drawbacks. Davis (9) alludes to the drawbacks as
arising in conjunction with the four basic functions of the
informal organization. The first function, perpetuation of
cultural values, brings about resistance to change both
within the work situation and the group's social structure.
.Provision for social stratification, the second function,
may create role conflict between the eXpectations of the
individual's role by the informal organization and the for—
mal organization. In the discussion of communication, rumor
was presented as a definite problem develOping from this
third major function. Finally, social control causes con-
fonmity to the norms established by the group. All the
negative influences which the informal organization can
exert on the managerial processes of the profit oriented
food service Operations under study are related to the four

dysfunctions as stated above.

Benefits. Davis (9) believes there are seven ways2
in which informal organizations may beneficially influence
the managerial processes of the enterprise:

1. To blend formal systems to make a workable system
of getting work done,

2. To lighten the work load of the formal manager,

3. To fill gaps in formal orders or in managers'
abilities,

 

2Keith Davis, Human Relations at Work (New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962), p. 244.

27

4. To give satisfaction and stability to work groups,
5. To be a useful channel of employee communication,

6. To act as a safety valve for frustrations and other
emotional problems of the work group,

7. To encourage a manager to plan and act more care-
fully than he would otherwise.

The extent of beneficial influence exerted by informal groups
depends upon the relative sensitivity of management to the
informal organization(s) which exist within the enterprise
and management's ability to capitalize on the operative

potential of such groups.

METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

The Sample

-For this exploratory study a very limited sample of
eight profit oriented food service Operations was selected
from a group of well-patronized table service restaurants
located within the Lansing—East Lansing area. Lansing, the
Capitol City of Michigan, is centrally located in the Lower
Peninsula and is considered an important manufacturing
center for the automotive industry. .East Lansing is the
site of the resident campus of a major State university with
a student pOpulation in excess of 40,000.

The clienteles of the selected establishments are
drawn from several sources. In addition to permanent resi-
dents and.the changing young adult population of the univer-
sity community, these facilities also serve a variety of
transients who frequent the area because of automotive
business interests, the array of educational, cultural, and
recreational programs of the university and the centrality
of State government processes.

.Selection of the eight establishments for study was
restricted to two major types of public services rendered:

four which provide lodging and meal accommodations and four

28

29

which.offer meal service only. Sub-sample members of the
lodging and meals class included three establishments which
are corporate owned and affiliated with nationwide chains
and one that is a State owned single-unit facility which
functions in conjunction with the public university. Among
the sub—sample members of the meals only class one is a
corporate owned unit of a nationwide chain, one is a branch
of a privately owned statewide chain, and two are privately
owned single-unit establishments each of which has served

the Lansing-East Lansing community for more than a decade.

Survey Procedure

Data for the study were collected through on-premise
interviews with management personnel. In all cases, the
interviewees were persons with major responsibility for man—
aging the meal service component of the facility. An inter-
view guide was developed to assure collection of comparable
-information about the eight Operations selected for study.
Three types of data were sought: Operational characteris-
tics of the facility, basic employment policies, and Opin-
ions of interviewees concerning (a) the existence and role(s)
of employee informal groups within their organizations and
(b) the influence of these informal employee associations on
the managerial processes of the Operation. All interviews

were personally conducted by the investigator.

30

Interview guide
In construction of the guide a concerted effort was
made to devise a format of inquiry which would:

a. encourage develOpment of rapport between the inter-
viewee and the interrogator,

b. provide the interviewer with an overview of the
basic Operational characteristics and employment
policies of the establishment,

c. elicit general information concerning the profes-
sional experience of the interviewee,

d. maximize the willingness of the interviewee to share
his Opinions about the influence of employee group
behavior on the policies and procedures of his food
service facility, and

e. .minimize the data recording time during the inter-
View.

The information sought was divided into three major
sections: facility characteristics, employment policies,
and infonmal group associations. The content elements of
‘the first two sections elicited factual information pertain-
ing to the Operation pg£_§§ whereas the questions posed in
.the third section were designed to examine the sensitivity
of the interviewee to the current influences of employee
group associations upon the managerial processes of his
organization. Throughout the guide, sufficient write-in
space was provided for direct recording of essential re-
sponse data during the interview. Space was also provided
at the end of the guide for noting additional information
garnered by the interviewer but not recorded in the presence

of the interviewee. A copy of the guide is included in the

Appendix, page 64.

