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6/07 p:/CIRC/DateDue.indd~p.1

the natural environment
and social interface:
mineral resource management

 

 

 

mary s. nardo
michigan state university

 

' " “31) |

RETURNING V '"‘ "'

Place 1"“

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND
SOCIAL INTERFACE:
MINERAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

BY
MARY S. NARDO

A PLAN B PAPER

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partiaI fuifiIIment of the requirements

for the degree of
MASTER OF URBAN PLANNING

Schooi of Urban Pianning and Landscape Architecture

1984

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE .........................
I. INTRODUCTION ......................
1. Problem Statement ................
2. Intent of the Paper and Scope ..........
3. Discussion of Extractive Processes ........
4. Components of Mineral Resource Management Issues .
II. THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT ................

1. Water - The Hydrological Cycle ..........

III.

IV.

THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT .................
l.
2.
3.
CONCLUSION .......................
END.NOTES
APPENDIX
GLOSSARY

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................

l.l Importance and Relationship to Other Systems .
1.2 Water Resources in Society ..........
l.3 Watershed Mechanics . . . ..........

l.4 Historical and Technical ASpects of Use

and Control ..................
l.S Natural Influences and Impacts ........

l.6 Devel0pment Influences and Impacts;

Land Use and Pollution ............

Land - The Geological Make-up ..........

2.l Nature of Mineral Deposits;

Their Origin and Use ............

2.2 Landform Change Impacts; Soil Erosion
and Sedimentation Control ..........

Air .......................
3.1 Quality Influences and Technical Background. .
3.2 Control Measures ...............
3.3 Relationship and Impact on Temperature . . . .
3.4 Relationship and Impact on Noise .......

Social Impacts .................
Management and Organization ...........
Regulation ....................

PREFACE

In land management issues the problem of wise management often lies
in understanding the synthesis of natural resource processes, effects of
change on natural systems and associated management programs. These
resource management programs may be established through government
agencies, conununity groups or land owners' associations. In my pro-
fessional work experience and academic case studies, I have come to
realize that the greatest need for information and direction in resource
management is at the local level. There are often programs and technical
information available at the State or Federal level but this information
is not in a form readily applied to local needs. Further, information
that is available is not often adequately disseminated to these community
units. This problem has been magnified in Michigan due to unfavorable
economic conditions. State and Federal program personnel that once were
able to "field" questions from local resource managers are no longer
available to assist due to constraints in time and program priorities.

The intent of this paper is to conmunicate technical information
concerning natural resource processes to enable better develOpment of
resource management objectives. This comnunication will be directed at
those local officials who do not have a background in natural resource-
related issues on which to base their physical devel0pment decisions or
to hire specialized consultants to address specific projects.

In studying and presenting the tapic of resource management, I have

elected to concentrate on mineral resources which is a subset of the

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overall resource management area. Mineral resource management, eSpecially
sand and gravel, is the reSponsibility' of local directives but has
far-reaching effects both locally and regionally in land, economic and
social develOpment of a community. This paper is intended to further aid
community leaders and local governmental decision makers in their
understanding of systems, both natural and social, that affect mineral

resources and develOpment decisions.

-fi-

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL INTERFACE:
MINERAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Introduction
1. Problel Statement

The process of urbanization entails social conflict over use of the
physical environment. On the suburban fringe, the very conbination of
natural amenities that sustain a productive rural landscape, also entice
develOpment. The amount of land that is needed for the develOpment of
cities is a fraction of total surface area, but the amount of developed
area is growing rapidly. There are protests about the waste of good
agricultural land in develOpment of cities; many opponents feel that the
natural fertility of the soil is the most precious resource and is
sacrificed in our current process of land develOpment. In general, less
expensive argricultural land is unprotected against develOpment pressures
and therefore the easiest to build upon. Pepulation growth in metr0poli-
tan areas of corresponding develOpment results in many conflicts over the
use of the land. Among these conflicts is the extraction of mineral
resources. There is a need to assure integration of this valuable
industry into the expanding city yet the conflict between mining activity
and the surrounding environment has intensified in recent years.

The dramatic and immediate changes brought about by mining
activities usually cause greater public attention and protests than more

damaging activities that are slow and gradual. Sand and gravel Operations

are usually perceived as unwelcomed neighbors in local jurisdictions and,
as such, are treated as nuisances. Nuisance characteristics are present
in the mining operations, but the industry is also necessary to urban
development. Many nfining impacts are interdependent and need to address
resources cfi’ a variety of disciplines and Specializations. The possible
detrimental impacts of mining upon land, air and water are effects that
may be of concern for many years after the initial activity has taken
place.

Unlike oil or c00per resources, sand and gravel supplies are not
likely to be exhausted in an absolute sense, but they can become scarce
within a locality which results in cost impacts on the provision of
materials. These conflicts may be mitigated by planning in advance of
immediate pressures and understanding the need and use of the industry at
the local level along with its impacts on the natural and social

environments of the conmunity.

2. Intent of the Paper and Scope

In recent years, an acceleration in public awareness about
environment problems has created mass movements directed toward govern-
ment and industry for action to be taken against degradable effects of
industrial activities. "With cities and counties possessing the principal
powers of control over use and deveIOpment of land, it is vital that
local planning programs embrace the full range of resource considerations
permitted by existing structures as an essential element of the planning

1

process." There is a greater need for intergovernmental cooperation and

industry-government c00peration to best address mineral resource manage-

ment problems. Remaining uncertainties regarding the effects of ecologi-
cal disorganization coupled with lack of political and economic resources
allocated to explore these issues hinders an intelligent decision-making
process in regard to these questions. Polar positions that may be taken
are either: a) "business as usual" or b) "stOp production". Neither of
these positions fits reality. The basic question that remains, "whether
production is to be assumed safe or unsafe", remains a political issue.
Continued confrontation of certainties and uncertainties on environmental
issues, necessitates that decision-making elements of society possess an
intelligence system that is attuned to these issues. Industrial socie-
ties, for the most part, have failed to devel0p such a system.

Technical information concerning natural resource systems and known
effects of change on those systems, that. we do know, is not often
assembled in a package for application at the local decision-making
level. The intent of this paper is to discuss the various natural
elements and their respective systems, that are involved in determining
potential effects of a mineral extraction process. In addition, major
considerations at the local level of social impact, governmental

coordination, regulation and planning, will be addressed.

3. Extractive Processes
-A mineral resource is defined as: "a concentration of naturally
occurring solid, liquid or gaseous material in or on Earth's crust in
such form that economic extraction of a commodity is currently or
potentially feasible".2

Sand and gravel Operations, more than any other extractive

industry, are located in urban areas. These mineral resources are used in
various construction projects with their primary use being in highway and
street devel0pments, secondary uses are in heavy construction and general
building, and minor uses are in concrete material molding, glass sand,
abrasive products and fill. About 90% of produced sand and gravel is

3 Most extractive pits,

processed 'hi fixed plants and sold commercially.
of a limited size, are near job sites. Market limit for tranSportation
(per Southern California figures) is about 20 miles. The cost of
transportation equals time plus equipment costs plus man power wage. Due
to tranSportation costs, deposits are more valuable the closer they are
to the site where they will be used. In l978 the value of sand/gravel at
the site was $2.50 per ton with haulage rates of 13¢ per mile. Price of
the commodity doubles at 20 miles from the pit.4 Based on these figures
the importance in estimating the value of a deposit is in its place
value. There is little that ‘can be done with depleted sources but
planners may protect available resources when they are limited (this is a
problem for each locale).

Truck traffic is the nuisance reported most often but there are
also problems with environmental changes of the site that affect adjacent
property, land uses and site safety. Major environmental considerations
are impacts to surface water, ground water, air pollution, noise and
erosion. The nature of these problems involve:5

a) direct hazard to human safety

b) indirect hazard to human well-being via air pollution, water

pollution, noise and dust

c) damage to prOperty, cr0ps and livestock

d)

nuisance and loss of amenity

Some factors which influence the nature and extent Of impacts are:

a)

b)

c)

d)

size of the Operation

geographical and locational factors of pOpulation density,
topography, climate, economics and society

method of mining

mineral characteristics

Sources that affect visual impact may be:

a)
b)
c)
d)
Elements

a)

b)

c)

surface excavations

waste diSposal areas

the plant (fixed or mobile)

air and water pollutants

of a landscaping plan should:

minimize undesired visual impact through the life of the
Operation

maximize benefits with respect to other environmental impacts
economically and effectively rehabilitate the mining site for

productive use after mining has ceased

Major factors in rehabilitating a site involve:

a)

b)

c)

It

stockpiling available tOpsoil for later use

use of earth sculpturing and benches in SIOpes for erosion
control and planting

planting for buffer and erosion-prevention

is important that Objectives for rebuilding the site and

landscape be established prior to any disturbance. Various terms used to

define the rebuilding of a site are:

6

restoration - where the exact condition of the site before disturb-

 

ance will be recreated.

reclamation - where the site is habitable to organisms originally

 

present in approximately the same composition and density after the
reclamation process is completed. Reclamation is acceptable if it
fills the same ecological niche or native inhabitants.

rehabilitation - where the site is returned to forms and producti-

 

vity that conform to prior use plans; this implies stable
conditions will be established and will not sub-substantially

deteriorate the projected land use plan.

4. Couponents of Mineral Resource Management Issues

Our society, with emphasis on differentiation and Specialization,
has developed two insular scientific comunities--the natural and the
social-~with little comnunication between them. Ethics have origination
in the tendency of independent individuals or groups to evolve modes of
co-operation. The extension of ethics is actually a process in ecological
evolution. Co-Operative mechanisms tend to increase in complexity
according to pOpulation density and the efficiency of tools. An ethic -
ecologically - is a limitation on freedom of action in the struggle for
existence. An ethic - philOSOphically - is a differentiation of social
from anti-social conduct. Primary ethics exist between individuals; later
. ethics exist between the individual and society.7 As yet, there does not
exist an ethic to deal with man's relationship to plants, animals and
land. Land relationships are currently based on economic privileges while

negating associated reSponsibilities. This third extension of ethical

relationships may be an evOlutionary possibility and ecological necessi-
ty. All ethics rest upon the idea of the individual as part of a
comnunity; instincts prompt competition for place and ethics serve to
preserve co-Operation and community.

Evaluation of good land use depends on: I) the ecological potential
Of the area, 2) determination of wants and needs Of society for that
area, 3) develOpment Of political and social institutions to allow peOple
to Obtain what they want from the land and stay within its carrying
capacity fOr a particular use. Any rehabilitation effort must be
site-specific. Pre-planning efforts plus government and industry commit--
ment is necessary if a rebuilding program for a land area is to be

successful.

II. The Natural Environnent

Within a stable system man and nature are conceptually parts of the
same. Early societies (hunters and gathers) followed general rules Of
ecosystem organization but as societies developed, the significance of
ecosystem principles dimished. Western societies,- especially, have
undergone major shifts from a compatible man and nature orientation to an
orientation of man vs. nature. These changes produced by man which
accelerate destruction Of natural processes are more serious than natural
changes which man is not reSponsible for.

Man's evolution has been marked by an expansion Of his niche in the
ecosystem. Ecological expansion is carried on in succession within
restructed locales where initial conditions are favorable for develOp-
ment. An .antagonistic model exists between societal production and
environmental resources; this leads to conflict in growth and maintenance
of a community. "Human societies exploit surroundings ecosystems ‘UD
survive but those that overexploit, may destroy the very basis of their
own survival".8 Further resource discovery is possible only to the
limitation Of a particular ecosystem, then either a new ecosystem must be
tapped, or societal production must be altered.

Historically, in the develOpment of land areas in the United
States, public opinion has favored development concerns irrespective of
the associated costs incurred to the environment. Current laws and
institutions, many Of which evolved during these periods favoring
development at all costs, reflect this prodevelopemnt bias. Institutional

processes that do allow for sensitive acconInOdations and balances to

protect critical natural resources, yet assure that essential develOpment
needs are met, are not in effect in most areas.

Normalized develOpment growth tends to be incremental and unrelated
to natural processes Of the site. Natural processes and environmental
quality need to be considered in the planning phases of develOpment
because individual changes to the character of a site affect the entire
system. While negative consequences of develOpment are related to
aggregate effects and thus usually the reSponsibility Of the public
sector, benefits Of develOpment are particular to the site and accrue to
specific private sector interests. Past development has been character-
ized by "leap frogging" which results in inefficient land use and excess
taxation on infrastructure, facilities and tranSportation. Urbanization
develops primarily on Open land areas with more intensive uses filling in
the urban fabric.

At a larger scale, the use of Open Space in development, is related
to improving water quality and limiting pollution. At various scales,
vegetative areas are related to climatic effects which, in turn, affect
temperature, humidity, precipitation and wind patterns. Vegetation also
helps cleanse air Of pollutants and the quality and quantity of
stormwater runoff. Replacement of polluted air and its diffusion depends
upon air movements over pollution-free areas. Intensive development
warrents detailed open Space planning in urbanized areas to assure that
Open Space will be incorporated into the urban environment. Protection of
sand and gravel deposits for future use may be linked into an Open space

system.

 

li'lllllulllil‘lilIIlll‘lIA-lllll ‘IIIIIIIIJIIIII.III|II ‘ IIII‘III Ili‘tIIi‘l’ IIJ‘I

III

1. Water - The Hydrological Cycle

1.]. Importance and Realtionship to Other Systems

The quality of our environment, the adequacy and dependability of
food supply, the production and distribution of energy, all depend upon
water resources. Supply of water for human use is dominatedby various
constraints: 'H: is widely varied according to regional characteristics,
the season, fluctuations in demand, supply mechanisms, and quality
differences. With increasing growth in urbanization patterns and asso-
ciated water resource demands, water must be obtained from greater
distances which encroaches upon extra-regional ecosystems. In addition,
due to natural and cultural use cycles of water, the interrelated effects
Of develOpment and unwise use are becoming more complex.

1.2. Water Resources in Society

 

One of the main problems in our society is the way in which scarce
resources are allocated among alternative Uses and users. Water, one of
the earth's basic elements, plays. a significant and dynamic role in
determining the earth's capacity for life support. It is the single most
important compound enabling life formation and in providing tools which

have forged our environment.9

At higher levels of impact, water forms a
basis for social existence and settlement patterns for man, as well as
other life forms which congregate for existence. As civilizations became
more complex, it was Often water which made possible man's technological
and urbanization advancements.

One of the most Obvious needs for water is for human consumption to

support body functions. This use is actually a relatively small amount of

-10-

the total amount of water used. It is the various support activities such
as showers, toilets, laundry, lawn watering and public use for activities
of fire protection or street cleaning, which consume the larger amounts
of water. All these uses combined, still limit the use of water for human

activities, to about 4% Of total runoff."J

In recent years, industrial
utilization of water has been great but the largest consumption of water
has been for agricultural uses. Irrigation alone accounts for the use of
about half of all fresh water available in the United States and nearly
all of this is lost through evaporation and tranSpiration processes.]]

With extended dependency on water resources, there is a greater
concern involved in how, where and for what purpose they are developed
and managed. Laws of nature regarding water are becoming better
recognized and impacts of future decisions are more difficult to
understand and foresee based on the complexity of factors in the use of
water resources.

1.3. Watershed Mechanics

 

The area of land down which water runs to a particular stream, lake
or other water body is called a watershed. There are many smaller
sub-basin drainage areas within a larger watershed and a "drainage basin"
is the term Often used in referring to larger watershed areas. A
watershed unit includes a combination of water and land features, the
soil, vegetation, agricultural areas, urban areas, industry, people and
animals; in other words, a watershed is an encompassing geographic,
social and economic unit.

