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THE DEFICIENCIES OF CURRENT UA DEFINITION
AND

REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES

bY

Shun-Fen Yiin

A PLAN 8 PAPER

"Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF URBAN PLANNING

Urban Planning Program

1990

ACKNO'LEDGIHBNTS

This paper has arisen from my three years of involvement in
class courses in Urban Planning Program at Michigan State
University, and my two years' working experience as a research
assistant for the census research project in the Center for Urban
Affair. During this time I have received assistance, advice and
encouragement from many professors. Special thanks are to Dr.
Michael Chubb, Dr. Frank zinn, Dr. Tom Lyons, Dr. Shamistha Bagchi-
Sen, and Dr. Mahammad Kamier. I would like to thank Dr. Chubb for
his ideas and instructions in the knowledge of remote sensing
techniques. I thank Dr. Zinn, my Plan B adviser, who have helped
me crystallize my ideas. I appreciate Dr. Bagchi-Sen and Dr.
Kamier helped me to present my thoughts and stimulate my interest
in statistic methodologies. I also wish to express my great thank
to Dr. Lyon who read and edited my draft, and suggested
improvements. Finally, my thanks and appreciation to my sister,
Shu-Min, who has not only took care of my newborn baby to let me
finish paper but also give me psychological support and
encouragement.

ABSTRACT

This paper focuses on the deficiencies of current Urbanized
Area (UA) definition. There are four specific objectives. The
first one is a discussion of the background and the conceptual
context in which this investigation is being carried out. The
second one is to identify the problems of 1980 UA definition and
the problems caused by the UA definition. The third covers a case
study in Lansing/E. Lansing UA in Michigan, and develops a
methodology to analyze the UA problem; and identify the possible
solutions. The last one examines the feasibility in applying
remote sensing-based techniques to the'UA delineation. It reveals
the insufficient variables used.in 1980 UA.criteria, and finds that
a multivariate approach is more appropriate. Remote sensing-based
methods can probably be a surrogate, but the high cost of imagery
obstructs its feasibility politically.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIBTOP FIGURES OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ....... ....... .......... ...... iii

LIBTornPB ...................... . ...... ............. ....... iv

I. IMRODUCTION.....O.......O..................0........... 1

II. BACKGROUND OF UA DEFINITION AND CONCEPTUAL PERSPECTIVE .. 3

Background of Official UA Definition .................... 3
Historical Conceptual Perspective .......................

III. PROBLEMS OF URBAN BOUNDARY DELINEATION ........... ....... 10

Purpose of Defining Urbanized Area(UA) and

an Extended City ........................................ 11
Definition and Current Boundary Criteria of UA .......... 12
Definition of an Extended City .......................... 13
Procedures Used in Delineating 1980 UA's ................ 13
Problems of 1980 UA Definition .......................... 16
Other General Problems ............. ...... ...... ......... 20

IV. CASE STUDY IN LANSING/E. LANSING UA ..................... 22

Samples and Sites Selected ............ ..... ............. 23
Variables Specifications ........................ ...... .. 26
Analysis Methodology ...................... ........ ...... 28
Statistics, Results, and Conclusion ..................... 29
V. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR UA DEFINITION PROBLEMS ........... 33

Integrating Other Variables into UA Criteria ............ 33

VI.

VII.

Government Consolidation ................................
otheruethOds ...........................................

REMOTE SENSING-BASED TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO US
DBLIMTION .............................................

Airphoto-Based ..........................................
Landsat-Based ...........................................
SLAR/SAR-Based ..........................................
The Feasibility of Remote Sensing-Based Techniques ......

CONCLUSION ........... ...... .. ..... ...... ..... ...........

REFERENCE ....................................................

APPENDICES

I.

II.

III.

IV.

