THS f‘.«..""7‘ Li‘ERI‘J‘fi/ ”PH-no- 0"” 4*.I.::)Ln Q"’L Universitv nu; BASIC CONCEPTUAL PROCEDURE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPREHENSIVE PLAN FOR THE IRANIAN ENVIRONMENT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY MICHIGAN 48823 Plan "B" Paper for the Degree of M.U.P. Michigan State University Iraj Eftekhari 1974 n. I“. -1 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my gratitude to several people who have aided me in the preparation of this document. First, to Professor Carl Goldschmidt, Director of the School of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture, I express my appreciation for his constructive and suggestive assistance. Second, to Professor Sanford Farness, a unique and inspirational man, I express my gratitude for his ever inspiring response and counseling when it was most needed. Finally, to all of my professors and classmates who, with constructiveness, made my basic ideas and this endeavor a knowledgeable and valuable experience, I extend my deepest appreciation. Acknowledgmen List of Table List of Figur Chapter I: I Section Section Section Section Section Section Chapter II: Section Section Section Chapter III: Section The The The The The Section Section TABLE OF CONTENTS ts .................................... S..... OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ........ es ...... . .......... . .......... ........ ntroduction and Description of Study.. 1: Introduction..................... Purpose of the Study ............. : Need for the Study............... Scope of the Study............... Definitions of Study Terminology. .0 2 3 4 5 6: Review of the Literature......... General Data on Iran and Description of Social Stratification....... ..... 1: Demographic Data and General Information on Iran ..... ...... 2: Social Structure and Stratification...... ....... ..... 3: Social Classification............ A.Concise History of Iranian Reform Plans and A Listing of Problems Left Unsolved in the Iranian Environment...... ..... ............ l: The Five National Plans.......... First National Plan.. ........ . ..... ... Second National Plan .................. Third National Plan........... ..... ... Fourth National Plan.. ....... .. ....... Fifth National Plan.... ........ ....... 2: The White Revolution ............. 3: Problems Still Existent in Iran.. ii Page iv < o J: u be H r4 H 12 15 17 21 21 22 23 24 25 27 29 31 iii Table of Contents (continued) Page Chapter IV: A New Procedure for A Comprehensive Plan for the Iranian Environment ..... 34 Section 1 Design of the Procedure............ 34 Section 2 Social System Planning.. ........... 36 Section 3 Political System Planning .......... 49 Section 4: Economic System Planning. ........ _.. 53 Section 5 Cultural System Planning..... ...... 59 Section 6 Technological System Planning. ..... 64 Section 7 Psychological System Planning...... 67 Chapter V: Conclusion ............................... 71 Bibliography ........ . ..... . .......................... 74 1‘. LIST OF TABLES Page Number and Type of Employees in Rural Areas.... 20 Housing Conditions According to Their Materials ................................... 41 Utilities ...................................... 42 Population of Iran, By Age, Sex and Urban- Rural Residence, 1966 ....................... 44 Population Projection .......................... 46 Comparison of Two Times: ....................... 47 Number of Occupations and Activities........... 57 Average Expenditure of Urban and Rural Family.. 58 iv Table LIST OF TABLES Number and Type of Employees in Rural Areas. Housing Conditions According to Their materials......................O.......O Utilities .................. . ..... . . . . . . . . . . Population of Iran, By Age, Sex and Urban- Rural Residence, 1966 ............ .......... Population Projection... ......... . ..... ....... Comparison of Two Times. ............ .......... Number of Occupations and Activities. ........ . Average Expenditure of Urban and Rural Family.. iv Page 20 41 42 44 46 47 57 10 LIST OF FIGURES 10 17 41 48 48 50 68 0“ CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY Section 1 - Introduction Throughout the history of human evolution many idealistic and humanistic men have responded to problems in their social and physical environments with dreams of imaginary societies - Utopias —— where such problems are neatly and obstractly dissolved. Yet, despite their focus on the basic needs of their particular societies during particular historic periods, UtOpian thinkers are, and always have been, dreamers, in touch with the idealistic rather than the realistic. Only a focus on realism can bring effective social change. Thus, although attempts to make Utopian ideologies workable have been made by planners, sociologists and economists alike, all of whom have.been interested in social reform. These attempts have often failed because the ideologies from which they came were not grounded in the 5331, were not coordinated around actual physical and social needs of people living in a specific environment. Section 2 - Purpose of the Study The country of Iran has had its Utopian dreamers too - men who have sought to regenerate and reorganize the physical and social environment of the nation. Their attempts at social reform have materialized over some three decades into five National Plans aimed at creating a more technologically advanced Iranian society with a higher living standard for the peOple. But, those plans have consistently failed to bring the desired results of the planners. It is the purpose of this study - which is only a preliminary report to be later expanded -— to examine those plans and the reasons for their failure, and, more importantly, to offer a new procedure for creating a comprehensive plan for the Iranian environment. Section 3 - Need for the Study It is currently impossible to avoid the conclusion that the serious problems facing Iran will continue in something like their present form for an indefinite period.of time, unless they are examined closely and their drawbacks recognized. In- deed, despite the promist offered by their propOsals, the I I five National Plans have been, in a sense, doomed to failure from their inception because the planners have consistently made the same error: