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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND THE PROVISION OF BASIC URBAN
SERVICES: THE NEED FOR CHANGING THE ROLES OF GOVERNMENT AND
PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS

bY

Nicola Hairi Shepherd

A Plan B Paper

Submitted to Michigan State University
in partial fulfill-ent of the require-ents of the degree of

MASTER OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

Urban and Regional Planning Program
Geography Department

1994

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements p.2
Introduction p.3
SECTION ONE

Urban Growth and the Environment: The Need
for Sustainable Development p.7

SECTION TWO:The Changing Roles and Responsibilities of

Government and Private Organizations p.21

Changing and Strengthening Roles

and Responsibilities p.22

The Need to Change the Role of

Governments p.23

Expanding the Role of the

Private Sector p.27

Case Study: Sulabh International p.33

Governmental Support for

Private Sector Involvement p.47
Conclusions and Recommendations p.51
Bibliography ' p.57

TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 1: Urban Growth Issues p.11
and Their Consequences

Figure 1: Urban Air Pollution by p.8
Country Income Group

Figure 2: World’s Access To p.9
Safe Drinking Water

Figure 3: Urban Population:LDCs and MDCs p.14

Figure 4: Percentage of Population p.15

Living in Urban Areas

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Frank Zinn for all of
his advice and patience with my writing of this paper. Special
acknowledgement and thanks go to Rob Work and Martha Rubi of the
Urban Development Unit of the United Nations Development Program

for their assistance in materials and resources.

My parents deserve great thanks for their support and
prodding through the research and writing process. Finally, I
thank my friends for their patience with me through this longer

than expected process.

INTRODUCTION:

Population and environmental issues are becoming
increasingly intertwined as the world's population explodes and
environmental problems are shaping much of our outlook on the
future. It is widely accepted that urbanization in developing
countries is irreversible and that urban areas are not expected
to experience net out-migration. (USAID, 1989) There are many
aspects of urban development which can be viewed as having a
positive impact. In terms of population control, it had been
shown that urbanization often leads to declining birth rates by
increasing access to health services and improving women's
position in society. Urbanization has also proven to be a factor
which can contribute to an area’s increased provision of
services. The per capita cost of service provision tends to
decrease as density increases. Additionally, waste treatment is
more affordable in urban areas. Urban areas also tend to use
more efficient and environmentally sound energy sources because
of increased access to the latest technological advances.
However, urban growth also has many negative side effects which
must be addressed. Urban development usually leads to a
depletion of natural resources that are necessary for sustainable
development to occur. In addition, the majority of urban
dwellers inhabit large squatter settlements with highly limited

access to basic services. (USAID, 1989)

With the developing world's urban population growing
rapidly, urban environmental problems are becoming increasingly
important and complex. These problems urgently need to be
studied and mechanisms for facing their challenges must be
developed and implemented. This is an incredibly complex process

with many factors and actors that must be taken into account.

This analysis will provide an overview of the interrelated
issues of urban growth and the environment in developing
countries in terms of the provision of basic urban services in
low-income urban settlements. Harrison’s (1992) analysis of
population and the environment and sustainable development will
be used demonstrate the complexities of the problems and the need
for an integrated approach in the move towards sustainable

development.

The analysis will then turn towards looking more closely at
the changing roles of the various actors in the development of
sustainable cities and the provision of basic urban services.
The provision of such basic urban services as housing, water,
sanitation, and transportation have become central issues for
urban planners in the urban centers of the developing world.
Addressing these issues will only become more critical as these
areas expand in size and population, as the inadequacy of basic
services serves to breed and intensify poverty. The rapid rate

of urban growth has far surpassed the ability of central and

municipal governments to provide even the most basic services to
the urban population. With urban populations in many developing
countries’ cities growing at two or three times the rate of
national populations, the central and municipal governments
simply do not have the resources to serve the urban poor if they
continue the current approach to addressing these problems.
Planners and policy makers working in the developing world will
need to learn how to draw on resources other than those sources
traditionally used by governments. It is not only resources that
are needed, but also increased administrative capabilities and
political will. Governments will need to draw on innovative
policies, programs, and organizations. They will also need to
rethink the placement of responsibilities among central
governments, municipal governments, and non-governmental
organizations. Each of these urban environmental issues will
have to be evaluated in terms of how to best meet the urgent

needs to the exploding urban poor population.

This analysis is complemented by a case study of a non-
governmental organization (NGO) working in the field of low-
income urban service provision to better the urban environment.
The case study is of the Sulabh International of India which
works in the field of low cost, sustainable sanitation. The
analysis will look at its role in the provision of the service
and how it served to better the environmental conditions of its

target community. The case study provides an example of how a

non-governmental organization can be successful in urban service
provision. It also demonstrated the need for governments to

encourage and facilitate more initiatives of its kind.

Finally, this analysis will provide some ideas and
guidelines on how governments can rethink their role in urban
service provision and the relationships among the central
government, the municipal government, and the private
organizations in order to best provide for the urban poor and to
move towards sustainable cities. With the current urban
environmental crisis and the majority of urban dwellers in
developing countries living without access to urban basic
services, these are critical issues which must be addressed in

order for sustainable development to be achieved.

URBAN GROWTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT: THE NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT

The critical urban environmental problems in the developing
world’s cities can be referred to as the gray agenda. This
refers to problems such as unsafe water, insufficient waste
management and pollution control measures, congestion and
crowding related accidents, the occupation and deterioration of
environmentally sensitive lands, inadequate infrastructure, poor
governance, and the interrelationships between each of these
problems. (Leitman, 1992) Table one notes the main problems
associated with urban growth and their related impacts. The
impact of the gray agenda on the poor's daily lives can be linked
to health problems, decreased productivity, insufficient incomes,
and an undesirable quality of life. Almost all of the households
in the poorer areas live with the daily threats from two basic
serious health hazards: pathogenic micro-organisms, including
those from human excreta, and overcrowded and cramped living
conditions. Urban air pollution is a related hazard to which the
urban poor have excessive exposure. (Hardoy, 1989) Figure one
demonstrates the breakdown of urban air pollution by country

income groups.

There are no sewerage systems in most urban centers in
Africa and Asia. (Hardoy,1989) Even in those that do have

sewerage systems, it often only serves a very limited portion of

the population. It is estimated that thirty to fifty percent of
the urban centers' solid wastes are left uncollected.

(Cointreau, 1982) Therefore, it amasses around houses, on
streets, and in wastelands. This issue is addressed in the case
study later in this paper of a non-governmental organization
(NGO) which provides one means of addressing this issue in terms
of both technology and social equity.