31

The first section of the guide, facility character-
istics, contains fifteen items three of which permit general
classification of the facility, seven which pertain to
specific Operational factors of the local unit, and five
which identify the interviewee by name and title and elicit
descriptive data about his professional experience in the
food service field.

The second section, employment policies, consists of
nine items of inquiry. The first five items are related to
basic managerial tasks: hiring and assignment of new employ-
rees, job training, worker evaluation, and employee promotion.
Ways in which these tasks are handled by management usually
affect employee attitudes toward and satisfaction with the
organization. Item six concerns communication and is
designed to bring conceptual information into the realm of
employment policies. Within the organizational structure
downward communication to employees is a managerial respon-
sibility. Upward communication from employees to management
is dependent upon the access channels provided for employees
by management. .Since upward communication as well as hori-
zontal diffusion of information are recognized functions of
informal group members, management's views concerning the
importance of providing effective channels for downward and
upward communication should be revealed in the policies and
procedures established for these purposes. Items seven,
eight, and nine concern three types of opportunities for

socialization among employees: coffee breaks and meal

32

periods during working hours and recreational activities
outside of nonmal working hours. Such gatherings often
provide the means by which persons who meet regularly on an
informal basis can satisfy their basic need for social ties,
and through which they can contribute to the enjoyment of
others as well as derive social satisfaction for themselves.
The third and final section of the interview guide
is focused on eleven elements pertaining to informal group
associations. The questions formulated for this section are
based on the concepts held by some psychologists and sociol-
ogists concerning group generation, group structure and
behavioral processes, and the potential influences of
informal group behaviors on managerial processes as pre—
sented in the section of this paper entitled Concepts of
Group Generation and Behavior (pages 4-27). Management's
recognition ofanNIOpinions about the existence and behavior
of informal groups within the operations surveyed should
permit general assessment of the extent of managerial sensi-
tivity to the possible influences of such groups on the
managerial process of the Operation. Personal and environ—
mental factors which may promote group generation are the
emphasis of the first five questions. The remaining six
questiOns relate to the development of group structure and

the manner in which employees behave or react within the

structured situations presented for consideration.

33

Interview procedure

The interview procedure used by this investigator is
described in.the following paragraphs. First, the managerial
person most directly responsible for the food service segment
of the Operation was contacted, in person, by the interviewer.
A brief explanation of the project was given and the indi-
vidual's participation in the study requested. If coopera-
tion was indicated, a second appointment was scheduled at
the convenience of the interviewee.

,Punctuality was considered imperative in keeping the
appointment. In order to redirect the thoughts of the
respondent to the basic elements of the problem under study,
the project was discussed in further detail than at the time
of the initial contact. The assurance was made that the
names of the organization and the respondent would be held‘
in confidence in reporting the study results. In an effort
to clarify the general purposes of the interview, the inter-
viewee was encouraged to ask any questions which he had
regarding the project.

The items contained in the interview guide were
posed to the interviewee in a manner designed to reduce or
avoid implication of personal bias of the investigator.
Operational examples were used to clarify questions, avoid
misunderstanding, and encourage freedom of response. A
concerted effort was made to listen to the interviewee's

replies for content and intonation. Particular attention

34

was given to what the person said as well as to what he did
not say.

During the interview session, only key words were
used to record responses directly upon the guide. After
leaving the premises, these notations were transcribed into
more detailed descriptive answers. At the conclusion of the
interview, the participant was thanked for his cooperation.

Procedure for Analysis of
the Interview Data

Interview data were subjectively evaluated by the
investigator to identify similarities and differences among
facility characteristics, employment policies, and opinions
of participants concerning the existence and role(s) of
informal group associations within the two types of Opera-
tions surveyed. .Within and between facility type compari-
sons were.made in an effort to evaluate the sensitivity of
the survey participants to the current and potential influ-
ences of workers' informal groups upon the managerial

processes of these profit oriented establishments.

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

The eight profit oriented table service restaurants
included in the study sample represent two different types
of meal service Operations: four in which the service of
meals is an essential supportive service physically and
operationally associated with a business mainly concerned
with public lodging and four whose primary purpose is public
meal service but which are neither physically nor Operation-
ally associated with a public lodging component. To facil-
itate comparison of the establishments studied, both within
and between service types, the survey findings are tabulated,
reported, and discussed according to the type of public ser-
vice rendered. For consistency in reporting, individual
establishments are alphabetically coded: A, B, C, D are the
four restaurants in the lodging and meals class and E, F, G,
H are the four restaurants in the meals only class.