there has been no coordination among the various proposals nor have they reflected the cultural values of Iran. Each of the plans, then, has originated on one level without consideration of sub-levels, has ignored the real physical needs of the masses in favor of meeting the priorities of the elite. In addition, the emphasis on foreign aid and consulting services —- especially from the United States —— has not always been for the betterment of Iranians. As a result of the above, any "social planning," "economic planning" or "urban planning" which has been under- taken in Iran over the past 30 years has met with confusion and set-backs. This study will begin a resolution of that confusion. Section 4 - Scope of the Study Such a resolution will be attempted through the examination of a new procedure for arriving at a workable National Plan. Unlike efforts in the past, this procedure will be comprehensive in nature and holistic in perspective, i.e., it will place emphasis on coordinating and inter-relating all plan prOposals, which will reflect the people's real physical needs and Iran's own cultural values. By so doing, the procedure suggested by this study will hOpefully result in a plan methodology conducive to the Creation of an open, flexible and balanced society in Iran. . A consideration of this procedure will involve the discussion of three basic concepts: 1. The centric system of Iran 2. The theory of levels 3. The nature of a comprehensive or holistic plan. The procedure will also entail a division into six dynamic fields, each of which will have its own subsystems and components (a reflection of the holistic concept): 1. Social System Planning 2. Economic System Planning 3. Political System Planning 4. Cultural System Planning 5. Technological System Planning 6. Psychological System Planning Section 5 - Definitions of Study Terminology Principal Terms An understanding of the principal concepts of this research is essential in clarifying the terms used in this paper. Culture - any culture consists of all learned forms of behavior which derive from social contact and which are common to the activities of the total group. Culture in this frame- work is the product of socialization, personality, and environment. Language, folklore, poetry, drama, handwork, painting, architecture, and other arts and behaviors have cultural form and function. They have great effect on social, political and psychological values. . Society - organization of man into functioning groups of people. . System — one of the most important ideas in modern science is the idea of a system, and it is defined as a set or arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a unity or organic whole. Social I from a sociological viewpoint, this term has been defined as "having to do with the reciprocal relations of interacting human beings, either the individuals or groups. Describes a situation in which the individual actively identifies himself with his group and is concerned with its ..1 ' welfare. Planning - "Planning is a process by which decisions are reached in a systematic and deliberate fashion with regard to allocation and utilization of resources for certain agreed upon goals."2 The process includes a statement of actions to be undertaken to achieve these goals. Social Planning - the term social planning here is meant to cover goals such as social welfare, safety, health and mental health, where it refers to "qualities" of the social indicator. Social values in this research are assumed to be the "function" of the total society's existence. Social planning denotes the arrangement of non-material goals. Physical Planning - the term physical planning, in this research, refers to "quantity," the physical needs associated with social goals. Further, physical planning assumes the "form" for the social goals, and implies the arrangement and construction of material goals. 1Henry Fairchild, ed., Dictionary of Sociology (New York: Philosophical Library, 1944), p. 272. 2Stephan D. Mathenthal and Hans B.C. Spiegel, Urban Confrontation (New York: Institute for Urban Environments, 1970), p. 2. Social Planning Physical Planning Social Social on—materia material goals goals ll ‘ II ll fl Function : to g . Form I Freedom Shelter Equality Food Leisure Clothing Health Hospital Education School Figure 1 . Comprehensive Planning - the term comprehensive, or holistic planning in this research refers to the whole social and physical planning. It is an overlapping of all separate plans. In other words, comprehensive planning includes social non-material goals and social material goals and implies their deve10pment and their inter-relationship for the future of the society. This broad general definition includes all social, economic, political, cultural, technological, psychological, and physical aspects of the society. Principal - a. "Whole to Part" b. "Function to Form" Social Planning Physical Planning is on-material Material 15 Function Goals Goals Form Inter-relationship . V— Figure 2. I [COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING] V Social Goals (non-material) 1. Equality in law and freedom of speech, press, assembly, association, procession, and demonstration, and of religious, political beliefs for all Iranian citizens. Health: Promotion of: a) Distribution of medication b) Long life c) Eradication of dis- ability d) Scientific plans for the future Education: Promotion of basic, secondary and continuing education; the eradication of illiteracy Income and wealth of the citizens should be promoted and considered as follows: a) Level of income b) Distribution of wealth c) Expenditure of income d) The low income population Public Safety a) Safety of life and property from crime and hazard b) Insurance Employment opportunities and equality of employment life Leisure and recreation time allocation. Population growth to control fertility and mortality, and urbanization. - - population composition - - population distribution J ELI V Physical Goals (material) 1. General Citizen needs: a) Housing and shelter b) Food and clothing, fuel c) Public utilities Hospitals for all the people, medical care, clinics, and veterinary facilities for agricultural development. Kindergarten, elementary schools, high schools, and other institutions. Economic facilities, facilities to meet private and public needs in transportation and communication. 