FIGURE 1: URBAN AIR POLLUTION BY COUNTRY INCOME GROUP

Micrograms per cubic meter of air

 

 

 

 

 

Unacceptable

 

 

 

 

19705- Mid- to
early 19803 late 19803
El Low-income countries
I Middle-income countries
I High-income countries

 

Note: Periods of time series differ by site. World Health

Organization guidelines for air quality are used as the
criteria for acceptability. ‘

SOURCE: WORLD BANK , 1 99 2

WORLD' S ACCESS TO SAFE DRINKING WATER

FIGURE 2:

 

 

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as; 9.253 sausages... $35 I
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$.th $222.5 $5 $29.05 3.52:8

 

(SADIK, 1989)

SOURCE :

Water supply is also very limited in the developing world.
Figure 2 demonstrates the lack of access of safe water. UNDP’s
Agenda 21 estimated that one and a half billion urban dwellers in
developing countries are without safe water and over two billion
lack safe sanitation. Water resources are one of the main
resources that have been put under severe pressure by rapid urban
population growth and industrialization. There is an immediate
need for the better management of urban water resources for the
alleviation of poverty and the advancement of the urban poor's
quality of life. According to Agenda 21's goals for urban water
supply, "The overall priority is to identify and implement
strategies and action to ensure that continued supply of
affordable water for present and future needs, and to reverse
current trends of resource degradation and depletion" (p.44).
Therefore, today's urban policy planning and management must not
only take into consideration those who presently inhabit urban
areas, but the anticipated populations of the future. It is the
responsibility of all involved parties to collaborate to properly
address these issues and identify and implement viable solutions..

It is clear that as the developing world’s urban areas
rapidly expand, the issues of urban environmental quality will be
of increasing importance. As urban environmental quality
conditions decline, their effects take an increased toll on the
daily lives of urban dwellers, especially low-income urban

dwellers. Of course, urbanization does not take place in a

10

 

 

*higher population densities

 

OVERLOADED LAND *higher land prices
OVERBURDENED URBAN *lower service quality
INFRASTRUCTURE *1ower service accessibility

 

*increased pollution
OVERLOADED NATURAL RESOURCES *decreased environmental
quality

 

*decreased institutional
responsiveness
OVERWHELMED URBAN INSTITUTIONS *decreased public
participation
*fragmented bureaucratic
action

 

*depleted resources

 

 

OVERCONCENTRATED ECONOMIC *increased prices
ACTIVITY *increased economic
disparities
ABANDONED RURAL AREAS *depleted human resources
AND SMALL TOWNS *diminished maintenance of
infrastructure

 

 

 

(Bower,1989,p.13)

11

vacuum, and regional shifts in population and economic activity
have significant impacts on, and are significantly impacted by,
regional, national, and international issues. In order to
comprehend these urban environmental problems and the successful
strategies by which they can be addressed, one must take into
account a collection of intertwining natural, social, and
economic relationships. Many policy makers and planners
recognize the need to utilize a combination of both preventive
and curative instruments in order to respond to the intrinsically
intertwined issues of the urban environment. (UNDP, 1992). In
the move towards sustainable develOpment and sustainable cities,
it is crucial to first understand the complexity of the urban
environmental problems and then to draw on all of the available

resources, actors, and approaches to best address these problems.

In his book Ine_1hird_fieyglutign Paul Harrison (1992) looks

at the issues of population and the environment in terms of
moving towards sustainable development. He sees population,
consumption levels, and technology as the three direct factors in
environmental impact. Harrison uses the following modification
of Barry Commener's formula for his analysis of the impact that
these factors have on the environment. In addition, he uses this
formula to determine the effect that adjustments in the equation
will have on environmental impact:

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT= POPULATION X CONSUMPTION X TECHNOLOGY

12

Population refers to the number of inhabitants of an area
and takes into account migration and birth and death rates.
Urbanization in the developing world is occurring at an alarming
rate and all research leads to the conclusion that it will
continue in this direction. Although urban growth is also an
issue in the more developed countries, it is an issue of much
greater urgency in the developing world. Figure three contrasts
urban populations in the less developed and the more developed

countries.

It has been predicted that by the end of this decade almost
300 cities in developing countries will have populations of more
than one million. Soon after the turn of the century it is
expected that one half of the world’s population will be living
in urban centers. In the developing world urban populations are
expanding by 60 million people each year. At this rate, there
will be a net doubling of urban populations in the next twenty
five years.(UNCED, 1992) Currently, the urban poor constitute
over one half of the urban populations in developing countries.
Urban human settlements provide shelter for two thirds of the
developing world's population increases. By the year 2000, it is
estimated that there will be almost two billion people in the
cities’ of developing counties. Of these two billion,
approximately 600 million will have arrived during the present

decade. Looking another 25 years into the future, by 2025 an

13

additional two billion people will be added to these cities’

populations. Figure four provides on overview of the percentages

of developing world’s urban population and projections for the

year 2025. (UNCED, 1992)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 3:URBAN POPULATIONS IN LDCS AND HDCS
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‘1’:

FIGURE 4: PERCENTAGE OF POPULATIONS LIVING IN URBAN AREAS

 

Percentage of Population Living in Urban Areas

84%

2025
l

Africa Asia/Near East Latin Amer./Carib.

71%

 

4%
51% 5

 

41%

      

27%
1 7% '
90/0 - ' -
2025 1950 2025
l . I l l l

 

 

 

Source: UN Department of International Economic and Social Affairs

 

 

 

FROM (USAID, 1989)

15

”.13.: :1 u . '

-.‘r->‘c '. ‘s.

The technology factor stands for the quantity of resources
necessary to produce each unit of goods and the quantity of waste
emitted into the environment after consumption. Low cost
technologies can provide efficient production of many of the
basic products consumed by urban dwellers. Harrison notes that
in urban areas low-cost technologies and support for self-help
will lead towards better urban environmental conditions for a
greater portion of the population at a lower cost. For example,
the recycling of solid waste reduces the use of the area’s
resources, yet does not require the reduction of consumption
levels. In addition, Harrison notes that organic farming cuts
the flow of sewerage, fertilizer, and pesticide wastes into water
sources. One pivotal obstacle with the adoption of these low-
cost, self-help technologies is their wide scale adoption. It is
difficult to find initiatives which are socially and economically
acceptable to the target community. Issues of local initiatives
will be discussed in greater detail in section two’s analysis of

the expanding and changing role of NGOs and CBOs.

