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2/05 a/cficroatoom.mp.15

 

     

COMMUNICATION FOR THE EEAD NEH
Mm

Gregory G. Burke

A Research Paper

Sub? itted to
Michigan State Lni"ersit v
in particl fulfrllment *? tne lequirements
for the de e:ree of

School of Urban glanhing and Lande

""H‘- ‘ ‘Tox L L,J '§7{S. '
by III-IIIIII-I—qqflnfip—-L
'llll-II-l-IIII-fl-ii-m

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction: Communication: An Issue for the
Planning lérOfessionOOOOOOOOOO0.0000000000000000000I 1

Part I Communication: Theory and Concepts......... #
A. Communication Theory and Practice............ a
B. Communication Concepts and Ingredients....... 5
Co The Communication SVStemooo00.000000000000000 8

Part II communication Media..................o.... 18
A. Media and Communication Management........... 18
B. Pied-19‘- 'I‘ypeSOOOOCOOOIOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. 18
C. The Presentation of Technical Data...........-25
Do “Gala Orientation............................ 29
E. Piedia EffeCtineneSSoooooo00000000000000.3000. 31

(30110111810271.0000...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.000......O... 35

FOOtnOtesoooooooooo00.000oooooooo00.000000000000000 37

BibliographIIOOOOI.0...0..OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOO 39

LIST OF FIGURES

1. dodel of Cowmunicetion....................... 6
2. Communication Fission and Needs.............. 11
3. The Manaaerial Control Process............... 12
a. Media and The Management ProceSS............. 19

So Cu1tural and Group orientationoo0009000000000 30

INTRODUCTION

Communication: éfl Issue for the Planning Profession

 

Planning is a means of societal guidance and improvement
of this guidance system will undoubtedly be a critical mission
for the planning profession today. Paramount to the planner's
ability to implement and guide plans, to use his technical com-
petence effectively and to work in tense conflict-charged sit-
uations will depend upon his skill in and understanding of com- ‘
munication. It is reasonable to assume, at least in part. that
the failure of some plans lies chiefly in the planner's lack of
ability to communicate persuasively the virtues and attractions
of their plans to the public and proper authorities. The trouble
is often not with plans themselves, but with lack of knowledge
of appropriate channels for communicating their ideas. Effec-
tive dialogue between the various types of planners and their
clients rarely exists. The problem of implementation by virtue
of communication is a critical one to resolve the dilemma of too
much planning and too little application of plans. Amitai Etzioni
has observed that such planning is likely to be an ineffectual
base for environmental guidance and its products are likely to be
rejected, ignored or radically altered by the political decision
makers or generate considerable resistance and alienation.1

The ability to communicate will become increasingly impor-
tant as the planners' role changes from the imaae projected in
the classical model of technician, analyst and model maker to

more action oriented planning while maintaining those virtues

of the classical model. The planner formed in the image of

the classical model was primarily a technician and analyst and
relatively isolated from the vital forces of change in society.
John Friedman remarks,

He saw the world in symbolic abstractions such as

figures, araphs, charts and maps. Playing com-

plicated games with these symbols, but obeying

the rules of logical and functional relationships,

he could rearrange this world to suit his tastes

and imagination. Occasionally, he would sally

forth on expeditions to obtain data but his con- 7

tacts on the outside world were limited. For

every hour he talked with outside people, he might

spend nine hours talkina to himself and other plan-

ners. The result of this work would be fixed in

reports and more ambitious planning documents, and

his hope was that these would be read and acted

upon by relevant decision makers. His ethics for-

bid him to plead a particular view; he had to lay

out the alternatives, descernable costs and bene-

fits and means by which alternatives might be at-

tained.2
The above quotation is a bit severe and in some cases over ex-
agerated but it does hold some validity. It directly supports
the thesis of this paper, that the planner, in addition to ac-
quirina technical and analytical sophistication, must also de-
velop those communicative abilities which will permit him to put
his technical competence to effective use.

With the issue established in the prededing paragraphs, an
approach was established that would rive the planner both an un-
derstanding of the ingredients of communication and the consid-
eration of communication media as one part of this process. It
would be ambiguous not to develop the media theme in consider-
ation of the larder context of communication. Consequently,

this paper is divided into two parts, the first discusses the

inaredients of communication and the second part covers the

media of communication.

PART I COMMUNICATION: THEORY AND CONCEPTS

A. Communication Theory and Practice

It can be argued, convincingly, that communication is one
of man's highest attributes since it allows him to manage and
control situations. Today's seeker of the communication skills
finds himself heir to a large body of knowledge. However, al-
most all of the material falls into four groupings: (l) per-
sonal communication; (2) communication media; (3) organiza-
tional communication and (u) communication systems.
1. Personal Communication: This aspect covers the study and
practice of all the oral and written, auditory and visual forms
of personal symbolic interchange. Included are person to group
communication (e.g., face to face discussions, correspondence
between specific people) and intra-aroup communication (e.g..
conferences, meetings, etc.). The essential characteristic is
that it involves specific people communicating with each other.
2. Communication Media: Included in this impersonal means of
symbolic interchange are books, newspapers, radio, television,
displays, mass reports. etc. Communication media then are non-
personal transmitter's of data and information.
3. Organization Communication: This covers the study of the
dynamics of intra-group and inter-aroup symbolic interchange
in organizational units. A growing volume of literatire is em-
erging about organizational communication, ranging alL the way
from studies of small groups to whole societies.