DATA LISTING OF THE 14 CENSUS VARIABLES FOR THE
LANSING/E. LANSING SAMPLE AREA

CLUSTER ANALYSIS IN LANSING/E. LANSING UA

RANK OF CENSUS TRACTS BY SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS

1950 TO 1980 UA CRITERIA

ii
34
36

38

38

42

48

51

54

55

iii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Page

1. The Inner and Outer Lines Established for
Existing and P-1 Potential UA's ..... ....... ............ 15

2. Urban Development with Rural Census Block .............. 19

3. Feature-Spacing Algorithm .............. ..... ........... 43

4. Shuttle Imaging Radar-A Image of Baoding Area .......... 52

5. Shuttle Imaging Radar-A Image of Dexhou Area ........... 53

iv

LIST OF MAPS

Maps Page

1.

StudYArea .............................................. 24

Current Lansing/E. Lansing UA ......... .................. 25

Potential UA 1 : Results through Cluster Analysis ....... 31

Potential UA 2 : Results through Ranking Census Tracts
by Socio-Economic Indicators ...... ..... 32

I. INTRODUCTION

The main purpose in defining urban boundaries today is to use
them in determining the distribution of federal grants-in-aid and
federal programs. People who live in a defined urbanized area
benefit from government services such as schools, hospitals, parks
and libraries, etc. Because the urban boundaries are so important,
there always exists an argument about the appropriateness of this
Urbanized Area (UA) definition since the first census and first UA
criteria.

Every 10 years, the U.S. Bureau of Census conducts a census
of population and housing. Before this census is taken, the
Geographic Division of the Census Bureau should delineate the
potential extent of the UA by a new UA definition. The methodology
and definition they adopted is mainly based on 2 statistic figures
-popu1ation size and population density. Whether or not those two
figures present the whole UA has been argued and discussed by
researchers and experts for a long time. In the past, the Census
Bureau typically used aerial photography to identify the urban
fringe to perform this job. However, due to the timely airphotos
were not available for each of more than 300 Standard Metropolitan
Statistical Areas (SMSA's), other data such as land use maps were
used as a replacement. Nevertheless, the potential problems and
deficiencies of the UA definition still exist. Because of the
rapid changes of social and economic structures in recent decades,

it's irrational to define perfect UA boundaries without considering

2
the socio-economic status. Nowadays, the growth and expansion of
population and economic activities around major urban areas, and
penetrating into the periphery, make it difficult for the. UA

definition to distinguish the purely urban and purely rural.

II.BACKGROUND OF UA DEFINITION AND CONCEPTUAL PERSPECTIVE

W

In 1790, Congress provided statutory authorization for taking
a census, and population censuses have been conducted every 10
years since then. At that time, the growth in the areas adjacent
to the limits of incorporated places had been apparent, but were
still relatively 1imited.before the early 19th.centuryu During the
latter'half of 19th century and the earlier 20th century, the rapid
growth adjacent to the industrial city increased the demand for a
statistical definition to define an area encompassing the urban
centers and their suburbs. Before this time, the city could
generally represent the extent of urban development but became less
representative after then.

After 1900, some state laws were enacted to increase the
ability of municipalities to annex the developing suburban areas.
However, because the suburban dwellers preferred services provided
by a county or a minor civil division (MCD) government rather than
annex to a city or incorporate as places, the Census Bureau
increasingly failed to measure accurately the urban territory by
using its primary geographic unit to measure the urban population.
The first attempt to define a statistical area encompassing the
industrial city and its suburban area occurred in the 1905 census.
For the 1910 census, the Census Bureau planned a more restrictive

criterion for defining large urban cluster based on MCD rather than

4
counties. These areas were known as "metropolitan districts," this
definition concept was continuously used until the 1940 census with
minor changes. There are some inadequacies by using the density
of MCD as a measure of the urban area around large cities. Many
MCD's, the building-blocks of the districts, were too large to
serve as a unit for precisely measuring the urban population. Most
of the districts include significant amounts of rural population
and rural area. The other problem was that the MCD data were not
available for most states. Also, some MCD boundaries did not
remain stable over time, the was comparability therefore question-
able. Moreover, this metropolitan district definition did not
improve its definition of urban and rural until the 1950 UA
(urbanized area) definition.