As a result Of natural and man-constructed forces the surface Of

the earth is always changing. Land masses Of the watershed which are

-1]-

 

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exposed on their surface, are acted upon by tides, ocean currents, winds
and the movement of water through the hydrological cycle. Every unit of
land, no matter how small, is part of a watershed area. Hence, the manner
in which the land is managed will inevitably influence streamflow of
associated land changes. The management of a watershed requires Specific
information pertaining to the conditions affecting plant, soil and water
relationships in the area; both broad regional differences and local
variations must be considered.

In order to appreciate the water resource Of a watershed, its
relationship to other small watershed areas and to regional watershed
units, it is necessary to have a general Understanding of the hydrologic
cycle. Water is the product of the hydrologic cycle. A broad definition
Of hydrology has been given by the Transactions of the American
Geophysical Union (1962):

"Hydrology is the science
that treats of the waters of the
Earth, their occurrence, circula-
tion and distribution, chemical
and physical properties, and
reaction with the environment,
including their relation to liv-
ing things. The domain of hy-
drology embraces the full life
history of water Of the Earth".

Of the earth's water, the oceans contain an estimated 97%. These
water areas are continuously being evaporated by solar radiation striking
their surface. As maritime air masses move over the land surface,
condensation may give rise to some form of precipitation. This precipita-

tion may then strike an Object before reaching the ground and evaporate,

transpire or be used by the Object. This process is called interception.

-12..

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Vegetation is usually the intercepting object. The quantity Of‘water
intercepted is difficult to measure but may be a significant portion of
the total precipitation amount. Precipitation, in the form of rain, is
intercepted more readily by broadleaf deciduous trees. In turn, coni-
ferous vegetation is able to intercept a larger amount Of precipitation
in the form of snow.

Upon striking the ground, rainwater runs downslope to stream
channels with some of the surface flow evaporating or entering the soil
before it reaches these streams. This is particularly evident where the
water is likely to be temporarily detained in surface depressions. This
streamflow is the residual difference between precipitation and losses
due to interception, tranSpiration, evaporation and seepage. Vegetation
reduces surface runoff, promotes infiltration and offers Obstructions in
delaying the movement of water to stream channels along with retarding
and/or lessening flood peaks while prolonging flow into the dryer season.

The most important pathway of water for man's sustenance is through

infiltration into the soil.12

That portion of the water penetrating the
soil surface (infiltration) constitutes soil water and occupies the soil
water belt. The rate of penetration depends on precipitation and the
nature of the soil. Soil water moves downward, saturating the soil layers
to capacity before it is available for flow to the lower strata. Most of
the water available for vegetation occurs during this phase Of the cycle.

Approximately 95% Of this water is absorbed by the plant roots, returning

to the atmosphere via the tranSpiration process with 5% being used by the

-14..

13 The water table level varies in response to

plant to nanufacture food.
these seasonal and multiple-year periods of excess or limited precipita—
tion.

Below the water table, water percolates downward with a consider-
able horizontal component. The general direction of movement is toward
sea level but most Of the ground water returns to the land surface before
reaching the ocean. Some Of the water percolates into permeable bedrock
strata. The more permeable formations are acquifers and are sources’of
ground water used for human activities. Typical acquifers include: sand,
sandstone, gravel, conglomerate and cavernous limestone. Formations with
relatively low permeability that do not permit water flow to any extent
are termed aquicludes. These formations may be: clay, shale, slate and
crystalline rocks.14

During the processes of the hydrologic cycle, water is put to many
uses. It provides life-supporting substanCe that is required by land and
water-based animals and plants, it maintains a life-supporting earth
temperature range, and the recirculation helps maintain a level of
quality. The use of water is not only critical to plant life but also to
the generation of oxygen, maintenance of topsoil and protection of many
other life forms as well. Man is one user of available water but other
users are critical to man's survival.

Known underground and surface freshwater available to man is less
than .05% of the world's total water content. This amounts to approxi-
mately 120,000 cubic miles with three-quarters of this freshwater supply

15

held frozen in polar icecaps. There are a number of means for

increasing the water supply available to man; these include: weather

-15-

modification, reuse of water, saline water demineralization, reduction of
reservoir evaporation loss, and tranSport of icebergs. Each of these
methods has associated advantages and disadvantages with its use. Man's
main influence in supplying water can best be exerted on reception and
distribution Of the precipitation that reaches land surface. Management
of the land can insure absorption of clean water into the soil and
control, to an extent, flow towards the oceans, storage and distribution
factors.

Surface permeability (permeability equals water in inches divided
by time in minutes), or infiltration, regulates the amount of precipita-
tion which is converted to surface runoff. On a given slope angle and
length, runoff estimates can be made on the basis of soil texture and
plant cover. Differences in density and structure of plant cover affect
runoff. The coefficient of runoff equals the fraction of rainfall that is
not lost to infiltration; it is expressed in numbers between 0 and 1.0,
l.O represents l00% runoff.

The ground water table generally follows the topographic configura-
tion of the ground surface. A change in surface tOpography that is too
abrupt to produce a corresponding change in the water table elevation may
result in interception of the water table by the surface. In sandy areas,
Springs may form; in clay, there may be perennial surface dampness. This
outflow of groundwater along a Slope may lead to slope failure and
erosion. Processes which contribute to this situation may be: 1) addition
Of water to clay-like material that produces a consistency change which
reduces resistance of the material to deformational forces and changes

the physical state from solid to pTastic to liquid form, 2) poor water

- 15 -

 

I ‘7. Ir l‘lll ‘. III .II ‘I I .

pressure occurs when the weight pressure Of groundwater uplepe causes
soil particles to be driven apart, reducing their interparticle binding
strength. In combination with the plasticity factor, this reduces the
capacity of the soil to maintain a lepe, 3) sapping which is erosion of
fine particles by seepage outflow which removes supportive materials.16

Ihi a watershed, or drainage basin area, there occur first, second
and third order streams. Order is determined by the number Of major
tributaries entering into a stream channel. First order streams have no
tributaries; second order streams are the convergence of two first order
streams; and third order streams are the convergence of two or more
second order streams.

Floodplains are formed by the lateral erosion and deposition
processes of the river in its channel. Water is supplied to a river
system via precipitation in the form of overland flow or groundwater.
River discharge is controlled by processes that supply water such as:
rainfall, snowfall and snowmelt, comined with characteristics of the
drainage basin, which include: size, shape, orientation, network and
infiltration capacity.

l.4 Historical and Technical ASpects of Use and Control

 

"The history of water resource manage-
ment and history Of the human race are
inseparable". (W. Durant, "our Oriental
Heritage", The Story of Civilization:
Part I, I935)
In Durant's Opinion civilization was and continues to be condi-
tioned by certain factors which are geologic, geographic and economic.
Social organizations, law, economics and commerce all relate to our water

resource.17 A review Of historical and institutional water develOpment is

-17-

characterized by certain periods of rapid development. Historically,
early peOples were mostly hunters and gatherers and established their
civilizations in river valley areas. As they learned to cultivate crOps,
they moved into the valleys for access to more dependable supplies of
water and thus learned irrigation techniques to bring the water to their
needs. These societies also learned to develOp water-holding systems for
dry periods and the use of rivers for tranSport. Eventually, water was
put to greater uses by more elaborate means.

Two of man's major uses and modifications of the water cycle are
represented by the septic tank (for diSposal of unwanted material) and by
the well (as a water source). The first piped water supply in the United
States occurred in Boston in 1652. Between the years of 1652 and 1800,
there were only 9 recorded water works in what is now considered the
United States. Currently there are more than 45,000 works which supply

18 It was not

billions of gallons daily to people of the U.S. and Canada.
until the 20th century that wholesale changes of rivers began in concert
with other dramatic changes occurring in the country during this period.
Growth and develOpment demanded larger industries, more power and more
land for agriculture. Associated with these changes was the irrigation
and use Of lands previously without adequate water supplies to sustain
development needs. With the construction of the Hoover Dam a new,
unprecedented era began. Hoover Dam and its related system of reservoirs
and aqueducts, nade possible the development of civilization centers,
industries and agriculture in environments that were not naturally suited

for such use. Today, in both large and small countries, substantial

amounts Of the national economy are comnitted to the develOpment of water

-18-

supplies for major cities as these areas outgrow the geographical
resources by which they were formed. Therefore, large volumes of water of
both good quality and hydraulic control are saleable products and if held
high in the river system, the potential energy is also saleable, in part,
as hydro-electric power. As demands for water and power continue to grow,
more land area will be pre-empted for water resource development with
associated economic and social costs. Increasing investment at the study
and design stage for water develOpment projects can be justified based on
these impacts.

Many communities located along streams have turned their reliance
to groundwater resources due to the high cost of dam construction and
questionable quality of the surface waters. Albuquerque, New Mexico,
Tusca, Arizona, Miami, Florida, and Honolulu, Hawaii are among 'these

cities.19

World-wide groundwater use has been somewhat hap-hazard and not
well matched by adequate development of research and exploration.
Historically, this lack of research has been partially due to the costs
and laborious process involved. Exploration processes include reliance on
drilling boreholes, supplemented by surface geOphysical methods of
plotting the earth's local magnetic field, Speed Of propagation of shock
waves from small explosions, local variations in gravity force and direct
measurements of electrical resistance. Even with this process, rock
formations are complex and waterbearing materials often have irregular
lenses so that there is a need for approximate interpolation between
measurements. In the past, locating water sources was a result of

exploratory drilling processes done for oil, coal and mineral ores.

With the combination of rising rates of pOpulation, water consump-

-19-

tion per person, domestic and industrial wastes for diSposal, the need
for water is outstripping geographic resources of the environment of
major cities. As cities grow, water must be obtained from farther
distances. Los Angeles currently supplies its water needs from areas 200
miles north and 250 miles east; New York taps water from 140 miles

20 Problems of water supply are reaching critical concern and

upstream.
involve levels Of decision-making at a national governmental scale in
many industrial countries. The needs Of a growing human pOpulation have
overwhelmed, if not completely eradicated, the natural ecosystem in many
parts of the world. There is a limit to the number and extensiveness Of
these natural ecosystems which can be altered without interfering with
the well being, and survival, of man.21

1.5 Natural Environmental Influences and Imacts

 

The care Of a watershed involves the protection of the soil and Of
managing the water of smaller watershed units upstream with the aim of
decreasing water erosion and preventing excessive floods along the
stream. Classification of water quality depends upon the purpose for
which it is to be used. The most important criteria Of water quality for
living organisms concerns the dissolved oxygen content, which is a
function of temperature (the colder the water, the higher its capability
of holding oxygen in solution). Acidity and alkalinity also have a
critical bearing on the use to which water must be put. A pH term is used
to express the acidity or alkalinity with a. pH reading Of 7.0 being a
neutral solution.

Not all natural watersheds are in good condition. Some steep hilly

areas have shallow soil and cannot support adequate vegetation cover.

-20-

These watersheds are easily damaged by erosion. A watershed area cannot
avoid erosion if the trees or supporting vegetation are stripped from the
hillsides. Tree crowns help minimize the force with which rain strikes
the ground surface and forest litter prevents disturbance Of surface soil
by raindrOp Splash. An erosion condition may develOp when grassy hillside
areas are bared through abusive use by grazing animals, soil damage, loss
by inapprOpriate agricultural practices or intensive develOpment effects.
The resultant erosion can change water quality Of a stream and alter its
fitness for use or as habitat for animal and vegetation communities. This
has been the outcome on many watersheds throughout the world brought on
by insensitive develOpment practices and poor management.

The beneficial influence of a forest on the quality of water yield
by a drainage basin has been recognized for a long time. The forest-soil
or grassland-soil ecological complex must be present if purification of
waste water is to be accomplished. Research also indicates that where
water temperature is an important balancing factor Of an ecological
comnunity, the cutting of forests Should be carefully controlled near
stream bottoms as it may increase normal temperature ranges and thus
exceed Optimum conditions for Species' habitats. Trees also serve as
protection for streamsource areas. Projecting features on the land serve
to force approaching airstreams up to cooler altitudes, where water vapor
condenses into precipitation. Because of this, these features are source
areas for stream flow.

In a study done by Lull and Sopper (1969) on the influence of
urbanization on forested watersheds, they conclude that: l) urbanization

may increase peak waterflow through partially forested watersheds by 1%

-2]-

 

Ill l‘i. Ill .II‘I

III .1 .LI ‘11] I I I ‘

“gm-.w%aflrmw .. “A _ .,

 

to 5 times the rate of discharge as compared to previous conditions; 2)
during construction, sediment yields increased 5 to 10 times compared to
those of protected watersheds; 3) annual potential evapotranspiration was
reduced in the range of 19% to 57% under previous forested conditions;
and 4) the annual volume of runoff was increased in the range of 15% to
41% as a result of urbanization effects.

In comparing runoff rates, the coefficient of runoff is the
percentage of rainfall which runs Off the surface. This runoff is
expressed 'hi decimal form. The remainder is that percentage of rainfall
lost to soil penetration. The higher the coefficient, the greater the
runoff. Runoff coefficients vary depending upon surface cover, soil
textune and slope. In general, the runoff coefficient increases as land
use intensity increases.

In light of experiences that have been recorded and the results, it
is apparent that forest areas should neither be felled nor planted on a
large scale without a study Of the potential hydrological changes that
may be expected. Research exists today that enables qualitative predic-
tions to be made along with some quanitative evaluations. The use of good
sense in the early stages of comprehensive planning involving land use
changes will provide the necessary study that will reduce decisions based
upon guesswork and thus save large sums Of money' later' to correct
inapprOpriate actions.

1.6. Development Influences and Impacts; Land Use and Pollution

All problems of land use concern water. In most instances the

availability and seasonal distribution of water supply is the critical

ingredient in land use decisions. The types Of groups which can be found

-22..

around a water source determine the land use pattern of the area and are
further influenced by the quality and quantity of water available.

As a watershed is developed, forests are cleared and replaced with
more impervious surfaces that become depositories for urban-gengerated
residue. Ultimately, these surfaces are rinsed by runoff and the residues
carried to the lakes via streams, storm sewers and drains. This situation
triggers aquatic changes by the addition of these materials.

The need for consistent watershed develOpment discipline is
evident. The achievement of this discipline is wrought with the political
sensitivities of controlling land use and of overlapping political
jurisdictions of natural watershed boundaries. Traditionally water has
been a cheap conmodity that was able to be collected, stored, purified

22 One Of the advantages to

and delivered for only a few cents per ton.
the costs involved in water resource develOpment is that it forces the
more technically advanced communities to look critically at their use of
water in formulating discipline and management policies.

Land use changes dramatically alter the runoff manner of a drainage
basin. Major hydrological changes associated with urbanization are:
1) surface changes, 2) suppression of natural surface flows into
subsurface conduits and 4) new, artificial flow systems.23

The majority of surface changes increase impervious areas, in turn
increasing runoff volume and velocity (runoff coefficient). The more
impervious an area, the more runoff occurs at a faster rate. "Pruning" Of
stream networks which alters lower order parts Of a drainage system,

causes major effects further down the drainage network. Mitigation of

this problem may be accomplished via: the use of greenbelt areas,

-23-

storm-sewer runoff routed temporarily to infiltration areas underground
or held in surface retention ponds.

As cities outgrow their natural geographical facilities for water
supply and waste diSposal, it has proven easier to supplement input by'
tranSporting water a distance than to solve the disposal problem. As a
result, major rivers have become Open sewage systems. After a century of
neglect Of this steadily worsening problem, public attention in more
developed countries has turned to ‘the correction of inisuse of these
watercourses. Costs involved in solutions are so great as to become major
financial burdens to municipalities, ranking third in expenditures (after

).24 Even with this high cost treat-

education and highway construction
ment, control Of industrial effluent is inadequate. Industrial wastes, of
increasing chemical complexity, present a far more intractable problem
than domestic sewage. In particular, the salts of heavy metals, cOpper,
lead, zinc, iron, chromium and cadmium, produce highly toxic sludges
which are difficult to dispose of.