h. Communication Systems: This includes a vast spectrum of com-

munioatina systems, rangina from relatively simple mechanistic

electronic systems to highly complex human systems. Four broad ,
categories can be identified under communication systems; (a) in-
formation theory; (b) cybernetics; (c) automatic data processing
systems; and (d) general systems theory.
B. Communication Concepts and Ingredients

Communications involves an exchange of ideas, facts, or
opinions, by two or more people. Haimann simply defines it as
"The process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood
by others."3 The foregoing implies that communication is a Joint
activity. In an organizational setting. the importance of com-
munication is a three sided affair. Firstly, communications are
important so that action may be effectively initiated. Programs
can easily fail if the required action guidelines are not effec-
tively communicated. Secondly, communications are important to
achieve co-ordination of effort on the part of those who are con-
cerned with the accomplishment of work. Thirdly, communications
are necessary to receive feedback on the performance of action.
It may be said, therefore, that effective communications involve
an "exchange" for purposes of action initiation, co-ordination and
feedback.

The concern with communication has produced many attempts
to develop models of the process. The models differ and none
can be said to be the "right" or "true“ one, some may be more
useful than others, some may correspond more than others depend-
ing on the situation. In Rhetoric, Aristotle said that we have
to look at three communication ingredients; the speaker, the I

speech and the audience. He meant that each of these elements

6

is necessary to communication and that we can study the process
of communication uder three headings of (1) person who speaks;
(2) the speech that he produces and (3) the person who listens.
Most of the current communication models are similar to
Aristotle's though somewhat more complex. One of the most used
contemporary models was developed in 1947 by Claude Shannon and

Warren Weaver (figure 1).“

 

 

L SOURCE
V
TRANSMITTER]
V
SIGNAL
V
RECEIVER
‘7
DESTINATION

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1 Model of Communication

Shannon and Weaver said that the ingredients in communication
include the above elements. By translating the source into the
speaker, the signal into the speech, and thefgééegh into the lis-
tener, we have something akin to Aristotle's model. There are
other.models of the communication process developed by Schramm,5
Westly and I-Iaclean.6 Fearing.7 Johnson,8 Berlo,9 and others but
a comparison will indicate the great similarities among them plus
or minus a few ingredients.

Additional elements for consideration in the communication

process are often referred to as the seven c‘s of communication:

i/

V

/

Credibility: Communication starts with a climate of belief.
This is built by performance on the part of the source. The
performance reflects an earnest desire to serve the receiver.
The receiver must have configence in the sender. He must have
a high regard for the source's Ebnpetence on the subject.
Context: A communications program must be true to the real-
ities of its environment. Mechanical media are only supplemen-
tary to the word and deed that takes place in daily living.’
The context must provide for participation and playback.
Content: The message must have meaning for the receiver. It
must have relevance to him. In general. people select those
items of information which promise them greatest rewards. The
audience determines the content.

Clarity: The message must be put in simple terms. Words must
mean the same thing to the receiver as they do to the sender.

Complex issues must be compressed into themes which have sim-

plicity and clarity.

V
Continuity and Consistency: Communication is an unending pro-

cess. It requires repetition to achieve penetration. Repeti-
tion with variation contributes to both factual and attitude
learning. The story must be consistent.

Channels: Established channels of communication should be used
channels which the receiver uses and respects. Creating new
ones is difficult. Different channels have different effects
and have different connotations during different stages of in-
formation distribution.

Capability of Audience: Communication must take into account

the capability of the audience. Communications are most effec-

tive when they require the least effort on the part of the re-
cipient. This includes factors of availability, habit, reading

ability, and receiver's knowledge."10

C. The Communication System

Critical to the need of understanding communication is
the concept of the "Communication System." It is virtually
the broad spectrum within which communication purposes, com-
munication standards and communication tasks function. It can
be considered as the total pattern of an organization's com-
munication. A review and understanding of this system is in
great need for the professional Institutions. There is no one
model which attempts to illustrate all of the components in this
system for several reasons, the obvious one being that various
organizations have a different set of values and needs and any
system would have to be fashioned to the particular organization
in question. A sequential examination is attempted however of
the various components which hopefully can be used for evaluau
tion as well as the construction of a communication system.
1. Communication System Analysis and Control:

"Step 1. Identification and/or estahlishment of communica-
tion objectives and standards: This includes the consideration
of such question as:

-What communication purposes (overt and covert) should be pur-

-3::%?communication tasks should be accomplished?

-Into what basic communication operations do the communica-

tion tasks fall?

~What standards of proficiency should be required in each task

and operation?

"Step 2. Identification of the existing communication site

uation: Using the criteria in Step 1, a systematic analysis is
made of the communication as it actually exists. This may re-
quire extensive time and intensive effort because it may require
observation and interviews.

"Step 3. Identification of Communication Problems: This step
comes only after proper treatment of Steps 1 and 2. Essentially
the communication problems are the differences found between 1
and 2. Problems, in addition to being identified, must be ran-
ked in terms of importance and type.

"Step h. Overcoming the Communication Problems: Growing dir-
ectly out of Step 3, the solutions here focus on such factors as
making organizational adjustments and revisions, and setting up
programs. -

"Step 5. Establishing Evaluational Procedures: Evaluation
goes back to Step I for standards, applying them to the proced-
ures emerging from Step h.