,The findings of the study are presented in the
sequence used in the design of the interview guide (see

Appendix, page 64).
Facility Characteristics

The facility characteristics of the establishments

surveyed are detailed in Table l. The descriptive components

35

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37

for each operation include: type of ownership, type of
geographic distribution and number of units in the total
organization, number of years the local unit has been under
its present management, the nature of the food service staff,
patterns and types of meal service, and the professional

employment history of the interviewee.

Total organization

Five of the establishments surveyed, A, B, C, E, and
F, are members of multi-unit organizations. The corpora-
tions that Own establishments A, B, C, and E vary in size
and maintain between 14 and 850 nationwide Operations where-
as establishment F is one of a 13 unit privately owned,
statewide chain. .Enterprises D, G, and H are all single
units but differ with respect to ownership. Operations G

and H are privately owned and D is State owned.

wLocal Operation

Of the lodging and meals class, operations A and D
have been under their present managements for over a decade
and B and C for slightly less than ten years. Within the
meals only class, restaurants E, F, and G have been Operated
by their respective managements for ten to fifteen years
whereas Operation H has been continuously under the same
rmanagement for fifty-three years. Thus, for the sample

studied, all Operations may be considered relatively stable.

38

Manpower needs differ widely among sample members
with respect to both supervisory personnel and food service
workers. The variance in establishment ratios of super-
visors to employees ranges from 1:9 to 1:45 within the
lodging and meals class and from 1:8 to 1:16 within the
meals only class. Employees of only three of the eight
Operations surveyed, A, C, and D, are unionized and all
belong to the lodging and meals class. .All workers of
establishments A and C are members of the Hotel, Restaurant,
and Bartenders International Union, while only full-time
.employees of establishment D are affiliated with the American
Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees.

.Six of the establishments sampled, all of the lodging
and meals class and E and F of the meals only class, offer
food service to the public seven days a week. Operations G
and H, the two privately owned single-units, are Open only
six days per week.

Within the limits of these data, there appears to be
little relationship between total number of daily serving
hours and volume of patrons served. Within the lodging and
meals class Operation D, which is located on the university
campus, averages a greater number of patrons per day, than
establishments A, B, and C combined although D has the
shortest total serving time of the four operations. .Simi-
larly, establishment F handles a larger daily volume of
patrons than other members of the meals only group; an aver-

age of 1,150 patrons in thirteen hours. Operation E serves

39

f

800 daily covers in seventeen hours and in eleven hours G
and H average only 200 and 500, respectively.

Five of the establishments, A, B, C, D, and E, serve
breakfast, luncheon, and dinner. Of these Operations, B, C,
and E offer continuous service and A and D Operate under set
meal hour patterns. Establishments F, G, and H serve lun-
cheon and dinner only and are Open continuously from late
morning to late evening.

.Employment history waghg
interviewees

Inquiry was made into three aspects of the employ-
ment history of the interviewees: the number of years with
the present organization, the length of time in the present
position, and the total years and areas of previous expe-
rience in the food service field. Within the lodging and
meals class, interviewees have spent from one to sixteen
years with the company. The range is two to more than
twenty years for the members of the meals only class. .Six
of the eight interviewees have been in their present posi-
tions for the same length of time that they have been
affiliated with the organization. Only respondents F and H
have held their current positions for less time than their
organization membership. The employment stability of the
interviewees reflects considerable variation among the

establishments studied.

40

The interviewees of establishments A and C have
between six and ten years experience in the food service
field. In establishment B, the range is eleven to fifteen
years and in Operation D, over twenty years. Two of the
four respondents of the meals only establishments, E and G,
have been in the field five years or less, and two, F and H,
for over twenty years. Differences reported by interviewees
of the lodging and meals class, with respect to years of
food service experience show less variation.than.the years
of experience of members of the meals only class. Experi—
ence in the food service field was gained by the managerial
representatives of the lodging and meals class by previous
employment in hotels, residence halls, resorts, restaurants,
and university unions or the combination of these. The
interviewees of operations E, F, G, and H have previous

experience in restaurants only.
Employment Policies

In the conduct of every business there is an inher-
ent need for establishing employment policies which serve as
Operational guides in handling the personnel component of
the business. .Employment policies concerning hiring, job
training, worker evaluation, employee promotion, channels of
communication, and job-related Opportunities for employee
socialization as reported by the establishments surveyed are

summarized below.