To improve the urban-rural classification, for the 1950
census, two new geographic statistical entities were developed -
one to identify the metropolitan area, the other one to identify
the urban area around the largest cities. This was the first
attempt to provide a precise separation between urban and rural
population around large metropolitan areas. In this census, the
Census Bureau introduced the UA as a statistical area and added
population and area of the UA to the definition to better delimit
the urban population. Another statistical area, "unincorporated
places" (now called "census designed area" or CDP), were also
introduced at this census. This definition provided a statistical
area for which a wide range of socio-economic data were available,

also, boundaries of SMA's followed the county boundaries (except

5
for New England areas) instead of MCD boundaries which presented
a more stable geographic unit over time. One of the problems of
1950 UA criteria is that it used previous census data to delineate
the UA boundary and was somewhat out of date. The selection of
central cities, also based on the previous census, would result in
an inconsistent and incomplete identification of UA's. This 1950
UA.criterion excluded adjacent areas of slightly lower'density'that
have suburban population also oriented toward the major urban core.

For the 1960 census, the qualification of UA's was changed to
have its basis the current census, rather than the previous census,
by using enumeration districts (ED's) as the unit of density
measurement. The Census Bureau also enabled the delineation of
unincorporated places within the UA fringe. That allowed the
population living in the UA to inClude persons living within
unincorporated places as well as incorporated places.

In the delineation of UA's for the 1970 census, there were two
major changes: introduction of the concept of extend cities, and
the use of blocks instead of ED's as the measure of density. For
the 1980 census, the Census Bureau employed a number of modifica-
tions to the UA criteria designed to deal with the following
problems: the central city requirement, contiguous nonresidential
urban land use, and developed areas separated from the main body

of the UA by "undevelopable" area that will be discussed latter.1

 

1U.S. Bureau of the Census, Geographic Areas Reference Manual,
1987, CH.15

Historical Cppcepppal gerspectivp

Historically, the concepts of "rural" and "urban" used in the
census have been.based_main1y on one criteria - size of population.
In some countries, including the United States, political organiza-
tion.has sometimes been used as a secondary'criterion. 'The initial
U.S. census report. tot differentiate Ibetween ‘urban and rural
population was after the 1880 Decennial census, the criterion used
to identity the urban place was the concentration of 8,000 or more
population in a community. Even then, it was considered that this
8,000 minimum population was too high to truly represent the urban
population and places that were really urban in character. Hence,
from the 1880 to the 1900 census report, the population size
criterion was lowered to 4,000. In these reports, the "semi-urban"
had also been classified for inhabitants living in all incorporated
places of less than 4,000.2 In 1900, the 2,500 population thres-
hold was first used in identifying the urban.popu1ation- But there
was no explanation or a conceptual basis for proving its adoption
at that time. In 1940, Truesdell set forth a conceptual basis for
differentiating urban and rural population and place in censuses.
He suggested several factors in differentiating urban from rural
conditions - population size, population density, land use type,

political organization, and the presence of agricultural occupa-

 

2Truesdell, L.E. "The Development of the Urban-Rural Clas-
sification in the United States: 1874 to 1949," Current Population

Report ngplgtion Charactepistigg (Series No.1) 1949, pp.4

7
tion.3 Accordingly, The differentiation between urban places and
rural places could become very straightforward when the above
criteria reach certain levels.