"Step 6. Establishing a Continuing Communication Program: Here
the focus is on keeping the communication gained, as well as, ef-
fecting continuing improvement, including (1) needed revision of
Steps 3, u, and 5. This step goes back to the beginning so that
the system becomes modifiable and self-correcting."ll

It seems to me that a genuine practical system along the
above lines is one way to the kind of communication which demon-
strably contributes to organizational improvement. With it, ran-
dom, haphazard grinding out of gimmick-centered house organs,
Speeches and memos ceases; the focus becomes a coherent, con-

sistent pattern within which all communication is prOgrammed to

10

accomplish efficiently and effectively the most important func-
tions of the organization.
2. Organizing for Communication:

The preceding section will also bring forth whether or not
the organization has clear communication policies or procedures.
That is, in addition to other administrative and operational pol--
icies does the unit have guidelines governing its communications?
If the organization has indeed spelled out communications policies,
there is a presumption that needs have been considered. If, how-
ever, guidelines are missing or are at best only perfunctory,
grave doubts are raised about the adequacy of the consideration
given to communication needs. Do these policies specify which
discrepant situations or problems are to be handled by specific
communications? Which events, routine or non-routine, does the
organization control through communications? Such events may
range from general to Specific, immediate to long range, tact-
ical to strategic, and executive to operational (Figure 2).

3. Determination of Methods:

Problem Solving: The schematic drawing (Figure 3). illus-
trates the role of communication in the problem solving process.
There are three distinct stages in the process: (a) situational
input; (b) throughput; and (c) situational output. The sit-
uational input is the real world of events possible for the di-
rector to View. It is at this event level that he must perceive
and put into some useful order the so-called problem. He must
determine the crucial symptoms and must review them in meaning-

ful relationships (syndromes) to know what the real problem is.

11

The Need for Communicating
is Established

The purpose of The Task Facing
Communicating is the Communicator
Determined is Recognized and

Spelled Out

 

 

1. Clear and Realistic Communications
Policies Exist

2. Situations Requiring Communication
are Specified

3. The Types of Communications to be
Used are Stated

h. Departments and People Responsible
for Communicating are Identified

5. Communication procedures and Meth-
ods are Spelled out

6. Cost/Benefit Reckoning is Employed

 

 

 

Eigure_g Communication Mission and Needs

Source: C. Vardamgn and C. Ralterman, "Cutting Communica-
tions Costs and Increasing Impacts,“ New York:
JOhn Wilydc Sons, 1110. 1970.

l2

 

  
  
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

/,-‘ Communication of /’~‘}

’ ‘\ Real World Data / \
,Real \ / Real\
I World, { World‘l
' \ Communication I /
'\ ‘ \Problem ' J—:I/1Action‘ /
\ k of Decision \\ ,’

\ s

\ /
\Communica tion of
Problem Related Criteria
Situational Managerial Throughput Situational
Input Output

Figure 3 The Managerial Control Process

 

Source: C. C. Halterman, ”Managerial Control Through Commun-
ication,” New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. 1968.

13

The next phase is the throughput. After he perceives the prob~
lem, he must be able to process it and this is where communica-
tion capability is crucial. Communication capabilitv consists
of cueing facilities, carrying out facilities, and critique fac-
ilities. The cueing facility is a generating function and calls
forth data as needed. If the data is sufficiently informative,
he can make a decision and if it is inadequate, there is a need
for additional data. The communication carrying out facility

is a message sending or receiving function. Once the need for
communication is established, the Director assesses the situa-
tion then plans and executes the necessary transmission and re-
ception of the message. The communication critique facility is
a monitoring and corrective function. It works in conjunction
with the cueing and carrying out facilities to determine when
and where adjustments are needed, where new problems are aris-
ing and where new decisions are needed.12_

The old situation symptomized by the problem, is what ex-
isted before the throughput. Together with all the changes,
including those instituted by the Director has now resulted in-
to a new or current situation and if it is still failing, the
total process is repeated.

Strategy Determination: One aspect for effective com-
munications is the determination of the proper strategy. This
involves the determination of the proper time. place, and manner
for communicating. It concerns when, where, and how communica-

tions should be transmitted and determining the circumstances
for gaining optimum effectiveness of communication. This is pri-

mairly a Judgemental activity. .“iyw,,w pretty “WHDW
' 'W- .‘,-':', ”vehfir‘ffi:

‘

J.

1h

Acquisition and Relevance of Data: Each task, duty, out-
put, or function in an organization has communication require-
ments. These include such thinas as orders, directions, eval-
uations, feedback and measurements. In raw form such commun-
ications are referred to by Vardaman and Halterman as "data.”
Data that contribute directly to furthering performance on the
Job are called job related. Extraneous data are referred to as
noise. For example, much direction poorly stated contains a
large amount of noise. Poorly worded instructions, carelessly
computed statistics, poorly run meetings, sloppy job descrip-
tions are all entropic, or poorly informative. When extraneous
data are received, the effort of sorting, interpreting, and pro-
cessing detracts from the user's output and efficiency. On the
other hand, it is vital that all required data are furnished,
for without adequate data the job could not be done at all.
Quantity, adequacy, timinz and credibility are all-critical to
the idea of data as is used here.

- Transportation/Distribution: The fact that data are trans-
ported, transmitted, distributed, diffused, etc., within a com-
munication system implies that a structure pre-exists, or that
a structure (i.e., channels and interconnected sets of channels),
is being created in the process. It is important that those who
want or need data are able to secure it without too much delay
or hardship and in the quantity and quality required. The trans-
portation/distribution processes and patterns must be flexible
enough to accommodate unusual requests for data, or unusual
users. They must also be quickly responsive to chances, to crises,

to special circumstances - at no sacrifice of reliability, fid-

15

elity, etc. The transportation/distribution process must be
reliable in times of stress or overload and any impedance or
noise that would block the movement of data to the various term-
inals and users of the system should be held to a minimum. There
should also be the sort of discrimination in the system that re-
liably identifies currently needed data and speeds it through
without delay.