Modern agricultural practices involving the extensive use of
fertilizers and concentrations of animal wastes (due to “factory farming"
Of animals involving intensive penfeeding), produce runoff problems for
surface and groundwater also. The Royal Comnission on the Pollution of
the Environment gave the following summary Of the pollution problem:

"Pollution's main economic charac-
teristic is that its costs are not usually
borne by the polluters, so that production is
often pushed beyond the socially Optimum
point; there is inadequate incentive to allot
sufficient resources to reducing pollution
when certain producers and consumers benefit

at the expense of the victims of the
pollution."

-24-

Water is the most dynamic and major determinant of natural
processes. If these processes are maintained in relative equilibrium,
benefits will be accrued. Defense of these water-based priority areas,
and restrictions to their use, can then be justified based on the work
that these water processes perform. Priority water-based areas would
include: flood water ‘reservoirs, marshes, storage basins and surface

25 By following the processes and

water protection for purification.
methodology of this macro-design approach, detailed elements on a micro
or municipal scale,‘ would begin with an inter-related program for
intrinsic form which would make a significant contribution to the larger
context.

"Water is one of the earth's most abundant resources and a resource which
can be placed at serious risk by the activities Of the mineral

industries".26

Continued availability of pure water to meet the demands
of a growing human pOpulation is one of the most vital problems society
faces. Water is utilized in many stages Of mining and mineral processing,
dependent upon the type of mineral involved. Mining processes in which
water is generally used include:27

a) Mining - slurry, dredging may result in silting

b) Cooling - crushers

c) Process Water - electric generating, benificiation, contact with

raw materials
d) Transport Water - slurry
e) Miscellaneous Water - for dust control, vehicle and other wash-

ing, domestic and sanitary uses

Additional routes by which mining can influence water processes without

-25..

actually using it include:
f) Pumped Mine Water - water influx due to rain or groundwater
g) Run-off - rain, snowfall
h) Percolation - via polluted water stored in sumps or tailings
impoundments
i) Leaching - through low grade, metalliferous ores
j) Groundwater Interception - interception of aquifer due to exca-
vation
k) Spillages - Oils, toxic reagents
1) Aerial Pollutants - fallout of pollutants that affect surface
waters
"Over the whole spectrum Of mining, direct and immediate interface
with human health is rare and the greatest impact is normally upon the

28 Whether or not a particular substance is a

acquatic ecosystem“.
pollutant depends upon its nature, concentration in the effluent, total
load discharge, nature of the receiving water and its capacity to absorb
the waste loading imposed. Water pollution in mining is usually
attributed to several pollutants. Possible combinations Of pollutants are
varied but the four major problems are:29

1) Acid Mine Drainage - predominantly chemical; produced when

sulphate reacts with air and water to form sulphuric acid.

2) Eutrophication - aging; may be toxic and nutrient rich

3) Deoxygenation - major consequence of pollution

4) Heavy Metal Pollution - sources vary but usually in discharges

from coal and metal mines

There occurs a broad range of pollutants but they exist within

- 25 -

relatively few groups. These groups are:

l)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

9)

10)

11)

Organic - najor non-mining problems (i.e.: sewage) but a small
mining problem

Oils - commonly 'Spllled; aesthetically' unpleasing, inhibits
re-oxygenation of water by forming a film, and may coat fish
gills; if contaminants boiler feed water it may cause explosion
Cyanides - lethal to many fish even at low concentrations

Acids and Alkalis - changes pH value of water and can adversely
affect fish and the acquatic ecosystem; may damage structures
at higher acid levels

Base Metals - highly toxic when in excess; varies according to
the type of metal

Fluorides - usually from waste water of fluorspar’ mining;
toxicity seldom a problem in hard water but toxic in soft water
Dissolved Solids (Soluble Salts) - conInon in mine effluents;
main source is dissolution from contact with rock; effects vary
greatly according to the concentration

Organic Reagents - i.e.: frothers, collectors, depressants,
many toxic but usually are not at sufficiently high levels in
mine tailings

Colour - water discoloration by dissolved or suSpended matter;
the problem depends upon its cause

SuSpended Solids - interfere with self-purification Of water by
diminishing light penetration

Turbidity - from non-saltable fraction of suspended solid load;

effects on fish appear relatively small

- 27 -

12) Then-a1 - heated effluents can be extremely damaging; dissolved
Oxygen content of water decreases while oxygen-demanding
biochemical reactions are Sped up; lethal temperature for some
fish is quite low

13) Radioactivity - acquatic flora and fauna absorb and concentrate
radioactivity discharged effluents; effect of low doses on man
are primarily genetic while no effects upon aquatic organisms
appear to be recorded in reSpect to mining radioactivity

Control Of water pollution may be accomplished through:

1) Monitoring - To: a. define Objectives, b. select parameters to
be measured, c. select sampling locations, d. sampling proce-
dures, e. analysis

2) Water Control - a. preplanning, b. controlled mining tech-
niques, c. erosion and infiltration control, d. handling Of

polluted water, e. regrading, f. revegetation, g. mine sealing

- 23 -

2. Land
2.1 Nature of Mineral Deposits; Their Origin and Use

 

The world-wide search and use Of mineral deposits has had profound
effect on the migration of peOples and subsequent settlement patterns.
Understanding the formative process of deposits is the first approach to
their discovery. Deposits reflect the geologic history of a region and
the relationship of geographic features as they are determined by
geologic influences. These characteristics are unrelated to political
boundaries. Long term public and commercial planning must be based on the
probability of geologic identification of resources in, as yet, undis-
covered deposits and of technological develOpment of extraction processes
for presently unworkable deposits.

Most commercial deposits are found in or around valleys, terraces,
fans of existing and pre-existent rivers and streams, in coastal plains
and lake deposits, and in glacier-deposited areas. The value of a deposit

30 There are no general

is dependent upon its location, size and purity.
standards for determining the value Of a deposit; it is necessary to
study the local industry characteristics to find out what makes deposits
valuable in that area.

For the Operator, the comercial potential of a deposit depends
upon:31

1) thickness and variability of overburden

2) extend of the deposit

3) physical prOperties of particle size, distribution, mineralogy

and durability

-29..

4) accessibility of the deposit to roads, railroads and waterways

5) distance from the intended use point

6) availability of sufficient water supply

7) depth of the groundwater

8) government restrictions

Besides geologic factors, the size and permanence Of’ markets,
freight rates and truck weight limits will also determine the value of a
deposit.
2.2 Landform Change Imacts; Soil Erosion and Sedimentation Control

Soil is transitional between the air, water, life on the surface
and rock of the subsurface. Various soil aSpects include:32

1) Bearing Capacity - the ability to support weight

2) Erodibility and Stability - the susceptibility to erosion and

failure in leping terrain

3) Drainage - the capacity to receive and transmit water

4) Resource Value - the economic worth

Sources of soil information are:

-The Soil Conservation Service - for detailed surveys and

 

analyses by the U.S. Department of Agriculture

-Geologic Maps, Air Photos, TOpographic Contour Maps with

 

vegetation and drainage

-Field Sampling

 

Seventy-five percent of the root mass of plants is concentrated in
the upper one foot Of soil so vegetation is a vital soil stabilizer.33
Plant roots bind together aggregates of soil particles thereby increasing

resistance to erosion by runoff or diSplacement by mass movement.

-30-

Additionally, foilage and organic litter mitigate erosion (splash) power
of raindrops.

Land is not merely soil but also the energy foundation flowing
through a circuit of soils, plants and animals. When change occurs in one
part Of the circuit, other parts must adjust. Evolution is a series of
self-induced changes, usually slow and local. Man's invention of tools
has enabled changes of unprecedented violence, rapidity and SCOpe.

Vegetation conveys much information about environmental conditions
and may be viewed as a primary determinant in gauging ecological
sensitivity and as an indicator Of environmental constraints that have
influenced previous land use. Informational sources include:

-U.S.G.A. maps (for general cover)

-Detailed cover maps used generally for timber production

-U.S. Forest Service Maps .

-Local detailed surveys

-Aerial photos - black and white, infra-red and color

A slope is defined as: elevation (or rise) divided by distance (or
run). Percent lepe is the elevation in feet divided by the distance in
feet multiplied by 100. The angle of repose of a slope is the maximum
angle at which various soil and rock materials can be inclined before
lepe failure occurs (i.e., landslide). Site analyses are necessary to
determine if a slope is active or susceptible to failure. Some reasons
for lepe failure include:34

1) Undercutting - by waves, streams or construction processes

 

2) Increased Groundwater Content - as along banks of a reservoir

 

3) Devegetation - particularly of forest cover

 

-3]-

4) Spontaneous Liquidification - lepes comprising certain material

 

types of marine origin which, under force of ground shock, may
instantly transform from solid to liquid state

Erosion by surface runoff is an ongoing process on virtually every

lepe, to some extent. The rate of erosion equals velocity and volume Of

runoff. This rate is regulated by vegetative cover and lepe incline.

Slope classification is standardly defined as:

very steep = 250
steep = 150 to 25°
moderate = 5° to 15°
gentle = 5°

Assessment Of the potential for stream sedimentation, from a
proposed construction Site, can be determined from topographic maps and
aerial photos. The basic slope analysis with determination Of nearness Of
the site Of a stream, identifies the most potentially severe problems.
Also, there are seasonal variations in sediment yields; those idle or
most active during winter-Spring season are the most susceptible to
severe erosion. Site design features such as settling ponds, check dams
and construction schedules minimize site exposure during winter-spring

and may help to avert high levels Of stream sedimentation.

-32-

3. AIR
3.1 Quality Influences and Technical Background

 

Even though air pollution attributable to mining Operations is no
more than 1.4% of 'the total U.S. air pollutant load, the practical
importance of a pollutant depends upon its nature, concentration and the

35

point at which it is emitted. Air pollution is defined as "the presence

in the air of materials at concentrations sufficiently dense so as to

effect health and prOperty in a negative manner".36

A study by deNever in
1977 reported that damage to health and prOperty were proportional to
pollutant concentration and type Of pollution. Pollutants that are
emitted at ground level, where they are easily inhaled, pose a greater
danger than those elevated and dispersed when emitted. Air pollutants are
classified into gaseous and particulate. With gaseous pollutants, Of most
concern in mining are CO and $03. With particulates, the most relevant to
human health are airborne dusts within the respirable size range.
Particulates are the most important and wideSpread air pollutants.
Sources of air pollution fall into two different groups, point and
non-point. Point sources include: chimneys, vents, exhausts; non-point
sources include: dispersed sources such as dumps, stockpiles and haul
roads. As wind Speed and turbulence increase, concentration of pollution
downwind Of the source decreases. Diffusion of the pollutants occurs more
rapidly when an air plume is high above the ground. CO, released
primarily from automobiles and N02, released from automobiles, industrial

and institutional sources, are usually transported in plumes high off the

ground and touch ground only after they have grown very large.

- 33 -

Vegetation can greatly improve urban air quality. Quantities of
pollutants removed by vegetation are sufficient to lead to substantial
improvements in their concentrations. The magnitude of improvements
depend on the pollutant type, quantity Of vegetation and length of time a

plume is in contact with the ground surface.37

Vegetation serves as a
"sink" to remove particulate and gaseous pollutants in the atmOSphere.
Removal involved: 1) gaseous diffision, 2) impaction, and 3) sedimenta-
tion. Gaseous diffusion into the aqueous portion of vegetation leads to
the removal of various pollutants at different rates dependent upon

solubility and pressure of the gas in the atmosphere.38

Other gaseous
pollutants, CO in particular, are utilized in the reSpiration of soil
micro-organisms which are physically removed from the atmOSphere by
impaction upon the vegetation structures. This process is referred to as
“Dry Deposition".

Resistance in the air-vegetation layer (known as the turbulent
boundary layer) is primarily a function Of the canOpy and structure of
the vegetation. Surface roughness, stability and wind speed are aeromatic
parameters that define turbulency (or diffusion velocity) in the boundary
layer and the transport of materials through that layer.39 Increases
within stand parameters Of canOpy height, foliage density, canOpy
roughness and leaf area, will decrease the resistance within the canOpy.

The magnitude of a surface sink is expressed as deposition
velocity. Collection efficiency and area of a surface determine the
deposition velocity of that surface. Efficiency depends on the size,

shape, surface textures of particles and the plant surfaces. This

collection efficiency varies with the vegetation species and Size

-34-

distribution Of the particulate pollutants.40 A study done by Schroch in
1980 indicates that 'hi heavily vegetated suburbs Of Chicago, monitored

levels of SO were significantly lower than air qualityr models had

2
predicted. The difference was attributed to depostion of the $02 to
vegetation surfaces. Dry deposition of both gaseous and particulate
pollutants to the ground surface is an important. process leading to
reduced concentrations of certain atmOSpheric pollutants. Existing
vegetation in urban areas reduces concentration of pollutants. With
increased quantities Of vegetation, these concentrations may be further
reduced. Morphological characteristics which affect aeromatic parameters
include: ground surface conditions (heat capacity’ and conductivityd,
vegetation biomass, height and canOpy structure.

Air pollution, in the form Of fugitive sources, is composed Of
gaseous and particulate emissions from industrial processes that escape
to- the atmosphere without passing through a primary exhaust system.
Fugitive dust may be natural, agricultural or synthetic dust from
non-industrial activities such as unpaved roads, urban streets, construc-
tion sites, parking lots and Open Spaces. Fugitive dust emissions are a
function of soil type, wind speed, surface moisture, precipitation,

41 Recent studies

vegetation cover and automobile traffic activity.
indicate that stack-oriented control strategies, alone, are not suffi-
cient to achieve the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).
Present Environmental Protection Agency (E.P.A.) efforts are aimed
towards controlling ngitive emissions and requiring the use of innova-

tive technology.

A report by Rahn and Harrison in 1974 indicated 5% of total

-35-

suspended particulates (T.S.P.) in the Chicago area were resuSpended by
street winds with 15% of these particulates being auto-initiated. At
times, reSUSpension accounts for 40% of T.S.P., as determined by studies
conducted at monitoring stations. Large particulates, due to their size,
are of less importance because they quickly settle out of the atmOSphere.
Fine particles are of greatest concern because they tend to be suspended
longer. Urban particulates are eSpecially important due to their small
size, toxic, carcinogenic nature and occurrence in highly' pOpulated
areas. Aerial particulates are not as detrimental because of their
tendency to be non-reSpirable and of natural origins.42

There are various types Of soil movement due to wind surfaces; they
include:

1) surface creep - rolling particles

2) saltation - jumping particles

3) suSpenSion - lifted and carried particles; saltation is needed

to produce suSpenSion

Vegetation, becuase of its effects on surface roughness and soil

moisture level, will reduce wind velocities over surfaces and increase

43 To date, there

the cohesive and adhesive forces that retard suSpenSion.
has not been a study that has quantified the effect of urban vegetation
on T.S.P., but most research in the area has mentioned that increased
levels Of vegetation have been effective in reducing the quantity of
suSpendable materials.

A study conducted by Chepil indicated that soil movement can be

stOpped by the cohesive forces of absorbed water film surrounding soil

particles. Vegetation cover substantially increases ground surface

-35-

moisture levels. Newman, et al, stated in their report that suspendable
particles in an area would be decreased if more vegetation were present.
Newman also states that impermeable city surfaces have dry, readily
suspendable particles more than‘soil surfaces because of their drying
characteristics. Soil surfaces, because of their association with large
volumes Of soil, are able to draw up water from sub-surface layers and
stay moist longer than artificial surfaces. Vegetation reduces the energy
incident upon the soil surface and thus reduces moisture loss by the soil
surface. The vegetation canOpy over an artificial surface will also
reduce radiation flux toward the surface, prolonging wetness there.