4 Fire protection, hazard detection organization. Promotion of agricultural and industrial institutions for the majority of citizens who are under employed or without jobs. Improvement of demo- graphical institutions for projection of fugure needs for estimated population of Iran. T3 The Three Major Concepts In addition to the above terms, one must be able to comprehend the three major concepts involved in the planning procedure offered by this study. 1. Centric System Over a 3,000 year historical background, the Iranian environment was unconsciously formed through the centric model. Many cities like Esfahan, Shiray, Tahrig, and Mashhad were the capitals for several centuries, and, as such, were politically, socially, geographically and economically centralized by their kings and governments. Therefore, Iranian peOple have long been used to this kind of governmental pattern circulation. It is valuable and worth being preserved to some extent. Tehran, Nom, is the capital, central power and the heart of the country. The other cities and villages are settlements and arteries around Tehran. I Etropolitan areas are the secondary centers for small cities, towhmarkets and villages. The political power is concentrated in Tehran. 2. The Theory of Levels (Whole to Parts) The concept of whole to part is essential to the Nation for more consistent and concrete policies and the centric environmental system planning. Levels: 1. National planning upper level 2. Provincial planning middle level 3. Local planning lower level The attempt will be made to consider each plan from "The Whole to Part." The National Plan is a broad perspective of the whole, considering the relationships of the provinces, cities and villages to the nation. It is concerned with national needs and common goals of the citizens. The provincial planning will cover all the plans of the lower levels. The plans within each level and the levels themselves have a chain relationship and the national plan constitutes an umbrella for lower level plans. /"I'\ Non~material ' //4L~\ 0,/’f;x\ Psychology Sogijl Social Institution $ ——-Cult re Artifacts ——- */ , Technologi‘ ' Political \./ V K - . Nature I\ L (f . . ‘ Material ECOHOTC) C111 tural I“ Vt) Figure 3. 3. Comprehensive Planning (Holistic Plan) The basic concept here is social system planning which here is referred to as the "Holistic Plan," in WhiCh social needs are isolated from physical needs. Social needs are assumed as functional and physical needs are a form of the social system planning. Each of these social system plans has to deal with six separate systems as follows: 1. Social Institution Planning System 2. Cultural Planning System 3. Economic Planning System 4. Political Planning System 5. Psychological Planning System 6. Technological Planning System 10 0a. £30" 3310 0‘: Io -- I t O (5 0 (fit. _ National Plan I. _ Provincial Plan Local Plan Figure 4. All of these systems are like nuclear models inter- related to each other. Section 6 - Review of the Literature The major sources of ideas,statistica1 data and other relevant information used in this study are text books, course notes, Persian literature, articles from periodicals, personal experiences, and, most important, The Area Handbook for Iran. The basic concept of comprehensiveness was developed by T. J. Kent in The Urban General Plan and by William Goodman in Principles and Practice of Urban Planning. The study's attention to the interrelation of dynamics was encouraged by Professor Sanford Farness. Jazues Ellul's Technological Societies also promoted many of the main ideas contained in this study. 11 Finally, Sociology courses, such as "Urban Sociology and Demography," aided the development of the scope of this study through their contributions of important facts about Iran, facts which allowed comparison between past plans and the new concept and modelege offered by this study. Also, cultural and social psychology textbooks, like Ruth Benedict's Pattergg of Culture and Joel Aranoff's Psychological Needs and Cultural Systems, provided basic guidelines for achieving the study's major goals. CHAPTER II GENERAL DATA ON IRAN AND DESCRIPTION OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Section 1 - Demographic Data and General Information on Iran Iran General Data Boundaries: Iran is bounded on the north by the Soviet Union and the Caspian Sea, onvthe northwest by Turkey, on the west by Iraq, on the south by the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea, and on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan.3 Area: The area is about 628,000 square miles. Capital: The capital is Tehran, with a population of 2,850,130. Population: The population of Iran is 30.55 million (1972, UN est)., Ethnic Composition: The Iranians or Persians are considered to be direct descendants of the Aryans (who moved onto the Iranian plateau in the second millennium B.C.). Other ethnic groups are Kurds, Lurs, Bakhtiari, Khamseh, Turks and Arabs. 3Harvey H. Smith, Area Handbook for Iran (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office). All succeeding statistical data taken from this source. 12 13 Religions: About 98% of the people are Moslems (93% belong to the Shi's sect). Other religious groups include Armenians (50,000), Nestorian Christian (30,000), Bahais (50,000), and a few Christians and Jews. Languages: Persian, or Farsi (an Indo-EurOpean language) is the official language. There are also dialects of Turkish (mainly in northwestern Iran), Kurdish, Arabic, Assyrian, Armenian and Hewbrew. Education: 426,000 students were enrolled in secondary schools in 1965. There are 8 universities. The illiteracy rate is over 65%. Currency: The Rial is a non-convertible paper currency. A United States dollar equals 68.17 rials. Main Imports: Sugar, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, iron and ironware, machinery, passenger cars,_paper, cardboard are all main imports in Iran. In 1972, total imports amounted to about $2.41 billion (Un est). Main Exports: The main exports of Irantare oil, raw cotton, wool and carpets. In 1972 total exports amounted to $2,964 billion (UN est). Gross National Product: About $12.75 billion (AID est). The Political