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THE CASE APPROACH: AN EDUCATIONAL VENTURE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ADMINISTRATIVE POINT OF VIEW

IN THE DIETETIC INTERNSHIP

By

Margaret Eileen Radke

A PROBLEM

Submitted to the Dean of the College of Home Economics of
Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied
Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Institution Administration

1958

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to express her grateful
appreciation to Miss Katherine Hart for her
guidance, encouragement and patience in the execu-

tion of this study.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Administrative Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Case Method in a Nutshell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Objective of the Case Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Change in the Classroom Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Collecting and Writing Cases ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Analysis and Organization of Case Material . . . . . . . . . 23
Evaluation of a Case Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

ConCIUBiOn O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 33

APPFJNDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 34

BIBLIOGR‘PI” O I O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 55

The essential fact which makes the case system . . . an
educational method of the greatest power is that it arouses
the interest of the student by making him an active rather
than a passive participant . . .1

--Dean Donhsm

The dietitian lives and works in a constantly evolving

sociological and technological world. The educational means which

are utilized in the training of the dietetic intern should be based

on this concept of a dynamic society.
Administrative Point of View

A major objective of an approved dietetic internship is the
develOpment of a purposeful and comprehensive administrative point
of view toward problem solving and participative action in food
service operations. The dietetic intern should be taught and should
learn to employ administrative skills in analyzing and making deci-
sions in the unpredictable, as well as the predictable situations,
which she will encounter in the training program and throughout her
professional career. The intern should be capable of effectively
applying the problem solving technique in situations in the training
program in which she functions independently or as a part of a
group. The ability of the student to participate in group discus-

sions and in critical analysis and decision making may be developed

 

lAs quoted in Andrews, Kenneth R., ed. The case method of
teaching human relations and administration. Cambridge, Mass..
Harvard University Press. 1950. p. 3, from the collected paper of
Charles I. Gregg, "Because Wisdom Can't Be Told."

by the implementation of the case method of instruction in the
dietetic internship. The Harvard Business School has used the case
approach as a means of teaching business administration for more

than thirty years.2
Case Method in a Nutshell

A "case" is a written record or description of a business
.situation which has actually been faced by an administrator. The
facts, opinions and prejudices on which the executive had to base
a decision are carefully presented to the reader. The student is
required to analyze the case in order to determine what is going on
and what the problem is. After an open discussion by the group, the
participants make individual decisions as to what can and should be
done in the situation which has been described. In the case system
of instruction there is no one "right" answer; each problem which

is presented must suggest two or more alternative plans of action.
Objective of the Case Method

The objective of the case method of instruction in the in-
ternship program should be to increase the ability of the student
to work effectively with her superiors, associates and employees.
In order that the intern may learn to function cooperatively in a
group, the "leadership" and "followership" potential of the student

should be develOped in equal proportions. The director and the staff

 

2McNair, Malcolm P., ed. The case method at the Harvard
Business School. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1954. p. vii.

of an internship should share the responsibility of teaching the
student dietitian to assume the role of leader or the role of fol-
lower. The intern should learn to competently and appropriately
play either role in the classroom and in the work situation.

The case structure may be employed to teach the pupil to
function effectively as a leader or a follower. The role which the
student plays in the group discussion will be determined by her
knowledge of the circumstances described in the case. The quality
of her participation in respect to the problem presented for analysis
and decision making will also be important.

The director of the internship who implements the case system
will be able to afford a coordinated program of classroom discussion
and practical on-the-job training in the development of administra-
tive and technical skills. The results of the program should be
constantly evaluated in order to reduce the tendency of both the
staff and the student to concentrate on the technical aspects of the
training situation. A disprOportionate emphasis on the learning of
technical material will sacrifice the development of the administra—
tive potential of the intern.

Glover and flower stated that the capable executive is set
apart by "his ability to think and act responsibly, to work effec-
tively and with satisfaction within the group."3 Teaching the
student to think effectively, to look ahead and to anticipate what

may happen should be considered as the sub-goals of the internship.

 

3 Glover, John D. and flower, Ralph M. The administrator.
3rd ed. Homewood, 111., Richard W. Irwin. 1957. p. 3.

Only by growing in her ability to solve problems and to work with
different types of peeple will the intern be able to competently
achieve the standards required by the profession of dietetics.

The case system of teaching administrative practices should
increase the similarity between the demands of the work experience
in the first years of professional life and the learning situations
encountered in the training program. The educational process in-
volved in the case method should encourage the student to be an
active participant. Learning is a result of doing. Learning may
be a positive result of the integrated activities of the classroom
and of the work situation when the program is based on the case
structure.

The Harvard Business School reported that the student in
business administration who was provided with opportunities to be-
come involved in problem solving and in group interaction developed
an understanding and judgment in recommending appropriate action in
simulated business situations.4 The dietetic internship may offer
a similar experience for the student to acquire administrative
skills by dealing with actual cases which are representative of the
problems encountered in a dynamic food service operation. The ef-
fective implementation of the case system as a method of instruction
should more adequately prepare the student to adapt to a changing
society. This objective may be accomplished by developing the in-
tern's potential to think and to act in an effective and responsible

manner.

 

4Andrews, 22. ci ., p. 113.

Change in the Classroom Process

Information regarding certain aspects of the case method
of instruction may be of interest to the director and the staff of
an internship. I propose the implementation of this method as an
additional medium of teaching and learning in the program. Such an
educational process should be an effective means of developing the
administrative potential of the intern. The case system would pro-
vide a structure for the acquisition of leadership qualities within
the existing framework of the training situation. This unique
instrument of learning could be gradually and effectively introduced
into the existing curriculum on a limited scale with the minimum
amount of adaptation of course content.

A teaching dietitian with a working knowledge of the tech-
niques of group discussion and problem solving should be selected
to implement the system. Professionally trained food service per-
sonnel could be trained to collect material and to write cases perti-
nent to various phases of food service administration.

The assignment and discussion of cases in the classroom
should receive consideration. A text or manual of cases treating
actual situations which have existed in all types of food service
organisations is not presently available. Such a publication which
would specifically meet the needs of the dietetic intern, in both
the administrative and hospital internship, would be highly desire-

able. One collection of cases in hospital dietary administration

has been published.5 However, a limited number of cases of general
interest has been produced and distributed in mimeographed form at
regional and state dietetic association meetings within this country.
The assignment of cases may be oral or written. Some
instructors who have employed this method have distributed assign—
ment sheets which outline the elements of administration to be
considered in the course; others have made daily oral assignments.
In either case, the teacher will find it purposeful to point out
to the class the manner in which a case fits into the course out—
line. Undoubtedly, the instructor will want to accomplish this im-
mediately after a case has been analyzed by the group. The routine
practice of this procedure will facilitate the integration of the
student's learning in the classroom. .
Customarily, the student will elect to prepare for discus-
sion by carefully and thoroughly reading and re-reading a case.
An intern may indicate major issues by making marginal notations
and by underlining significant factors when cases which deal with
food service activities are available for use. A student may decide
to present her critical analysis and tentative solution of a case
in the form of a rough outline. If it is necessary during the course
of the class, the intern will then be able to quickly check the
reasoning process which she employed in her analysis and proposed

solution.