Vegetation substantially affects the quantity Of materials lofted
to the air by wind. Wind Speeds at the ground, which are necessary to
suspend a particle, decrease with surface roughness. Only when surface
materials are dry can saltation occur. Increases in the quantity of
vegetation serve to increase surface roughness and moisture levels. In
all cases vegetation, either as a barrier or coverage, decreases ground
level wind Speeds which contributes to a redution in soil movement at the
surface.

' 3.2 Control Measures

 

Control measures are dependent upon containing and channeling
emissions to defined points. Water, used to moisten minerals being
processed, can be very effective in the control of dust. An effective
dust suppression system required careful selection and positioning Of
Spraying equipment to enable prewetting with water plus a wetting agent.
Typical locations for suppression systems include: crushers, tip heads,

drawpoints, screens and haul roads.

- 37 -

3.3 Relationship and Impact on Temperature

The urban heat island (UHI) is the climatic consequence of
increased air temperature of the urban area relative to rural areas.
Characteristics of surface type and associated vertical and horizontal
morphology, partially determine the heating and cooling Of air that moves
across urban areas. Urban surfaces maintain energy differently than rural
surfaces, for reasons which include:45

-energy used for evaporation is less in urban areas than rural

areas due to the smaller amount of transpiring surface area and

reduced surface moisture from effective drainage systems

-as evaporation is reduced, there is an increased transfer of heat

to the air and heat storage in the ground

-heat capacity and conductivity of urban surfaces is greater than

rural energy storage components

Reports of vegetation cooling effects on the UHI are supported by
examining the energy and mass exchange processes which occur above the
urban surface. Both analytical and empirical studies have been conducted
on vegetation and land use effects of the UHI, and there appears to be an
associated effect between diminished UHI effects and increased quantities

of vegetation surface. 46

With this result planned Open Space areas to
protect future nfineral deposits can result in positive climatic effects
to nearby urbanized areas.

3.4. Relationship and Igpact on Noise

 

The noise environment of a comunity is described as having two
components:

1) persistent noise emission from an identifiable source

-33-

2) community noise, which includes all other noise

The noise level at any pOint is a function of: nature of the
source; path the sound wave travels; and nature of the receiver. Along
the path a sound wave travels, numerous prOpagation effects occur that
include: retraction, geometric Spreading, air and surface absorption and
scattering (reflection and diffraction).47

The 'loss of sound pressure level (SPL) greater than that due to
geometric Spreading and air absorption, is referred to as "excess
attenuation". Excess attenuation may occur due to reflection by a barrier
(which may be in the form Of tree stands), or scattering and ground
absorption of the wave by vegetation and the ground surface. The
effectiveness of vegetation in attenuating sound is increased when it is
used in combination with a berm or other barrier form. An effective noise
abatement program requires knowledge of different noise types, intensity
levels, characteristics Of the noise, time of day of occurrence and the
activities or areas where noises are produced. Vegetation should be a
component of any comprehensive noise abatement program but cannot be a
sole substitute for other types Of controls.48 Abatement strategies that
utilize vegetation and berms as bariers to noise are unique in that they
deal with noise after it has left the source, thus affecting the
propagation Of noise. The main mechanism of attenuation by vegetation is
the scattering, by the woody parts, and absorption by the ground surface.
Porosity Of the ground surface also determines absorption efficiency and
this is another area where vegetation and Open Space areas can abate
49

noise.

There has not been any conclusive evidence of a substantial

-39-

difference in attenuation characteristics between coniferous and decidu-
ous vegetation types. According to' a study done by Grey and Deneke in
1978, Species did not differ greatly in their ability to reduce noise
levels. Forest cover with large amounts of understory vegetation provides
the greatest degree Of noise reduction.50

In studies of vegetation strips and barrier effects, scattering can
lead to excess attenuation due to a reflectance-like phenomenon called
"edge effect": (Bjorsen, 1971). Functionally, the vegetation strip or
stand resembles a barrier and very high attenuations will occur over
relatively short distances. Bjoresen (1971), also reported an attenuation
result from a 4 foot strip Of vegetation equal to that of 100 feet Of

forest area.51

It has been suggested that attenuations that are possible
from thin vegetation barriers should not be underestimated.

Distance from the noise source to the vegetation barrier is also
important in propagation. Maximum effects occur when source-to-barrier
distance is short. This is due to the fact that the quantity Of acoustic
energy interacting with the barrier increases with decreasing distance
from the source. The major problem with noise is usually as a nuisance or
annoyance factor. Primary sources of noise problems in mining Operations
are: equipment, workshOps, loading facilities and tranSportation traf-
fice. Fundamental control techniques that can be incorporated into a
noise abatement program include:

1) reduction of noise energy generated at the source

2) isolation Of the source

3) increased attenuation or absorption between source and receiver

(reduction at the source is usually simpler and less costly than

other alternatives)

-40-

III. The Social Environment

 

Physical aSpectS of resource allocation and carrying capacity
entail social consequences. The transitory quality Of public attention to
various issues is partially due to competing social problems but also
reflects an ignorance of systemic connections between social and economic
structures. An ecological approach to social evolution begins by assuming
a reciprocal relationship between technology and environment rather than

52 New conditions in the environment and

environmental determinism.
technology which produce changes have social effects by the fact that
these changes alter size and life conditions Of a pOpulation.

Many cities have already outgrown their original local resources
and have found it necessary, as in the extension of water supply, to go
long distances for water derived from other drainage basins. If these
transbasin diversions fall short of current or anticipated demand, major
adjustments will need to be made to fulfill supply needs. These
adjustments may include departure of population and industry from the
area until a balance can be attained between supply and demand or an
adjustment in the life style and consumption for non-essential uses.

According to Glacken (1970), the "man verses nature" concept has
been outmoded in many cultures with acknowledgment that man is a part of
the natural ecosystem and that his survival depends on integrating human
demands within the ecosystem limitations. Further study by Helm and
Peters (1975) points out that in accord with ecological principles, man

is part of the ecosystem and is regulated and influenced by the same set

of principles which regulate other living organisms. Man's failure to

- 41 -

recognize this relationship has resulted in an endless series Of
problems, compounded upon one another, until the resulting situation
seems to defy solution.

The final avenue of approach is to provide Opportunity' for an
integrative endeavor Of study within the context of an ecological ethic.
It appears evident that the prevailing value system is the ultimate key
in affecting the nature of resource management policy. It is at this
primary point that new directions in resource use, understanding and
respect need to be revised. This is a necessary beginning point on which

to effect changes towards the well-being Of the earth's ecosystem.

-42-

]. SOCIAL IMPACTS

 

"Men pay attention to what is their own: they care less for what is
comon" -- (PolitiCs, Book 11, Chapter 3, Aristotle). "When the time
scale of environmental ruin is measured in generations, it is not easy

53 These

for mortal man to recognize future threats or past degradations".
quotes exhibit fundamental truth in that those in a commons have
incentive to ignore the social impact of private behavior.

Urbanization is not only a physical phenomenon but is also a major
process of social change that complicates resource management. Research
by Peterson and Ross found that even prior to physical urbanization, the
introduction of a water system to a small farming community initiated a
change in attitudes by the introduction of "surburban" viewpoints with
reSpect to land and water. Studies by Spaulding found that water use

tends to increase with socioeconomic status. This knowledge provides the
A key to develOpment plans for the comons. The social risks apparent in
ecosystem disorganization are:

a) Direct Biological Threats

-carcinogens and environmental toxins
-disorganization fO current food systems
-disorganization of future food systems
-climate changes destroying habitats

b) Sociocultural Production Threats

-unemployment
—income reduction

-decreased availability of public services

-43-

Societal values are an important key to resource use and reasons
why peOple abuse resources. Current problems of pollution call attention
to rules that regulate behavior with respect to the environment as it is
held, used or enjoyed in comon by groups. Problems arise when some
members of the group change the common environment in a way that impinges
on the rights Of others. A major contribution to understanding societal
values underlying resource abuse is that: the COIllllOll resource is the
responsibility Of no one in particularu With this orientation, each
individual uses the environment for personal ends, then discards it as
abandoned prOperty. Belief systems that involve this type of resource
use include elements which are ecologically dysfunctional. Some of these
are: 55

1) That Speculative land values are a legitimate way to windfall

wealth .

2) Government must help private enterprise but not control it

3) Growth is an absolute good

4) Property Ownership defined as peOple doing as they please with

their prOperty

5) Government by judges being preferable to government by adminis-

trators (even though administrators may often be better equipped
to handle complicated technical and environmental problems)

These notions of progress and growth lead to the depletion of our
natural resources. If environmental problems are to be solved, the basic
ideas Of what constitutes progress need to be revised to reflect
ecological values. Changes 'hi societal values can either be induced by

crisis or Obsolescence. Obsolescence involves the erosion of a value,

leading to. its replacement. Individual decisions and public policy can
also influence some behavioral phenomena. Over the years public policy
has tended to encourage situations to happen; an example~ being the
“Homestead Act" which encouraged peOple to move west. Newer policy
directions have hinted at the idea of manipulating attitudes and
resultant action to stay within environmental constraints. This is
contrary to past attitudes of total manipulation of the environment to
satisy human needs.

Social impacts take into account effect on individuals, organiza-
tion and/or communities. A Social Impact Assessment (SIA) examines social
relations and social activities. It determines how a prOposed physical
develOpment affects the community's activities and interactions. The SIA
process is a growing field Of applied social science that is used to
evaluate policy alternatives in terms of estimated consequences. The
origin of SIA processes can be tied to Environmental Impact Statements
and the 1969 National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA). Social impact
evaluation still remains a relatively new field for many local govern-
ments. Understanding social impacts leads to better land use decisions
and ocnmunication of the effects Of such decisions. It is difficult to
make definitive evaluation of social impacts, so much Of the quanitative,
and eSpecially qualitative, determinations are based upon inference.
Because Of this, a cardinal rule that must be adapted is that
assumptions, expectations and conclusions should be cross-checked for
misleading biases. More Objective processes for SIAs have been develOped
in recent years and can be applied to give Situations when needed.

Conmunities are social systems and social impacts can be examined

-45-

in terms of systematic inputs, structures, activities and outputs. The
inputs are resources Of human, financial, material, natural or intellec-
tual elements that are fed into structures. Activities, as processed
through structures, produce outputs. These outputs determine the result-
ing quality-of-life conditions for a comnunity. Various projects and
policies impact communities by reducing or expanding the variable inputs
Of the process, by altering structures, or by increasing or decreasing
activities. Due to these possible changes in the process, the outputs are
altered and, subsequently, the impacts. Impacts of extraction Operations
on comnunities occur at various stages. Impacts may occur during land
acquisition for mining Operation in the diSplacement of other develOpment
and ancillary activity locations. During construction activities annoy-
ance factors may impact the community. After cessation of mining
activites, the post-Operation land condition and future land use will
impatt the community.

Questions to ask during planning stages Of. mineral extraction
projects in regard to social impacts are:

1) Is the proposed develOpment significant enough to merit detailed

evaluation or can a more intuitive evaluation suffice?

2) Who will be impacted by the develOpment?

3) What is the geographic boundary of the study area?

Social impacts need to consider two primary levels of understand-
ing. They are: the 353231 Objects and how changes affect social

activities and the perception of Objects and associated effects Of the

 

changes. Relevant social effects from changes in the physicial environ-

ment, due to mining Operation, involve many characteristics. Some of

-45-

these characteristics are: perceived quality of the environment; personal
safety, privacy and health; aesthetic and cultural values; population
changes; employment changes; neighborhood disruptions; noise impacts;
accessibility; recreation and leisure patterns and the effects on human
activity; and commercial and residential activities.

Steps in conducting a social impact analysis should include:

1) collection Of baseline data to profile current physical and

social conditions

2) identifying physical changes that will occur with and without

the develOpment

3) estimating social impacts or differences between develOpment or

no develOpment

4) evaluation of the significance of impact

5) identification of alternatives to mitigate negative impacts

In evaluating social impacts to a conlnunity there is a need to
determine the ability of the conmunity to adapt to or assimilate the
changes, before working towards necessary mitigative measures. These
mitigative measures most Often refer to design, location or functional
features of the proposed develOpment.

Though the importance of social impact consideration is being
recognized the lack of legal mandate to require an SIA, along with the
absence Of readily available analytical approaches and inadequate
baseline data to detail current social needs, hinders efforts to
incorporate social impact consideration into a project. Legal mandates
usually initiate at the federal and state levels with local government

rarely requiring impact considerations.

-47-

Quality comunity leadership and develOpment goals are important
catalysts to growth. Causes of community decline are usually attributed
to a decline in natural resource conditions, and conservative or
pessimistic viewpoints towards business in that area. These important
comnunity growth and quality-of—life elements need to be considered at
the local government level to deal with future planning and current

develOpment of mineral extraction Operations.

-43-

2. Manganent and Manization

 

As outlined in previous protions of this paper, the water resource
system is the primary natural resource by which other resource systems
are based. It then follows that the water resource system should be the
organizational base upon which other systems are integrated and managed.

Water resource develOpments, in contrast to land programs, have
traditionally been conceived and administered as individual projects
rather than an overall program. A better method of planning involves the
watershed as a unit closely interrelated to other watershed units. Land
and air systems can then be incorporated into this management unit.
Research, practical experience and observation have shown that management
of land and water must be handled together for effectiveness and lasting
benefits. Another problem in dealing with watershed resource decisions is
the bureaucratic demarcation used in administration efforts. There is a
need to link disjointed political, technical, biological and social
systems in a dynamic inter-relationship. In this manner, comnunications
research and implementation processes can be best utilized in watershed
develOpments for local and regional benefit.

Watershed management has been defined as the administration and
regulation of the aggregate resources Of a drainage basin for the
production of water and control of erosion, streamflow and floods
(Kittredge). In a study Sponsored by the International Council of
Scientific Unions, it was determined that management is the most
important factor in the develOpment and protection of land and water
resources. Man has not yet evolved a universal set of laws to govern

watershed management. The real problem in water resource management is to

-49-

determine and understand the relationship of different land use practices
to water and, ultimately, to apply this knowledge to land management with
the intent of restoring and maintaining favorable supplies.

A watershed protection program includes using each piece of land
within its capability, in applying practices needed to prevent erosion
and allow more water to seep into the soil. This includes the use of
water flow retardation and disposal structures. Two major considerations
in effective planning in the use of water resources involve: l) the use
Of water and its protection and 2) recognition of man, the consumer, as a
social being and the necessary weighing of effects in social and
psychological contexts as well as economic benefits and costs. With these
considerations in mind, trends in planning focus on water use to meet the
growing set of demands while at the same time not degrading the quality
and water utilization for economic gain.

There exist few examples Of integrated land and water resource
management efforts of a drainage basin as a unit. One outstanding example
is the Tennessee Valley Authority (T.V.A.). T.V.A. is a social and
engineering venture, that combines multiple land uses while accomplishing
the restoration and quality management of a complete watershed area,
improving navigation and flood control concerns.