In the past, it might be appropriate to categorize the people
as rural who are living in places below 2,500 threshold upon U.S.
Census's urban definition criteria and were mainly employed in
agriculture or other primary economic activities. However, the
economy and lifestyles of Americans have changed widely in recent
year. Not only has the proportion of the labor force in agricul-
ture and other primary activities decreased, but the labor force
in :manufacturing and the actual number living on farms has
decreased also.‘ These conditions combined with the changing
socio-cultural lifestyles of the American population make it more
difficult to discriminate the difference between urban and rural.
Shevky and Bell used social characteristics - "societal scale" in
the social area analysis to examine the urban life. It included
three constructs by using six variables - economic status (occup-
ation and education), family status (fertility, woman at home, and
single family detached dwelling units) and Ethnic status(ethnic
groups).5 They supposed that (1) with the increasing division of

labor, an occupational status system develops, (2) family becomes

 

3Truesdell, 1949

‘Freudreis, J.P. "The Information Revolution and Urban Life,"

Journal of Urban Affairs, Vol.11, pp. 327-337
5Shevky, E., and W. Bell, Sgcial Area Analysis (Standford

University Press, Stanford, California, 1955), p.4

8
less important as an individual economic unit, and a weakening of
traditional organization of family after higher urbanization, and
(3) the improved transportation results in higher mobility, and
_ that leads the resorting of the population and the segregation of
different ethnic and racial groups.6

In Western urban theory, the key parameters used in the
classification method were population size, population density, and
social heterogeneity.7 Wirth suggested that the technological
development in transportation and communication, and the rapid
dispersal and impact of assimilation had tremendously extended the
urban mode of living beyond the city's boundary. Even at that
time, Wirth.had determined.that urbanism, as a way of life, crossed
the boundaries of the physical city and.the landscape to become the
dominant way of life among rural dwellers.8

From a sociological and economic viewpoint, there is no longer
a dividing line between purely urban and purely rural under the
expansion of the influence of urban life in American society.
Friedmann and Miller introduced a new ecological unit termed "the
urban field" replacing the traditional concept of city and
metropolis“ ‘While ‘urban living' extends far' beyond existing

metropolitan cores and penetrates into the periphery, the older

 

6Cadwallader, M.T. "Urban Social Areas," in Analytical Urban

Geography - Spatial Patterns and Theories, (New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall, 1985), pp.125

7Wirth, L., "Urbanism As a Way of Life," American Journal of
Soci lo , Vol.44, 1938, pp.1-23

8Wirth, L. 1938

9
urban centers together with the intermetropolitan.peripheries will
constitute this new ecological unit.9 From each point of view,
it is becoming nearly impossible to trace a sharp dividing line to

distinguish urban and rural, town and countryside.

 

“Friedmann, I., & Miller, J. "The urban field," 19urpgl_pr_ru§
WE. Vol.31, 1965. pp-312-319-

10

III. PROBLEMS OF URBAN BOUNDARY DELINEATION

Different federal grants—in-aid and federal programs to states
and local governments are based on the population size and whether
a place is rural or urban. An urbanized area boundary is therefore
important because it becomes an influential line to determine who
are the beneficiaries for certain kinds of services and grants.
Also, various types of economic development programs, community
development programs and differing focuses are also applied to
different areas, according to whether the place is defined as an
urbanized area or rural area. An example is the Urban Development
Action Grant (UDAG) program, designed to help alleviate physical
and economic deterioration in severely distressed cities and urban
counties only. In fiscal year 1987, the funding under‘UDAwaas $255
million.10 On the other hand, various developments of economic,
agriculture/nature resources, infrastructure and human resources
were assigned to rural areas. In fiscal year 1987, about $6.4
billion in grants and payments, $1.6 billion of loan, and the
expenditures of about $3.1 billion were provided by infrastructure
programs.11 Thus, in order to let the proper dwellers get the

appropriate services, a reasonable and acceptable definition of

 

10U.S. Feneral Accounting Office, Urban Action Granrs: an

Anglysis of Eligibility and Selectign Criteria; and Program
Results, P.3

 

11U.S. General Accounting Office, Rural Development:Federa1

Erggram that focus Qn Rural America and lrs Economig Development."
pp. 39

11
urbanized area and rural area is needed. In 1980 UA criteria, some
potential problems were revealed, such as the 2,500 minimum
population requirement, jumping area problem, and the relationship
of UA boundaries to the census blocks. The other general problems
that are caused by urban definition, such as local government
fragmentation, should also be considered prudently. Before getting
into the discussion of UA problems, the way UA boundaries were

delineated is revealed below.