 

5American Hospital Association. Case studies in hospital
dietary administration. Chicago, American Hospital Association.
1954. -

Instructors who utilize the case method may differ in the
number and length of written case analyses which they require from
the student. Most teachers will feel that lengthy written analyses
are limited in their contribution to the student's learning; the
preparation of these reports may be too time consuming in proportion
to their educational value. Perhaps an occasional detailed written
analysis will be felt to be purposeful. I suggest that the dietetic
intern's efforts could usually be more profitably directed toward
her rotating on-the-job learning experiences. Undoubtedly, an oc-
casional written analysis will be worthwhile. However, some
instructors will advocate that such analyses will result in a more
careful and thoughtful preparation prior to the group discussion of
the problem.

The case method of instruction should not become burdensome
to the intern who already has a full schedule of activities to which
she must adapt. Experience at the Harvard Business School showed
that the student who thought reflectively and who develOped a rough
outline was adequately prepared to satisfactorily contribute to the
classroom analysis of the case.6

The group discussion may be Opened with any one of several
questions. An example of one question that an instructor may ask
is, "What is going on here?" Or she may prefer to begin the class
analysis with, "What is the problem?" A case may indicate that
taction is required and the teacher may then ask, "What should be

done?" The approach which the teacher will employ will be dependent

 

GMcNair, 22. cit., p. 113.

on the case, the subject or the individual who will be responsible
for stimulating the discussion.

Himeographed cases may have either specific or general
questions for discussion following their presentation. In the
future, the intern may be requested to comment on action which has
been taken in a food service organization or to propose a possible
course of action to a problem which has been presented in a case.

The class discussion will usually consist of the breaking
down of the problem into its specific areas. In this way, several
logical solutions may be deve10ped through analysis by the group.
A student should not be permitted to develop a negative solution
to a problem without first venturing to search for and to formulate
a positive plan of action.

There may be a variance in the policy of instructors in
regard to the pupil's participation in the case discussion on a
volunteer basis. One group may strongly feel a student should
participate at her own discretion; another faction may express the
Opinion that the non-participating member of the group should be
drawn into the exchange of points of view. If the latter system
prevails, the less vocal group member may expect to be called upon
during those periods when the more loquacious student is asked to
remain silent.

The goal of the case method of instruction is decision
making. The technique should be develOped both on an individual

and on a group basis. The individual solutions should be developed

prior to the group discussion; these decisions will often be revised
in the process of the interaction between the members of the class.

The methodology employed in case discussion will be dependent
on the approach the instructor chooses in proceeding with the analysis.
The teacher will ordinarily vary her development of cases; her strategy
will depend on the problem to be solved. The teaching dietitian may
request that the intern render her prOposed solution to a case in the
classroom situation. The staff member may then ask the student to
justify her reasoning process and the decision which she has formulated.
On the other hand, the teacher may engage the group in discussion; she
may then suggest a case solution which will be based on the communica-
tion which has deve10ped in the class as a result of the foregoing
analysis. Some of the participants may be asked to state solutions
to the problem; they may also be requested to explain the premises
on which the reasoning for the decision was formulated. In this
situation, the instructor or one of the students may summarize for
the class.

In many cases, no group decision will be reached in order
that each member may give the case further thought. On the other
hand, the intern should be cognizant of the fact that in an actual
food service operation, the dietitian is often faced with a situa-
tion to which there appears to be no solution. Similar problems
exist in the majority of business organizations today.

The success of the case method instruction will rest largely
upon the widespread participation of the class members in the ex-

change of ideas. The development of a fresh and lively discussion

10

will be dependent on the ability of the instructor to establish
rapport with the student; the dietitian must also be able to stimu-
late effective interaction between one learner and another. If
this process is utilized as a means of developing an administrative
point of view, the dietitian who is serving as an instructor should
aim to create a permissive atmosphere in the classroom.

The intern should feel free to challenge the statements of
fact or opinion which the staff member may present in the case
analysis; the teaching dietitian will naturally feel free to promptly
question the reasoning for the assumptions which the intern may make
regarding a case. The two-way flow of communication between the
student and the teacher will be a contributing factor to learning

in the training program.
Teaching and Learning

The case method of instruction will be a severe discipline
for the teaching dietitian and for the dietetic intern. To the
casual observer of this educational process, the student will seem
to be assuming the greater share of the responsibility for the
classroom discussion; the role which the instructor is playing may
appear insignificant. The teacher will seem to be merely listening
attentively as she occasionally questions a student, clarifies a
statement, points out conflicting opinions or summarizes a discus-

sion.7 However, it should be emphasised that only the most skillful

 

7Berrien, F. K. and Bash, Wendell H. Human Relations:
Comments and Cases. 2nd ed. New York, Harper and Bros. 1957.
p. 532.

11

teacher will be able to achieve results comparable to the situation
which has been described.

The teaching dietitian, who is keenly aware of the fact that
wisdom is acquired by doing rather than by telling, will usually
strive to develop an informal atmosphere in the classroom. Patience,
effort and experience on the part of the instructor and the student
will eventually result in the achievement of the permissive atmos-
phere which is desired. Such a milieu will be necessary for learn-
ing to take place when the case method of teaching is employed.

The successful implementation of this system in the dietetic
internship will be dependent on the shift of the responsibility for
thinking from the teacher to the dietetic intern. This concept of
education will frequently represent a complete reversal of the teach-
ing methods with which the student has been previously acquainted.

In all probability, the intern will have learned to base her adminis-
trative decisions on the principles, rules or generalizations which
she acquired in a personnel administration course rather than on the
facts which are inherent in a particular set of circumstances. A
learning situation which will require the participant to think for
herself on the basis of the evidence presented may be initially pain-
ful; nevertheless, the experience utilmately will become rewarding
for the majority of students.

The instructor who is contemplating the use of this means
of education to develOp the administrative potential of the intern
should be forewarned. No one technique exists which will be suitable

for all types of cases and for all groups. The approach will vary

12

with each case and with each group; as a matter of fact, the scope
and the direction of the discussion may abruptly change as a case

is being interpreted in the classroom. Regardless of how thoroughly
she will have prepared for a specific case discussion, the experi-
enced teacher will learn to anticipate that the unexpected may oc-
cur. However, this aspect of the method will add zest for the
teaching dietitian as well as for the intern. The dynamic nature of
the process will gradually stimulate and increase the student's in-
terest in problem solving and decision making.

The dietitian may want to introduce the case structure into
the training program by drilling the student in the step-by-step
analysis of simple cases which present problems in food service ad-
ministration. Initially, the inexperienced instructor as well as
the student will admit to being confused and frustrated as they
jointly engage in this type of educational venture. In time, each
participant will learn that no one person, including the teacher,
can possess all the knowledge which will be available in the aggre-
gate of the total group. As a result, the self-confidence of the
class will increase; the basic insecurity which is often an effect
of this system of instruction will begin to decrease as the teacher
and the student learn together.

A group member will come to realize that there may be several
alternative decisions to the majority of the cases and no possible
solutions to some of the problems which will be presented for dis-
cussion. The analogy between the class material and the practical

job assignments may be observed as the intern's critical thinking

13

ability is developed. The knowledge which the student will acquire
in the classroom and on the job will become the integrated learning
experience of the training program.

The intern will derive satisfaction from her increased skill
in meeting new situations and in suggesting plans of action to the
simple and the complex realities of the food service activities
which will be described in the case studies. As the teaching dieti-
tian skillfully guides her course, the student will develop her ad-
ministrative ability as an individual and as a group member. The
intern will gradually learn to confine her analysis of a problem to
the facts of the case and to the objectives of the course.