In water use allocation, social processes intervene to determine
what groups receive a water supply and where it will be supplied from.
Partially because water is channeled away from its natural source for
use, it tends to be taken for granted and given a low value as an
economic good. With this perSpective its consumption is uncontrolled,

resulting in waste. Problems arise when conflicts develOp between uses

-50-

and users, their supply access and waste practices. It is at this point
that individuals and groups turn to the courts or political alliances to
achieve their needs. Equitable allocation is a key to resolving social
processes governing conflicts and water functions; but this idea is more
easily theorized than implemented. Equitable allocation must be under-
stood in the context of competing and incommensurable utilizations. Often
tradeoffs must be made between incompatible uses, but tradeoff does not
imply cormnensurability. Thus, from fundamental concepts basic to social
processes--conflict resolution, tradeoff and incomemsurability--one
- arrives at functions of water utilization for productive purposes and
ecological maintenance and control. The basic relationship between social
and economic structures is their dependence on water for production. This
dependence is evidenced by the need for energy, the need for water to
carry out agricultural production, and the uses of water by industry.
Distribution of resources is the critical concept establishing
the relationship Of social processes in defining authority, power and

roles?6

With this perSpective social processes, through mechanisms Of
power pressure and conflict resolution, determine and are influenced by
the Spatial distribution of water. Other influences are its accessi-
bility, ownership and use. These processes tend to mitigate for the
status-qua; consequently those who have more power tend to also have
increased access to resources. Establishment of watershed policy en-
counters problems involving unity of social goals and Objectives. Goals
achieved by watershed programs depend partly on availability and
acceptance Of necessary resource management authorities and powers. Both
goals and means are subject to restraints imposed by economic, social and

political considerations.

-5]-

3. Rggulation

Prerequisite for effective regulation is a clear understanding Of
the basic reasons for exploitation. For pOpulations that are economically
valuable but possess low reproductive capacities, either one of these
conditions may lead to extinction. The difference between private and
public resource management is usually meaningless in determining how
effectively a resource will be used or preserved. There is a need to look
at specific incentives in allocating resources. Public or private owners
and managers have similarly enforced property rights and regulations.
Public structures place demand on private develOpments and private
develOpments are, in turn, governed by public controls.

In establishing controls, coordination between regional, county and
municipal agencies is important in contributing to the positive affects
Of these areas. Inter-agency coordination and conflicts between regula-
tions should be minimized. Environmental quality Of an area is tied to
the fiscal health of the. conmunity and, for this investment, municipal
government needs to play a large part.

Zoning is recognized by experts as the most useful and wideSpread
legal measure available to local governments for the orderly develOpment
and transitional use of land. Zoning is defined as: "the legislative
division of the contnunity into areas, in which only certain designated
cases are permitted, so that the conlnunity may develOp in an orderly
manner in accordance with a comprehensive plan".57

The courts have recognized two basic principles in determining the
legal limits Of police power in zoning cases; these are: 1) that police

power must promote general health, safety and welfare of society by

-52-

preventing land use activities threatening the well-being of others or by
2) requiring activities enhancing the social, economic and physical
environment as determined by the government. The problem of wise urban
development is how to organize, control and coordinate the process of
urban growth to protect what is valued in the environmental, cultural and
aesthetic characteristics of the land. This need should be accomplished
while meeting the needs of the changing U.S. pOpulation for new housing,
roads, parks, businesses, commercial and industrial facilities.

Local agencies recognize the importance of the mineral industry but
controls are usually develOped due to public controversies with insuf-
ficient planning beforehand. Control of mining sites varies from lease
arrangements to outright ownership, and the reSponsibility for rehabili-
tation differs according to ownership form. Local government may be more
strict than state or federal government but also be at least as stringent
in ideas of progressive and integrated reclamation. Examples of reclama-
tion standards may be: a) timing, b) Site clearance, c) lepe, d) tOpsoil
removal, e) drainage, f) tOpsoil replacement, 9) cover and planting, h)
abandoned uses, i) Operation termination, j) bond and k) insurance.

Efforts of protection vary from site to site and area to area.

Examples of protection are: a) Land Use Regulations--these are used as

 

protective devices for designating "resource conservation areas"; among
this type Of regulation is: zoning, which is only effective for sites
that are to be develOped in the near future; Special extraction
districts; overlay zones; map-identified deposits that are develOped into
existing use districts in which excavation is permitted by conditional

use or Special exception

-53-

b) State Action--in this form, protection aids in supporting local

 

government in making unpOpular decisions (policies and standards).

c) DevelOpment Code and Mineral Resource Protection-~an example of

 

this form is San Bernadino, California, where mining is allowed unless
there are Specific prohibitions, (this is contrary to the usual logic of
conventional zoning where mining is prohibited unless otherwise stated)

d) Land Dedication--

 

e) Transfer of DevelOpment Rights--

 

f) Intergovernmental Coordination--

 

g) Public Acquisition--this form can be included under Open Space

 

or industrial land packages

h) Land Banking--where the public purchases for resale later.

 

Present land use regulations neither recognize natural processes,
the public good Of these processes, nor allocate responsibility to the
acts Of landowner or develOper. There still is not adequate information
on the cost-benefit ratios of Specific interventions to the natural

processes.

-54-

CltlTl-lltlA l-‘(lll DECIDING WHETHER A SAND. GMAVEL. Olt ltOCK DEPOSIT WAllllANTS PROTECTION

A

 

 

 

dential area.

More than 15 miles
from use area.

No noise butler-ing
can be provided
between existing
access road and
adjacent uses.

available.

distance to present
use areas.

Near highways;
access can be
provided.

Protection Highly .
. Consider for Protection , Protection
“m“ u 0“ Protection numb]. D‘gfgg'ym x Critical
Economic Small or low-grade Small deposits (less Medium-sized Large deposit (7.5 Very large deposit
VIII-IO deposit. than 2,000 tons) deposit (6 million million tons). 110 million tonal
located near use tonal. Can be mined eco- oifincrete quality
area or near De it d - nomicall in near sa '
rocessing plant. pos m. T °°° y
p nomtcal to mine future by upgrsd~
by upgrading the material.
material.
Large. lowograde
deposit that might
be economical to
mine in the future.
I
Access Only practical Longer alternate Within 10 miles Large deposit. “fithin 5 miles of
route to sin is access route'can be of use area; alter- presently beyond use area. adjacent
through a lesi- built. nate access route economical hauling to highway with

access for trucks;
adequate noise
buffering for
access road.

 

Compatibility
With

Adjacent land use
presently incom-

Scsttered develop-
ment within outer

Adjacent land
suitable {or devel-

lmminent incom-
patible develop-

No incompatible
land uses existing
or likely in the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Surroundings patible with mining range of impacts opment and within ment on adjacent
(appreciable resio of mining; owners commuting dis- land. iorseeable “1W“
dential develop- may not object tance of use area. “dill-=3!"- llfld in
ment within range to mining. ““5““! “”“b
of excessive noise. operator‘s owner
dust. blasting ship. agricultural
vibrations. etc.l mm" ““‘fly‘
or with very steep
topography. etc. ).
impact at Noise level in Noise level in adja- Noiae at adjacent
Noise adjacent presently cent undeveloped residential area
developed areas areas would exceed I.“ than 50 4311“
would clearly ea: standards for due to distance or
ceed standards If likely use. but use topographical
mining occurred. of these areas can barrier; berm can
be easily delayed be constructed
or economical miti- easily.
gation can be pro-
vided by barriers.
Impact oi Too close to Blasting not re-
Bluung existing quired: permanent
. subdivmon. open space between
quarry and other
uses; topographic
barrier between
quarry and other
land uses; only
occasional light
blasting; blasting
compatible with
%_ - adjacent uses.

 

-55-

 

(CONTINUED)

 

Write It 0“

Consider ior
Protection

Protection
Desirable

Protection Highly
Desirable ”000 ' X
2.000 X 20'l

Protection
Critical

 

Impact oi
Truck Traiiic

Only access is
local road through
residential area.

Slightly longer
alternate route
exists.

Alternate truck
route can be built
at reasonable
expense; alternate
transportation
(conveyor or
slurry pipelinel
can be used'past
residential streets.

Adjacent to iree~
way with access
to site.

 

Visual impact

Mining would
destroy or create.

Mining activity
cannot be screened
and would perma-
nently alter
landscape.

Some activity
visible from resi-
dential areas. but
no permanent
deterioration of
landscape.

Mining activity can
be easily screened
by berms and/or

vegetation. . ,_

Activity screened
by topography or
vegetation. or
appreciably reduced
by distance.

 

No significant

 

 

Biological Major stand of Site includes prime Minor or tempo-
lmpact oaks: rare and wildliie habitat rary loss oi wild- biological resources;
endangered plants that would be life habitat. rehabilitation of
or animals on site. permanently site would replace
removed by or create riparian
mining. wildlife habitat.
lmpsct oi Mining would Mining would Mining would
Flooding cause erosion ol create erosion create “00d COM-'0'

 

adjacent property;
could be prevented
only at great
expense.

 

 

hazard for roads.
bridges. and utility
lines; however.
these structures
could be strength~
ened at reasonable
costs.

 

 

channel and would
not damage ad ja-
cent land.

 

 

Sauna: §AMD AND ésRAVEL—

Emma : Peg-r5971 0N

REéyuLA‘noN, Amp
KELLAMATiOH .

--56-

GET ‘TT Warm

IV. Conclusion

 

During hearings before the Conmittee of Surface Mining for the
State of California, mineral industry representatives stressed the need
to conserve mineral resources for access when they would be required in
the future. Major extraction problems occur with jurisdiction over land
use at the local level and conflicting jurisdiction of several local
authorities. Failure to identify significant mineral deposits in local
areas, in advance of community growth, results in additional controversy
on many issues, increased mineral supply costs and decreased access to
these resources.

Increases in pOpulation and the standard of living, places
increased demands upon the mineral industry to work at preserving future
reserves and enhancing the incorporation of existing sites into urban
areas. Controversies usually evolve regarding: attractive nuisance
elements, unsightly views from the road, deep and stagnant water, and
sheer walls. Mineral resource management problems are interdependent of
the overall need for coordinated urban-resource problem solving. The lack
of local policy and direction are major contributing factors to mineral
resource management problems.

The process of rehabilitation should be an integral part of the
excavation process. For Optimum use of depleted lands, and to insure
implementation, there must be coordinated intergovernmental effort and
industrial association. Comprehensive resource management plans, relating
to mineral extraction, are crucial to wise land and water use allocation
for continued viability of the mineral industry that is necessary to

urban develOpment.

-57-

Management plans serve the purpose of: l) providing data, amount,
quality of earth resources and assessing market needs over time;
2) stating conlnunity goals in balancing the benefits of preserving and
using sites against the need to use the same site for other uses; and
3) a basis to establish legal devices to control the use of potential
sites against exploiting earth resources. To develOp plans it is
necessary to:

1) Identify Deposits. This is accomplished by understanding local

 

geology (via mapping, sampling, testing and analysis) and through data
necessary to back up boundary decisions for protection areas.

2) Utilize Sources of Information. These may include: the State

 

Geological Survey; existing site Operations; records of private and
public groups; the U.S.D.A. Stabilization Conversation Service for maps,
aerial photos, etc.; the Soil Conservation Service; mining Operators;
local and state highway departments; and the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers. A

3) Estimating Demand. Demand can be estimated, approximately, by

 

considering average annual per capita use in the region and the state of
the economy.

4) Ranking of Deposits for Protection. Ranking needs to consider

 

the producer's requirements and public interest factors (i.e.: large
scale pits involve 20 to 40 years to excavate); a) if total local supply
is limited, there should be an attempt to protect all reserves, b) it is
better to preserve multiple sites, 10 or so miles apart, vs. one large
site, c) alternative sites can be used to stimulate competition thus

holding down prices.

-58..

Adequate landscape planning measures of individual extration sites
will help to ease the problems of proximity of the industry to develOping
urban areas.

Considerations in landscape planning should include:

I. General Surveys. By gathering information on landscape charac-

 

teristics, tOpographyg ECOIOQYS hydrology, communications, facilities,
boundaries, and mining plans.

II. Detailed Planning; to conceal surface excavations, processing

 

plants and associated facilities. This can be accomplished through the
use of vegetative screens, screening banks or berms, fencing, and
decorative signage.

A major criteria in attractive and incorporated urban areas is the
ratio of "Open Space to developed land". Most urban areas need an
infusion of Open Space for microclimatic and regional biological balance.
The overlooked utilization of Open space can be found in depleted and
future mining sites. These areas must be effectively perserved through
designation and planned conversation. There is a need for a locally
specific balance between conversion of mining sites to Open Space and
develOpment purposes. This is a reSponsibility that will remain primarily
with local agencies and be further effective twith inter- and intra-

regional coordination.

-59-

end notes

END NOTES

1Landerman, N.J., Schwartz, S. and Tapp, D.R. Community Resources:
The DevelOpment-Rehabilitation of Sand and Gravel Lands. (Pomona, CA:
Department of Landscape Architecture, School of Environmental Design,
California State Polytechnic University and Southern California Rock
Products Assn., 1972), p. 11

 

 

2 Barney, G.0., ed. Council on Environmental Quality, Department of
State. The Global 200 Report to the President. (Washington, D.C.: U.S.
GOvernment Printing OffiCe, 1981). P. 14

 

 

3Landerman, N.J., Schwartz, S. and Tappi D.R. Community Resources:
The Develoment-Rehabilitation of Sand and Gravel Lands. (Pomona, CA:
Department of Landscape Architecture, School of Environmental Design,
California, State Polytechnic University and Southn California Roc,
Products Assn., 1972). P. 3

 

 

41bid., p. 6

5Nerth, J.T. Sand and Gravel Resources: Protection, Regulation and
Reclamation. (Planning Advisory Service Report *Number 347, ChiCago:
American Planning Association, 1980), Chp. 3.

 

 

6Rummery, R.A. and Hones, K.M.w., eds. Management Of Lands Affected
b Minin . (Australia: Division Of Land Resources Management, Comon-
wealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, 1979).

 

7Leopold, Aldo., A Sand County Almanac. (New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1966), p. 218

 

8Dunlap and Catton, Annual Review Of Sociology. (1979), Chp. IV

 

9Fitzsimnons, S.J. and Salama, 0. Man and Water: A Social Report
(Boulder, CO: Nestview Press, 1977). p. 223

 

1oIbid., p. 165

-50..

1‘ Ibid., p. 165

12Pereira. Land Use and Water Resources. (Cambridge: The University
Press, 1973). P. 1. '

 

13Stevens. Physical and Cultural‘tharacteristics of An Urbanizing
Watershed. (Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan State University, Fisheries and
Wildlife Dept., 1967), p. 50.

 

141b1d., p. 51.

15Perira. Land Use and Water Resources. (Cambridge: The University
Press, 1973). 9.4.

 

16Marsh, W.M. and Barton, T.E. Inland Lake Watershed Analysis, A
Planningand Mangement Approach. (Lansing, Michigan: Michigan Department
Of’ Natural Resources, *Land Resource Programs Division, Inland Lakes
Management Unit, 1976), p. 99.

 

 

17Garstka. Water Resources and the National Welfare. (Ft. Collins,
CO: Water Resources Publications, 1978). P.1.

 

18Ibid., p. 449

191bid., p. 450.

20Pereira. Land Use and Water Resources. (Cambridge: The University
Press, 1973). P. 10.

 

2lGarska. Water Resources and the National Welfare. (Ft. Collins,
CO: Water Resources Publications, 1978). p. 285.

 

22Pereira. Land Use and Water Resources. (Cambridge: The University
Press, 1973), p. 37.

 

23Marsh, W.M. and Borton, T.E. Inland Lake Watershed Analysis, A
Planningand Management Approach. (Lansing, MiChigan: Michigan Department
of' Natural Resources, Land Resource Programs Division, Inland Lakes
Management Unit, 1976). P. 101.

 

 

- 5] -

24Pereira. Land Use and Water Resources. (Cambridge: The University
Press, 1973), p. 202.

 

25Down, L.G. and Stocks, J. Environmental Impact Of Mining.
(London: Applied Science Publishers, Ltd., 1977). P. 89.

 

26 Ibid., p. 89

27Ibid., p. 89.