There are many complexities involved in the development and
adoption of these technologies. Often technology needed to
address the problem exists long before it is widely accepted and
adopted by society. In addition, technologies developed to
address one issue often lead to many other secondary problems.

These are the difficulties that arise when dealing with factors

16

that are part of complex social, economic, political, and eco
systems. As Harrison explains:

Technologies devised to solve a known problem often
give rise to other problems that were not
foreseen...Modern ’solutions’ to population pressure on
land cause pollution problems which will require
further adaptation...Nor is the problem solved simply
by some clever invention. A technology will only be
widely adopted if it is acceptable to most users. It
must work socially as well as technically. It must fit
in with users’ economic and social circumstances.
(Harrison, 1992, p.251)

Consumption refers to the amount of goods used per person
and the amount of waste created per person. Consumption levels
vary greatly among income groups. Currently there exists a
pattern of consumption and waste creation which is unable to
continue to be managed without severe damage to the biosphere. If
four-fifths of the world continues to strive to meet the
consumption levels of the other one fifth, the environment will
not be able to sustain this continued abuse. However, the
developing world can not be denied advancement as they experience
economic growth in the upcoming years. As explained in Beyond

the Limits:

A sustainable society would not freeze into permanence
the current inequitable patterns of distribution. It
would certainly not permit the persistence of poverty.
To do so would not be sustainable for two reasons.
First, the poor would not and should not stand for it.
Second, keeping any part of the population in poverty
would not, except under dire coercive measures, allow
the population to stabilize. (in UNICEF, 1993, p.35)

17

Environmental impact is directly influenced by the
multiplication of three factors: population, consumption, and
technology. Therefore, in working to reducing one side of the
equation, environmental impact, there are three factors on the
other side of the equation which must be addressed. Consumption
per person can be lowered. Population growth can be slowed and
long term population growth patterns can be altered. Technology
can be adapted which will allow us to serve many of our
increasing needs with the minimum environmental impact. Lowering
consumption per person is more difficult than minimizing the
environmental cost of consumption. In order to minimize this
environmental damage, changes must occur in the realms of both
population and technology. This is true for each of the factors
in the equation. Reducing population growth rates is not as
simple as distributing contraceptives. The reduction of
population growth rates occurs at a much slower pace than the

adaption of technology.

These three components do not act alone. Each influences
each other and is influenced by many other factors. There are
many other issues which come into play and which must be
addressed in order to successfully curve this growth. The
product of this equation is generated by multiplying all three
factors. Therefore, progress or regress in any one of the three

is compounded in the solving of the equation. The other factors

18

which influence the environmental impact indirectly include
factors diverse as governance, poverty, inequality, democracy,
market freedom, property rights, and women’s rights. Positive
changes in any of these and many other factors will have a

positive effect on the reduction of population growth rates.

In looking for ways to address these problems in a
sustainable manner, Harrison calls for human resource
development. Human resource development is not an alternative to
economic growth, yet it is the means of obtaining it. He writes:

No other strategy offers such a combination of rich
payoffs. WOrking separately on population,
consumption, or technology will reduce the rate of
environmental damage. But our basic equation for
environmental impact is a multiplication sum. Progress
or regress is compounded... And remember that these
three factors are only our proximate determinants of
environmental impact. To reduce their impact also
means working on the whole range of factors...from
abolishing poverty and reducing inequality to improving
markets, economic policies, democratic rights, and
institutions for controlling commons....The task of
balancing population, consumption, and technology with
the environment will be Herculean. unless we pull out
all the stops, the damage incurred before we stabilize
our relationship with the environment will be
catastrophic.

(Harrison, 1992, p. 291)

The impact and interrelatedness of the problems associated
with rapid urban growth and its environmental impact are widely
recognized. In UNCED’s guide to Agenda 21, "The_§lgbal
Want", it is explained,

"The concentration of people in urban areas presents complex

19

planning and management problems in environmental health, energy,
transportation, water supplies and waste management. There is a
need to develop policies that can connect public, private, and
social sectors, and the institutions to provide training of
technical experts and planners" (UNCED, 1992, p.38). As urban
centers expand, there will be even greater pressure on their
already overburdened and insufficient infrastructure. The
burdening of urban services and infrastructure will also increase
as cities are becoming increasingly important centers of

productive and commercial activities. (Rondinelli,1992)

In order to comprehensively address these complex problems,
it is necessary for all of the involved parties to pull together
their knowledge, resources, and commitment. If sustainable human
resource development is to be achieved, it is necessary to have
enabling governmental policies and structures; increased
mobilization and collaboration: and support for local level
initiatives. The following section discusses the need for
changing the roles of governmental and non-governmental provision
of urban basic services and demonstrates how these roles can be

changed in order to facilitate sustainable development.

20

SECTION TWO:
THE CHANGING ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE

ORGAN I ZATIONS

21

CHANGING AND STRENGTHENING ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

At several point in this analysis, attention has been drawn
to the need for an integrated approach with the participation of
all involved parties in the move towards sustainable development.
The growth of private sector involvement in urban basic service
provision has occurred largely as a response to government’s lack
of ability to provide for their urban dwellers. Institutional
alternatives to public sector agencies have emerged along with
private sector providers of previously publicly monopolized
services. It has been noted that the private sector is already
providing many of the low-cost, alternative technology solutions
to address the lack of urban basic services and infrastructure
and their related urban environmental problems. It is becoming
increasingly evident that governments can benefit from
facilitating the expanding role of the private and informal
sectors by encouraging private sector involvement in the
provision of services and infrastructure. This section looks at
the changing roles and responsibilities of governments and
private/non-governmental organizations. It demonstrates the need
for a transformation of their roles and examines how they can be
strengthened and modified so as to best provide for the urban

dwellers and the protection of the urban environment.