The frustration and confusion which the case approach may
provoke in the insecure and the uninitiated may be responsible for
the temporary direction of feelings of hostility toward the instructor.
This manifestation of aggression will usually disappear as the pupil
becomes more adaptable to the case structure of learning. On the
other hand, a student may express the opinion that she is being
taught nothing which is new or that this type of training is non-
sensical. In some instances, the intern may strongly assert that
she feels that it will be impossible for the group to reach a decision
by means of discussion. A pupil may burst forth with the statement
that nothing is being accomplished and that time and effort are being
wasted in purposeless activity. Such comments may be made shortly
after the student is confronted with an educational process which

is unfamiliar to her.

14

The wise instructor will allow the individual who is upset
to express her feelings in the classroom; this will serve as a form
of mental catharsis for the individual and the group. The teacher
may want to counsel a particularly disturbed student in the privacy
of her office. Either one or both therapeutic procedures which have
been suggested may assist the intern in making a more satisfactory
adjustment to a novel learning situation. In all probability, the
student's ability to adapt to the case system will be related to
the adequacy of her performance in the practical assignments of the
internship. However, it should be emphasized that not every intern
will be able to benefit from such an educational experience; the
system may be a traumatic and an unproductive undertaking for a few
students.

As the learner develops her analytical ability, she will
begin to appreciate that the instructor allows the discussion to
evolve around the needs of the group members. Nevertheless, the
discussion will be confined to the objectives which have been set
for the course as well as to the interests of the class; the inter-
action between members should never be allowed to become pointless
or tangential. The participant in the case method of instruction
may express satisfaction with this means for learning. In fact,

a pupil may often choose the case system in preference to the more
conventional educational procedures to which she has been accustomed.
The sense of security, which the student may eventually feel in

approaching new cases and situations on the basis of the facts in-

volved, will be tangible evidence of her administrative growth.

15

The intern should be encouraged and permitted to mature on
the basis of the experience and the knowledge which she brings to a
situation. Learning takes place from "where the intern is" not
from "where the teaching dietitian wants to take her"; this concept
imposes a firm discipline on the instructor and the student. The
instructor who is sincerely interested in deve10ping the potential
of the student should be able to meet the challenge with practice
and effort. The dietitian and the student will gradually come to
realize that, on the whole, the same qualities distinguish a capable

instructor and a capable administrative dietitian.
Collecting and Writing Cases

The develOpment of cases based on actual food service ad-
ministrative situations will be the first problem in the implementa-
tion of the case method in the dietetic internship. The dietitian
who sets out to collect and to write cases will discover that she
has undertaken a job which is demanding in time and effort. Never-
theless, a marked degree of enthusiasm and interest in this system
may serve to lighten the work load. In this section, I have at-
tempted to apply some of the "helpful hints" reported by experienced
case writers to the collecting and writing of food service adminis-
tration problems.

A single institution can provide only a limited variety of
situations suitable for case studies. In order to obtain material
which is adequate and appropriate, the dietitian will find it neces-

sary to obtain data from several organizations which engage in food

16

service activities. The case writer will find that administrators
and dietitians who function in allied institutions will ordinarily
be cordial and helpful. They will be interested in learning how
the case method of instruction may be applied in the dietetic in-
ternship and how the organization which they represent may be of
assistance.

The case collector may find it worthwhile to give a sample
case study to the key administrative personnel of the organizations
which she contacts. In this way, the person who is interested but
unfamiliar with the method will more readily understand the type
of information which is being sought for training purposes.

The dietitian may choose to base her first cases on situa—
tions in which she has been personally involved. On the other
hand, professional associates in her organization or in other insti-
tutions may be asked and be willing to volunteer helpful information.
In some instances, the dietetic intern will be able to provide case
material which may be an account of a situation which occurred be-
fore or during the training program. Local and state dietetic as-
sociation meetings may provide an opportunity to make personal con-
tacts which will enable the writer to track down situations which may
be suitable for use in cases. The alert dietitian will soon develop
a scent for material which may be appropriate to her purposes.
Personal friends and professional associates may quickly catch her
enthusiasm and be of invaluable assistance in suggesting leads to

problems which the case writer is seeking.

17

The case method should be based on the typical situations
which are a part of the day-to-day food service operations rather
than on the unusual circumstances that seldom occur.8 However, the
writer will want to assemble a few cases which treat some of the
new developments which may be anticipated to have a future implica-
tion in the field of dietetics. Such cases may make the intern more
aware of the necessity to be prepared to adapt to a changing society
and technology.

Whether the case writer is planning an interview with the
personnel of the organization by which she is employed or with em-
ployees representing another institution, she will want to prepare
a list of carefully selected key questions. These will serve as a
guide for the proposed course of the conference. Prior to each
interview, the case writer should obtain background information
relative to the persons and the organization which she plans to
contact. In this way, the interviewer will be more able to direct
her remarks to the facts of the situation.

The course of any interview will be dependent on many unpre-
dictable factors. The personality, the available time and the amount
of authority delegated to the interviewee may influence the quantity
and quality of the information which the case writer will be able
to obtain. The dietitian will be unwise to render consultative
services to the personnel of the institution in which she is observ-

ing. 0n the whole, all the case writer will have to offer to the

 

8McNair, 22. cit., p. 257.

18

respondent is the opportunity to contribute to the learning process
of the dietetic intern.

The case collector should inform the administrator or the
dietitian being questioned that the material divulged and obtained
will be considered as confidential. At the same time, the case
writer may wish to request written permission to release a case for
publication. Usually it will be better not to promise to disguise
a case until such a request is specifically made by a representative
of the organization being studied. Cases will tend to be more real-
istic if the changes in identity are left to the judgment of the
writer.

The case writer will generally find that it will be advis-
able to ask for the information which she feels is necessary to
write a case. However, if the person being interviewed prefers not
to answer a particular question, the case writer will be wise to
give up this line of interrogation and to seek other material. The
dietitian will discover that her talent for making intelligent
speculations about conditions which prevail in an organization will
increase with practice. The writer will find that it is prudent
to be straightforward and resourceful in the questioning of respond-
ents.

Food service administrative personnel may take offense at
being asked if they have any unsolved problems; but they will
normally respond willingly to an approach which requests the bene-
fit of their experience for educational purposes. The case writer

will find it necessary to be nonjudgmental in regard to the problems

19

which may be discussed. In no case, should the interviewer argue
with the individuals with whom she is conducting an interview. The
dietitian will be wise to remember that her function is to get the
facts of a situation not to pass on the advisability of a particular
procedure in an institution.

The question of whether notes should be taken in an inter-
view can only be determined by the interviewer. Obviously, an in—
dividual will not be able to think and to write at the same time;
therefore, the case writer may find it profitable during the inter-
view to jot down only the key points which have been discussed. The
dietitian, then, will be able to observe the significant factors
which develop in the interview; she will be able to more adeptly
take advantage of the shifts in the content of the conversation.

Initially, the case writer may be viewed as an oddity, as
a management consultant or as a confidant by the employees in an
institution which she is visiting. As she gains the confidence and
trust of the personnel, the case collector will readily be able to
obtain the information she desires about a problem. The dietitian
should not hesitate to acquire material which may appear extraneous
to the immediate circumstance; she will later be surprised how
these details round out a case. After the case writer has completed
her collection of data, she will want to record a brief summary.