41

Hiring policies

Irrespective of facility type, final authority and
responsibility for hiring food service workers rests with
the manager of each operation. In all cases, prospective
applicants are acquired through newspaper advertising or
walk-in requests. In only two of the eight Operations, D
and H, are persons other than the manager of the food ser-
vice unit involved in the hiring process. In establishment
D, preliminary screening is conducted by a central personnel
office before the applicant is referred to the food service
manager for final interview. In establishment H, food ser-
vice supervisors assist in the evaluation of prospective

candidates.

Job training

In all establishments surveyed new employees are
hired for a specific job and are given some measure of on-
the-job training. However, the responsibility for orient-
ing and training new employees varies among establishments
.with respect to the person(s) designated to perform these
tasks. In establishment A, the manger assumes full respon-
sibility for orienting and training all new employees. In
five establishments, B, C, F, G, and H, the orientation and
training responsibilities are delegated to experienced
employees whereas in establishments D and E these respon—
sibilities are shared by the manager and selected employees

of the unit. Of the eight Operations under study only B, a

42

lodging and meals establishment and E, a meals only enter—
prise, use additional means for acclimating the new employee
to his position. In these two cases, job manuals, printed
job descriptions, and orientation-training films are pro—
vided by operation B whereas operation E limits its supple-

mentary training materials to pamphlets.

Worker evaluation

Among the Operations studied, there is only limited
evidence from the interview data that established worker
evaluation policies and procedures are deemed essential. It
is recognized also that this is a sensitive area of inquiry
and the lack of definitive information gained by the inter-
viewer may reflect an unwillingness on the part of the
interviewees to divulge the evaluative policies and methods
they actually use. However, from the limited responses
received, worker performance is evaluated in one of two ways;
either formally with an established frequency or informally
as the need arises.

Of the eight operations studied only three, C, D,
and F indicated that formal evaluation of worker performance
by a member of the managerial team is done with scheduled
frequency. In Operation C employee evaluation takes place
every six months, in Operation D only new workers are
appraised at the end of the first three and six month
periods of their employment, and in Operation F evaluation

of job performance for all workers is done on an annual

43

basis. Probationary periods for new employees exist in only
two Operations, B and D, both members of the lodging and
meals class, with periods of three and six months, respec-
tively. Only three of the eight persons interviewed indi-
cated they use informal means for evaluating their workers.
.These respondents are the food service managers of Opera-
tions E, G, and H, all in the meals only class. While-it

is unrealistic to believe that Operations A and B do not
evaluate worker performance by some means, the persons
interviewed from these establishments were reticent to share
policies and/Or procedures associated with this aspect of

their business.

Employee promotion

Interview data pertaining to employee promotions in
the Operations sampled suggest that, in general, the poli—
cies and criteria for employee advancement are not very-well
defined. It further appears that decisions related to
changes in job assignments and promotions for food service
employees within local units are based on the personal judg-
ments of management rather than guided by established poli-
cies. According to all interviewees of the establishments
in the lodging and meals class they have no stated policies
or promotion criteria. Within these enterprises, the high-
est position level to which an employee can be promoted is
chef or assistant chef in Operations A and C, a beginning

level management position in B, and to a level not to exceed

44

that of supervisor in Operation D. Among the meals only
food service establishments a worker can progress to a
managerial position in Operation E by meeting basic educa-
tional pre—requisites. Demonstrated ability is the only
criterion for promotion to a managerial level or chef or
assistant chef levels in operations F and G. Because worker
promotion.is uncommon in Operation H, there are no estab-

lished policies or maximum levels of advancement.

Channels‘p£_communication

As shown in Table 2, the management of three of the
establishments surveyed, D, lodging and meals, and G and H,
meals only, use group meetings and personal contact as com-
munication channels to employees. In Operations B and E,
the downward flow of information occurs by combining group
meetings and printed materials posted on bulletin boards.
Only group meetings or bulletin boards are used in establish—
ments A and C, respectively, while operator F indicated he
follows no particular plan-in communicating to his employees.

~Employee to management channels of communication are
through group meetings only in operation E, group meetings
and personal contact in establishment H, and personal con-
tact only in enterprises A, B, F, and G. Infonmation which
is directed upward reaches management via the supervisors of
Operation D, whereas no particular channel for employee to
management communication was known to the interviewee in

establishment C.