Processing: Every element in every communication system
which receives and ingests data, whether a cell, an individual,
a computer or department processes the "consumable" data it re-
ceives in some way. Whether that processing takes the form of
storage, redistribution (with or without reproduction, ampli—
fication, or reduction), analysis, synthesis, or decisioning,
it can be thought of functionally as of the same order as doing
something to or processing the received data in some way. The
processing elements should be designed, equipped and programmed
in such a way that they can and do induce from the system those
data which they need to fulfill their task-functions. For ex-
ample, are individual members of an organization structured and
oriented in such a way that they can'and do induce from the sys-
tem the data they need to perform their task-functions in a sup-
erior manner?

Content Structure: This involves a diagnosis of the nature
of the message and the person or persons who are to receive it.
It is necessary to structure the content properly, for optimum
effectiveness. The content needs to be structured in such a way

that it is easily understood and put to use.

16

Feedback: In order to achieve effective communication, it
is necessary to obtain feedback simultaneously with the delivery
of the message, or shortly thereafter. It involves getting the
reactions of the receivers to the message.

System Adequacy-Adaptability-Reliability~Compatibility:13
Adequacy: What is adequate in one set of circumstances may not
be adequate in another. There are both short and long range con-
siderations and what proves to be adequate for the short range
may prove to reduce the adequacy of the system over the long range.
Conditions both within and without organizations (and individuals)
are constantly changing, continuously evolving. If the commun-
ication system serving that organization is not continuously ev-
olving its own adequacy vis-a'—vis those changing conditions,
goals, etc., it may become inadequate by default. Inevitable fac-
tors are time and place. If those persons or elements who want
and/or need given data in consumable forms do not get it at the
right time and the right place in useful form, the system is to
that extent inadequate to its task.

Adaptability:, Probably optimum system adaptability is a con~
sequence, once system adequacy is achieved and maintained, of
the degree of symbiosis which evolves between each element or
member or user in the system, and the input-output subsystems
which serve those individual elements or members. At least some
part of that evolved symbiosis must be compensatory. Both the
system and the user have peculiar strength and peculiar weak-
nesses. To the extent that the strengths and the weaknesses of

user and his system are adaptively compensated for in some way

17

by the other, the resulting symbiotic relationship will enhance
the efficacy of the system. To the extent they are not and do
not adaptively compensate for these factors, the total system
may be less efficacious.

Reliability: Reliability lends a quality to the atmosphere of
the system in much the same way that credibility and depend-
ability contributes to the qualities of particular communication
encounters. An unreliable system becomes generally less relied-
upon in the same way that people give less and less notice to
what is for them a fallible or questionable source of information.
A reliable system is one that can be relied upon to supply rele~
vent and timely data of the appropriate quantity and quality, when
or where needed in the system. Conversely, a reliable system is
one that can be relied upon to protect consumers or processors
from irrelevant or untimely data, or from data of an in-approp-
riate quantity or quality.

Compatibility: As the rapidly advancina technology of ”infor-
mation systems" is increasingly employed in the future, the issue
of compatibility will likely gain in importance. Whether intra-
orqanizational or inter-oraanizational, the efficacy of any com-
municatiors system or subsystem may depend upon its compatibility

with other systems to which it becomes linked.

18

PART II COMMUNICATION MEDIA

 

 

A. Media and Communication Management

I With part one establishing the foundation for under-
standing communication, it is possible to focus on the role of
media in this process. Before an attempt is made to difine and
illustrate media, it should be placed in an organizational set-
ting. Assume that in each organization there exists in some
form, and perhaps with less formal title, a need for a commun-
ication management process. The communication management process
refers to the planning director's communicating activity as he
does his Job. Figure b shows how the process can be related to
the sequential directorial activities of problem definition, com-
munication capability and managerial competence. For example,
he may select the deteriorating central city as a subject to be
expressed. The next step would be to determine his agencies com-
munication capability and then select the appropriate communica-
tion medium in order to carry verbal or visual concepts and
models to express his ideas. There also remains the task of ed-
iting, pulling together, reshaping/processing, transmitting and
the gathering of feedback to determine the effectiveness of his
efforts. If no attempt is made to relate the media to the entire
process, chaos is likely to result with the net affect on the neg-
ative side of the scale.
B. Media Types

1. The Software of Communication Technolosy:

While the emphasis of this second part is one the "hard-

ware" of communication, it would be a serious mistake not to

19

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

D
P E
R F Determine
O I
B N Communication Need
L I
E_T Select
M I Subject To Be Expressed ——
0 (problem-oriented)
N
C .
O C Select
M A
M P Communications Media
U A
N B Build Lfi
I I Verbal And Visual Concepts
C L And Models
A I
T T
I Y
O
N
M c / g
A 0 Process Integrate Edit
N MT \ f—
A P
G E
E- T
R E
I N”; Transmit Gather Compare
A C Feedback
L E

 

 

 

Figure h Media and The Management Process

Source: C. Vardaman and C. Halterman, "Cutting Communica—
tions Costs and Increasing Impacts," New York: John
Wily & Sons, Inc. 1970.