22

THE NEED TO CHANGE THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENTS

Governments are often not fully aware of the magnitude of
the basic service related environmental problems which they are
facing. Many of the environmental problems facing the developing
world’s cities are rooted in underlying problems of mismanagement
and weak institutional capabilities. The broad implications of
these problems include such issues as incompatible economic
policies, insufficient infrastructural and service investment,
poor management, inadequate regulatory and institutional
frameworks, and insufficient political interest in environmental
problems. These problems must be understood and addressed in

order to achieve sustainable development.(UNDP, 1992)

The inability of state owned enterprises to provide basic
services to rapidly growing urban areas is a clear indication of
their inefficiencies. Telephone service is a clear and prevalent
example of these inefficiencies. Urban dwellers wait for tele-
phone installation an average of eight years in Indonesia, seven
years in The Philippines, and ten years in Pakistan. Even when
installed, telephone service is often very poor. Although
governments often do not invest in capital and financial resourc-
es for the servicing and development of their system, existing
lines are seriously overstaffed. According to the World Bank,

state owned telephone companies in developing countries employ

23

50-100 workers per 1000 lines, while in the United States and
Europe, companies employ .2 or fewer workers for the same number

of lines. (Ambrose, 1990)

Urban growth has far surpassed the capacity of central
governments to manage development and respond effectively and
efficiently to the need for infrastructure, services, and land.
The authorities’ lack of sufficient management and responses has
led to the environmental degradation and depletion of natural
resources which is currently threatening and undermining the
productivity of cities and is hampering economic growth. Weak
institutional capacities for planning as well as managing and
operating many facets of urban service delivery leave much of the
population unserved or underserved. This occurs even in the
provision of one of the most basic human needs, shelter. The
great majority of low—income housing in the developing world’s
cities is now build on illegal or semi-legal land. As Leitman,
Bartone, and Bernstein (1992) explain, "Although cities are the
engines of economic development, failure to manage the impacts of
rapid urbanization is threatening human health, environmental

quality, and urban productivity" (Leitman, 1992, p.132).

What motivates governments is often the desire to retain
political power and the associated desire to escape disaster.

Governments have tended to address urban environmental consider-

24

ations when they can see that they have direct, immediate effects
on the government, such as when they have a negative effect on
the city’s tourist industry. However, the implications and
repercussions of these problems are broad in scope and spreading
rapidly. In its discussion of the Poverty, Population Growth,
and Environmental Degradation (PPE) Spiral, UNICEF notes these
widespread repercussions:

In addition to their worldwide environmental impact,

PPE problems are also beginning to transmit interna-.

tional shock waves through their impact on the pOIItlf

cal stability of the developing nations, with all the

costs and risks that such instabilities will pose...The

hopes of millions of people have been raised in the

scores of countries which have made or are attempting

to make the transition from authoritarian rule. Frus-

tration of those hopes by PPE problems will increase

economic desperation, leading to further internal

migrations, social division, political turmoil, and

violent conflicts.

(UNICEF, 1994, p.33)

Some governments are coming to realize these implications
and the importance of addressing these problems. It has become
clear that the interrelated issues of urban growth, poverty, and
the environment can not be ignored if a country wants to move
towards sustainable development and political stability. This
understanding was made clear by Dr. Kofi Awoonor, Ghana’s
Ambassador to the United Nations when he said that, "Poverty is

the father of dictatorship"(UNICEF, 1994, p.33).

In their Publication. The_nrban_Enxircnment_in_neyelgning
Countries, UNDP (1992) notes that governments should be

25

encouraged to make the connection between economic stability and
rising incomes and governance problems related to the urban
environment. UNDP points out that a city’s economic growth and

incomes often suffer when:

1. The available public infrastructure is poor in
volume, quality, or price.

2. The transport system leads to high absenteeism and
exhaustion in the workforce as well as costly delays in
the movement of commodities.

3. Bad housing and services debilitate the labor force.

4. Ordinary telephone calls impose extraordinary costs
in terms of wasted time

5. City life has high risks ranging from faecal contam-
ination to street violence.
(UNDP, p.36)

Rapid urban growth often occurs at a pace much faster than
that which the government is able to keep up with. Weak
institutional capacities of governments prohibit the productive
‘development of all aspects of the workings of a city.
Governmental structures need assistance in organizing and guiding
their country’s cities’ development along a sustainable path.

In the wake of these developments, many governments are looking
to the private sector for assistance and guidance on urban basic

service and infrastructure provision. Countries are exploring

26

the possibilities of expanding private sector involvement as they
realize that many state-owned enterprises are not contributing to
governmental revenues, but actually are large contributors to

governmental borrowing and debt.

EXPANDING THE ROLE OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR

The role of non-governmental and community organizations in
the addressing of urban environmental problems has evolved over
the years out of a basic necessity for low-income urban dwellers
to develop means to protect themselves from the hazards of their
environment. It became evident to many members of these
communities that their governments were not going to address
these problems for them. The governments’ lack of response can
be seen as both an unwillingness and a lack of ability to solve
these problems for which they were often the cause. Therefore,
people were essentially forced to develop collective ways of
addressing these problems which they found themselves in combat

with in their daily lives.

Clarification of Terms

There can be some confusion over the uses of the terms
community based organization (CBO), non-governmental Organization

(NGO), and civil society organization (C80). The most broad

27

term, CSO can he uses to refer to such diverse organizations as
trade unions, cooperatives, service organizations, community
groups, youth and women’s organizations, academic institutions,

media, and church-related organizations. (UNDP, 1993)

In his article, "Community Groups and NGOs in the Urban
Field in Pakistan", Arif Hasan groups organizations at the
community level into two categories. The first is the more
informal groups. These usually are formed to address a specific
issue or service a specific need. The organizations in the
second group are the more formal organizations which are
addressing longer term goals. In addition, these organizations
often run a service. Hasan notes that the precise distinction
between the larger and better organized community action groups

and NGOs is often unclear.

Tade Akin Aina, in discussing the role of community
organizations in environmental and urban contexts, notes the
similarities of all the organizations and their basic function,
"the essence of what is referred to by all these terms in the
arrangements and associations formed and located within the local
space, or immediate residential surrounding of the actors...(they
are) a place and point where lessons in autonomy, empowerment,
popular participation, and democratic struggles are learnt,
internalized, and disseminated into the community of the poor.

(Aina, 1990, p.6)

28

Increased Recognition:

The world’s growing number of civil society organizations
are gaining recognition and respect. It is widely recognized
that these organizations play a critical role in an area’s
development and that their importance is expanding. It is also
recognized that to fully exercise their strength they can often
benefit from collaboration amongst themselves and with local

governments.

Many developing countries’ NGOs and CBOs have moved beyond
their initial function as service provision organizations and are
active in issues involving their communities economic and social
equity, empowerment, and policy change. (UNDP, Global Meeting
1994) The United Nations Development Programme recognizes this
issue in its discussion of participatory planning in the 1993

Human Development Report. The authors write:

A lesson many NGOs have learned is that efforts to
promote participation and empowerment cannot be
divorced from concrete economic achievements. If they
are not simultaneously offering such improvements,
efforts to promote empowerment come under strain...The
approach is to encourage communities to reflect on
their place in society and their power to bring about
change. But unless this awareness raising is matched
by efforts to meet the immediate tangible needs of the
groups involved, the results can be frustration and the
group’s disintegration (UNDP, 1993, p.90).