System The conStitutional monarchy of Iran was established in 1906 and began a new era and a reform of the monarChy system from traditional customs and the text of Islam to written constitutional law.4 Basic changes in the governmental 4 Smith, Ibid. 14 system and new institutions were made through the system of organization and legal codes drawn and derived from the French model, but they also retained some aspect of the older Islamic Religious laws. The legislative bodies consist of an elected lower house (Majlis) and a half elected, half royally appointed senate. These legislative bodies are known as the parliament, and their members serve for a term of two years for Mojlies and four years for parliament. The judiciary is also appointed by the authority of the royal power and the inactive arm and all the administrative, political-organizations and institutions come under the centric power of the royal and the ministry's authority. Local administration is conducted through a system of fourteen geographical provinces and some governorates. They are further divided into sections corresponding to counties, towns, and then into districts and villages. A11 executive judicial and legislative officials, except in the small villages, were formerly centrally appointed. The villages have their own organization and Kathoda, which will be described. Most of the decision making is done from the center of the province or capital. The centric political system has been established as a traditional and cultural pattern which could be preserved, but only as'a symbolic, not congregated power. The royally appointed executive head is designated as a governor rather than as a /’ governor general as in the prOVInces. Any changes in 15 administrative divisions are made from time to time by the central government in response to economic, social and other conditions. In other words, most of the power is centralized and the people have less power to participate in and affect national or local decisions. Section 2 - Social Structure and Stratification The society is diVided into urban, market town, village and tribe. 1. Urban Society In the urban society the peOple recognize three classes: a) upper class; b) middle class; and c) lower class (80% of the total population).5 2. Market Town Society6 It has combined characteristics of both the urban and rural environments, and tends to function as a point of contact of interaction between them. I Wide gaps remain between the members of the educated, urban elite on the one hand and the lower classes and villagers on the other (4% of the total population). The market town society is a traditional community unit with bazaar characteristics and an essentially urban structure. SSmith, Ibid. 6Smith, Op. cit. 16 Market towns geographically, economically, and socially are linkages between rural and urban areas. They differ in size and population according to their location. These units serve as places for: 1. Exchange of seed, crops and agricultural products for clothes, fuel, foods and other needs. 2. Employment and labor collection for industries and construction. 3. Meeting friends or resolving social conflicts. 4. Sources of reports and news announcements (news, births, deaths, marriages, etc.). 5. Center of official registration (birth, death, schools). In these cities the controversial subject of social stratification is completely revealed. Indeed, they provide meeting places for transactions between poor farmers and industrial workers. A few middle class people who are political officers and land owners have brick and mud houses with a few trees around them, while the lower lower classtlive in poverty in mud houses with one outside door and one room for ten peOple. In fact, for the most part, these small cities are physically poor. They do not have water, gas, electricity or sewage drainage. Such poverty often makes the citizens victims of unscrupulous speculators, persons buying from farmers, and selling to others, who are attempting to improve their social positions and increase their wealth through these dealings. Profit is their prime motive. 17 3. Village Social Structure The village social structure is less rigidly organized than that in the urban centers.~ About 64% of the country's inhabitants live'in villages. They identify themselves strongly with their kin groups and local relationships. The vast majority in village societies are lower class workers. Most villagers have little knowledge of life beyond the village. More than 60% of the total p0pu1ation is living in 50,000 villages, which reflect their unique life style and cultural values and economic condition. The villages differ according to their geographical locatioh. Social organization of the villages is traditionally less stratified and represents a more homogeneous unit of social, cultural and economic aspects. Village citizens are all relatively poor, but their behavior is Open. They trust each other and are very isolated from the outside world. 4. Tribal Groups and Nomad Groups ‘ Tribal groups and nomad groups compriseIabout three million people who move or live around mountain cities.‘ Their standards of living are below those of the lower lower class. Section 3 - Social Classification Pyramidéfi Rate Population Income IIIIIIII W,y5 Elite 1% $10,000 over $45,499 Middle 10% 1, 000 over IA‘MMMJ- Upper lower 20% 500 over Middle lower 29% 300 Lower lower 40% 150 Figure 5(a) 1. 18 Elites (or Upper Class) This group is traditionally comprised of the Shah, his family and his relations. They are less than one percent of the total population. Yet, despite this smallness in size, this class has most of the economic, political, and social power in its hands. Levels of status, role, and position within the whole society are occupied by this group's members according to their personality, education, wealth, and close relation with the Shah. \IONU'IIbLuN-I—I o. .00. 