A fictitious name should usually be given to the institution and
its employees; however, names which are difficult and facetious
should be avoided. If plausible, it may be well to check that the

names which are chosen do not exist in a similar organization.

In the actual writing of the case, the dietitian will not
find it necessary to follow any rigid pattern. She may begin with
a presentation of the issue which is involved. On the other hand,
if the case to be reported is of the problem finding rather than
the problem solving type, this technique may not be advisable.
Nevertheless, the description should start with material which will
afford the reader an opportunity to become acquainted with the
personalities and the background of the organization which is being
outlined. The writer will want to present her observations in a
manner which describes a food service administrative problem which
occurred, rather than setting forth a loosely knit collection of
facts or opinions relative to an organization.

The writer will attempt to draw up the case in such a way
that the student will feel as participant in the situation rather
than as a critic of action which has already been taken. The pre-
sentation should be channeled toward the point of view of the student;
this will result in an interesting case which will afford analytical
reasoning experience for the reader.

The focus of a case may be on a problem which exists between
an administrator and a dietitian, between a dietitian and a repre-
sentative of another department, between two or more dietitians, be-
tween a dietitian and an employee, or among two or more employees.
On the other hand, the case emphasis may be on a situation which
involves personnel resistance to a change which has been made within

an institution. In some instances, a problem which is a result of

21

the dissatisfaction of employees with an organizational policy may
be used as a basis for a case.

The writer's summary of the conditions which surrounded and
contributed to a food service problem will serve as a basis for a
topical outline. From this material, the dietitian will want to
formulate a rough draft of the case. Perhaps the case writer will
choose a professional associate and a representative dietetic intern
to serve as critics of the first draft.7 In all probability, it will
be necessary to rewrite the case in order to take advantage of the
suggestions which are offered for the improvement of the case study.

When the study has been revised, the dietitian will want
to resubmit the case to the original commentators for additional
recommendations. When the critics have expressed final approval of
the writer's presentation of the problem, the final draft may be
sent for review to the executive staff of the organization which is
described in the case. If the administrator and the dietitian who
are concerned sanction the description of the problem, the writer
will want to obtain a written release for the use of the case. The
release will grant permission to the writer to use the material in
the classroom and for publication purposes if this is desired. In
some circumstances, it may be necessary to secure similar releases
from union officials.

Several types of cases have been developed to lend variety and
realism to the educational process.9 In the main, the kind of case

which lends itself to a systematic analysis will be found to be far

k

9Andrews, 0 . cit., pp. 220-222.

22

more purposeful in developing the critical thinking ability of the
dietetic intern. 0n the other hand, the "springboard" presentation

of a problem often lends interest to the analysis. This type of

case will result in the initial group discussion being centered on

the student's attitude toward minor factors of the case; the instructor
will gradually guide the discussion to the general problem which has
been presented.

In the booby trap type of case, the students will often be
misled by minor incidents which are highlighted in the case while
major factors are obscured. As a result, the students may learn not
to make superficial judgments as to the significant problems in a
situation. In another variety of case, very little evidence will be
given for analysis. The intern will be apt to make important deci-
sions on the basis of a limited knowledge of the relevant facts in
the problem. In this way, the student may deve10p an understanding
of the serious consequences of reading facts into a situation which
demands concrete evidence in order to plan appropriate action.

On rare occasions, the dietitian will be justified in writing
what is popularly known as an "armchair" case.10 This type or pre-
sentation will be a combination of several situations with which
the writer is familiar. From these circumstances, the dietitian will
seek to develop a case which will stimulate a discussion in respect
to a particular point which she may wish to stress. Such a case
will tend to he unrealistic and it will be difficult to present in

a convincing manner.

 

10McNair, op. cit., p. 268.

23

The education of the dietitian will grow as she develops
her analytical powers by, consciously and unconsciously, formulating
solutions to the problems which she will encounter in her case col-
lection. The writer may deveIOp her executive ability as she ac-
quires material to be used in teaching the elements of administra-

tion to the dietetic intern.
Analysis and Organization of Case Material

The success of teaching by the case method in the dietetic
internship and the technique of writing "good" cases will be de-
pendent on the achievement of skill in properly analyzing problems.
The capable analyst will learn to approach a problem in a manner which
ensures that all evidence which is relevant and available has been
considered before decisions are made and the recommended plan of
action is determined. The teaching dietitian may wish to introduce
the dietetic interns to a systematic approach to problem solving.

The following is a method of analysis which has been recom-
mended as one means of attacking a problem:11

1. Define and delimit the central problem or problems.

2. Separate the central problem into its 5512: factors.

3. Analyze these aspects of the problem by formulating logical
questions, by searching for £23 fggtg in the case and by
weighing 332 evidence in order to arrive at answers to

these questions.

 

11Raymond, Thomas C. Problems in business administration.
New York, McGraw~Hill Book Co. 1955. p. 4.

24

4. Investigate alternative solutions to the problem.
5. Use the decisions reached in regard to the factors of

the problem to arrive at a recommended solution to the

central problem.

The central problem in a case will be the basic issue in-
volved, the effective solution of which does not require the analysis
of a deeper and underlying problem. The analytical reasoning process
will depend upon the definition and the delimitation of the central
issue which is inherent in the situation. An attempt to arrive at
an adequate solution to a food service problem without carefully de-
fining the basic issue will be fruitless and wasteful. The dietetic
intern should learn that analytical thinking rests upon her ability
to carefully define and delimit the central problem which has been
presented in a case study. A problem may have two or more basic
issues, none of which has any bearing on the others. In any case,
a'clear statement of the central problem or problems involved will
simplify the analysis.

Training and experience in defining the basic issue in a
case and on the job will assist the student in the development of
her critical thinking ability. The complexity of many food service
situations will require thoughtful consideration on the part of the
intern in order that she may determine the central issue on which
the analysis and the solution of the problem will be based.

Food service problems are rarely so simple that they may be
solved by one line of reasoning. The complex problems are usually

comprised of major factors and their related aspects. Case studies

25

and difficult situations on the job will be more effectively solved
by separating the basic issues into their parts. Each major factor
may then be analyzed in respect to its various aspects. By dividing
the problem into its components, these factors may be studied in
relationship to one another.

Since the human mind will be able to consider only one
thing at a time, this method of attack appears feasible and neces-
sary. The intern will waste time and effort unless she learns to
approach a problem in its parts rather than as a whole. When the
student learns to define the central problem, to divide the basic
issue into its parts and to focus her analysis on one detail at a
time, she will have developed an awareness of the problem solving
technique. If the food service case is broken down into its major
factors, the solution of the total problem will become the solution
of its parts.

After the central issue has been separated into its component
parts, the next step in the analysis of the problem will be the for-
mulation of a set of logical questions. These inquiries will enable
the analyst to systematically consider the effect of each factor
which is a part of the basic issue of the problem. A concise state-
ment of the central issue will be helpful as a basis for determining
the questions which will be pertinent to each aspect of the situation.

Particular attention should be given to the development of
questions which may indicate the relationship of one factor to
another. Questions should also treat the importance of one aspect

of the basic issue in comparison with the other aspects of the

26

problem. The analyst should deliberate as to whether a single
factor or a combination of factors may affect other departments of
the organization.