281bid., p. 101.

29Ibid., p. 101.

3oWerth, J.T. Sand and Gravel Resources: Protection, Regulation and
Reclamation. (Planning Association, 1980), Chp. 2, p.2.

 

 

3‘Ibid., Chp. 1, p. 3.

32Marsh, W.M. Environmental Analysis: For Land Use and Site

Planning (1978), p. 56.

 

33Ibid., p. 90.

34Ibid., p.56.

35Down, C.G. and Stocks, J. Environmental Impact of Mining.
(London: Applied Science Publishers, Ltd., 1977), p. 58.

 

36Flynn, J.E. Vegetation and Air Quality. (Dayton, Ohio: Dayton
Climate Project, 1981).

 

37Ibid.,

381bid.,

-62-

391bid.,

40Ibid.,

41Flynn, J.E. Vegetation and Fugitive Sources. (Dayton. 0hl0=
Dayton Climate Project, 1981).

 

421bid.,

431bid.,

44Flynn, J.E. Vegetation and Urban Air Temperature. (Dayton, Ohio:
Dayton Climate Project, T981l,

 

451bid.,

461bid.,

47F1ynn, J.E. Vegetation and Urban Noise. (Dayton, Ohio: Dayton.
Climate Project, 1981).

 

481bid.,

491bid.,

501bid.,

5‘1bid.,

52Duncan, O.D. Handbook of Modern Sociology. (Chicago: Rand
McNally, 1964),

 

53Hardin, G. and Baden, J. Managing the Conmons. (San Francisco,
CA: W.H. Freeman and Co., 1977), Preface xii

 

- 53 -

54Schnaiberg, A. The Environment: From Surplus to Scarcity. (New
York: Oxford, 1980), Chp. I:

55James, L.D., ed. Man and Water, The Social Sciences in Management

of Water Resources. (Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky,
1974, p. 186.

56Fitzsimmons, S.J. and Salama, 0. Man and Water: A Social Report.
(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1977). p. 221.

57Ibid., p. 113

- 54 -

appendix

(.1 I ..ll 1.. ll ‘

Dc/utuc' Niawcu- NUNEKAL
E1555 KVAT 10M f
MINE: 2;: MIME-r
CQDWAMLE
MODEL ZONING ORDINANCE
Section 1

Statement of Purpose

In order to protect the health, safety, and general welfare of the

citizens of County, the County Board of

 

Supervisors do hereby enact this ordinance to reserve and protect the
mineral deposits of County and to provide methods for the
regulation of mineral extraction.

This ordinance recognizes that minerals are fixed in location, are rare,
and are nonrenewable in nature. In order to prevent noncompetible land uses

from denying the benefits of these materials to the citizens of

 

County, to protect mineral deposits near urban centers, to prevent unwise
patterns Of development, to assure proper reclamation of mining sites, and
to provide the best economic growth opportunities and environmental management

techniques available, this ordinance provides for the creation of

 

 

 

as an amendment to the Cbunty Zoning Ordinance.
Section 2
Definitions

(1) Mineral shall mean a naturally occurring element or combination of
elements that occur in the earth in a solid state, but shall not include
soil.

(2) Mining shall mean all or part of the processes involved in the extrac-
tion and processing of mineral materials.

(3) 22erator shall mean any person or an agency either public or private,
engaged or who has applied for a permit to engage in mining, whether
individually, jointly, or through subsidiaries, agents, employees, or

any person engaged in managing or controlling a mining operation.

(4)
(5)
(a)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(1)

(2)

Structure shall mean any building, whether for human habitation or not.
.22252? shall mean the County Board of Adjustment.

.EEEEE shall mean all accumulation of waste mined material and over-
burden placed on the land surface, whether above or below water.
Person shall mean an individual, partnership, OOOperative, corporation,
or agency, either public or private, or any persons, whether
incorporated or not.

Reclamation Plan shall mean the operator's proposal for the reclamation

 

of the project site which must be approved by the board under this
ordinance prior to the issuance of the mining permit.

Mining Permit shall mean the mining special exception permit4, whether
on a regular or temporary basis, which is required by Section

of Ordinance . It does not replace or otherwise
eliminate the need to apply for state mining permits such as are

required under Chapter 144.85 of the Wisconsin Statutes.

Section 3

Mineral Reservation Districts

NAME: The name of this district shall be the Mineral Reservation

District of County.

 

PURPOSE: The purpose of this district is to protect the lands in

County which contain known mineral resources which are

 

potentially valuable for commercial extraction. The location of the
district shall be based upon geological surveys and consideration of
the following factors:

(a) Location of past and present mining and land areas held for future

extraction by operators;

(b)

(c)

(d)

‘ (e)

(3)

(4)

(f)

(g)

(h)

The presence, location, extent, and quality of potentially
valuable mineral deposits both known and inferred.

Availability of potential mineral-bearing land and feasibility of
extraction of the mineral.

Any regional, county, and municipal comprehensive plans.
Potential for effective multisequential use which would result in
the optimum benefit to the Operator, residents of adjacent

districts, and the residents of County.

 

Development and reclamation potential of the land to enhance the
possibility of physically attractive surroundings compatible with

adjacent areas.

The quality of life of the residents in and around areas which

contain potential mineral deposits.

Maximization of the short- and long-term benefits of mineral

extraction.

PERMITTED USES

(a)

(b)

Agricultural uses, including farm structures and single-family
residences up to two units per farm.

Forestry.

SPECIAL EXCEPTIONS

(a)

NONMINING
5
(l) Nonstructural conservancy uses , such as:
(a) Utilities such as telephone, telegraph, and power

transmission lines;

(b) Hunting, fishing, preservation of scenic, historic, and
scientific areas, wildlife preserves;
(c) Hiking trails and bridle paths;

(d) Accessory uses;

(b)

(e) Public and private parks, picnic areas, golf courses,
and similar uses;
(f) Any other use which the board finds is similar in nature

and purpose to the nonstructural conservancy uses herein

listed.

(2) Any use that is allowed as a permitted use or special exception
in any district which abuts the Mineral Reservation District6
provided that the Board of Adjustment finds that:

(a) The use is clearly necessary to community develOpment
and that this need outweighs potential conflict with
mineral conservation and/or mining; and

(b) The decision to establish the use has taken into account
the possibility that it may need to cease in favor of
mining at a future time which could be before the
natural expiration of such use; and

(c) The use is subject to special conditions designed to
eliminate or minimize conflict with future mineral
extraction activities on the same or nearby sites.

(d) Such other standards as the board may find necessary to
fulfill the purposes of nonmining special exceptions in
mineral reservation districts.

MINING: Mineral extraction Operations on a regular or temporary

basis .7

(5) APPLICATION FOR AND DECISION 0N NONMINING SPECIAL EXCEPTIONS

(a)

The board shall require an application for a nonmining Special
exception permit. Such application shall contain such information,
consistent with the terms of this ordinance, as may be necessary
to enable the board to determine the effect of the nonmining

special exception on mineral extraction.

(b)

The board shall review the application for completeness, accuracy,

and consistency in meeting the standards of this section contained

in part 4—a-l which relate to nonstructural conservancy uses and

part 4-a-2 which relate to nonmining special exception standards.

Notice shall be given and a public hearing shall be held

consistent with the terms of this ordinance.

(c) The board shall approve, approve conditionally, or deny the

(d)

application for a nonmining special exception permit, consistent

with the terms of this ordinance.

The board may cause the following conditions to be attached in

writing to the nonmining special exception permit:

(1)

(2)

(3)

Conditions as to the nature of structural improvements
(including paving) designed to facilitate the removal of the
improvements at minimum cost in the event the structures-
must later be eliminated to allow a change of use to mining.
The condition that the applicant has registered a notice with
the County Register of Deeds and filed the
notice in such a manner as to be accessible to all persons
researching the property title to that parcel stating that
the parcel has valuable mineral deposits which may require
extraction and that if the extraction occurs, such extraction
may cause interference with the use and enjoyment of the
prOperty. Proof of such notice shall be required of the
applicant.

Such other conditions as the board may find necessary to
fulfill the purposes of nonmining special exceptions in mineral

reservation districts.
I

(1)

(e) A violation of any conditions attached to the nonmining special
exception permit shall be considered a violation of this ordinance,
and subject to the penalty provisions listed in this ordinance.

(f) Any conditions attached to the nonmining special exception permit
shall continue to apply to heirs, assigns, transferees, or

successors in interest to the application for such permit.

Section 4
Special Exceptions Relating to Mineral Deposits .
In order to assure that mineral deposits are protected from noncompatible
adjacent land uses and that mineral extraction operations are properly
controlled, while at the same time assuring the maximum amount of
flexibility in dealing with mineral deposits whose location is not
precisely described, the following amendments are made to the text of

the agricultural, forestry, or conservancy 8 district of

we

 

County:

(a) Mineral extraction shall be a special exception in such district
and persons wishing to establish such use shall apply for a mining
special exception permit on a regular or temporary basis.9

(b) In such districts, the board shall inquire as to the existence of

mineral deposits on or near all sites on which other special

exception permits are requested.

Section 5
Application for a Regular and Temporary

Mining Special Exception Permit

The application for a regular mining special exception permit shall
be accompanied by information which shall include the following;

(1) The names and addresses Of the applicant, Operator, and principal
officers, and resident agent Of the business if other than a single
prOprietor. *

(2) A legal description and map and/or aerial photograph of the tract
or tracts Of land to be involved and affected by the prOposed
operation, which may be supplied by the board.

(3) The map and/or aerial photograph and accompanying materials shall
indicate:

(a) Boundaries of the affected and adjacent lands;

(b) Surface drainage Of the affected land;

(e) Location and names of all streams, roads, railroads, utility
lines, and pipelines on or immediately adjacent to the area;

(d) Location of all structures within one thousand feet of the outer
perimeter of the area, present owners and occupants of such
structures, and purposes for which each structure is used;

(e) Names of the owners Of the affected and adjacent lands;

(f) Proposed location, areal extent, and depth of intended mine
excavation;

(g) PrOposed location of the mine, waste dumps, tailing ponds,
sediment basins, stockpiles, structures, roads, railroad lines,
utilities or other permanent or temporary facilities used in

mining as defined in Section 2;

(4)
(5)

(6)
(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(h) Estimated depth to groundwater.

A description of the mining and processing equipment to be used;
A description of measures to be taken to control noise and
vibrations from the operation;

A description Of the anticipated hours of Operation;

A description of measures to be taken to screen the Operation

from view;_

PrOposed primary travel routes to be used to transport the mined

material to processing plants or markets away from the prOperty;

A description of the plans for tOpsoil storage; .

A reclamation plan which shall include:

(a) A map or plan and description of the prOposed reclamation
including grading, final lepe angles, highwall reduction,
benching and terracing of lepes, lepe stabilization and
revegetation where applicable, and erosion control, and
alternative future land uses;

(b) Description of tOpsoil stripping and conservation during
storage and replacement;

(c) Plan and description of anticipated final tOpography, water
impoundments, and artificial lakes on the prOperty;

(d) Description of plans for disposition of surface structures,
roads, and related facilities after cessation of mining;

(e) A plan for diSposal or treatment of any harmful or toxic
materials found in any formations penetrated by the mining
Operation or produced during the processing of minerals on
the affected land, and of chemicals or materials used during
the mining or processing Operations;

(f) The estimated cost of reclamation for the total project;

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

A statement in writing and adequate evidence to indicate the duration

of the lease in years;

A timetable of the commencement, duration, and cessation of mining
Operations;

Any and all mining permits held by the applicant within the state;
Such other information as may be necessary to determine the nature of
the Operation and the effect of the surrounding area, including the
mining reclamation plan;

The signature of the applicant and date of signature;

The application shall be accompanied by a fee of for each

 

acre of surface area to be disturbed, but the total fee shall not be
less than $35.00.

The application for a temporary mining special exception permit shall

be accompanied by information which shall include the following:

(1)

(2)
(3)

(4)

(5)
(6)

The names and addresses of the applicant, operator, and principal
Officers and resident agent of the business if other than a single
proprietor.

A legal description of the land involved.

As may be required by the board, a map and/or aerial photograph of the
land with any of all of the information as listed in I-3-a,b,c,d,e,f,g,
of this section, relating to requirements for maps and/or aerial photo-
graphs for regular mining special exception permits.

As may be required by the board, any or all of the information listed
in part I-4,5,6,7,8,9,lo,ll,12,13 of this section, relating to require-
ments for information for regular mining special exception permits.

The signature of the applicant and date of signature.

The application shall be accompanied by a fee of for each acre of

surface area to be disturbed, but the total fee shall not be less than

III. The board may vote to waive or modify any requirements for information
requested under the terms Of this Section.

IV. Unless the board votes to waive or modify any requirements of this
Section, the application shall not be accepted or deemed to be accepted
unless all the information required by this section is supplied by the
applicant. In the case of an incomplete application, the review and
decision on the application shall not commence and no regular or temporary

mining special exception shall be issued. A

Section 6
Review and Decision on the Application for a Regular
and Temporary Mining Special Exception Permit

A special exception permit for mineral extraction shall be approved by

the board of adjustment if found to comply with the following requirements:
(1) Upon receipt of the application and supporting information, the board
shall:

(a) Review the application for completeness and accuracy. To ”
accomplish this purpose or to assist in the enforcement of the
ordinance, the board may request assistance from other govern-
mental agencies or any educational institution.

(b) For a regular mining special exception permit application, hold -
a public hearing within 30 days at such time and place as
established by the board with notice Of the hearing published as
a Class 2 notice under Chapter 985 of the Wisconsin Statutes.
Notice of the time, place, and purpose of such public hearing
shall also be sent to the applicant, the county clerk, and the
town board members of the affected town. If the prOposed special
exception is within one-fourth mile of any other jurisdiction,
the clerk of that governmental unit shall also be notified. All
owners Of land, as determined by owners of record in the current
tax description records, within 300 feet of the prOposed site
shall also be notified.

(c) The public hearing may be recessed for a reasonable amount of time,
as determined by the board, if the board feels that additional
information or study is needed. The hearing shall be conducted

and a record of the proceedings shall be made according to

 

(2)

(d)

procedures as the board shall prescribe.
For a temporary special exception permit application, the board

may require a public hearing as described under.(b) and (c).

The board shall approve an application for a regular mining special

exception permit when the application, in addition to all other

requirements, meets the following standards listed below:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(s)

(h)

That the establishment, maintenance, or Operation of the special

exception shall not endanger the public health, safety, or general

I

welfare;

That the establishment, maintenance, or Operation Of the special
exception will not substantially affect the existing use of
adjacent property, and will not have a substantially adverse
effect on the long-term future use of the adjacent prOperty;

That adequate utilities, access roads, drainage, traffic plans,
and other site improvements have been, are, or will be provided;
That the special exception shall conform to all governmental)
regulations pertaining to the activity itself;

That the mining Operation shall conform to applicable air and
water quality standards;

That the noise, vibration, and dust levels at the property lines
be within the levels determined by the board;

That an undeveIOped buffer zone, commencing not less than 20 feet
from the prOperty line of the mining site or such other distance
as the board finds necessary for the protection and safety of
adjacent prOperty from mining, with a stable angle of lepe repose

shall be provided along property lines;

Where deemed practicable and necessary by the board, an earth

bank or vegetative screen shall be erected and/or maintained to

 

(3)

(i)

(J)

(1:)

screen the mining Operation from view from any residential

district located within one-half mile of the Operation;

Where deemed necessary by the board, each mining Operation shall be
enclosed by at least a single-strang barbed-wire fence, maintained
at all times, with warning signs spaced no more than 200 feet

apart to indicate the presence of a mining area.