2. They will be classified by their position as follows: Political leaders and government administrators Military leaders Professional and high level technicians Industrialists and merchants Farmer leader aristocracy Clergy and religious leaders (very few) Tribal chiefs (very few) Middle Class The Middle Class in Iran is divided into upper and lower middle class strata as well as into modern and.traditional groups. They provide a link between the masses and the elite. The members of the upper stratum are often from the same occupations as the upper class, but they have not attained the political, economic or social standing of the elite. Thus, though they may occupy the same positions as the upper class, they do not possess the same power and prestige. The lower middle class is made up of small retailers, craftsmen, low level government employees, and others. They are generally less well educated and less well paid than 19 members of the upper middle class. They are involved in a variety of occupations and they may be divided according to other criteria into modern and traditional groups. 3. Lower Class The urban lower class can be distinguished by its distinctive linguistic usage, high rate of illiteracy, and performance of manual labor. The members of this class are generally uneducated, with little knowledge of the political process. Indeed, they are more similar to rural people, except that urban influences have disturbed their customary social, economic and cultural'values. The occupational hierarchy within the lower class runs from the migrants and casual laborers at the bottom, to the regularly employed factory workers and those in government service, such as office boys, postal employees, and low- ranking members of the police force, at the top.. In between there are bazaar porters, street cleaners, car washers, mechanics, domestic servants, gardeners, beggars, newspaper boys, unskilled‘factory and service workers, farmers, and farm laborers and the jobless. The following table illustrates the employment pattern of lower class Iranians from rural areas: 20 Table l.--Number and type of employees in rural areas. Translated from Census, 1972* A811 112039. sit-.21 Total Employed 3,753,300 721,800 4,475,100 Agriculture 2,934,700 2,967,700 3,231,400 Mineral 216,100 402,500 618,600 Building Construction 244,100 400 244,500 Water & Electricity 10,000 --~ 10,000 Business 127,300 400 127,700 Transportation 54,500 400 54,900 Service 138,700 18,400 157,100 Others 27,900 3,400 31,300 *SOURCE: The Bureau of Census of Iran The economically active population of rural Iran is about 8 million, or 38% of the population. Of the gainfully employed, about 4,475,100, or 55%, are in agriculture, despite reduction in agricultural employment due to industrialization. Indeed, agriculture remains the major business and source for employment. * A”(*IGAW ESTATE umu‘rr- SC OCLr ’ \I II IL.“ " IF r.....I.CLxL/‘ 'ISCrrL EASI A ”L H: A 4 L NSING, MIC G N 8:323 7Smith, Ibid. CHAPTER III A CONCISE HISTORY OF IRANIAN REFORM PLANS AND A LISTING OF PROBLEMS LEFT UNSOLVED IN THE IRANIAN ENVIRONMENT Section 1 - The Five National Plans8 Iran is an advanced developing country which wants to maintain its independence and is looking out for its own best interests. Iranians have shown through their whole history that they refuse to serve the selfish ends of other nations. For this reason, after several decades of absorption in external crises, Iranian leaders in the Majlis and government turned their attention to more pressing internal problems. Their attention took the form of five national plans -— beginning with the first national plan in 1947 and culminating with the fifth in 1973. 8Of the five plan organizations for Iran, some are translated into English; others are in Persian and remain untranslated. Plan Organization; Economic Develgpment and the United Nations, 1973. Plan Organization, Iran Statistical Center: National Census of Population and Housing, Tehran, November, 1966. Other information on the plans comes from: Lewis v. Thomas and Richard N. Frye, The United States and Turkey and Iran (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), and The Area Handbook for Irag. 21 22 l. The First National Plan In 1948 the Majlis approved the first seven year plan for industrial and agricultural development in Iran. The original plan, proposed in 1946, and announced by Prime Minister Ahmad Qavam in the spring of 1947, was the report of a group of American engineers and urban planners who had been invited by the government to study various planning proposals. After the Morrison Knudsen report was submitted to the government, a supreme planning board was appointed by the Prime Minister to draw up a program of overseas consultants to be entitled "Overseas Consultants for Iran" (OCI). The OCI was to be composed of eleven American engineering, construction and consulting companies, and was to serve in a consultative capacity only in order to assist in the implementation of the first seven year plan until December 31, 1950. Furthermore, the First Plan,described in a five volume study entitled Report of the Seven Year Development Plan for the Plan Organization of the Imperial Government of Irah, was to be financed in large part by revenues derived from the agreement with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC). Again American consultants - this time financial advisers - played a major role. (In fact, it would appear that American interference in the economic aIfairs of the First Plan was carried out so as to keep Iran from falling into Soviet hands.) Yet despite American aid, the Plan's cost -— some 500 million dollars -— could not be met because of the Iranian oil nationalization crisis ni which the nationalist revolutionary 23 government out off the main source of revenues. Thus, the Plan failed. In spite of this failure, the general principles of the First Plan should serve as guideposts for any program of aid to under—developed countries in the east: 1. Any development effort must be applied to the lowest level from the start. 2. Capital is not a substitute for skill or experience, but the power of capital has often been exaggerated by Americans in dealing with other countries. 