20

view at least in brief the implications of the "software" of
communication. The most basic and by far the most significant

of all communicating technology has been the evolution and use

of languages. Languages as used here refers to the spoken word
as an expression of thought patterns which varries with different
cultural groups. For example, in discussing the meaning of a
house/home between an African and Japanese, it is reasonable to
assume that each will have a different perspective on the mean-
ing of a house. It should be obvious that there is an inextri-
cable relationship between our languages and our thinking. With-
out becomming entangled in the.continuing relationship. we should
be cognizant of the apparent facts that sophisticated thinking
abilities appear and develop concurrent with the acquisition of
languages; that people seem to conceive of themselves and their
worlds largely in terms of their languages, and that our com-
prehensions of ourselves and the physical and social processes

of our environments are limited by the sorts of cognitive struc-

lu Whatever the

tures our particular languages make possible.
specific nature of the languages-thought interdependency, the
point to be made is this; that languages are most advantageously
thought of as fundamental aspects of the technology of communi-
cation. As such they produce certain possibilities and certain
limits on our capabilities and capacities for being communicated
with. We comprehend the nature of our environments in and through
the languages we have learned and we think about the things and
the events of our environments largely in and through the use of
those language(s). Environment as used here refers to the sum

total of the conditions and influences which affect the life and

development of a person.

21

2. The Hardware of Communication Technology:

Languages and their grammars, and the rules and protocols
for their use have their consequences on the generation and the
consumption of data. Media, by contrast have their consequences
for the dissemination and acquisition of data. Thus, "hard-
ware” of communication technology has to do with the transporta-
tion (or amplification or deamplification) of data, while the
“software" of communication technology has to do with our in-
dividual abilities to communicate to and to be communicated with.

As social organizations grew in size and complexity, the
need to augment human means of disseminating and acquiring po-
tentially useful data led to the invention and adoption of the
wide range of media and materials which we now take for granted.
It has however, been the combined impact of materials and de-
vices which has altered our communicative existences, problems,
and possibilities most strinkingly. What becomes apparently im-
portant here is the fact that the sequence of inventions of mat-
erial, and of devices or equipment, have given birth to a suc-
cession of new media of communication. And with the birth of
each new medium of communication have come increased possibil-
ities for cooperative or collective endeavors. For example,
the medium of written communication has made possible the main-
tenance of relationships at great distances. The television;
common ways of thinking. Our communication sattellites: the dis-
semination (hence potential acquisition) of consumable event~
data through out the world, etc. The media of communication -

the introduction of materials and devices, the "hardware" of

22

communication technology have therefore amplified and extended

the reaches of man's own equipment for disseminating and acquir-
ing useful data about the world in which he lives. Thus the means
of data transportation (media) subserve integrative as well as
informative functions. This is a fact having far reaching im-
plications for the design of communication systems in formal org-
anizations. An available medium is a tool of inter-communication
or mass communication and its use (or not), plus the manner in
which it is used, will have inevitable consequences for the nature
of a particular organization.

It would be possible to classify communication media in a
number of different ways but such a classification might have the
disadvantage however, of limping together media as different as
films, lectures and closed circuit television, the usefulness
of which would certainly be questionable. A second reason is
that of all the types of media available, only a minimal number
are utilized by the professional planner, or are available to
him. The following tvpes are those which I feel warrant dis-
cussion.

Written Communications Media:

Written communications are vehicles for carrving the
writer's messages. In other words, written communications
media primarily refer to important written documents for con-
veying organizational messages. The bulk of the real work of
most organizations is carried on through the following:

Letters: This seems elementary but plays a critical role in

any organization. They usually contain a salutation, which id-
entifies the person or persons to who addressed, a text or body

23

which explicates the message, and an ending which indicates from
whom the letter was sent. They can be informal, typed or hand-
written, and have the widest variety of purposes and usefulness
of any written media.

Reports: A report is almost always addressed to some individ-
ual or group and is generated in response to an explicit or im-
plied request. In most cases it is constructed according to
some preliminary advice, clearly identifies the situation or
activity being reported on and indicates who the originator is
as well as why he is reporting.

Directives: A directive is generally addressed to a person
either by name or position. It contains guidelines for oper-
ation, and its message lays out constraints or explicates auth-
ority. The language of the message is explicit, along with the
originator's authority for directing.

Proposals: PrOposals focus on some task, Job, or act. Their
messages are directed to someone in a position of sanction or
evaluation, and although task-oriented, the professional com-
petence, capability, or other qualifying attribute of the sen-
der is central. The originator is identified in terms of his
specialist capacity to insure credibility to the proposal's
contents.

Agreements and Commitments: Agreements contain a form of
written dialogue between two or more parties. In this sense,
the addressees and the originators may be the same, although
in each case they are clearly identified - usually in terms
of their personal or professional or organizational status.
It is always made clear between whom agreements are reached,
whether among individuals, among groups, or among organizations.
Commitments are also task-oriented, in that they contain a-
sort of "contract" to perform some job or service, whereas an
agreement is between two parties jointly assuming reSponsib-
ility for some task or activity, and is thus bilateral, a
commitment is fundamentally unilateral.

Manuals: Manuals are essentially guides to certain individ-
uals telling how something can best be done. In a sense they
are directives and there is a clear implication of some task.
However, the primary orientation is to the cultural background
of the individuals for whom intended. This means that the man-
ual must be basically concerned with whether it is going to be
accepted and its message understood by the operators.

Forms: These, like manuals, provide guides for individuals
to follow. In this sense forms must be acceptable to the in-
dividuals in the light of their cultural backgrounds in order
to be well understood. Forms are highly stylized media which
facilitate gathering of data, reporting activities, making com-
putations, etc. Forms must appeal to a variety of individuals
and must be understandable to all. They are specific guides for
action, which must be interpreted and followed by a very broad
range of users.