29

At the same time, NGOs and C303 are gaining greater
attention among the international development organizations.
Many agencies and governments are now channeling their develop-
ment assistance through NGOs and CBOs as they have found it to be
the best way to have it reach the target groups. Often govern—
ment and private contributions are made to Northern NGOs which
then send the funds to their Southern counterparts. Although
some Northern NGOs still operate in the South, most organizations
have moved towards putting this power in the hands of the NGOs or
CBOs in the area of implementation. At this point, much of the
decision making and planning still takes place with little
Southern input. However, as the organizations become more
established, this balance will continue to shift and greater

power equalization may be observed.

In addition, it is becoming increasingly recognized that
these organizations should collaborate and network amongst
themselves. In looking to the future for the development of
sustainable human settlements, local planning and management
authorities will need to adopt a more participatory approach to
sustainable urban development. This necessitates dialogue
between the public sector, the private sector, and local communi-
ties. A UNDP program, Asia-Pacific 2000 (now UMPAP) seeks to
accelerate the transfer, adaption, and expansion of NGO initia-
tives which demonstrate how urban communities can organize

themselves to gain access to basic environmental services. The

30

programme calls NGO’s the vital link in their ability to reach
poor populations unserved by other organizations: mobilize local
resources and build local organizations; provide relatively low-
cost services to unserved populations; solve complex problems in
creative ways; and organize networks of diverse organizations

around shared visions.

There are countless examples all over the world of people
who have achieved so much for their communities with so little.
These achievements are often without the assistance or support of
their governments. There are currently many changes occurring in
developing countries’ government policies. They are turning away
from vain policies which produce unrealistic plans for the public
provision of expensive infrastructure. Today, many governments
are looking for ways to support local, self-initiated and self
managed initiatives. The need for bilateral and multilateral
organizations to support these moves is crucial. (Turner, 1988)
As Dr. Arcot Ramachandran, then Executive Director of The United
Nations Centre for Human Settlement (UNCHS, HABITAT) declared in
his 1986 address to the United Nations Commission on Human
Settlements, "Our agenda for the next ten years must be to find
the necessary capacities to apply (these) enabling strategies:
(which we cannot be sure of success) we can only give a guarantee

of failure for any other kind of strategy." (in Turner, 1988,

P-5)

31

The following case study is an example of an NGO which
emerged as a response to a basic need of the urban poor: the need
for safe sanitation. Much of Delhi’s population has no sewerage
facility or sufficient drainage system. With no provision for
the expansion of these services in the government’s budget, the
people have turned to the option of low cost sanitation to meet
their immediate need for these services. The case study provides
a detailed look at how non-governmental organizations develop and
expand and how their role can change with this growth. Because
of the limited public sector involvement in the organization, it
also shows what these organizations have been able to accomplish
with limited assistance, and demonstrates how much more could be
accomplished with increased collaboration and support from the

government.

32

CASE STUDY: "A REVOLUTION IN LOW COST SANITATION: SULABH INTERNA-

TIONAL, NEW DELHI"

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BACKGROUND:

Delhi is the most rapidly growing mega-city in India. The
United Nations predicts that by the year 2000, Delhi will be the
eleven largest city in the world. The 1962 Master Plan of Delhi
attempted to curb this growth by decentralizing urban spatial
patterns. The plan called for the development of a polycentric
growth pattern with the distribution of commercial and industrial
and residential zones. However, the existence of such a plan was
not enough to control the flood of people into the central city
area. In light of the lack of success of the decentralization

scheme, Delhi’s planners have developed a new plan which recog-

33

nizes the development of centralized employment and settlement

patterns.

Delhi has many of the problems typical of rapidly expanding
mega-cites: traffic congestion and accidents; unhealthy environ-
mental conditions, inadequate infrastructure, lack of clean
water, decrepid sewer system, and frequent power failures. These
problems will only become more acute as the population grows. It
has been estimated by Delhi’s planners that by the year 2000
there will be a need to triple or even quadruple the city’s basic

infrastructure as well as create approximately 3,000,000 jobs.

PROBLEM TO BE ADDRESSED:

As in much of the developing world, India’s high rates of
urban population growth have led to the development of large
sprawling high density slums. In 1990, it was estimated that 40-
45 percent of Delhi’s population lived in slums. Most of these
settlement areas lack basic urban services and amenities. One of
the most crucial services that these areas lack is the provision
of safe water supplies and sanitary facilities. These two
problems combine to cause many fatal and crippling epidemics. In
Delhi’s 543 regularized colonies, 380 have some access to piped
water facilities, however, only 135 have a sewerage system. 326
colonies were waiting for the government to fulfill its commit-

ment to provide them with drinking water. Many of these communi-

34

ties are in the eastern section of Delhi which was the site of a

massive cholera epidemic in 1988.

The conditions in the squatter settlements are even far
worse than in these regularized communities. In these areas
there is almost no drainage. In fact, in December of 1988, the
government reported that of the 251 squatter settlements in East
Delhi, 250 had no drainage. 433 of the 451 shanties surveyed
were without drainage. With no drainage system, filthy water
flows around and inside of the homes. People are forced to
defecate in the streets and in the areas surrounding there homes.
Residents, lacking clean safe drinking water, must dig hand pumps
and drink water that is contaminated by the communities indis-

criminate methods of defecation.

Indiscriminate defecation is responsible for many severe
environmental hazards in these communities. These include water
and soil pollution, disease, and infant mortality. Poorly
designed and irregularly cleaned latrines are also sources of the
same problems. They become breeding grounds for flies and other
disease carrying insects. These unsafe and unhealthy conditions
lead to many illnesses and affect the water and soil of the
entire city through their severe environmental contamination. In
fact, in 1980 it was estimated that diarrheal diseases, including
hookworm, roundworm, and dysentery, kill approximately 1.4

million children in India annually. And with the massive urban

35

growth that India has experienced since 1980, this number can be

assumed to be low in relation to what it would be today.

The few dry latrines that were in existence before this
innovation were cleaned by scavengers. It was the responsibility
of the scavengers to clean the pits and carry the night soil away
on their heads. These workers are usually overworked and forced
to clean overused and filthy facilities. It was estimated that
there was only one public latrine seat per 27 households (150
people). It was also estimated that 51 percent of the families
in low-income communities used public latrines and 41 percent
used open spaces. However, even those that did use the public
latrines did not do so regularly because of overcrowding, dirti-

ness, lack of water, and long walking distances from their homes.