That an application shall not be of a speculative nature, nor

shall the mining cause harm to adjacent prOperty; ’

Such other standards that will permit the board to evaluate and

decide on a regular mining special exception permit.

The board shall grant, grant with conditions attached, or deny the

application for a regular mining special exception permit within a

reasonable time after the public hearing. Prior to granting, granting

with conditions attached, or denying the regular mining special

exception, the board shall make findings Of fact based upon the evidence

presented that the standards Of this ordinance will or will not be met.

(80

Upon approval of the application, the board shall notify the
applicant in writing of the decision and where applicable establish
the amount Of bond necessary to assure reclamation of the affected
land according to the reclamation plan. Upon receipt of the
established bond from the applicant, the board shall issue a
regular special exception mining permit for an initial term of

not more than five years. The applicant shall commence significant
development of mining Operations within two years of the date of
issuance of such permit. At the written request of the board the
applicant shall submit proof in writing of the significant

development of mining operations. A violation of the terms of

the regular mining special exception permit may result in a
forfeiture, a fine, or suit by the county according to the terms
of this ordinance.

(b) The board may approve the regular mining special exception permit
with conditions attached to the permit in writing. Such condi-
tions may cover such subjects as control Of Operations, bonding
and surety mechanisms, periods of Operation, access, and any
other standard or requirement listed under the terms Of’this
ordinance. A violation of the conditions attached to this permit
shall be a violation of this ordinance and shall be subject to
the penalty provisions contained in this ordinance. Any
conditions attached to the regular mining special exception
permit shall continue to apply to heirs, assigns, transferees,
or successors in interest to the application for such permit.

(c) Upon disapproval Of the application, the board shall notify the
applicant in writing stating the reasons for disapproval as well
as the necessary action, if any, that the applicant may take to
complete the application in an acceptable form. No application
which has been denied, in whole or in part, may be resubmitted for
six months from the date of denial, except for new evidence,
change of conditions, or such other reason as the board may accept.

(4) The board may approve an application for a temporary mining special
exception permit for a term not to exceed six months.

(a) The board may subject the granting of the temporary mining special
permit to any or all of the standards listed in part 2 of this

section, relating to the standards for a decision on a regular

mining special exception permit.

(b)

The board shall grant, grant with conditions attached, or deny

the application for the temporary mining special exception permit

within a reasonable time after any public hearing the board may

hold.

Prior to granting, granting with conditions attached, or

denying the temporary mining'special exception, the board shall

make findings of fact based upon the evidence presented that the

standards will or will not be met.

(1) Upon approval of the application, the board shall notify’the

(2)

applicant in writing of the decision and where applicable
establish the amount of bond necessary to assure reclama-
tion of the affected land according to any reclamation plan.
Upon receipt of the established bond from the applicant, the‘
board shall issue a temporary mining special exception
permit. A violation of the terms Of the temporary mining
special exception permit may result in a forfeiture, a fine,
or suit by the county according to the terms of this ordinance.
The board may approve the temporary mining special exception
permit with conditions attached to the permit in writing.
Such conditions may cover such subjects as control of
Operations, bonding and surety mechanisms, periods of opera-
tion, access, and any other standard or requirement listed
under the terms of this ordinance. A violation of the
conditions attached to this permit shall be a violation of
this ordinance and shall be subject to the penalty provisions
contained in this ordinance. Any conditions attached to the
temporary mining Special exception permit shall continue to

apply to heirs, assigns, transferees, or successors in

 

(e)

interest to the application for such permit.

(3) Upon disapproval Of the application, the board shall notify
the applicant in writing stating the reasons for disapproval
as well as the necessary action, if any, that the applicant
may take to complete the application in an acceptable form.
No application which has been denied, in whole or in part,
may be resubmitted for six months from the date of denial,
except for new evidence, change of conditions, or such other
reason as the board may accept. '

The board may extend the effectiveness of a temporary mining

permit for an additional six-month period upon request of the

Operator, subject to the provisions of public notice and hearing

contained in part l-b,c of this section, relating to publication

requirements.

(l)

(2)

(3)

Section 7

Bonding and Other Security Mechanisms10

Prior to the issuance of a mining special exception permit, the operator,
if required by the board, shall deposit with the board a bond
conditioned on faithful performance of all the requirements Of this
ordinance and all the rules of the board. The bond shall be in an
amount and of a kind to be determined by the board. In lieu of a

bond, the Operator may deposit cash, government securities, or land

of equivalent value with the board. I

The board shall establish the length of the bonding period, which may
be less than the permit period, and the amount of the bond necessary to
cover the cost Of the reclamation of all areas disturbed by the mineral
extraction Operation during the bonding period, less that amount of
bond that the Operator has deposited with the apprOpriate governmental
agency as security for the particular mining Operation.

Any operator who obtains a mining permit from the board for two or

more project sites within this jurisdiction may elect, at the time the
second or any subsequent site is approved, to post a single bond in
lieu Of separate bonds on each site. Any single bond so posted shall.

be in an amount equal to the estimated cost of reclaiming all sites

 

the Operator has under each of his mining permits issued in
County less that amount deposited fOr the particular sites with the
appropriate governmental agencies. When an operator elects to post

a single bond in lieu of separate bonds previously posted on individual
sites, the separate bonds shall not be released until the new bond

has been accepted by the board of adjustment.

(4)

(5)

At the termination of each bonding period, the board of adjustment shall

review the bond amount on mining and reclamation progress and shall

either maintain the existing bond, return all or a portion of the

existing bond, or request the Operator to increase the amount of the

bond.

The Operator may file with the board a request for release of bond at

such time as the Operator feels that all reclamation has been

satisfactorily completed or is in progress in accordance with the!

approved reclamation plan on any or all of the affected lands. Such

request for release of bond shall include the name and address of the

Operator, the permit number, a legal description Of the area, and a

final reclamation report on the area for which the release of bond is.

requested. The final reclamation report shall contain the following

information:

(a)

(b)

(e)

Name and address Of the Operator, permit number, and legal
description of the land;

A map and/Or aerial photograph which may be supplied by the board,
on which the Operator shall indicate the final contours, sIOpe
angles of the affected land, surface water drainage and ponds, and
the locations of any remaining structures and roads;

A description of reclamation activities leading to completion of
the approved reclamation requirements including: tOpsoil
disposition and thickness, revegetation practices, disposition

of waste dumps, tailing ponds, and surface structures, haulage
and access roads, sediment control practices, and maximum depth

of artificial lakes or ponds;

(6)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Operators of all underground mineral extraction Operations shall
also submit a complete plan Of all entries, workings, and levels
as well as a description of the leping and ground support
methods at the cessation of Operations;

For underground mining Operations, a description of the stability
Of lands overlaying the underground workings and a description of
methods to be used for sealing all shafts, adits, inclines, and
other mine entries; ’
Such other pertinent information and maps as may be required to

evaluate the completion of reclamation and the advisability of

returning the operator's bond.

Final release Of the bond shall not occur until the Operator files a

final reclamation plan under the terms Of this ordinance.

Upon receipt of a request for release of the bond, the board shall:

(a)
(b)

(c)

Inspect the designated lands;

Publish, following a class 2 notice under Chapter 985 of the
Wisconsin Statutes, notice that the release of bond application
is pending and specify a 30-day period for filing of complaints
with the board against the release of bond;

Publish, following a class 2 notice under Chapter 985 of the
Wisconsin Statutes, notice of a public hearing at such time and
place as the board determines to consider the request for release
Of bond and make a determination on the validity of complaints.
The notice required in part 6(b) of this section and this sub-
section may be published at the same time, but in all cases the
public hearing shall be held at least 30 days after the notice

required in part 6(b) of this section;

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(d) If the reclamation is found to be satisfactory and all valid
complaints have been satisfied, the board shall release the
appropriate amount of bond 30 days after the public hearing.

(e) If the reclamation is found to be unsatisfactory, so notify'the
Operator by registered mail setting forth the reasons for denial
Of release of bond and the corrective action necessary for
release of bond.

Nothing in this section shall be construed to infringe upon the beard's

authority to take apprOpriate action on bonds, including forfeiture

Of all or part of the bond for cause. Forfeiture shall not be approved

by the board unless there has been publication of notice and a public

hearing held consistent with the terms Of this ordinance. -

The mining operator shall maintain a public liability insurance policy

issued by an insurance company authorized to do business in the state

of Wisconsin which affords personal injury and property damage
protection for any individual and for adjacent property for the term
of the permit or permit renewal. The total amount of the insurance

shall be determined by the board, but shall he not less than 50,000

dollars.

Each Operator shall notify the board of cessation of all mining

activity at the project site no later than 60 days before Operations

are to cease. Such notice shall indicate the operator's name, address,
and permit number.

The requirements of this section shall apply to the successor in

interest to the Operator upon the sale or transfer of assets of the

mining Operation.

(1)

(2)

(3)

Section 8

Existing Mining Operations and Expansion
of Mining Activities

Any Operator producing mineral materials from a mining Operation at the

date of enactment of this ordinance shall not need a regular or

temporary mining special exception permit to continue mining.

Upon the enactment of this ordinance, the board shall, by resolution,

define the criteria for expansion of mining Operations so that the

applicant knows what an expansion of mining Operations constitutes

at the time the application for a mining permit is filed for a new

mine.

Any Operator who holds any mining permit issued under the terms of

this ordinance or who Operates a pre-existing mine under part 1 of

this section shall apply for a regular or temporary mining special

exception permit if:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
(e)

(f)

(z)

the amount of mineral materials produced on an annual basis
increases substantially; 2E

the amount of waste materials produced on an annual basis in the
mineral extraction process increases substantially; 25

the mining and processing equipment used in the Operation changes
substantially; 25 '

the normal hours of Operation increase substantially; 2:

the amount of noise, vibration, and dust from the Operation
increases substantially; 25

the extent of the area of the mining Operation increases beyond
the limits of land designated or held for that purpose at the
time of adOption of this ordinance; or

any other substantial increase in the mining or method Of Operations

at the mining site, as determined by the formal decision of the

board.

(4) The board, when considering the application for a regular or temporary
mining special exception permit, as required by this section, shall

consider the effect of the total mining Operation, including reclama-

Section 9
Change, Renewal, and Transfer of Mining
Special Exception Permits
(1) An Operator holding a mining special exception permit may at any time
apply to the board for amendment, cancellation, renewal, transfer, or'
change in a regular or temporary mining special exception permit or
reclamation plan, provided that:

(a) This section shall not include an expansion of a mining Operation
which is subject to another section of this ordinance.

(b) This section shall not include a removal of mined land from the
areal extent of the approved permit, which is subject to another
section of this ordinance.

(c) This section shall not include a release Of a bond or other
security mechanism, which is subject to another section of this
ordinance.

(d) This section shall not include the renewal of a temporary mining
special exception permit, which is subject to another section of
this ordinance.

-(2) The application for the amendment, cancellation, or change shall be

submitted to the board which shall approve, approve conditionally, or

deny the application subject to the following standards:

(a) The Operator shall identify the tract Of land and shall supply
the permit number Of the project to be removed from the project
site or to be affected by any change in the mining Operation or
reclamation plan;

(b) If the application is to change a permit for a tract of land which
has had no mining Operations conducted upon it, the board shall
ascertain by inspection that no mining has occurred. After so
finding, the board shall order the release of any bond or security
instrument and shall amend the mining special exception permit
to reflect the removal Of the unmined land from the project site;

(c) Such other standards consistent with the terms of this ordinance
which provide for proper amendment, cancellation, and change to

the permit.

(3) A regular mining special exception permit shall be renewed at the end

(4)

Of the permit term for successive five—year terms after public hearing
and notice so long as the Operator continues to produce mineral
materials from the prOperty, conforms to the approved reclamation plan,
and conforms to the provision of this ordinance and is within the
timetable of Operations as established by Section 5-1-12 of this ordinance .
NO Operator shall assign, sell, lease, or transfer in any manner any
rights granted under a regular or temporary mining special exception
permit until the succeeding Operator has complied with all the require-
ments Of this ordinance, including all requirements of the reclamation
plan and the filing of a bond of like amount with the board. Upon
compliance with the requirements of this ordinance, the board shall
release the first Operator from the requirements of this ordinance,

including any bond, and transfer the permit to the successor Operator.

(5)

(1)

(2)

(1)

(2)

Any application granted with conditions attached under the terms of
this section shall have the conditions attached in writing to the
document of approval. Such conditions may cover any standard or
requirement listed in this ordinance. A violation of the conditions
shall constitute a violation of this ordinance, subject to penalties

listed in this ordinance.

Section 10

Inspections

Upon issuance of a regular or temporary mining special exception
permit, the board or its approved agents may inspect the project site
to determine compliance with the requiments of this ordinance.
Inspections may also include the required records of a mining Operation.
Such inspection shall be at reasonable times with notice provided to

the Operator.

Section 11

Penalties

Whenever the board finds a violation of this ordinance at a mining

Operation within County, including unapproved

 

deviation from the reclamation plan, it shall be recorded and the
board shall send the Operator by registered mail an order specifying
the nature Of the violation, time of violation, and corrective steps
necessary to achieve compliance with this ordinance.

The board shall cancel the mining special exception permit held by a
mining Operator who fails to comply with the order within 30 days after

the order is served unless the Operator named therein, withinin

(3)

(4)

(1)

(2)

(3)

10 days after notice, requests in writing a hearing before the board.
Failure to show just cause for the continued violation and lack of
compliance with the order shall result in permit cancellation and
immediate cessation of all mining activities on the affected property.
Any person, firm, corporation, cOOperative, Operator, or any other
group of persons convicted in a court of law of engaging in a mining
Operation without a valid permit from this jurisdiction shall be

required to forfeit not less than nor more than A

 

per day for each and every day the operation is found to be in
violation of this ordinance.
Compliance with the terms of this ordinance may also be enforced by

injunctional order at the suit of the county.

Section 12

Suitability for Subdivision

Whenever an application for a subdivision, as defined by

 

of the ordinance of County, is made in the

 

Mineral Reservation District to the , the

 

shall inquire as to the location of mineral deposits on or
near the prOposed site of the subdivision.
For the purposes of protecting lands with known mineral deposits which
are potentially valuable for extraction of mineral deposits, the

may disapprove the site of the prOposed subdivision

 

on the grounds Of unsuitability of the lands for subdivision under

Chapter 236.45(l) of the Wisconsin Statutes. -

The in applying the provisions of this section shall

 

make findings of fact after a public hearing upon which it bases the
conclusion that such subdivision site is not suitable for that

subdivision.

10.

NOTES

266 Wis. 475, 63 N.W. 2d 697 (1954).

272 Wis. l, 74 N.W. 2d 70 (1956). For a listing of cases from other
jurisdictions, see "Prohibiting or Regulating Removal or Exploitation
of Oil and Gas, Minerals, $011 or Other Natural Products within

Municipal Limits," 10 ALR 3d 1226.

Throughout this ordinance, the planning and zoning committee of the
county board Of supervisors may be substituted for the board Of
adjustment. In Wisconsin, at the county level, the appeals board is
known as the board of adjustment. In most other jurisdictions
this unit will be known as the board of appeals.

I

Throughout this ordinance, a conditional use may be substituted for
the Special exception.

These uses are taken from the model shoreland protection ordinance
of the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (1967). For
additional permitted uses, including those related to water-centered
activities, consult that document.

It is the intent of this ordinance that structural uses in the
Mineral Reservation District be those conditional uses or special
exceptions allowed in adjacent districts, with additional requirements
designed to assure compatibility with mineral extraction. If there
is more than one district adjacent to the prOposed Mineral
Reservation District, one should be selected to provide the basis
for structural uses in the Mineral Reservation District.

The process for decision and review on mining Special exception
permits begins later in the ordinance.