3. There is a need for coordination between technological production and the consumer's physical needs, and such coordination must be based on the particular economic and social values of the community. In the case of the First Plan, values reflecting the agricultural focus on the country's economy this was true. (In 1948 four- fifths of the Persian people derived their living from the soil.) 2. The Second Seven Year Plan I The second seven yearplan covered the period from 1955 to 1962, and included governmental activities towards production increases, agricultural development, exploitation of mineral resources, public health improvements, improved communication, and higher educational levels. This plan confronted problems, however, with political authorities, industrial financial weaknesses, under-educated communities and a lack of expertise and skill among workers. Furthermore, there was no cooperation between the planning organization and governmental ministries. Indeed, the planning agency was 24 powerless to supervise or control projects of the ministries, which often went contrary to plan proposals. For example, while the plan included programs for the construction of new roads and airports, a transportation plan meant to be financed by oil revenues, citizen needs were ultimately ignored as the ministries diverted most of the budget into spending for military purposes. 3. The Third National Plan In 1960 a Third Plan was prepared to cover all major activities in both the public and private sectors. The objective of the Third Plan was to raise the national income, to create jobs for the unemployed, and to promote greater distribution of income all through reforms in light and heavy industry and agriculture. In fact, the Third Plan implemented the basic land reform program, which was to end the peasant system, a major obstacle in agricultural production. In addition, the industrial sector, with an annual.growth of over 12%, was forecasted to exceed 25% because of pioposed expansion of light industry and beginning foundations for heavy industry. All policies were created with the intention of encouraging and helping merchant investment in the above-mentioned areas. For example, the foundation of a gas industry instigated oil exploiting and exporting by Iranian investors ——- a development which also brought problems, however, which will be discussed later. Yet, despite its goals, this Third Plan also fell short. First of all, proposals by various agencies were not 25 coordinated nor comprehensively organized -“ there was no inter-relationship among separate proposals. Secondly, proposals were undertaken without regards to the cultural values of Iran and the real physical needs of the people. Thirdly, foreign interference worked to the detriment of the Iranians themselves. For example, during these seven years, many dams were built for irrigation purposes; but the irrigated land did not belong to the people for long. Instead, foreign investors took out contracts on these lands for their own aggrandizement as well as for the financial fattening of the Iranian government. 4. The Fourth National Plan for Iran (1968—1972)9 The Iranian government officials claimed that the Fourth Plan promised glorious and important transformations in the modern history of Iran. These included the acceleration of the rate of industrial growth and the wider application of social welfare. Massive shifts of population from the rural to urban areas resulted in extensive needs for‘employment, industrializatiOn and recreation facilities needs, which this plan was designed to meet. Iran's plan organization officials claimed all the factors required for social, economic, and cultural development had been brought together at this point of history in an 9Plan Organization, The Fourth National Develgpment Plan 1968-1972, Tehran, 1968: 26 exceptional plan. These favorable circumstances should have been the means for the attainment of the maximum national growth and a rapid increase in the standard of living and the realization of the nation's long sought hopes and goals. According to sources published by the plan organization, the chief features of the Fourth Plan included an emphasis, first, upon agricultural developments, a rise in living standards and a promotion of modern techniques of production in both urban and agricultural areas - and all this despite the special attention being devoted to industry; and, second, upon increases in social services and public welfare (with special stress on the needs of low income groups), upon improvement in professional and worker skills, and upon slum clearance and urban renewal. This Fourth Plan called for a total investment of 910 billion rials, of which 50% was to come from private sources. It also required some investments by the oil consortium , . members and other foreign oil companies Operating in the country, and foreign loans and credits to finance the foreign exchange costs of the investment projects. In order to raise the finances required during the plan period, the government adopted a series of fiscal policy objectives, including an emphasis on oil revenues which were to be increased to a total of 486.6 billion rials in fiscal year 1972/73 and on rising revenues from foreign trade, including customs, duties, commercial prOfits taxes, and other fees, as well as the difference between the purchase and foreign exchange. More- over, the objectives of the Plan were to be achieved through 27 improved tax collection practices without the imposition of new or higher taxes. Finally, the government stated the Fourth Plan had been prepared as a "long range" scientific study to be carried out by a special committee as a project called, "A Procedure for Planning the Long Term Future of Iran." However, in reality it was a "short term plan"- its socio-economic proposals were not comprehensive enough. 5. The Fifth National Development Plan (l973-l978)10 According to plan organization officials, the goal in the Fifth Five Year Plan was to lay particular stress on the twin policies of agricultural development and expanded social welfare. For in implementing increased living standards, especially among the lower income groups, the desire to contribute to Iran's total betterment would be inculcated in each Iranian who would then feel deeply conscious of his responsibility to improve his society and participate in his , . country's affairs, to the best of his abilities, abilities made more obvious through the results of welfare programs. Major Objectives of the Fifth Plan: major objectives of the Fifth Plan, in order of priority, were as follows: a. to raise levels of knowledge, culture, health and social welfare, to the greatest extent possible; 10Plan Organization, The Fifth National Development Plan 1973-1978, Tehran, 1972.. 