-ose of D:finin- Uro-g 2;: .“e- I. -:- -, :2 ..... it~

There are two major proposes in defining UA's and extended
cities. One is setting up a better separation of urban and rural
population and area around. the large cities. 'The other is
providing a measure of the urban population, and extent of urban
area. Since the first UA definition in the 1950 census, the UA's
definition criteria has been slightly adjusted with each subsequent
decennial census in order to accurately represent the extent of
urban development and delimit the National large urban clusters.12
Moreover, urban area definition has been used as a basis of
distribution of government budgets and resources, redefining of UA
will result in the redistribution of budgets and beneficiaries.

The purpose of defining an extended city is to alleviate the

classification problem which classifies the rural territory as part

of urban land area. While cities extend their boundaries, some

 

12U.S. Bureau of the Census,

12
territory essentially in rural character was also classified as
part of the urban area. Therefore, in the 1970 census, the Census
Bureau used the concept of the extended city to define the rural
part of those incorporated places within UA's and exclude these

areas from the UA.

WWW

According to 1980 UA criteria, an urbanized area consists of
an incorporated central city or cities and.adjacent densely settled
surrounding area with a minimum population of 50,000. The densely
settled surrounding areas consist of:13
1. Contiguous incorporated places or census designated places
having:

a) at least 2,500 population, or

b) having a population density of 1,000 person per

square mile, a closely settled area with a minimum of

50 percent of the population, or a cluster of minimum

100 housing units.
2. Contiguous unincorporated area that is connected by roads and
with a population density of no less than 1,000 persons per square
mile.
3. Other contiguous unincorporated area having a density of less
that 1,000 persons per square mile, but together with some other

characteristics as listed in the criteria.

 

13U.S. Bureau of Census, 1289 Qengus of. Population and flousing,

l3
4. Large concentrations of nonresidential urban area (such as major
airport, office areas, industrial parks), which is contiguous to

an urbanized area with at least 1/4 of its boundary.

WW

An extended city consists of an urban part and a rural part.
This kind of city is an incorporated place that contains one or
more areas, with each area being at least 5 square miles in extent
with a population density of less than 1,000 persons per square
mile. The area or areas must have at least 25 square miles or
minimum 25 percent of the land area of the city. All population
of these areas will be classified as rural, and these areas are
excluded from the UA. Only the urban part is considered to be the

central city of an UA.

Proce ur s sed i 1 ea n 1 A' “

The delineation of UA reflects some subjective decisions,
such as separating one UA into two or more, or combining two or
more UA's into one. The procedures used in 1980 were similar to
the one used in 1970. It included 5 major steps: 1)determining
potential UA's, 2)establishing the outer line, inter line and
measurement units(MU), 3)measuring the land area and obtaining the
population count for eachiMU, 4) determining the area of continuous

residential development, and 5)determining and adding additional

 

1"U.S. Bureau of the Census, geographic Areas Reference Manual,
1987

14

area to the UA.

Determining Potential UA’a

In step 1, the Census Bureau reviewed total UA's including
potential new‘UA's, and classified the potential UA's into P-1 and
P-z groups according to the possibility of qualification. P-l
areas were the most likely to achieve the required minimum 50,000
population. 'The less likely areas to achieve the above requirement
were classified into P-2 areas, which were evaluated from enumera-
tion districts(EDs) by using 1980 census maps. Then, a density
evaluation was made based on group block(called measurement units

or MUS) for each P-1 potential UA and 1970 existing UA.15

Establishing the Outer Line, Inner Line and MU’s

Step 2, the census Bureau delineated an inner line and outer
line for each existing UA and P-l potential UA as shown in figure
1.16 The inner line was an approximation of 1970 UA and the outer
line represented the estimated maximum extent of the 1980 UA. The
Census Bureau determined the location of the outer line iby
observing the density of the street pattern shown on the current
maps, the examination of recent aerial photography, and data from

the last census. The area between the inner line and outer line

 

15Those block were delineated on the MMS sheet or VMS sheet.