These districts are only suggested. Another example might be Open
Space. If the county does not wish to identify specific districts

with this additional Special exception language, the county might

use words Similar to "districts in which nonstructural conservancy
uses are permitted uses" or "districts in which commercial develOpments
are subject to special exceptions." The purpose behind naming these
districts is to allow only nonintensive develOpment in areas of

known mineral deposits.

See note 7.

This ordinance does not speak to other issues of bonding, such as
apportionment of the amount between several jurisdictions if the
Operator defaults, or performance standard bonding. These issues
would have to be decided upon at the time the bond was required.

50URCEI MODEL MINERAL. seesaw/ram AND
MIME zoNtNe éKDlHANcE-

J. Pass-rm , Ears/knee AH D T. Fm; -

glossary

Accelerated erosion — The increased removal of
the land surface that occurs as a result of man's
activities.

Annual plant — A plant that completes its life
cycle and dies in one year or less.

Available water-holding capacity (soils) — The
capacity to store water available for use by plants.
usually expressed in linear depths of water per
unit depth of soil. Commonly defined as the dif-
ference between the percentage of soil water at
field capacity and the percentage at wilting point.
This difference multiplied by the bulk density and
divided by 100 gives a value in surface inches Of
water per inch depth of soil

Berrn — A raised and elongated area of earth
intended to direct the flow of water. screen head-
light glare, or redirect out-of-control vehicles.

Borrow pit — The excavation resulting from the
extraction of borrow.

Broadcast seeding — Scattering seed on the sur-
face of the soil. Contrast with drill seeding. which
places the seed in rows in the soil.

Brush matting — (1) A matting of branches
placed on badly eroded land to conserve mois-
ture and reduce erosion while trees or other veg-
etative cover are being established. (2) A matting
of mesh wire and brush used to retard stream-
bank erosion.

Channel — A natural stream that conveys water; a
ditch or channel excavated for the flow of water.

Channel stabilization — Erosion prevention and
stabilization of velocity distribution in a channel
using jetties. drops. revetments. vegetation, and
other measures.

Check dam —- A small dam constructed in a gully
or other small watercourse to decrease the
stream flow velocity, minimize channel scour.
-and promote deposition of sediment.

Chute — A high-velocity. open channel for con-
veying water to a lower level without erosion.

Sousa—L: MlCHlbrAkI 60”..
Emiom AMD 6€DlMEM -
TA‘l'ch
BOOK. ) AND EKObl 0N
wN‘mOL. 0H HIeHWAY
CokisTEitc/‘Tlvk‘ .

CONTROL. (yulDE -

GLOSSARY

Clay (soils) -— (1) A mineral soil separate consist-
ing of particles less than 0.002 mm in equivalent
diameter. (2) A soil textural class. (3) (Engineer-
ing) A fine-grained soil that has a high plasticity
index in relation to the liquid limits.

Contour — The shape of a land surface as ex-
pressed by contour lines.

Contour ditch — A ditch laid out approximately
on the contour.

Contour grading plan — A drawing showing an
arrangement of contours intended to ’integrate
construction and topography. improve appear-
ance. retard erosion. and improve drainage.

Contour line — (1) An imaginary line on the sur-
face of the earth connecting points of the same
elevation. (2) A line drawn on a map connecting
points of the same elevation.

Cut and fill - A process of earth moving by ex-
cavating part of an area and using the excavated
material for adjacent embankments or fill areas.

Debris guard — A screen or grate at the intake of
a channel. drainage. or pump structure for the
purpose of stopping debris.

DepoSition — The accumulation of material
dropped because of a slackening movement of
the transporting agent (water or wind).

Desllting area — An area of grass. shrubs. or
other vegetation used for inducing deposition of
silt and other debris from flowing water. located
above a stock tank, pond. field. or other area
needing protection from sediment accumulation.

Detention dam — A dam constructed for the pu r-
pose of temporary storage of stream flow or sur-
face runoff and for releasing the stored water at
controlled rates.

Dike — A berm of earth or other material con-
structed to confine or control surface water in an
established drainage system.

Diversion - A channel constructed across the
slope for the purpose of intercepting surface
runoff; changing the accustomed course of all or
part of a stream. (See Terrace)

Drainage -- (1) The removal of excess surface
water or ground water from land by means Of
surface of subsurface drains. (2) Soil characteris-
tics that affect natural drainage.

Drop inlet spillway — An overfall structure in
which the water drops through a vertical riser
connected to a discharge conduit.

Earth change — A man-made change in the
natural cover or topography of land. including cut
and fill activities. which may result in or contri-
bute to soil erosion or sedimentation of the wa-

ters of the State. Earth change, as used in this

guidebook, shall not apply to the practice of plow-
ing and tilling soil for the purpose of crop produc-
tion.

Easement (construction, drainage, planting,
slope) — A right to use or control the property of
another for designated highway purposes.

Construction easement — An easement to
permit the full development of the construc-
tion prism.

Drainage easement -— An easement for the
directing the flow of water.

Planting easement — An easement for re-
shaping roadside areas and establishing.
maintaining. and controlling plant growth
thereon.

Slope easement — An easement for cuts or
fills.

Emergency spillway — A spillway used to carry
runoff exceeding a given design flood.

Engineer (resident, design, project) -— A person
trained in the science and profession of engi-
neering.

Erodlble (geology and soils) -— Susceptible to
erosion.

Erosion — The wearing away of land by the action
of wind, water, gravity, or a combination thereof.

EIroslve —- Refers to wind or water having suffi-
cnent velocity to cause erosion. Not to be con-
fused with erodible as a quality of soil.

Grade — (1) The slope of a road. channel. or
natural ground. (2) The finished surface of a canal
bed. roadbed, top of embankment, or bottom of
excavation; any surface prepared for the support
of construction. like paving or laying a conduit.
(3) To finish the surface of a canal bed, roadbed,
top of embankment. or bottom of excavation.

Graded stream — A stream in which, over a
period of years. the slope is delicately adjusted to
provide, with available discharge and with pre-
vailing channel characteristics. just the velocity.
required for transportation of the load (of sedi-
ment) supplied from the drainage basin. The
graded profile is a slope of transportation. It is a
phenomenon in which the element of time has a
restricted connotation.

Gradient — The rate of regular or graded ascent
or descent.

Grassed waterway — A natural or constructec
waterway, usually broad and shallow. coverec’
with erosion-resistant grasses, used to conduct
surface water from a site.

Gravel — A mass of pebbles.

Gravel envelope — Selected aggregate placed
around the screened-pipe section of well casing
or a subsurface drain to facilitate the entry of
water into the well or drain.

Gravel filter— Graded sand and gravel aggregate
placed around a drain or well screen to prevent
the movement of fine materials from the aquifer
into the drain or well.

Ground cover —- Herbaceous vegetation and
low-growing woody plants that form an earth
cover.

Ground water — Subsurface water in the zone of
saturation.

Growing season — The time during which a plant
is periodically producing growth. This period wili
vary depending on the climate and is usually
specified in the contract. It reflects climatic con-
ditions and normal growth periods for the area in
which the work is to be accomplished.

Grubbing — The process of removing roots.
stumps, and low-growing vegetation.

Hardpan — A hardened soil layer in the lower A or
in the B horizon caused by cementation of soi:
particles with organic matter or with materials
such as silica, sesquioxides. or calcium carbon-
ate. The hardness does not change appreciably
with changes in moisture content, and pieces or
the hard layer do not slake in water.

Haul road — a temporary road. generally unim-
proved, used to transport material to and from
highway construction, borrow areas, and waste
areas.

Heavlng — The partial lifting of plants out of the
ground, frequently breaking their roots. as a re-
sult of freezing and thawing of the surface soil
during the winter.

lmpoundment— Generally, an artifical collection
or storage of water. as a reservoir. pit, dugout,
sump, etc. (See Reservoir)

infiltration — The flow of a liquid into a substance
through pores or other openings. connoting flow
into a soil in contradistinction to "percolation."
which connotes flow through a porous sub-
stance.

lnlet (hydraulics) — (1 ) A surface connection to a
closed drain. (2) A structure at the diversion end
of a conduit. (3) The upstream and of any struc-
ture through which water may flow.

interception channel — A channel excavated at
the top of earth cuts, at the foot of slopes. or at
other critical places to intercept surface flow.
Syn., interception 'ditch.

interceptor drain -— A surface or subsurface
drain, or a combination of both, designed and
installed to intercept flowing water.

invert — The lowest part of the internal cross
section of a lined channel or conduit.

Landscape architect — A person trained in the
art and science of arranging land and objects
upon it for human use and enjoyment.

Landslide -— The failure of a slope in which the
movement of the soil mass takes place along an
interior surface or sliding.

Lining (hydraulics) — A protective covering over
all or part of the perimeter of a reservoir or a
conduit to prevent seepage losses, withstand
pressure, resist erosion, and reduce friction or
otherwise improve conditions of flow.

Mulch — A natural or artifical layer of material
placed on exposed earth to provide more desir-
able moisture and temperature relationships for
plant growth. It is also used to control the occur-
rence of unwanted vegetation.

Outfali — The point where water flows from a
conduit. stream, or drain.

Overfali — An abrupt change in stream channel
elevation; the part of a dam or weir over which the
water flows.

Peat — An accumulation of partially decomposed
and compressed plant debris in bogs and marshes.

Percolation, soil water — The downward move-
ment of water through soil, especially the down-
ward flow of water in saturated or nearly satu-
rated soil at hydraulic gradients of the order of 1.0
Orless.

Perennial plant — A plant that normally lives for
three or more years.

Permanent erosion control measure — A control
measure that is essential and will be maintained
after project completion.

Permeability — The capacity for transmitting a
fluid. it is measured by the rate at which a fluid of
standard viscosity can move through material in a
given interval of time under a given hydraulic gra-
dient.

Planting season — The period of the year when
planting and/or transplanting is considered
advisable from the standpoint of successful es-
tablishment and good horticultural practices.

Revetment - A facing of stone or other material.
either permanent or temporary. placed along the
edge of a stream to stabilize the bank and protect
it from the erosive action of the stream.

Right-Of-way — A general term denoting land.
property, or interest therein, usually in a strip.
acquired for or devoted to transportation pur-
poses.

Rili erosion -— An erosion process in which
numerous small channels only several inches
deep are formed; occurs mainly on recently culti-
vated soils.

Riprap — Broken rock. cobbles. or boulders
placed on earth surfaces, such as the face of a
dam or the bank of a stream, for protection
against the action of water; also applied to brush
or pole mattresses, or brush and stone, or other
similar materials used for soil erosion control.

Rounding, slope -- The modeling or contouring
of slopes to provide a curvilinear transition be-
tween several planes; e.g., tOps, bottoms, and
ends of cuts and fills.

Runoff (hydraulics) — That portion of the precipi-
tation on a drainage area that is discharged from
the area in stream channels. Types include sur-
face runoff, ground-water runoff. or seepage.

Sand — (1) A soil particle between 0.05 and 2.0
mm in diameter. (2) Any one of five soil separates;
very coarse sand, coarse sand, mediu m sand, fine
sand. and very fine sand. (3) A soil textural class.

Scarify — To abrade, scratch, or modify the sur-
face; for example, to scratch the impervious seed
coat of hard seed. or to break the surface of the
soil with a narrow-bladed implement.

Scour — To abrade and wear away. Used to de-
scribe the wearing away of terrace or diversion
channels or stream banks.

Sediment — Solid particulate matter, mineral or
organic, that has been deposited in water, is in
suspension in water, is being transported, or
has been removed from its site of origin by the
processes of soil erosion.

Sedimentation — The action or process of de—
positing particles of waterborne or windborne
soil, rock, or other materials.

Seedbed — The soil prepared by natural or artifi-
cial means to promote the germination of seed
and the growth of seedlings.

Seepage—(i) Water escaping through or emerg-
ing from the ground along an extensive line or
surface as contrasted with a spring where the
water emerges from a localized spot. (2) The
process by which water percolates through the
soil. (3) (Percolation) The slow movement of grav-
itational water through the soil.

Settling basin — An enlargement in the channel
of a stream to permit the settling of debris carried
in suspension.

Sheet erosion - The removal of a fairly uniform
layer of soil from the land surface by runoff water.

Sheet flow — Water, usually storm runoff, flowing
in a thin layer over the ground surface. Syn., over—
land flow.

Side slope (engineering) — The slope of the
sides of a canal, dam, or embankment. it is cus-
tomary to name the horizontal distance first, as
1.5 : 1, or, frequently. 11/2 : 1, meaning a horizon-
tal distance of 1.5 feet to 1 foot vertical.

Silt — (1) A soil separate consisting of particles
between 0.05 and 0.002 mm in equivalent diame-
ter. (2) A soil textural class.

Slope— The degree of deviation of a surface from
the horizontal. usually expressed in percentages
-or degrees.

Slope characteristics — Slopes may be charac-
terized as concave (decrease in steepness in
lower portion), uniform, or convex (increase in

steepness at base). Erosion is strongly affected by
shape, ranked in order of increasing erodibility
from concave to uniform to convex.

Slope drains — Permanent or temporary devices
that are used to carry water down cut or embank-
ment slopes.

Sod - A closely knit ground cover growth,
primarily of grasses.

Soil — The loose surface material of the earth in
which plants grow.

Soil organic matter —- The organic fraction of the
soil that includes plant and animal residues at
various stages of decomposition. cells and tis-
sues of soil organisms. and substances synthe-
sized by the soil population. Commonly deter-
mined as the amount of organic material con-
tained in a soil sample passed through a 2 mm
sieve.

Soil survey — A general term for the systematic
examination of soils in the field and in labora-
tories; their description and classification; the
mapping of kinds of soil; the interpretation of
soils according to their adaptability for various
crops, grasses, and trees; their behavior under
use or treatment for plant production or for other
purposes. ~

Spoiibank (waste) -— A pile of soil, subsoil, rock.
or other material excavated from a drainage
ditch, pond, or other cut.

Sprigging -— The planting of a portion of the stem
and root of grass.

Stabilized grade — The slope of a channel at
which neithererosion nor deposition occurs.

Stilling basin — An open structure or excavation
at the foot of an overfall. chute. drop, or spillway
to reduce the energy of the descending stream.

Subsoii — The stratum of material beneath the
surface soil: 2

Surface soil '— The uppermost part of the soil.
ordinarily moved in tillage, or its equivalent in
uncultivated soils, ranging in depth from about 5
to 8 inches. Frequently designated as the plow
layer, the Ap layer, or the Ap horizon.

Temporary erosion control measures — Those
control measures which are essential and will
have served their purpose until permanent ero-
sion control is effected.

Terrace — An embankment or combination of an
embankment and channel constructed across a
slope to control erosion by diverting or storing
surface runoff instead of permitting it to flow un-
interrupted down the slope. Terraces or terrace
systems may be classified by their alignment,
gradient, outlet, and cross section. Alignment is
parallel or non-parallel. Grade may be level, uni-
formly graded, or variably graded. Gradient is
often incorporated to permit paralleling the ter-
'aces. Outlets may be soil infiltration only, vege-
tated waterways, tile outlets. or combinations of
these. Cross sections may be narrow base. broad
base, bench, steep backsiope, flat channel, or
channeL

Toe — The terminal edge or edges of a structure.

Topography — The configuration of the earth's
surface. including the shape and position of its
natural and man-made features.

Topsoil — The upper layer of soil, containing or-
ganic matter and suited for plant survival and
growth.

Transpiration — The process by which water
vapor is released to the atmosphere by the foliage
or other parts of a living plant.

Watershed area - All land and water within the
confines of a drainage divide or a water problem
area, consisting in whole or in part of land need-
ing drainage or irrigation.

Wind erosion — The detachment and transporta-
tion of soil by wind.

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