28 b. to ensure a more equitable distribution of the national income, emphasizing the standard of living and welfare among low-income groups; c. to maintain a rapid and sustained rate of economic growth, accompanied by relative price stability and a healthy balance of payments; d. to ensure productive employment in all regions of the country, so as to absorb all new entrants to the labor market and achieve a considerable decrease in disguised and seasonal unemployment; e. to create greater social and economic balance between the various regions of the country; f. to utilize fully the productive capacity established in previous development plans of marketing and service activities of both the public and the private sectors; g. to improve the system of administration in keeping with the high national objective, and to strengthen the country's defenses; h. to preserve, revive and improve the environment; i. to increase Iran's share of international trade and ensure a greater Iranian presence in new markets, with'due regard to the country's recently acquired industrial specialization. This policy will also be observed by non-government organizations. Despite these noble aims, the Fifth Plan still exists only on paper. In fact, in offering criticisms of all the plans, this study will take the Fourth Plan as being representative. Thus, while the Fourth Plan achieved many successes —— as did the other Plans -— successes in maSs media, military expansion, industrialization, litigation of foreign credits, it also failed, especially in the maintenance 29 of price stability. Inflation occurred, prices increased at an unwarranted rate —— despite government supervision and control. Citizens lost faith in their government because their real needs —— many of which are physical in nature - were not met. Despite promising ideology, the Fourth Plan was implemented, as were the three plans previous to it, without an appreciation for cultural values, for the inter-relationship -among the proposals aimed at Iran's improvement. Section 2 - The White Revolution11 In discussing reform mOvements in Iranian history, it is important to mention the program advanced by the Shah of Iran. He was perhaps the first monarch in history to become the leader of a peasant movement. In January 1963, on the occasion of the Opening of a conference on rural cooperatives, he unfolded a six—point revolutionary program, to which three more points were added later. Then, in a national referendum, the "White Revolution" of the Shah was endorsed by a landslide. These were far-reaching reforms, and prOposals advocating the implementation of land reform and the enfranchisement of women aroused the combined wrath of landlords and reactionary clerics. But, the election of 1965 brought almost entirely a llDeadline Date on World Affairs, (Greenwich, Conn.: DMS, Inc.). 30 new group to the Majles, the majority of whom were committed tO'a program of modernization and to the Shah's White Revolution, and to the new Iran. Dr. Mosaddeg, the nationalist leader and Prime Minister, became the executor of his majesty's will. The Twelve Points of Reform are:1 1. Land reform to alter the peasant-landlord tenure system and distribute the land of wealthy people to the farmers. Basically, this was an ideal goal, since the government had the ability to support farmers in utilizing their farm and lands, but the result, unfortunately, was not acceptable and adequate, because of faulty implementation and lack of a holistic View. The promotion of public ownership of, and national- ization of forests for conservation. (Better utilization of) The providing of investment opportunities for the public in general, and to industrialize enterprise. An increase in labor productivity by-profit- sharing arrangements between industrial workers and owners to the extent of 20 percent of the net corporate earnings. The granting of voting and political rights to women . The formation of literacy corps for high school graduates who, during their military conscription period, would act as primary school teachers and multi-purpose village level workers in rural areas to combat illiteracy, superstition and ignorance. 12 Yahya Armajani, Middle East: Past and Present. 31 These first six points were national goals represented by the government for implementation during 1963. Six more were confirmed in laws:13 7. Improvement of health services by a health corps. 8. Modernization of farm life and agriculture. 9. Establishment of justice council in towns, and houses of justice or houses of equity in villages (local courts). 10. Naturalization of water resources for better conservation research. 11. A program of urban and rural reconstruction. 12. Initiation of civil service law and decentralization. Section 3 - Problems Left Unsolved by_the Foregoing Reform Plansg_ Despite the elaborate reform proposals of the past 30 years, the following problems still exist in Iran. Hopefully, the procedure suggested by this study will result in a plan that can finally correct these deficiencies: I 1. Social problems a. Inequality in social stratification to some extent. b. Inequality in and inequity in access to education for every citizen. c.' Inequality in access and distribution of income. d. Inequality in employment Opportunities for everyone. 3Iran, published by the Ministry of Information (1971). f. g. 32 Lack of safety and security for the private citizen or the public sector as far as insurance and protection goes. Lack of housing for the majority. Lack of leisure and recreation. Economic problems a. b. 9. Lack of management in manpower at each level. Lack of control of input and output of the high degree of inflation in all of the country, at each level. Lack of checks and balances among all social needs. Lack of flexibility in existing economic programs. Lack of improvement in employment proceedings and in Open jobs for the majority of the citizens. Lack of orders for expenditure toward the whole budgeting of the upper level to lower level. Lack of plans to preserve natural resources. Political problems a. Lack of freedom for voting, press, meeting, demonstration and any other political activities. Lack of flexibility and changes in principal, or even unimportant, regulations. Lack of opportunity for every citizen to achieve ' political status. In other words, a monOpoly of power exists in the upper class aristocrats. Lack of coordination between politicians with other institutions and systems. 