16Source from Geography Division, Bureau of Census

15

was subdivided into MUs for population density examination.17

—I MU

--> OUTER LINE
-->INNER LINE :l

j

 

 

 

  
 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1: The inner and outer lines established for
existing and P-l potential UA'S

Measuring the Land Area and Obtaining the Population for Each MU, and determining
the Area of Continuous Residential Development

After the inner line, outer line, and MU's boundaries were
built, the Census Bureau started to obtain the land area and
population count for each MU. In land area measurement, the area
of water and nonresidential land use had been subtracted from the
total MU area. Then, the Bureau went to step 4 to determine
whether the area is continuous residential development or not? rAll
qualifying places that added to the UA had followed the two

condition as below:

 

17Boundaries of the MUs were obtained by using the information
about street pattern provided.by census map and.by reference to the
latest U.S.G.S. topographic quadrangles and areal photography.

16
1. All places should have a population of 2,500 or more, or

a density of more than 1,000 persons per square mile.
2. All MUs are contiguous to the inner line or adjacent to

qualifying places.

Determining and Adding Additional Area to the UA

Beside above qualifying areas, in step 5, the Census Bureau
added other qualifying area on the basis of criteria of the 1980
UA other than minimum population, density and contiguity. There-
fore, more qualifying areas might be added to the UA, such as
places having a density less than 1,000 persons per square mile or
total population of 2,500 but having a cluster of more than 100
housing units adjacent to or not more than 1.5 miles from the
previous defined UA core. The result is that such means of
qualification might cause some special scenario, such as jumping

area.

Prob em f 98 0 e i n

Before every Decennial Census, the Census Bureau had tried to
improve the deficiency of urban definition to more accurately
classify urban population for the coming census. Therefore, since
first revision of UA criteria in 1950 till now, UA criteria has
been revised 5 times (1960, 1970, 1974, 1980) based on statistical
geographic entity, in an attempt to remove any regional bias and
to measure more precisely the changing settlement pattern of the

Nation. However, the UA boundaries today still have certain

17
limitations, and the criteria used today still have exist some

deficiencies.

Minimum Population and Population Density

"A contiguous incorporated place having 2,500 minimum
population" has been used in UA criteria since 1950, and "a minimum
population density of 1,000 persons per square mile" has also been
employed by the Census Bureau since 1960. There is a question as
to whether those two figures(2,500 and 1,000) can fully represent
the different characteristic between urban life and rural life?
Doubtlessly, the socio-economic characteristics and the cultural
characteristics have been widely changed in the three decades.
Hence, a place with less than 2,500 inhabitants might had a rural
scenario 30 years ago, but not now. Similarly, a territory with
population density less than 1,000 persons per square mile might
also present an urban life at present. Accordingly, The require-
ments of 2,500 minimum population and population density of 1,000
persons no longer provide an appropriate border for the urban and
rural division.

.Another risk that may also arise when using those two criteria
is the undercount or overcount problem of every decennial census.
Because the Census Bureau uses the census data as a basis to define
the urbanized area, the data are supposed to be very accurate. In
fact, this data could never be precise enough. .After every census,
argument always occurs regarding the overcount or 'undercount

problem which would affect the distribution of federal expenditures

18
or revenue programs. For example, under the estimation by the
Census Bureau, approximately 2.2% of the overall population was
missed in 1970 census, roughly 8% of all blacks went uncounted.18
Therefore, if those two figures will are to be used as criteria,

allowances for this error must be make.