2U

House Organs: House organs include in-house information
circulated within an organization. They are not normally ad-
dressed to individuals but are distributed in blanket fashion.
"Brochures: Brdchures carry messages to specific groups or
special interest groups depending upon the nature of the org-
anization. Brochures normally have a much higher distribu-
tion than do manuals and house organs. It must be more gen-
eral in its palatability to varying cultural groups, many of
whom may be outside the organization but must also permit
a high degree of specificity of intended message.

The various kinds of written media, then, are readily
differentiable on the basis of their primary orientations and
their contral foci or approaches. An understanding of the
written media reviewed above will certainly add meaning toward
improving the effectiveness of the agencies written communica-
tion.

Audio-Visual Aids:

Sensual stimulation can be extremely important in reach-
ing the public. Slide shows are popular with audiences and may
include taped narratives or background music. Some shows use
the technique of shock contrasts in their presentations which
in affect dramatize a point which seems to stick with the re-
ceiver longer and reactions are more profuse. Some agencies
have compiled a slide library which they make available to other
local officials and interest groups as more indirect promo-
tional and informational planning purposes.

Mass Media:

Mass media is certainly one form of communication media
through which information can be distributed. The press is
probably the most critical and most practical from a cost as-

pect in distributing information at a large scale. Caution is

a prime prerequisite however when considering this method

V25

of information distribution since articles, notices, etc., are
spliced to fit a column and may in the long run distort the im-
age or the original intent of the message. It would certainly
be an advantage to develop a good rapport with the press since
any promotion or release prior to a public hearing will probably
utilize this type of media. In larger metropolitan areas, there
may be access to a television station but there are also plenty
of interests for use of public service time. The use of televi—
sion with a follow up of an article in the newspaper would be a
desirable approach for communiting to the public at large but
the resources might not be readily available. Additional types
of hardware for communicating ideas will be covered in the fol-
lowing section on presenting technical data.
C. The Presentation of Technical Data

1. Understanding the Audience:

One of the most important elements in the entire process

of a presentation is knowing the "audience." More presentations
fail because of lack of audience awareness on the part of the
presenter than for any other reason. The presentation must be-
gin and end with its audience, and everything that is done in
between is done solely, consciously. intentionally, and del-
liberately to affect this audience. If a certain body of infor-
mation cannot be molded and structured so that a reason for its
presentation to an audience can be stated. then the net effect
of presenting it is nothing more than a consumption of a cer-
tain amount of time. The objective must be stated: it cannot be

assumed. The presenter should always be doing something to his

26

audience. He may be trying to inform or convince them, get them
to perform a certain action, or get them to feel and experience
something he experiences or feels. Man lives, functions and
communicates with his environment through these intimately re-
lated dimensions: emotional, physical, and intellectual. It
should be apparent to the presenter that he recognize these
forces in everv audience he might approach and that basically
he cannot go against them and may in fact have to conform to
them if he is to succeed in influencing people with his ideas.
It would be an advantage ahead of time to discover what the pre-
dominating patterns are in his audience and to design the basic
appeals of his presentation with them as its foundation.

2. Idea Structure:

Most technical presenters do not recognize the true sig-
nificance of having an awareness of idea structure nor do they
give it the weight that it should have in the presentation preu
paration process. Although it is the cornerstone of composing
and outlining an idea, they have long dismissed it as one of
those problems solved in the classroom. The true test of a pre-
senter's organizational ability is how well he can give these
to his audience, often without actually telling them that they
are present. To a large degree, subtlety_thus is also involved
in structuring the idea. On the other hand, it may frequently
suit the presenter's purpose to make a point of revealing his
idea structure to his audience. Generally an audience remains
with a presenter best not only when he gives the idea structure.
but when he simplifies that structure as much as possible by con-
ducting them along a single pathway. w. A. Nambert illustrates

various approaches for a presentation:

27

"1. State a problem and solve it.

”2. Show an effect and prove its cause.

"3. Begin with a cause and exhibit its effect.

"4. Start with the simple and proceed to the complex.

"5. Present a pattern of accumulation.

"6. State a sequence of events.

"7. Explain the unfamiliar in terms of the familiar.

"8. Present facts in the order of their need, utility or use.

"9. Build preliminary ideas to a point of climax."16

. It is important not only to choose a basic thought sequence

pattern, but to adher to the same basic structure throughout the
presentation.

3. Utilizing Aids for the Presentation:

Before discussing "aids," it would be useful at this time
to introduce the concept of symbology. Vardaman refers to sym-
bology as "The linguistic and graphic means of written communica-
tion and that graphics embrace schematic diagrams, models, par-
adigms, pictures, charts, maps and other forms of visual represen-
tation."17 Both language and graphics stand for ideas, con-
cepts, principles, persons or things. Symbols on a page, board,
etc., are in fact the communication_to the reader, and specific
communication or communication under examination cannot be better
or worse than the language and graphics used. Planners are par-
ticularly heavy users of symbology for communicating ideas and
continued emphasis should go along with this fact but not at the
cost of the verbal presentation since the two together are in-
separable.