45

TABLE 2. Communication Channels for Information Flow Between
Management and Employees in Two Types of Food
Service Operations Selected for Study

 

‘—

Organizations

 

Lodging and
Meals* Meals Only**

 

 

Communication Channels A B C D E F G H

 

Management to Employees

Group Meet ings and
Bulletin Boards X X

Personal Contact‘ X X X
Group Meetings Only X
Bulletin Boards Only X

No Set Pattern x

Employee to Management
Group Meetings Only X

Group Meetings and
Personal Contact x

Personal Contact Only X X X X
Via Supervisors X

Unknown X

__f

*A,B,C = Corporate owned, multi-unit, nationwide; D = State
owned, single—unit.

**E = Corporate owned, multi—unit, nationwide: F = Privately
owned, multi—unit, statewide; G & H = Privately owned,
single-units.

46

Employee socialization

Common.to all establishments surveyed is the provi-
sion of time for coffee breaks and meal periods during
employee working hours. In seven of the eight Operations,
however, the times when employees may take a coffee break or
eat their meals are contingent upon the immediate needs of
the Operation and the number of patrons in the establishment.
Only one establishment, D, has regularly scheduled times for
coffee breaks and meal periods for all food service workers.
Because of the scheduled pattern of public meal service,
employees are only permitted off-duty time before and after
the hours this Operation is Open to the public.

-Employer sponsored, off-premise recreational Oppor-
tunities for employees are provided by Operations A, D, and
F only. In A and D such activities are open to»the employ-
ees of both the lodging and meal service components of the
establishment. Operation F, on the other hand, is a meals
only establishment with employer sponsored, off-premise
recreational Opportunities limited to food service workers.
In Operations A, B, and H, the interviewees did not appear
to be aware of any spontaneous, off—premise employee social-

ization.
Informal Group Associations

According to some behavioral scientists (4, 28, 33,
40, 41) the generation of employee informal group associa—

tions is dependent upon both personal and environmental

47

factors. The membership structure and behavioral processes
of such groups result from the conditions or circumstances
encountered by employees in the work setting. Responses of
the eight interviewees as to how they believe certain fac-
tors which the behavioral scientists often associate with
group phenomena affect the informal groups of their respec-

tive establishments are summarized below.

Group generation

Interviewees were querried about three personal and
two environmental factors which may lead to informal group
generation. In the opinions of the respondents, employees
with the longest service in Operations B and C usually tend
to associate informally. This type of association occurs
only occasionally in establishments A, E, and H and is not
evident in operations D, F, and G.

Although friends of present workers can be employed
in all establishments studied, only six operations B, C, E,
F, G, and H, permit the hiring of relatives. Under these
circumstances it is possible that employee associations
which exist outside the work setting can affect employee
relations within the work setting. Where such employment
practices exist, friendship ties and/or kinship ties are
considered natural generators of worker informal groups.

The degree to which interviewees felt that similar-
ities.in work experience and job assignment affected the

formation of infonmal employee associations within

48

their Operations varied among establishments. According to
respondents A, B, C, and E, work experience similarities did
promote personal ties among their employees whereas respon-
dents D, G, and H did not see this as a factor of influence.
Respondent F had no opinion on this factor with respect to
his Operation. Opinions concerning the effect of like job
assignments on the formation of social ties among workers
indicated that in seven of the eight Operations studied it
was felt that commonality of assignment does foster the
formation of social ties among employees although judgments
concerning the extent to which such associations are formed
vary among interviewees. According to respondents, social
ties among workers of like assignments are more prevalent in
Operations B, C, and E than in Operations D, F, G, and H.
The interviewee of establishment A was unwilling to comment
on how job assignments affected worker socialization in his
Operation.

Residential proximity appeared to be somewhat influ—
ential in the~formation of social ties among persons employed
by the same establishment. Six of the eight persons inter-
viewed believe that in their operations persons who reside
near each other tend to form social ties whereas the Opera-
tors of establishments B and E do not feel this is true

among their employees.