At this point, the student will have a clear definition of
the problem and she will have divided the basic issue into its
parts. In addition, the intern will have prepared a series of
questions to serve as a basis to thoroughly investigate the factors
on which the decisions of the problem will rest. Consequently, the
student will have a foundation for exercising judgment in making
her decisions in the case study or on the job.

The majority of cases which will be deveIOped will contain
the facts necessary to adequately analyze a problem. However, a
particular case presentation may obscure the relevant and highlight
the irrelevant. The evidence may not always be readily apparent;

the intern will usually have to search for the facts. With the case

 

method as well as in the actual work situation, the discernment of
the significant facts of the case will be one of the principle
tasks involved. The student's analysis will be facilitated if the
evidence is listed as a pro or a con of the questions which are de-
veloped; these inquiries will be based on the significant factors of
the central problem. When the arguments for and against a question
have been systematically presented, the final conclusion may be more
easily reached.

The teaching dietitian will want to stress objectivity in
teaching the problem solving technique to the student. The instructor

may emphasize that most questions in a food service problem will have

27

a pro and a con. The student should not allow bias to direct her
analysis to a preconceived conclusion. Effective factor analysis
should be objective until arguments for and against a particular
question have been completed. If the intern follows this procedure
in arriving at decisions which are based on facts rather than on
opinions, feelings or assumptions, her analysis will be objective.

When the dietetic intern has applied all of the relative
facts in the case to the significant aspects of the problem, she
will be able to begin her decision making. In weighing the evi-
dence, the student may consider if one factor is more important or
involves more risk than other aspects of the situation. If one set
of arguments appears to be more conclusive than another, the student
will want to objectively determine the logical process which led
her to make the judgment. When the intern has logically reviewed
the major factors of the case, she will be able to arrive at a
reasonable conclusion to the central issue which will be supported
by the facts of the problem.

A simple case may have alternative solutions but the evi-

 

dence may readily point to the logical plan of action. In the more
complicated situation, the analysis of the factors which affect the
issue may indicate one or more possible solutions. The dietetic
intern should learn that the majority of administrative problems
offer a choice of decisions. There is rarely only one right answer
to a problem in food service administration.

The final step in problem solving will be to assemble the

‘

decisions which have been reached in regard to the major factors of

the central problem in order to formulate a recommended solution.

 

The intern may want to carefully prepare a series of questions in
order to reach a possible solution to the central problem which is
presented in the case. It will be necessary to determine if one
factor is more significant than the others and which are the more
important aspects of the situation. The students may need to as-
certain if any of the factors are interrelated. When questions
are carefully formulated and objectively answered, the intern will
be apt to reach an unbiased conclusion which will be based on the
facts of the case.

The student's organization of the written analysis of the
problem will be important. While a factor analysis of the major
aspects of the problem may be helpful, an outline of the reasoning
process will be a more effective means of presenting the material.12
An outline should be logically arranged in order to clarify the
evidence, the arguments and decisions which are used as a basis
for the conclusions which have been reached.

A thorough analysis should include all of the major factors
which were considered in arriving at a decision for action. The
advantages and disadvantages of the alternative solutions to the
case should be included in the outline of the critical thinking of
the intern.

The case presentation should set forth both the pro and the

con arguments in respect to the significant issues which are parts

 

12Raymond, op. cit., p. 8.

29

of the central problem; a complete analysis should not be biased.
Each factor of the case should receive adequate consideration in
order that the instructor who reviews the analysis may be aware of

the student's pattern of reflective thinking.
Evaluation of a Case Analysis

The effectiveness of an analysis which has been completed
by the dietetic intern may be measured by a series of questions.
In the majority of case studies, the evaluation will be accomplished
by the teaching dietitian, although the student may desire to use
these same questions as a means of testing the adequacy of her own
analysis or that of another group member. If the student as well
as the instructor acts in the role of evaluator, the learning ex-
periences in the internship will be increased. A shift of roles
from analyst to evaluator may increase the student's objectivity
as she notes the variance in the scale of effectiveness of the
analyses of her classmates.

The evaluation of the intern's analysis of a case by the
instructor or by another student will be based on the analyst's
£22.23 EEE.£2£££ which have been presented in the study. In addi-
tion, the thoroughness of an analysis may be measured by the

student's understanding of the total situation which was described

 

in the case. The soundness of the recommendation for the solution
of the problem and/or the suggested plan of action in the case will

also be important.

30

The following questions may be used as a means of measuring

13

the adequacy of a case analysis:

I. Use of the Facts in the Analysis:

A.

B.

I.

Do the facts of the case support the analysis which
has been represented?

Have the statements of fact been distinguished from
the statements of feeling or opinion?

Have the facts been used to deve10p more than one
approach to the problem?

Are conclusions which have been arrived at unbiased and
objective?

Have logical decisions been developed from the evidence
of the case?

Are all stages of the analysis consistent with one
another?

Does the analysis indicate that the relative importance
of major factors has been thoroughly weighed?

Has the significance which has been attached to the
particular aspects of the case been clearly demonstrated
in the analysis?

Has the analyst been decisive in reaching conclusions
to all of the major factors of the problem?

II. Understanding of the Total Situation:

A.

B.

Has the central problem been determined and stated with
clarity?

Does the analysis indicate that the student dietitian
is fully aware of the effect of the major factors of
the case on one another?

III. Recommendations for the Solution and/or the Plan of Action:

A.

Have sound recommendations been made for the solution
of the case?

 

13Raymond, 23. cit., pp. 22-25.

31

B. Have the conclusions been based on the analysis of
the problem?

C. Have the conclusions which have been suggested been
clearly developed in the analysis of the situation?

D. Have the alternative solutions to the problem been
carefully explored?

E. Have the consequences of the proposed plan for action
been thoroughly investigated?

The role of the evaluator will be equally as painstaking
as that of the analyst. Each position will rest upon the facts
which have been presented in respect to a situation. While the
analyst will develop the solution from the facts of the case, the
evaluator will determine if the conclusions are based upon these
facts. The individual who undertakes an evaluation will not at-
tempt to pass judgment as to whether the conclusions which have
been reached are the right or the wrong answers to the problem.

The evaluator's function will be to check if the argumen-
tation for a particular point of view is supported by the evidence
of the case. As the teaching dietitian and the intern assume this
responsibility, each individual will observe and question the con-
sistency and the thoroughness of the analytical process; the sound-
ness of the recommended plan of action in the case analysis will

also be carefully reviewed.
Summary

A major objective of the dietetic internship is to develop
the administrative potential of the student. The case method of

instruction may afford the intern with a means of enhancing her

32

problem solving and decision making ability. This system will

provide the learner with practical experience in analyzing actual
situations with which food service administrators have been previously
faced.

The implementation of such an educational process into the
training program may give the student an opportunity to increase
her skill in working effectively with her superiors, associates and
employees. The teaching dietitian who is interested in the use of
this plan for learning should acquire a working knowledge of the
problem solving and group discussion techniques.

The case structure of teaching in the internship will re-
quire that the responsibility for thinking be shifted from the
teacher to the student. In many cases, such a change in the
methodology will be difficult for the instructor and painful for
the pupil. In all probability, the initial confusion, frustration
and the hostility which a student may experience will decrease as
her critical thinking ability increases. As the intern becomes
aware that one learns by doing, she may express satisfaction with
the case system and may even come to prefer this means of learning.