SULABH SHAUCHALAYA

Sulabh Shauchalaya was developed in 1970 by Dr. Bindeshwar
Pathak. Dr. Bindeshwar is a graduate in sociology for Patna
University. He developed a new, easily built latrine design for
use in the provision of basic sanitation facilities to the urban
poor. The term Sulabh Shauchalaya means easy access to sanita-
tion. After developing the idea, Dr. Pathak wanted a means to
spread the word about this innovation. Therefore, in 1970 he

founded his organization Sulabh Shauchalaya and registered it as

36

a non-governmental organization (NGO) with the government. The
objective of Sulabh Shauchalaya was the conversion of dry,
household latrines into the hand flush waterseal latrines. In
addition to the development of the latrines for private use, Dr.
Pathak also proposed the idea of pay and use public toilets.
These projects started to draw international media attention and
interest from the World Health Organization (WHO). The implemen-
tation of the ideas quickly spread throughout India. The N60 now
has 68 complexes in use in Delhi as well as 61 were in the final
stages of construction at the time the case study was written in
1990. During its first twenty years of existence, Sulabh Shauch-
alaya built 660,000 private latrines and approximately 2,500
public latrine complexes in 584 towns in 18 states in India. It
was estimated that the 68 public complexes in Delhi with bath
cabins along with the toilets serve 290,000 men and women each
day. It was predicted that upon completion of the 61 complexes
in construction the daily totals will be approximately 362,000
men and women. However, the use of this idea was not limited to
India. The organization was later renamed Sulabh International.
In conjunction with the United Nations, Dr. Pathak’s latrine
design, with slight modifications, was implemented in nineteen

countries throughout Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

INNOVATION

In his research, Dr. Pathak came to the conclusion that the

37

pit privy is the most useful and applicable latrine design
produced in the world. He then worked with Mr. R.L. Das towards
the development of the design that was used for Sulabh Shauchala-
ya. However, the innovation for Dr. Pathak is just as much a
social innovation as it is a technical one. As he explains:

I thought that mere availability of the appropriate

technology will not solve the problem. For its wider

application, one would have to go to the people to

educate them about the technology, persuade them for

its adoption and then keep a watch whether they are

being properly used or not. FUrther, I though that

voluntary organization should not be kept confined to

the work of propagation and demonstration only; Rath-

er, they should get themselves involved in practical

work. Secondly, voluntary organization should not

remain dependant on the government grant or public

donations, rather they should run in on a no-profit-no-

loss basis so as to be fully self reliant.

Although the project was slow to catch on in its first three
years, by 1978 the NGO had converted approximately ten thousand
privies. With the help of UNDP, WHO, and the Government of
India, Sulabh International was responsible for the installation
of inexpensive latrines in 100 towns all over India. However,
the entire responsibility for these projects remained in the
hands of this small local organization. With the expansion of
the organization’s responsibilities, the number of employees has
grown. In India, with its high urban unemployment rates, Sulabh
Shauchalaya has also proven to be a positive force in providing
employment in the low-income communities. In 1980, Sulabh

Shauchalaya employed one thousand people. By 1990, the organiza-

tion had grown to 20,000 workers.

38

Sulabh International’s long term goal is the stimulation of
a major shift in the personal habits of the urban poor. The
organization’s general short term goal is the provision of
accessible, affordable latrines and the means to maintain them.
The following are the organization’s ten operational goals which

are used to guide their activities:

1. To eliminate the inhuman practice of carrying human
excreta as head load by the promotion and construction
of Sulabh Shauchalaya’s toilets and by replacing buck-
et/dry latrines.

2. To operate and maintain community toilet complexes
with baths and urinals on "pay and use" basis after
constructing them or providing the technical assistance
for their construction.

3. To construction or provide advice for construction
of Sulabh Shauchalayas and urinals in schools and
colleges to make the students and instructors aware of
low-cost sanitary latrines and inculcate them in the
habit of using them.

4. To produce bio-gas from human excreta and generate
electricity as an alternative source of energy.

5. To train youths to promote low-cost sanitation in
rural areas.

6. To involve women in the scavenging eradication
program.

39

7. To propagate the need of Sulabh Shauchalayas and
educate the people through demonstration units and
audio-visual media for mass communication (including
house to house contact, meetings, and the publication
and distribution of literature) and holding seminars
and workshops.

8. To conduct ongoing experimental research in the
fields of sanitation, environmental impacts, bio-gas,
and applied social research related to hygiene and
personal sanitation.

9. To provide consultancy services on low-cost sanita-
tion.

10. To rehabilitate the scavengers freed from the
demeaning task of handling human excreta by imparting
training to them and their wards in alternative voca-
tions and trades.

TARGET GROUP

The target population for the activities of this NGO are the
impoverished members of Delhi’s low-income communities. Particu-
lar attention is given to those who have no or very limited
access to sanitary latrines. In addition, particular attention
is given to women and to the scavengers. The target sites are
located throughout India’s urban areas. Within Delhi, most of
them have no sewerage facility or sufficient drainage system.
Because these areas are poor, they are not able to afford their
own formal sewerage system. Unfortunately, the Delhi Administra—

tion does not include this provision in their budget. Therefore,

40

the best solution at least for the time being is low-cost sanita-

tion.

The target communities are communities whose local adminis-
trators have approached the Sulabh International NGO for assis-
tance. It is up to the individual households or the administra-
tors to be interested in the projects and to make these first
steps. It is more likely that such communities will be responsi-
ble for providing a location which is convenient for the resi-
dents, participant in the implementation, and in the latrines’

maintenance.

PARTICIPATION

The NGO considered community participation to be central to its
success. Although the NGO was not founded by a member of these
communities, it seems to consider it important to keep contact
and participation with the communities. As is explained in the
Mega—Cities Casestudy," 0n the level of the slums, community
participation has been central to Sulabh’s success. Education
programs have been used to create a general awareness of sanita-
tion which will affect all areas of the slum dweller’s
lives...(Sulabh) aims to permanently alter the values and hygiene
habits of the urban poor, and to help them find a place for
cleanliness and sanitation in their daily routines" (p.10). This

is what the organization’s case study refers to in the section on

41

participation. As can be seen, participation, per se, seems to
be largely one way for Sulabh International. There is an empha-
sis put on the education and technical training of the target
community. However, there does not seem to be an effort made to
learn from the community or to receive feedback or input from the

community.
IMPACTS

1. POLLUTION: With so many of Delhi’s poor population living
in low-lying areas, well below the water level of the Yamuna
River, these communities are potential health hazards for the
entire region. With periodic inundations and changes of the
water table, These areas are given to pollution of soil and water
by surface contaminations. In fact, in Delhi there are 24 main
sewer lines which empty their pollutants directly into the river.
The Sulabh Shauchalaya latrines can help greatly in the curbing

of the spreading of water-borne diseases and polluted aquifers.