49

Group ggructure and behavioral
process

In all establishments studied interviewees' responses
to questions concerning group membership structures, intra-
group roles, and the group behaviors evoked by these informal
employee associations were too indefinite to permit meaning—
ful comparisons within or between food service facility
types. Forthright admissions by the interviewees concerning
their lack of knowledge about the composition of such groups
within their Operations and the resultant behaviors evoked
by such employee assOciations appeared to indicate that the
persons interviewed either did not recognize the potential
effects such groups can have on the conduct of the business
or were reluctant to reveal their personal views about the
relationships and activities of their employees with respect
to the questions posed. The questions related to group
structure and behavioral process which were of particular
concern to the investigator are listed in the interview
guide on page 66 of the Appendix.

The following infonmation is based on the limited
responses and comments of the interviewees and is presented
in summary with full realization that such broad statements
lack sufficient support to be viewed as substantive findings.
In general, the responses and comments of the interviewees
indicated that:

l. in the absence of the immediate supervisor, certain
employees within the operation do temporarily assume

leadership roles in an attempt to assure continuous
productivity for the Operation,

50

in cases where job transfer is requested by the
worker and granted by management such actions have
little or no affect on informal group behavior,

relationships among full-time and part-time workers
within the respective operations are usually amica-
ble although part-time college students sometimes
tend to associate more with each other than with
other workers in the establishment,

in operations where special catering functions some-
times require the employment of additional workers
for short term assignments rapport and COOperation
among regular and temporary employees are easily
established,

employee turnover is a continuing circumstance in
all establishments and occurs primarily among the
lower status positions associated with the less
desirable pre-preparation activities of food produc-
tion, dishwashing, and jobs offering only part-time
employment,

employee reactions to the addition of new menu items
or the introduction of variations in established
items are usually favorable except in cases where
price changes are indicated and employees are the
natural recipients of customer complaints,

employee reactions to increased work loads and
occasional extension of public meal service hours

to accommodate clientele volume generated by special
or periodic activities of the community are nearly
always favorable providing the employees are ade—
quately informed and rewarded by management,

employee resistance to the consistent use of portion
control equipment is prevalent in all Operations
studied although the introduction of other types

of new and/or more efficient production and service
equipment poses no similar problem for management,

commercially processed partially and/or fully pre-
pared menu items are not served with regularity in
any of the Operations included in this study and
when occasional use is made of these products
employees react with disfavor.

SUMMARY AND IMPLICATI ONS

Industrial psychologists and sociologists have dis-
covered that within large corporations two different types
of organizational systems exist, the formal organization and
the informal group(s) or organization(s). The writings of
such behavioral scientists were reviewed in an attempt to
identify the theoretical concepts which pertain to informal
group generation, structure, and behavioral processes. From
the concepts thus identified, the most important were used
as a base for studying the sensitivity of the managers of a
few profit oriented food service establishments in Michigan
to the current and potential influences of workers' informal
groups upon the managerial processes of their respective
establishments.

The theoretical concepts were of two general cate-
gories: those which pertain to group generation and those
which relate to group structure and behavioral process.
Concepts of group generation included the satisfaction of
individual needs, personal and environmental factors which
are secondary bases for informal group generation, and the
possible types of informal groups formed. The conceptual
aspects of informal group structure included role differen—

tiation, role conflict, and internal leadership. The basic

51

52

functions of the informal organization, cohesion within the
group, and the locomotion and size of the group were the
conceptual elements relating to behavioral process.

The survey sample consisted of eight profit oriented
table service restaurants in the Lansing-East Lansing area.
These establishments are of two public service types: four
which offer meal service as a function secondary to the
lodging component of the Operation and four which offer meal
service only. Ownership and the geographic distribution of
the total number of units affiliated with each of the local
establishments varied within classes. Through an on-premise
interview with a member of the food service managerial team
in each restaurant the investigator sought two types of
data: (a) descriptive information concerning the Opera-
tional characteristics and employment policies of each
establishment and (b) the Opinions of the interviewee con-
cerning the existence, structure and behavioral processes
of employee informal groups within his operation. 7A copy
of the interrogator's guide appears in the Appendix, page 64.

Three items of inquiry which further help to charac-
terize each operation included unionization status, patterns
of public meal service, and the food service employment his—
tory of the interviewees. Within the limitations of these
data, only the lodging and meals Operations were involved
with employee unionization. Patterns of public meal service
varied among sample members and were of three general types:

continuous all—day service from breakfast through dinner,

53

continuous service from luncheon through late evening, and
restricted service periods for breakfast, luncheon, and
dinner. Data regarding the food service related employment
history of the interviewees revealed wide variations among
sample members with respect to the total number of years in
the food service field, the length of time each had been
employed by the current organization, and the years each had
been in his present position within the organization. With
respect to the previous food service experience of the
interviewees, types of work experience were more limited for
those associated with meals only Operations than for those
employed by lodging and meals establishments.