The term "Aids" as used here refers to all such forms of sup-
porting material more commonly known as visual aids. The basic
function can be sumarized as follows:

1. To save time 5. Reinforce or emphasize an idea
2. To increase interest 6, Prove a point

3. Generate and hold attention
h. Clarify an idea 7. Increase memory retention

28

Pictures, araphics, handouts, and similar material are a form
of idea support, and an integral part of the presentation and
should be included in the outline like any other idea. Some-
how the aid part of the presentation gets separated from the text
and becomes a matter unto itself. As a result, althouah a set
of slides, for example, might be excellently desiqned, they do
not really serve their proper purpose of clarifying, supporting,
or reinforceing a spoken idea unless they are tied into the over-
all structure of the presentation. Too often a presentation is
prepared around the set of aids instead of utilizing them to sup-
port ideas. One way to avoid this is to include the aid ideas
in the main presentation outline where they will remain in pro-
per per perspective. The important thing is that the aids appear
where they belong - within the presentation outline itself as
support for ideas, all aimed at objective accomplishments, all
performing an actual function. Althouah it sometimes will be
necessary to do so, large amounts of detail in a presentation
depending upon the audience should be avoided as much as possible.
The following are some suasestions for alleviatina the negative
visual affects of large amounts of detail:

1. Try to break information up into clearly defined cataqorieS.

2. Place information in clearly-defined visual segments.

3. Consider dividina the visual material into more than one
, panel. .

U. Try covering parts of the information and progressively
exposing it.

5. Use overlays to aradually build a complete panel.

6. Be sure erosure is long enough for full comprehension.

7. Use additional simplified panels to summarize the detail
and to show over-all concepts.

8. Consider handout material to be used in conjunction with
displayed or projected information.

Size of audience, basic purpose, and environment are the

main influences on the kind of projection or display medium re-

29

quired. Projection techniques, such as slides, opaque, or over-
head projection should be used for larger groups. Easel charts
and chalkboard are usually effective with smaller groups. Many
presenters tend to be over-elaborate and think in terms of the
most elaborate medium when other methods of projection or display
will do just as well. There are many manufacturers and models

of projection equipment, but there are only a few basic kinds of
projection equipment with which the averaae presenter need be
concerned, such as the slide projector and opaque projector.

D. Media Orientation

 

 

Figure 5 indicates how media and channel constraints, along
with the cultural and target group orientations, affect the com-
munication process. rFor example, the purpose of communicating
leads one to expressina a messaqe in a verbal and graphic lan-
auaae,'usina a particular loaic, design, and style. Theoreti-
cally, to the person originating a written communication, this
sequence of activity should do the job. But the very best of
such approaches, if there is no consideration for the contri-
butions and constraints of the target group, the media, the chan-
nels and culture involved, will surely result in failure. There
are then three factors to consider in media orientation: (1) the
individuals to be reached; (2) the type and availability of chan-
nels over which the medium must travel: and (3) the general cul-
tural setting within which the media are generated, processed,
and reCeived.

Target Group Orientation and Channels:

To whom is the messape addressed, and how will the medium

be interpreted by the receiver? The communication channels

which connect people in social groups are not the same as those

30

Cultural and
Target Group

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Purpose of
Communicating
v V v
Verbal Graphic
Language
A A
V
Verbal ‘ Graphic

 

 

Desian, Loqic and Style

 

Media and Channel
Constraints

 

 

 

Figure 2 Cultural and Group Orientation

31

which connect people who are acting in their administrative
roles. A still different set of channels facilitates and reg-
ulates the flow of information among professionals. Channels
that exist among members of a particular target group, develop
peculiarities associated with that group. Robert C. Hood, pre-
sident of the Ansul Chemical Company in Wisconsin holds that

a company must be a good citizen by determining its citizen-

18 He identifies

ship responsibilities and how to meet them.
several groups, organizations in the community for carrying out
a community relations program. For our purposes, and this dis-
cussion, we can refer to them as target groups. A list of the
various types of groups follows:

-Community at large

~Community Thought Leaders

-Local Press

~Civic Organizations

~Students, Faculty, School Officials

-Municipal employees, Officials

~Local Merchants, Industrialists
These are but a few of the types of target groups that may exist
in a community and to a certain degree, an uderstandina of these
groups will determine the type of communication to be utilized.

Cultural Orientation:
Media are subject to sanction by persons who receive their

messaaes, and it is not unusual for the medium itself to imply
a different connotation in one cultural setting from that in an-
other. A formal letter of invitation may be viewed either as a
highly stilted approach were a less formal medium would be viewed

more acceptable.

E. Media Effectiveness

 

1. Communications Clarity:

Do writer's know what message they intend to transmit?

32

This sounds ambiguous, but its not uncommon to find the ori-
ginator of a message imprecise about their theme, even after
a document is written and sent out. There is little hope for
clarity for the receivers if the transmitters themselves do not
cognize the messages they want to convey. Clarity is not ac-
cidental in symbolic communication, it is the result of careful,
deliberate design. It is not tuncomnon to employ a staff meeting
in planning for clarity in important complex presentations. To
the extent that an agency has clear or written guidelines on clarity
in communications, there is an indicuation that consideration and
emphasis is géven to this important facet. To the extent that
guidelines are lacking, it is doubtful that the organization's
communications are readily understood.

2. Communication Correctness:

Correctness refers primarily to the validity of the mes-
sage which in turn refers to the "truth" of the language and
graphics used. In the socially oriented communication, the val-
ues and goals of the group members are central. Symbols will be
true or false in the group member's minds to the extent that
the communication reinforces or denies the members' goals and
values. In some cases, language and graphics may have to be
more "feeling oriented” than idea or fact oriented. Too many
facts, too many statistics, detailed charts, graphs or models
may alienate rather than gain the support of socially-oriented
receivers. Validity in this case may be a psychological phen-
omenon with these receivers.