The collection of the case material and the writing of the
cases relative to food service problems may be both stimulating
and tedious for the dietitian who is acting as a case writer. How-
ever, the work load may be reduced by the dietitian's enthusiasm
for this venture in training. Nevertheless, a skill uninterviewing
and the ability to write "good” cases will need to be deveIOped

by practice and experience.

33

Successful teaching and learning by the case method of
instruction will be largely dependent on the degree of capability
which the student will be able to achieve in analyzing problems.

The ability of the dietitian and the intern to effectively evaluate
the soundness of the analyses of cases will also be of significance.
The administrative dietitian is constantly called upon to alternate
her separate roles as analyst and evaluator. The dietetic intern
should be taught and should learn to function adequately and ap-

propriately in either role.

Conclusion

The educational methods which are employed in the dietetic
internship should prepare the student to adapt to a changing world.
The intern should be trained to meet the present and the future de-
mands of the profession of dietetics. The case method of instruction
may be an effective means of deve10ping the administrative potential
of the dietetic intern. By this process, the student may learn to
take appropriate and decisive action in solving problems throughout
her professional career.

Sit down before the facts as a little child; be

prepared to give up any preconceived notion; follow
humbly wherein and to whatever abysses nature leads

or you shall learn nothing.
--Thomas Huxley

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

A SAMPLE CASE STUDY

Calhoun State Hospital
I

Mrs. Green fastened the buckle on her coat as she prepared
to leave her office in the Main Building of Calhoun State Hospital.
As the Chief Dietitian, Mary Green was making her regular Thursday
inspection of the Food Service Division.

Throughout the morning, she had been attempting to reach
a decision as to whom she would choose to fill a new position which
had just been created. Mary Green was trying to select a capable
supervisor to act as a Division Coordinator for personnel and equip-
ment. The position would require someone who had had considerable
eXperience in the supervision of food service personnel.

Calhoun State Hospital was comprised of the East and West
Units as well as the Main Building. The distance between each of
the units was approximately two blocks. Each section contained a
kitchen and a dining room for either patients or personnel. The
East Unit prepared food for the hospital employees; the West Unit
accommodated the professional staff; and the Main Building Unit
provided for the ward ambulatory patients who were able to come to
the dining room. Each of the three units prepared and sent food
to the patients who required trays served on the ward.

The administrative dietitian was in charge of each of the
sections. The assistant staff members served as therapeutic

35

36

dietitians and relieved for the dietitian who was in charge of
each of the units. In addition to the professional staff, each
section had an experienced foreman who was known as a Lead Super-
visor. The Lead Supervisor was accountable to the administrative
dietitian of each unit. The hospital had been filled to its bed
capacity of 925 patients for the past month. Forty per cent of
the patients were ambulatory.

As Mrs. Green arrived at the East Unit Kitchen, a mess at-
tendant opened the door for her. She asked the employee to tell
Mr. Hinckley that she was ready to inspect the kitchen and the dining
room. John Hinckley was the foreman of the East Unit food service
Operation. As the Lead Supervisor, Mr. Hinckley was responsible for
making personnel assignments and keeping personnel records as well
as for sanitation, safety and equipment. He was accountable to Miss
Taylor, the administrative dietitian.‘ During Mrs. Green's inspec-
tion tour, June Taylor was conducting a training conference for the
dietitians of Calhoun State Hospital.

John Hinckley was 38 years old and he had worked in the food
service field for 14 years. Miss Taylor felt that Mr. Hinckley was
too rigid in his thinking but she had often expressed the opinion
that he was unusually interested and responsible in his job. They
had worked together for three years. Mrs. Green had found him to
be an exceptionally alert individual in spite of his limited educa-
tion. The assistant supervisors respected Mr. Hinckley.

As Mary Green noted the cleanliness of the cafeteria counter,

she realized what a good piece of work the East Unit personnel were

37

doing. The equipment and layout were poor in the kitchen and the
dining room. She also remembered how many inexperienced employees
she had been forced to send to the unit in her two years at Calhoun.
Miss Taylor and John Hinckley had always been able to get the job
done. Mrs. Green had often noticed that Mr. Hinckley welcomed a
challenge. In fact, he seemed to derive extreme satisfaction from
accomplishing a mission when the odds were against it. As Mary
Green inspected the refrigerators, she commented to Mr. Hinckley on
their orderliness.

While Mrs. Green checked the range area, she thought of the
telephone call which she had received before she left her office.

For the second time that week, the Personnel Section of the hospital
had called to report Mr. Hinckley's lack of consideration in speaking
with his employees. Mrs. Green knew that the head of the section
disliked John Hinckley. However, she felt that although Mr. Hinckley
was not in error, undoubtedly, he should have shown more understand-
ing of the employee's position.

Mrs. Green realized that the majority of the East Unit
personnel were afraid of Mr. Hinckley. 0n the other hand, she had
heard that he sometimes teased old and trusted employees when he
was in a good humor; she felt that this would rarely occur. How-
ever, Miss Taylor had told her that the other employees had resented
Mr. Hinckley's favoritism. Nevertheless, Mary Green could not forget
that Mr. Hinckley had often gone directly to Mr. Wrigley, the Super-

intendent of Calhoun State Hospital, with an East Unit food service

38

problem without first consulting her. Mr. Wrigley had usually asked
Mr. Hinckley to accompany his party on hunting trips.

As she jotted down some notes regarding the discrepancies
in sanitary procedures which she had observed, Mrs. Green tried to
recall what she had been told about the reaction of the hospital
employees to the food which was served in the East Unit. She re-
membered that her friends in other departments had mentioned to her
that their employees enjoyed the food and atmosphere in the East
Unit Dining Room. 0n the other hand, she realized that the workers
who ate in this unit had also commented on the rigidity with which
Mr. Hinckley enforced the policies of the food service section as

well as the rules of the hospital.

II

Mrs. Green put on her coat to go to the West Unit. As she
walked along, she thought of the decision which she must make
that day in regard to the selection of a Division Coordinator. She
greeted Mr. Jay as she arrived at the rear entrance of the West
Unit Kitchen. Harry Jay was on the loading dock checking the in-
terior of a garbage can. He had been the Lead Supervisor of the
West Unit for 12 years.

Before Mary Green began her inspection of the unit, she
went to the Dietitians' Office to hang up her coat. She remembered
that the dietitians were at the training meeting which Miss Taylor
was conducting. As she moved forward to rejoin Mr. Jay, she again

marvelled at the excellent equipment and layout of the West Unit.

39

It was apparent to her that Mr. Jay repeatedly inspected all areas
of the operation.

Miss Snodgrass, the administrative dietitian, and her staff
had said that if a dietitian mentioned a problem to Mr. Jay, the
situation was taken care of immediately. There was never any need
to recheck on Mr. Jay's work. In reality, it was rarely necessary
to call a problem to Mr. Jay's attention, he usually noticed and
took care of such situations without being told to do so.

It was generally known by the staff that the employees were
afraid of Mr. Jay. Mrs. Green knew that if a worker did his job
properly and thoroughly, he would have no difficulty in the West
Unit food service activity. However, any major or minor infraction
of the rules was recorded in Mr. Jay's black book for permanent
reference. The policy was always the same, no matter how trusted
and loyal the employee. Mr. Jay had always been fortunate enough
to receive the most apt personnel available. He had been allowed
to send his undesirable workers to the other units. The head of
the Personnel Section of the hospital considered the discipline in
the West Unit food service Operation to be very severe. However,
visitors in the unit had often commented that the unit was so spot-
less that one could safely cat from the floor.