2. EMPLOYMENT: The Government of India has declared that it will
rid the city of the inhumane practice of scavenging by the year
2000. In 1990 it was estimated that there were about 6,000,000
dry latrines in India, with 500.000 in Delhi. Therefore, it was
estimated that in Delhi alone there were about 200,000 scavengers
working as removers of night soil from the dry latrines in Delhi.

Sulabh Shauchalaya has helped by retraining scavengers to main-

42

tain the new latrines. Therefore, they are able to not only
retain their employment, but hold a more respectable position.
In addition, the NGO retrains scavengers for other vocations.
Even if all of the scavengers are not able to find reemployment
in the same field, it is likely that with retraining in this or
another field they will be able to find another form of work

which will be more conducive to a healthy lifestyle.

3. DIGNITY: The NGO has assisted in the provision a basic human

service, clean sanitation, for those who had been forced to

survive without it. As the Mega-Cities case study explains:
Another of the Sulabh’s widespread impacts on social
equity in the city is the simple provision of clean
toilets to people who formally had to subsist without
them. Men and women faced the humiliation of defecat-
ing in open fields, and children when they were fortu-
nate enough to be entered into school systems, were too
embarrassed to bring classmates home. Slowly, these

conditions, and the unhealthy personal habits that spur
them, are being reversed.

4. MOBILIZATION: As mentioned earlier Sulabh Shauchalaya has a
policy of working with those individuals and communities that
contact them and ask for assistance. Therefore, they are helping
to encourage communities to organize and mobilize for their
services. The organization’s free educational and public health

and training workshops also assist the communities on this level.

43

GOVERNMENTAL COLLABORATION AND COOPERATION:

The public latrines built by Sulabh are located on
municipally donated land. This is an example of the "financial
and moral support" (p. 13) which the NGO has received from the
government. However, the NGO has experienced opposition from
politicians who saw this unconventional innovation as a threat.
Dr. Pathak’s technology and his financial matters were brought
under investigation by legislators in the State of Bihar. These
accusations were also widely publicized in the newspapers. In
spite of pressures, Dr. Pathak did not back down and he success-

fully defended himself against the accusations in court.

Although the case study materials do not include further
information on dealings with the government, it seems that they
have received mixed signals on the innovation. In spite of the
fact that the projects have been very successful, it is clear
.that they would have benefited from better relations and dialogue
with the governmental units. In the future, by collaborating on
combatting the problems of urban sanitation and working towards
the shared governmental and Sulabh organizational goals, the
project’s impact will be even more widespread and substantial.
This impact will be felt not only at the project implementation

level, but also at the governmental policy level.

The following section looks at the need for governments to

44

collaborate with the civil society organizations and to provide
an enabling environment for their interventions in urban service
and infrastructure provision. It also demonstrates how central
and municipal governments can rethink their roles and responsi-
bilities in the provision of urban basic services to best serve

their urban poor populations.

45

GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT FOR PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT

Local government officials and local non-governmental and
community based organizations are often best suited to plan
investments and development of services and infrastructure as
they have more knowledge of the area’s situation and require-
ments. In addition they are better able to supervise service
delivery and development. There is a growing recognition of the
need for central governments in developing countries to create an
environment conducive to the strengthening and expanding role of
the private sector. (UNDP, 1989) Some international development
organizations’ programs are based in the concept that collabora-
tion is needed as a means of empowerment and of finding and
implementing solutions. UNDP’s Local Initiative for Urban
Environment (LIFE) is a program which recognizes the critical
role which local governments, NGOs, and CBOs play in establishing
programs and policies to tackle problems of the urban environment
facing the poor, as well as the importance of coalition building
among the organizations. Its goals is to promote local-local
dialogue among NGOs, C805, and municipal governments to better
the urban environment. The program works to draw on the full
complement of human energy in the city to address these problems
together. This is just one example of many such efforts which
recognize the importance for collaboration in order for sustain-

able development to occur.

When compared to governmental state-owned enterprises,
private enterprises have many advantages. These include lower
production costs: more efficient service delivery; and increased
ability to maintain and improve capital facilities. In addition,
they can often offer more efficient and faster service and
expansion of choice. Private enterprises and civil society
organizations (CSOs) have proven themselves to be particularly
efficient in the provision of housing, transportation, refuse
collect and disposal and health and educational campaigns. This
can involve the provision of services by private sector companies
or the informal sector. As explained in UNDP’s publication
CitiesL_£egple,_and_Egyerty, "To meet the shelter and service
needs of urban populations, government agencies, and NGOs must
forge a new set of relationships. National and local governments
will have to use a combination of arrangements for delivering
services, including contracting, and coproducing of infrastruc-
ture and services. Contracting allows governments to take

advantage of specialized skills" (UNDP, 1991, p.65)

The need for governments to collaborate with the private
sector is now widely recognized. In his discussion of the
changing roles in the provision of urban services, Rondinelli
(1992) writes, "In the future, governments in countries with high
levels of urban population growth and expanding urban economies
will have to depend more heavily on private sector participation

to meet growing needs for housing, urban services, and facili-

47

ties" (Rondinelli, 1992, p.I).

There has been increased recognition of the central role
that local governments, community based organizations (C308) and
non-governmental organization (NGOs) play in the development and
sustainability of successful initiatives. Such organizations are
uniquely qualified to identify needs and provide services.
However, there is a gap between what governments and donor
agencies expect these organizations to achieve and the amount of
funding and support they are willing to provide. This issue is
evident in the case study discussed earlier in this paper.

It is widely acknowledged and accepted that, in the developing
world, a great number of low-income communities provide their own
housing and develop their own infrastructure and service provi-
sion systems. These activities require the investment of large
amounts of money by the low-income residents of the area. In
addition, it is widely acknowledged that the role of central
governments and multilateral and bilateral development agencies
should be one of supporting and strengthening the capacities of
these local initiatives. These communities and local governments
generally lack funds and credit opportunities. However, with the
support of governments and the opportunities and resources which
they offer, these initiatives can be even more successful.

(Environment and Urbanization, 1993)

48

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

It is not possible to make accurate recommendations on what
specific services or tasks the municipal governments and the
private organizations should be responsible for. Each country
and city is an individual case with its own idiosyncracies.
However, it is possible to recommend a theoretical strategy for a
country to determine the best organizational redistribution and
restructuring. In his discussion of the informal sector as an
administrative resource, John D. Montgomery (1988) provides a
conceptual framework for ascertaining the best distribution of
responsibility between the central government, the city govern-
ment, and the informal sector. Although NGOs are actually part of
the formal sector, they usually run programs that utilize the
informal sector to provide their services. Therefore, defining
and facilitating their role is central to developing the role of
NGOs and to allowing them to play their appropriate role in
sustainable development. Montgomery suggests three steps which a
government should undergo in order to determine what restructur-

ing and redistribution is necessary.