33 Cultural problems 3. Lack of any total observation or consideration of cultural values and historical backgrounds. Lack of any plans to preserve original behaviors, norms, or standards. Lack of any prOgramming to adapt social behavior with new phenomena and techniques. Lack of enough prediction and plan for future cultural procedure. Psychological problems a. Lack of enough research or institutions to deal with personality and psyche of the Iranian people. Lack of any consideration of the psychological effects of social elements on individual personalities. Lack of coordination between psychological needs and cultural patterns and social norms. Lack of consideration of psychological sickness which has resulted from the chaos and disorder and unmet primitive needs. I Technological problems 8. Lack of preparation for acceptance of new techniques with existing situations. Lack of comprehensive plan (at each level) to consider the priority needs and utilization of . different techniques and modern tools. Lack of enough consideration of or information on the personalities and behavior of the citizens confronting new technology. Lack of enough programs for technical changes and of a total view of technological changes in relation to social and cultural changes. CHAPTER IV A NEW PROCEDURE FOR A COMPREHENSIVE PLAN FOR THE IRANIAN ENVIRONMENT Section 1 - Design of the Procedure This study will suggest a procedure by which many of the just-mentioned problems plaguing Iran can be solved. It will differ from past efforts at reform because of its emphasis on a comprehensive or holistic plan as its end result. The procedure itself will be divided in two sections: (1) social system planning and (2) physical system planning. In addition, each of these two systems will be divided into subsystems, and each subsystem will have its own subsections and components. Such a division, with the detail it entails, will serve to facilitate an understanding of each category, a , . consideration of existing problems with and weaknesses in each, a comparison with past planning procedures and an evaluation of the inter-relationships among all subsystems and components. In order to arrive at a model for a comprehensive plan, it is necessary to consider all of the concepts below: 1. Centric System 2. WhOle to Part (national, provincial and_local) 3. Function to Form (Social/Physica1)_ I 4. Divisions (system — subsystems, components) 5. The Priority of Needs (goals) 34 II. III. IV. VI. 35 from the citizens needs through the process of plag, A COMPREHENSIVE PLAN FOR IRANIAN ENVIRONMENT The list of the goals should be ranked in a hierarchy ‘7‘ Goals wholeness between systems, subsystems and components Balance Coordination [<37 III V V National Plan Provincial Plan <7 <7 Social Physical Social Physical Plan Plan Plan Plan Social Social _ Planning Needs Planning Needs System System Political Political Planning Needs Planning Needs System System Economic Economic Planning Needs Planning Needs System System Cultural Cultural‘ Planning Needs Planning Needs System System Techno- Techno- lOgical Needs logical Needs Planning Planning System System Psycho- Psycho- logical Needs. logical Needs Planning Planning System System <37 Local Plan Social Plan F Social Planning System Political Planning System Economic Planning System Cultural Planning System Techno- logical Planning System Psycho- logical Planning- System Physical Plan Needs Needs Needs Needs Needs Needs The ramifications of the comprehensive plan, which will be studied more broadly in a later paper are as follows: II. III . Iv. 36 Social System Planning (goals: order, justice, equality) Human Development Planning (goals: self realization) Ecological System Planning (goals: preservation of water, air, wild life and soil) Comprehensive Planning (goals: coordination, balance, wholeness) Political System Planning (goals: order, justice, equality) Economic System Planning (goals: private, public, -mixed) Technological System Planning (goals: technological efficiency) Human Settlement Planning (goals: architectonic - function and form) Cultural System Planning (goals: treatment, behavior control) Section 2 - Social System Planning Social system planning is a broad and rather recent , . term. The "Social" in social planning refers,‘of course, to the nature of the substantive areas involved. While opinions vary on this matter, social is concerned with: Iii—I 1. two broad contextual or framework setting problems - poverty and discrimination. 2. a set of specific areas of functional concern, the most important being those of health, housing education, manpower development, maintenance, family services, and crime prevention; and , 37 3. the processes (community organization, citizen participation) whereby the principles of democratic government are sustained and enhanced.14 The major goals of social system planning should be as follows: 1. to order the whole to parts of the social relations. 2. to achieve a powerful social justice organization, social institutions and a national administrative system which can adapt to the existing constitution of the nation. 3. to have equality of rights for each individual to participate in social affairs. Social system planning in this concept will be a branch of the comprehensive plan, which will be considered under three levels (National Planning Level, Provincial Planning and Local Planning). Further, social system planning will be divided into two separate parts, social and physical, for each of the above levels. A discussion of the major social subsystems designated as social indicators, is here incomplete due to the narrow scope of this study; they will be elaborated upon in a later paper. However, in this study some of the subsystems, like p0pu1ation and housing, have been described in order to address the model. 14Michael P. Brooks, "Social Policy in Cities - Toward a Theory of Urban Social Planning," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina, 1970. 38 SOCIAL SYSTEM PLANNING 0 National Plan T—