The amount of supplies per capita used in the West Unit was
far below the consumption in the other units. While Mr. Jay took
excellent care of equipment and enforced the conservative use of
china and paper goods, he kept the extra portion of his allotment

hidden in the attic. Mr. Jay never offered to lend personnel,

40

equipment or supplies to the other units even though he realized
that they sorely needed help. In so far as possible, the West Unit
food service activitvaas operated as a self-contained entity.

The professional staff who ate in the West Unit Dining Room
often commented to Mrs. Green on the excellent preparation of food
in that kitchen. 0n the other hand, they had also criticized the
curtness of the employees who served the food on the cafeteria
line. When the personnel were reprimanded for this, they complained
that the doctors and nurses were always fussing. Mrs. Green felt
that the atmosphere in the unit was cold and threatening. However,
the dietitians who worked in the unit felt that Mr. Jay had an ex-
cellent sense of humor and they enjoyed his wittiness.

As she continued her round of inspection in the West Unit
Kitchen, Mrs. Green discovered a soiled cloth in a container on the
clean pot rack. To find a single discrepancy in the unit was un-
usual, Mr. Jay asked Mrs. Green not to record this incident in the
weekly report which she circulated to the three food service units.
He prided himself on not having had such a notation on the report
for a period of three months. While Mr. Jay was talking to her,
Mrs. Green was thinking that she had never seen a more efficiently
Operated food service activity than the West Unit. She had been a

dietitian for 18 years.
111

Mrs. Green picked up her coat from the Dietitians' Office

and returned to the Main Building. She went directly to the office

41

of Mr. Masterson, the Lead Supervisor, of the Main Building Unit.
She waited in the hall as Mr. Masterson listened attentively to

Gary Jones, a young employee, whose recent domestic difficulties

had affected his job performance and work attendance. Mr. Masterson
finally told the young man to let him know how the matter worked out
and if he could be of help. The young man gave Mr. Masterson a sad
smile of appreciation and left the office. Mrs. Green recalled

that Gary's last efficiency report had been excellent.

As Mary Green entered the office, Mr. Masterson asked her
to have a chair. After she was seated, he gave her a pen and a
letter to sign. While she carefully wrote her name, she thought
what a relief it was to have one Lead Supervisor who was able to
prepare correspondence.

David Masterson was 42 years old and he had been at Calhoun
State Hospital for seven years. The younger dietitians had commented
to Prs. Green that they felt that Mr. Nasterson did very little work.
They said he was always chatting with peOple and that his desk was
usually empty. Besides, he rarely spoke when he met one or more of
the younger dietitians in the hall. They wondered if this was due
to his impaired vision or if he simply chose to ignore them.

The older and more mature dietitians often asked Mr. Master-
son's opinion on important matters. The administrative dietitian,
Miss Watkins, felt that he was fair to the employees, but loyal to
his superiors. Hrs. Green had often heard Mr. Masterson's assistant
supervisors come to him with questions and suggestions. She also

noticed that the majority of employees felt free to approach him

42

with their inquiries and ideas for improvement. The head of the
Personnel Section had mentioned to her how easy it was for him to
get along with Mr. Masterson. Mr. Wrigley, Calhoun's Superintendent,
had asked Mr. Hasterson to join his hunting group on several oc-
casions.

Mrs. Green and Mr. Masterson took the elevator to the Main
Building Kitchen. Before they got.off\the elevator to begin the
inspection of the kitchen, Mrs. Green asked Mr. Masterson for his
opinion as to the type of garbage cans they should order on the next
requisition. He volunteered to check the catalogs and to submit
his recommendations to her that afternoon.

While they jointly checked the kitchen, Mrs. Green stopped
to taste a new recipe for soup on the request of an old employee.
She thought it was very good; but, then, she had always considered
the food preparation in this unit to be excellent. As she put down
her spoon, Mary Green quickly glanced around this modern unit. She
commented to Mr. Masterson on the few minor discrepancies in sani-
tation which she had found.

Hrs. Green and Mr. Masterson entered the dining area as
Mr. Hinckley, the Lead Supervisor from the East Unit, came in the
other door. Mr. Hinckley and Mr. Masterson talked for a few minutes
about a personnel shortage in the East Unit Kitchen. Mr. Masterson
offered to send one of his employees to the East Unit for the day.
Hrs. Green recalled that Mr. Hinckley and Mr. Jay usually came to

Mr. Masterson when they needed help of any kind.

43

She noticed that the orthopedic patients coming toward the
cafeteria line were laughing and joking with one another. The nurses
on the wards had told her that the patients seemed to enjoy the food
in the Main Building Dining Room. The patients had also commented
to the nurses on the friendliness of the Main Building food service
personnel.

Mrs. Green left the dining room and returned to her office
on the first floor. After she had placed her coat in the closet,
Mary Green sat down to make a decision as to whom she would select

as her Division Coordinator for personnel and equipment.

APPENDIX II

FACTOR ANALYSIS

Problem: Whom should Mrs. Green select as Division Coordinator?

1. How do the three Lead Supervisors compare in human
relations skills?
a. Does Mr. Hinckley have outstanding ability in inter-

personal relationships?

|

Pro Con

(1) Mr. Hinckley has the (l) The Personnel Section
respect of his has reported Mr. Hinck-
assistant supervisors. ley's lack of considera-

tion for employees; the
section head has ex-
pressed a dislike for
Mr. Hinckley.

(2) Miss Taylor has ex- (2) Hrs. Green has realized
pressed.the opinion that the majority of
that he is interested employees are afraid
and responsible in of Mr. Hinckley.

his work.

(3) Mrs. Green has noticed (3) Miss Taylor has felt
that he welcomes a that the employees re-
challenge. . sented Mr. Hinckley's

favoritism to a few.
(4) Mrs. Green knows that
he has gone directly
to the hospital super-
intendent with food
service problems.

Summation: Hr. Hinckley does not show outstanding ability
in interpersonal relations; he appears to be

an autocratic type of leader.

44

b.

Summation:

.c.

Does Mr. Jay have superior ability in human relations?

(1)

Pro Con
The dietitians feel (1) The staff realizes that
that Mr. Jay has a sense the employees were
of humor. afraid of Mr. Jay.

(2) Mr. Jay has never of-
fered to lend assistance
to the other units.

(3) The head of the Personnel
Section has spoken of
the severe discipline of

this unit.

(4) Mrs. Green feels that
the atmosphere is cold
and threatening in the

West Unit.

Mr. Jay does not exhibit superior ability in

interpersonal relations; he appears to be an

autocratic type of leader.

Does Mr. Masterson have above average skill in human

relations?

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Pro Con

Mr. Hasterson's treat- (1) Mr. Masterson has rarely

ment of Gary Jones
shows employee consider- dietitians.
ation.

The more mature dietitians

have often asked Mr. Mas-

terson's opinion.

iiss Watkins thinks that

Mr. Masterson is fair to

the employees and loyal

to his superiors. .

Mr. Masterson's assist-

ants come to him with

questions and suggestions.

The majority of Mr. Mas-

terson's employees feel

free to approach him.

spoken to the younger

46

(6) The head of the Per-
sonnel Section has said
that it had been easy
to get along with Mr.
Masterson.

(7) The hospital superintend-
ent has asked him to join
his hunting trips.

(8) Mrs. Green recalls that
the other Lead Supervisors
have come to Mr. Masterson
for assistance.