Within every business the employment policies
(expressed and/or implied) serve as Operational guides in
dealing with personnel. Among the restaurants selected for
study, the employment policies of all Operations were simi-
lar in that unit managers have final authority and responsi-
bility for hiring food service workers from candidates
obtained primarily through newspaper advertising or walk-in
applicants. Among all sample members, policies dealing with
job orientation and training for new workers stressed on-the—
job training. In five of the Operations on-the-job training
was the delegated responsibility of experienced employees.
In the remaining cases, management either retained full
responsibility for the training function or shared it with

selected workers. Additional Off-the-job formal training,

54

although it did exist, was not common among the establish-
ments surveyed.

Information pertaining to the method(s) by which
management evaluates workers was not a productive area of
inquiry. Although a few interviewees indicated the use of
either formal or informal techniques, most survey partici-
pants appeared to be unwilling to divulge definitive infor—
mation about their policies and/or procedures for employee
evaluation. From the data received, the policies and
criteria for employee promotion are relatively obscure.

More than half of the operations sampled have no established
criteria on which to base worker advancement potential. The
decision of job advancement for food service workers seems
to depend solely on the personal judgment of the unit man-
ager. If worker evaluation procedures are ill-defined and
if employees do not know what criteria, if any, must be ful—
filled in order to progress within the employment setting,
it is conceivable that their satisfaction with both the job
and the employer will decrease. When such conditions exist,
concomitant increases in employee turnover usually follow.

Policies for establishing downward communication
channels from management to employees are fairly consistent
in the majority of the Operations studied. However, one
Operation indicated no set pattern for the downward flow of
information whereas another business relied solely upon a
channel which eliminates all personal contact between man-

agement and employees. In most of the Operations studied,

55

channels for upward employee to management communication
flow are primarily dependent upon occasional personal con-
tacts between parties.

According to some behavioral scientists (17, 21, 24),
one of the basic functions of an informal organization is
horizontal and vertical communications. When two-way ver-
tical channels are not provided, concise and accurate infor-
mation can not flow between the principal parties and the
informal communication channel or grapevine activates itself
and generates information flow usually in the form of rumors.
Despite the theory that rumors generally consist of errone-
ous information, without true open two-way communication
between management and employees, rumors are self-perpet-
uated and remain unchecked until they dwindle into oblivion
and a new one begins. Thus, workers only receive further
incorrect information. The interviewees did not seem to be
very sensitive to the potential situations which often
develop because of inadequate channels for employee to
management communication and feedback.

Opportunities are provided for employee socializa-
tion in the form of coffee breaks and meal periods during
working hours by all establishments. Only a few employers
sponsor additional off—premise recreational activities.
Behavioral scientists have noted that sanctioned Opportuni-
ties for socialization among workers tend to foster the
develOpment of informal groups or cliques. The majority

of the interviewees recognized that social ties which are

56

develOped in the work situation are carried over, to some
degree, to spontaneous off-premise personal associations.

In an attempt to satisfy basic individual social and
egoistic needs, informal group associations are generated
among employees. This study shows that, for the Operations
sampled, informal associations are sometimes generated by
personal factors related to similarities in years of service
with an establishment and types of work experience, and by
environmental factors such as similar job assignments which
permit physical proximity and require commonality of knowl-
edge and skills among individuals, the nearness of workers
with respect to personal residency, and the Opportunities
for employee socialization which occur both during and after
working hours. The data show further that the presence of
informal group associations is recognized by all managerial
personnel interviewed. In Operations that have policies
which permit concurrent employment of friends and/or rela-
tives, friendship-kinship groups are automatically generated.
Certain employment policies, such as employee job training
and promotion, tend to foster vertical cliques and sub-
cliques whereas horizontal cliques and subcliques sometimes
develOp between and among full- and part—time employees.

The findings from this study offer little concrete
evidence in support of the group structure and behavioral
process concepts deemed important by the investigator.