Jumping Areas

Jumping areas were allowed based on the criteria of 1980,
which had a population density less than 1,000 persons per square
mile in a contiguous unincorporated area. The Census Bureau
examined and measured the jumping area by connecting road, and
accepted it if the area is connected by a road and 1) no more than
1-1/2 miles from the main body of urbanized area, or 2) separated
from the main body of the UA by water or other undevelopable area,
but less than 5 miles away from the main.body of UA. This criteria
will make the same error as above. What is the meaning of 1-1/2
miles and 5 miles? What is the social distance of 1-1/2 miles and
5 miles? How does one define the difference between 1-1/2 miles

and 2 miles? What is difference between 5 miles and 4 miles?

Relationship of HA Boundaries to Census Blocks
Each UA structure is based on the geographic unit used by the
census - census block. Hence, the census block must be identifi-

able and correspond to recognizable features. However, a par-

 

18flaryard Law geview, Feb. 1981, Vol 94, pp.841-863. "Demog-
raphy and Distrust:Constitutional Issue of the Federal Census."

19
ticular census block may include both a sizable urban and a rural
population, or population density. Urban development will not
always have close boundaries on physical features, and the UA
boundary cannot separate the different internal areas according to
the census block as shown on figure 2. Therefore, the configura-
tion of census blocks constrains the shape and position of the UA
boundary, especially when the census maps are not updated fast
enough, and the non-updated maps still hold old urban street
patterns in a large block with sizable area. The DA boundaries
will be criticized as not accurate enough because.they are based'

on the old street pattern map.

 

 

LEGEND
O 0 O O UA BOUNDARY
- Housing Units
1 15 Census Block Number

 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERC!

he... 0! the can...”

 

Figure 2: Urban development with rural census block

 

20
MEI-£291.99:

While it has been decided which settlements are urban, there
might exist one spatial extent problem of those settlements.
Because the corporate boundary may not truly represent the real
extent of that city, this legal definition will lead to an under-
bounded city or overbounded city. This underbounded city occurs
when the legal city inside the real or physical city is desig-
nated.19 Today, urbanism as a way of life predominates the
boundaries of the physical city and the way of life among rural
dwellers. Most cities in the United States are underbounded
cities, which are usually surrounded by suburbs. Those suburbs use
the facilities of the central cities, such as schools and hospi—
tals, that lead to the severe problems of fiscal imbalance in

central city and local government fragmentation.

Local Government Fragmentation

As the suburb population grew, and the industrial and
commercial activities increased, a whole range of government
services were required to serve the settlements. Those services
usually came to be supplied by local government rather than by the
corporate city. Hence, the local government units increased
rapidly and created local government fragmentation. This
fragmented pattern of local government makes for a situation in

which many districts administer overlapping programs of social

 

19Cadwallder, 1985, Ch.1

21
service which are supposed to be unifunctional, but came to
function individually. It became difficult to coordinate other
individual policies and interests, such as water, sewage, gas,
parks, and libraries. Consequently, some large issues in urban
areas, such as conservation and land use planning, are ignored
because of the incapability of coordinating the policy decisions
made at each local level of government.”’ Fiscal imbalance is
another critical problem in these underbounded cities. While
people and industries have been moving out to the suburbs, the tax
base in the central city has been eroding; Even the central cities
lost the huge tax bases and revenues, but there are still increased
expenditures and demand for social service. Because of the old and
dilapidated buildings, there needs more fire protection. Because
of the higher crime rates, more police protection is needed. Also
because the suburbanites work downtown, they use the downtown
facilities, such as parking lots, hospitals, and libraries, that
create another burden on the central city.“' Compared to the high
revenue/expenditure ratio characteristic of most suburban municipa-
lities, the above burden causes the central cities to tend to have

a giant deviation between revenues and expenditures.