In the specialist oriented communication, validity is

markedly different. Since the professional is critical in his

area of expertise, he eXpects a factual and reasoned approach.
Descriptions, inferences, and implications should be differen-
tiated from one another and graphics, charts, models and schem-
atics should accurately reflect the data being communicated. Val-
idity, then, in this case is related to logic and discipline.

3. Communication Cogency:

Cogency is comprised of two factors, appearance and cred-
ibility. Appearance refers to the way a communication looks
and how the symbols on the page or board are accepted by the
receiver. Unless communication is clear, it will lack influence.
Readers who must painstakingly dig out ideas from a pile of ver-
bal or graphic debris can hardly be blamed for berating the
communicator and, likewise, if misunderstanding is generated from
lack of document clarity. reactions may be hostile.

Credibility refers to the acceptance by the receiver of the
symbolic presentation. There are three things that should be
examined when considering credibility: (l) the reader's per-
ception of the source: It is reasonable to assume that if the
receiver attitude toward the originating office is one of mixed
feelings or distrust, he may also view a report, etc., with the
same notion: (2) the readee's perception of the writer: It is es-
sential that the writer establish himself as a credible source
and perceived as believable: (3) the reader's perception of the
communication: This refers to the Reader's "image" of the ac-
tual document under examination. This will very much depend
upon the two earlier points made concerning the perception of
the source and writer.

Clarity, correctness and cogency will all determine the

3“

degree of communication effectiveness. The extent to which they
are present or lacking will undoubtedly have an impact on an
agency or organization's ability to successfully communicate and

implement programs.

35

CONCLUSION

Communication is but one critical part and role of the plan-
ning process and if it is not developed to an extent that in-
put (outside information), and output (inside information) are
not synchronized, plans and proposals will not be meaningful
to the real world nor accepted by the receivers. To the ex-
tent that communications is developed and understood, the po-
tential for carrying out plans and programs will be more suc-
cessful.

One of the obstacles to effective communication is that the
planning profession carries with it a specialization of lan-
guage, making access to knowledge extremely difficult for the
non-specialist. Increasing specialization of the profession and
specialized areas of knowledge will move into increasingly ab-
stract realms. Not only will the language become specialized
but the substance of the knowledge itself becomes increasingly
removed from concrete, everyday reality. Increasing'levels of
abstraction, then, will also mean greater difficulty in com-
municating. This may be the essence of why plans and proposals
are not followed through. As the profession grew and expanded,
it continued to develop a highly technical body of knowledge
which is not being criticised, however, while this specialized
body of knowledge was emerging, it was not being supplemented
with a means to bridge the gap that exists today between highly
stylized-technical plans and the people for which they were pre-
pared.

How can planners' and plans become more meaningful? One

thing is to become better communicators. Complexity and sheer

 

 

36

size of this society is going to continue to create problems
for communication not to mention the potential of technolog-
ical advances in the area of communication media. It is time
to harness the techniques of communication in the planning
process. This paper has provided an understanding of the con»
cepts and process of communication and the potential of com»
munication media. While this paper does not answer all of the
questions of communication, it does provide a framework for
understanding communications and its importance for the plan-

ning profession.

3?

FOOTNOTES

 

1Amitai Etzioni, The Active Society: A Theorv of Societal

and Political Process (New York: The Free Press, 19055,
p. #96

 

2John Friedman, "Notes on Societal Action," Journal 2: the
American Institute of Planners, Volume XXXV (September, 1969),
p. 316.

3Franklin Haiman, Leadership and Democratic Action (Cambridge,
Mass.: The Riverside Press, lghl), p. 260.

 

 

“Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory
9: Communication (University of Illinois Press, 19h97, p. S.

 

5Wilbur Schramm, "How Communication Works," in The Process
and Effects of Mass Communication (University of Illinois
Press. 1.95“) . p0 3-260

 

6Bruce Westley and Malcolm Maclean, Jr., "A Conceptual Model
'for Communication Research," Journalism Quarterly, 3M: 31-38.

 

7Franklin Fearing, "Toward a Psvchological Theory of Human
Communication,” Journal of Personality, 22: 71-78, 1953.

 

8Wendell Johnson, "The Fateful Process of Mister A Talking
to Mister B," in How Successful Executives Handle People,
Harvard Business Review, 1953, p. 50.

9David K. Berlo, The Process of Communication (New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 15307? p. 29.

 

 

10Chamber of Commerce, Effective Emplovee and Community fig-
lations, a report on Ansul Chemical Company, (Washinaton
D. C.: The Chamber, 1956), (condensed from pages 22-23).

 

11George T. Vardaman and Carrol C. Falterman, Eanaaerial

 

Control Throush Communication (New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Incl, 1968), p. 337-h8.

 

lzlbid, p. 12.

13Lee Tharer, Communication and Communications Svstems
(Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1968), p. 178-1Fl.

 

 

1“Ibid, p. 253.

156eorzze T. Vardaman, Carroll C. Halternan and Patricia B.
Vardaman, Cuttinq Communications Costs and Increasing Im-
pacts (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1970), p. 63:68.

 

16

W. A. Mambert, Presenting Technical Ideas (New York:.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1968), p. 118-19.

 

17George T. Vardaman, Carroll C. Halterman and Patricia
B. Vardaman, Cuttina Communications Costs and Increasing_
Impacts (New York: Hohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1970), p. 115.

 

18Chamber of Commerce, Effective Employee and Community fig-

lations, a report on Ansul Chemical Company (Washington
D.C.: The Chamber, 1956). '

‘ “H IV} (1“; C 1" t .‘ .x‘.‘ i ‘P (it: 1-2:”
\ ' I \,. ll :- v‘ _.

39
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