Summation: Mr. Masterson has superior skills in human
relations; he is a democratic type of leader.
Conclusion: Mr. Hasterson surpasses Mr. Jay and Mr. Hinckley

in human relations ability.

2. How do the Lead Supervisors compare in technical knowledge
and ability?
a. Does Mr. Hinckley possess unusual knowledge and ability
in regard to the technical aspects of the job?
as. 9.22

(1) Mrs. Green has noticed (1) Mrs. Green considers

what a good piece of Mr. Hinckley's educa-
work the East Unit has tional background as
done with poor equipment being limited.

and layout as well as
inexperienced employees.
(2) Mrs. Green's friends in (2) Mrs. Green has jetted

other departments have down a few discrepancies
told her that their em- in sanitary procedures
ployees enjoyed the food after her inspection of
in the East Unit. ’ the East Unit.

Summation: Mr. Hinckley has more than average ability in
regard to the technical aspects of the job. He
has a limited education but he has done a good

piece of work under adverse conditions.

b. Does Mr. Jay have superior

to technical knowledge and
Pro

(1) Mrs. Green has
noticed that Mr. Jay
repeatedly inspects
all areas of the
operation.

(2) Mr. Jay immediately

takes care of a prob-

lem when it is pointed
out to him.

He usually

47

qualifications in respect
ability?
Con

(1) Mrs. Green has noted
only one minor dis-
crepancy in sanitation
on her report in a
three-month period in
the West Unit.

notices a problem before

being told of its
existence.

Visitors comment that
the unit is spotless.
bun Jay takes excellent
care of equipment and
conserves supplies.
The professional staff
have commented on the
excellent food in the
West Unit.

Mr. Jay prides himself

(3)
(4)

(5)

(6)

on the lack of sanitary

discrepancies in respect
to his unit in the weekly

report.

(7) Hrs. Green thinks that

she has never seen a more

efficient food service
operation than the west
Unit.

Summation:

Hr. Jay shows exceptional ability in carrying

out the technical aspects of the job.

c. Does Mr. Masterson excel in

Pro

(1) Mrs. Green feels that
Mr. Masterson is the
only Lead Supervisor
who is able to prepare
correspondence for sig-
nature.

technical ability?
Con

(l) The younger dietitians
feel that Mr. Master-
son does very little
work.

48

(2) The older dietitians (2) Hrs. Green commented
often ask his opinion to Mr. Hasterson on
on important matters. a few minor discrep-

ancies in sanitation.

(3) Mrs. Green has asked
his opinion on the next
requisition of garbage
can.e

(4) Mrs. Green thinks that
the food is very good
in the Main Building
Unit.

(5) The ward nurses have
told Mrs. Green that
the ambulatory patients
enjoy the food which is
prepared in the Main
Building Unit e

Summation: Mr. Hasterson demonstrates knowledge and
ability in all of the technical aspects of his
work. He has ability to prepare correspondence.
Superiors ask his opinion in respect to important
matters.

Conclusion: Mr. Jay appears to excel Mr. Hinckley and Mr.

Hasterson in technical ability with one exception.
Mr. Masterson surpasses him in correspondence
ability. Mr. Hinckley‘s job performance under
adverse conditions has been considered.

Final Conclusion: Mr. Masterson appears to be the best available

supervisor to serve as Division Coordinator. Mr. Jay's more exact-

ing standards in respect to the technical aspects of the job have

been weighed. The adverse conditions under which Mr. Hinckley has

worked have been considered. The scattered physical plant in which

the Food Service Division exists indicates that a democratic type

49

of leader will be most effective. Since all Lead Supervisors are
capable in the technical aspects of the job, this will be a minor
consideration. The ability to get along with peeple will be the
major consideration. Mr. Masterson has been selected as the most
likely candidate on the basis of his superior skill in inter-

personal relationships.

APPENDIX III

THE OUTLINE

Introduction
I. The Problem: Whom should Mrs. Green select as the Division
Coordinator?
II. Report's Conclusion: Mrs. Green should select Mr. Master-
son.
III. Basis for Conclusion: Mr. Masterson's superior ability
in interpersonal relationships and his excellent technical
knowledge and ability indicate that he would be the best

available choice for the position.

Presentation
1. Mr. Hinckley
A. Human relations skills.

1. Favorable evidence
a. Assistant supervisors respect him.
b. Miss Taylor feels he is interested and responsible.
c. Mrs. Green has observed that he welcomes a chal-

lenge.

2. Unfavorable evidence
a. Employees resent his favoritism and fear him.
b. Chief of Personnel Section dislikes him.

c. Channels of authority are not followed by him.

51

B. Technical skills
1. Favorable evidence
a. Mrs. Green feels he has done a good job with
poor equipment and layout.
b. Food preparation in the East Unit is considered
good by the hospital employees.
2. Unfavorable evidence
a. Education is limited.
b. A few minor discrepancies noted in sanitation
in unit.
II. Mr. Jay
A. Human relations skills
1. Favorable evidence
a. Dietitians feel he has a sense of humor.
2. Unfavorable evidence
a. Employees are afraid of him.
b. Assistance never given to other units.
c. Chief of Personnel Section considers discipline
in unit very severe.
d. Atmosphere of unit is cold and threatening.
B. Technical skills
1. Favorable evidence
a. Constantly inspects all areas of the unit.
b. Takes action to problems with or without sug-
gestion.

c. Visitors comment that the unit is spotless.

g.

52

Takes excellent care of equipment and supplies.
Food preparation is excellent in West Unit.
Rarely discrepancies in sanitation.

Mrs. Green feels west Unit is extremely efficient

unit.

C. Conclusion

1. Mr. Jay's interpersonal relationships are not good

although the dietitians enjoy his sense of humor.

His technical ability is superior.

III. Mr. Masterson

A. Human relations skills

1. Favorable evidence

a.
b.

Ce

f.

Gary Jones case indicates concern for employees.
Mrs. Green and dietitians ask his advice.

Miss Watkins feels he is fair to the employees
but loyal to superiors.

His assistants and employees come to him with
questions and suggestions.

Chief of Personnel Section enjoys relationships
with him.

Superintendent invites him on trips.

Other Lead Supervisors ask his help.

2. Unfavorable evidence

The younger dietitians say that Mr. Masterson

rarely speaks to them.

53

8. Technical ability
1. Fhvorable evidence
a. Letter writing skill is good.
b. Advice on important matters is sought by mature
dietitians.
c. Food preparation is considered good by Mrs.
Green. Nurses report food is enjoyed by patients.
2. Unfavorable evidence
a. Younger dietitians feel he does little work.
b. Unit occasionally has minor discrepancies in
sanitation.
C. Conclusion
1. Mr. Masterson has superior human relations skill.

He rates high in technical ability.

Conclusions

1.

II.

III.

IV.

Ability in interpersonal relations is the major aspect
of this decision.

Technical knowledge and skills are of minor significance
in the problem.

Mr. Masterson appears to have superior skills in human
relations. Mr. Jay excels him in the application of
technical knowledge.

The lack of compactness of the physical plant of the
Food Service Division of Calhoun State Hospital requires

a Division Coordinator who has demonstrated superior

54

ability to get along with superiors, associates and
subordinates. The Coordinator will also require above
average technical ability. Therefore, Mrs. Green will
be well-advised to choose Mr. Masterson as the Division

Coordinator.

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