Governments should first undertake an data gathering and
analysis stage in which a study is conducted of the current

situation to observe the informal and private sector provision of

49

services that is already taking place. This study also helps to
determine how these private services can be improved. This
information is then used to allow governments to direct their
actions towards the citizens’ actual needs. Additionally,
analyzing the results of this study may lead a government to

rethink its policies and practices in this field.

The second step in this process involves a review of the
current combination and levels of responsibilities to determine
if this restructuring effort would assist in the strengthening of
the sectors that are found to be the least efficient and effec-
tive. Governments are becoming more interested in the expansion
of the private sector’s role as they encounter increasingly tight
financial resources to meet the growing needs for urban services.
Along with strengthening the private sector, it is equally
important to strengthen the abilities of municipal governments.
Often, central governments’ roles should be minimized to provid-
. ing services and functions which can not be handled as well by
municipal governments or the private sector, such as large
infrastructural developments or national planning. The central
government should be seen as a support structure for the munici-
pal government and the civil society organizations in that it can
provide the sort of training, supervision, and resources to which

it have better access.

Montgomery suggested that the following structural improve-

50

ments are likely to be appropriate:

Municipal Government:

+ Restructuring the regulation of informal sector
services so as to free entrepreneurial energies that
are now inhibited by direct or indirect policies:

+ Providing support to voluntary activities and infor-
mal sector enterprises already under way. Such efforts
could include training, infrastructure investments like
paving or electricity, and supervision and guidance
from municipal agencies.

Central Government

+ Introducing bond issues or direct capital improve-

ments for services to the urban poor such as roads,

schools,and health centres, exercising due care to

ensure that locational and construction decisions give

appropriate weight to the need and resources of low

income areas;

+ Reviewing and revising arrangements for providing

technical support to municipal officials engaged in

service delivery. This task could be accomplished by

establishing a panel to respond to specific requests

for advice or setting up review committees to assist

local administrators in developing standards of servic-

es for the urban poor.

(Montgomery in Rondinelli, 1988, p,107)

Decentralization to municipal governments and private sector
involvement in urban service provision can help in the empowering
of these local communities. Service delivery programs which are
formulated to facilitate public sector participation can often
increase urban residents’ access to services at the same time as
reducing the costs of expanding service provision. The private
sector has proven that it can, in many cases, be a more effective
and efficient means of urban service delivery, especially when it

has governmental support or, at least, approval. However,

51

although these processes are necessary for the strengthening of
these local organizations and local authorities, they still
require support from the central government. If the central
government simply transfers responsibility without support, this
will only add to the smaller groups and governmental units’
already overwhelming burdens. As John F. C. Turner (1988)
explains:

Autonomy means inter-dependent self-management, not

independent self-sufficiency, as those who confuse it

with autarchy believe. People’s own underused capaci-

ties and those of 0305 cannot be used as excuses to

offload governmental responsibilities. When government

fails to use resources and services so that people

cannot provide for themselves or through their own

local organizations, their essential contributions will

be inhibited or even perverted. And the same happens

when government abuses its powers through centrally

administered provisions, instead of supporting and
enabling locally self-managed production. (p.6)

The third and final step in this analysis and restructuring
process is the consideration of the problems of coordination
amongst the three types of players in this new structure.
Ultimately, the arrangements would be likely to have the munici-
pal and central governments autonomous, but working together and
drawing on the private/non-governmental sector’s resources,
knowledge,and innovations. Of course, this requires working on

current levels of distrust and disinterest in collaboration.

One problem with the informal provision of urban services

without regional organization or governmental regulation is that

52

it can result in confusion and fragmentation. As explained by

Bower et a1 (1990):

The inability of governments of urban areas to provide
adequate services, 9.9. water supply, sanitation,
transport, and solid waste disposal, has contributed
significantly to the development of the ’informal’
sector of economies in many, if not most, developing
countries. The informal sector has become an increas-
ingly important part of the overall economy, in terms
of outputs, employment, and utilization of available
natural resources. Although the informal sector has
been able to provide some services to areas of cities
not otherwise served, the existence of such efforts has
added to the fragmentation- and hence the inefficiency-
of the provision of urban services" (Bower, 1989,p.5)

Therefore, it is necessary to determine which services are
best provided by each of the players in this collaboration as

well as how each can monitor and regulate the others activities.

There are dangers related to private sector provision of
urban basic services. One main dangers is that richer neigh-
borhoods are better served because it is more profitable to
service these areas. Another danger is that because several
governmental services (such as garbage collection) generally are
profit making if well run, governments will be left with those
services (such as welfare) that not only are not profit making,
but are not even cost recovering, while that private sector will
take over all the profit making industries. This, of course puts

the governmental costs and revenues very off balance, leaving

53

governments without previously utilized means of internal cross-
subsidization from revenue generating government services. The
prevention of such scenarios is another reason to foster strong
relationship between governments and non-governmental organiza-

tions.

Policy change and simple dialogue alone are not the solu-
tions to the problem. There needs to be restructuring of the
institutional arrangements through which environmental problems
are viewed and addressed so that the governments can be more
effective. Public efforts to address these issues can not be
effective without strong local institutions and appropriate
enabling policies. It is often unclear which government agencies
are responsible for addressing these issues. Decentralization
can help in providing effective and efficient strategies and
management on urban environmental issues. However, the local
agencies which are given increased responsibility must also be
given increased resources as well as guidance on how to deal with
their new responsibilities. In addition, they need to account-
able to those that they are to serve so that they will use their
new responsibilities to benefit those they were meant for. This
accountability can be fostered by encouraging local governments
to work closely with the civil society organizations and the
private sector. Therefore by strengthening the governments’
ability to guide and monitor urban environmental interventions

and increasing their accountability, the move towards sustainable

54

development can be facilitated with greater success. With such
arrangements in place, governments are allowed to concentrate
their efforts in those areas where they can best utilize their
advantages as a pubic agency. At the same time, the private
sector can be increasingly monitored and Open to competition so
that they will be more likely to provide the most safe and
equitable services to those in need. With each of the actors
playing the roles for which they are best suited, the move
towards sustainable development and sustainable cities is possi-

ble.

55

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