The persons interviewed appeared to be either unmindful

of or reluctant to acknowledge the potential influences

57

of employees' informal groups on the managerial processes of
their respective establishments. The responses and comments
tended to reflect feelings of managerial control with re-
spect to their employee group associations rather than seri—
ous concern for the influences such groups do or could have
on the Operational decisions of their businesses. It is
conceivable, however, that because each of the Operations
studied has relatively few food service employees (less than
fifty including all full- and part-time personnel) the infor-
mal employee organizations of these establishments are not
of sufficient size to measurably affect the Operational
processes favored by management.

Despite the limited scope of this exploratory study
there is reasonable evidence that the theoretical concepts
of informal group generation, structure, and behavior devel-
Oped by the behavioral scientists can be meaningfully
applied to the study of workers' informal organizations in
profit oriented food service Operations. The results of
this survey suggest the need for larger and more definitive
studies concerning:

1. factors which affect managerial process decisions,

2. managerial techniques of leadership and employee
control,

3. the effect of food service establishment size on
worker informal group generation, structure, and
behavior, and

4. employees' views regarding the potential influences
of their informal organizations upon the managerial
processes of their operations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

10.

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APPENDIX

Establishment

 

FACILITY CHARACTERISTICS

FACILITY CLASSIFICATION
1. Public Service Type: Lodging & Meals Meals Only
2. Ownership: Public' Corporate Private

3. Geographic Unit Distribution:

Nationwide Statewide Only Local Only
(No.) (No.) (No.)
LOCAL UNIT

 

4. Years Under Present Management

 

5. Number of Food Service Supervisors

 

6. Number of Food Service Employees

 

7. Service Days per week

 

8. Serving Hours per Day

 

9. Average Number of Patrons per Day

 

10. Unionization

 

Name of Union
Number of Members

 

 

INTERVIEWEE

 

11. Name:

 

Present Position Title:

 

12. Years with Present Organization:

 

13. Years in Present Position:

 

14. Total Years in Food Service Field:

1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 Over 20

 

 

15. Types of Previous Food Service Experience:

64

65

EMPLOYMENT POLICIES

1. Hiring

By Whom Where

 

Source of Applicants

 

2. Job Training

Informal On-the-Job By Whom

 

Method(s)

 

 

Formal Off-the-Job

Method(s)

 

 

3. Worker Evaluation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Formal Frequency By Whom
Method(s)

Informal Frequency By Whom
Method(s)

Probation Period Length

 

4. Employee Promotion
Recommended by Granted by

Criteria

 

 

 

Possible Leve1(s)

 

 

66

Communication Channels

Management to Employees

 

(tYPeS)

 

Employee to Management

 

(types)

 

Employee Socialization

 

During Working Hours: Coffee Breaks
(schedule; frequency)

 

Meal Periods

 

(schedule; frequency)
Outside Recreational:

Employer Sponsored

 

(describe)

 

Employee Generated

 

(describe)

 

INFORMAL GROUP ASSOCIATIONS

GROUP GENERATION

lo

Do employees with longest service in your Operation tend
to associate informally?

 

Do you hire friends or relatives of current employees?

Friends Relatives

 

 

Do employees of similar backgrounds in work experience
form personal ties?

 

Do employees with similar work assignments fonm social
ties?

 

Do employees who reside near each other within a commu-
nity form social ties?

 

67

GROUP STRUCTURE AND BEHAVIORAL
PROCESS

6.

10.

When a supervisor is not present, do certain employees
assume informal leadership for operational needs either
in performance or reporting needs to others?

Are you confronted with shifting employees to another
location (Job Transfer)?

 

How does the individual employee react to job transfer?

 

 

How do the remaining employees react to the job transfer
of others?

 

 

How do regular part-time and full-time employees relate
to one another?
Does your establishment offer catering services?

For such occasions, do you bring in extra service
personnel?

 

How do regular employees accept temporary employees?

How much employee turnover do you have?

 

Does turnover differ among job classifications?

68

110 How do your employees react to:

the addition of new menu items?

increases in hours of service?

increases in work loads?

what areas?

the introduction of new production equipment?

the introduction of portion control equipment?

the introduction of commercially processed partially
and/or fully prepared menu items?

ADDITIONAL COWMENTS

 

 

 

 

 

INCHISAN STATE UK: je'..
COLLEGE OFIICME ECONUNAQS
EAST LANSING, MICHIGAN

Stephens , Diane Vachout

Informal Group Generation and Be-'
Profit Oriented Food
Operations.

  
  

 

 

 

31293 025334 I