 

20Cadwallader, 1985, Ch.1

21Paul Knox, "Spatial Organization and Locational Conflict,"

Urpen goeiel Geography, 2nd. ed. (New York: John Wilely & Sons,
1987), pp.266

22

IV. CASE STUDY IN LANSING/E. LANSING UA

Up-to-date, most cities in the United States are underbounded
cities and do not represent the real extent of the city. Not only
was the city located inside the real physical city, some sites
inside the city had been rejected for incorporation into the UA.
The intention of this section is to try to test one urbanized area
to see if the UA boundary should be extended or not? Should the
sites surrounded by the UA, but excluded from the UA definition,
be redefined as being incorporated into the UA? Because of the
1980 UA. criteria's deficiencies as :mentioned jpreviously, the
urbanism can not be presented only by those criteria but together
with some other variables. Sjoberg and others22 also have exhibited
several prominent characteristics to distinguish the urban places
from non-urban places, such as water system for household, non-
agricultural labor force, etc. Accordingly, this section is going
to use some other census variables(such as socio-economic status,
personal characteristics, housing structure characteristics) , which
can present the urban characteristics more, to reveal the potential
problem of current boundary and redefine a possible boundary in the

Lansing/ E.Lansing urbanized area.

 

:RG. Sjoberg, The Preindusrriel Ciry (New York:The Free
Press,1960)

23
W

Because it is difficult to get census block data, in this
study, census tract data are used instead of block data. In total,
102 census tracts were selected in Lansing city, East Lansing city
and some adjacent area located in Michigan as shown in map 1.
Those target samples consist of all urbanized area (map 2) and some
sites within Lansing/E.Lansing city, but not defined as urbanized
area (such.as census tracts N30, N30.01, N31.02 N34, etc,)m’and.the
neighboring sites (including Holt CDP, tracts 54 and 55, etc).
Because the SPSSX Cluster analysis excluded the samples with
missing values, only 81 samples with complete data sets will be
included in the final analysis. The samples with missing values
have 3 kinds of circumstances“ iOne is the census tracts with zero
population, where the commercial areas are located, such as parts
of tract 30 and 31.01 including Frandor Mall, Sears, Kroger, were
defined as urbanized area. Another one is the places with low
population size. The other one is because the area is on the
University campus (census tract 42, 43.01, 43.02, 44.01). Of
course, the fertility, rent, mortgage and housing value can hardly

present the truth of the variables.
In the analysis, " N " was put in front of the census tract
number of the sites not defined as UA in order to distinguish them

from the ones defined as being include in the UA.

 

2E’Some area in one census tract is divided .into two parts.
One part is incorporated in the UA, another is not. In order to
easily distinguish.of them, the census tract numbers followed.after
an "N" present the areas not incorporated in the UA.

24

Map l : Study Area

 

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25

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26

V r ab e S eci c o 3
There are 14 variables used in this study. Total population
shows the general characteristic. Total Housing units is used to
calculate the percentage of housing units connected with public
water, sewer and gas utility. The other 12 variables with socio-
economic and housing characteristics and assumed hypotheses are

listed as below :

Mean Travel Time to Work.

This variable is the average time in minutes spent traveling
from home to work. In a more urban place, the higher proportion
of work force results in more traffic jams which, in turn, causes

increased travel time.

Fertility and Women at Home.

The fertility'variableiis the number of children.born of 1,000
women in the age bracket between 35 and 44. Women at home is the
percent of women in the labor force who are unemployed. In a more
urban place, the family becomes less important as an individual
economic unit; hence, the traditional organization of the family
is weakened“. More independent working women, more single parent
families lead to fewer women staying at home. Also because of the
high-stress urban life style, people tend to have fewer children,

leading to a lower fertility rate.

 

2"Martin T. Cadwallader, 1985, pp.125

27
Percentage of School Cbmpleted with High School Graduates.

Usually, experts assume that more urban places have a higher
proportion of high school educated population. This assumption
will have little problem while applying to compare different
countries. However, while applying this assumption to the UA in
the United States, it may run into some risk because of the higher
proportion of poorly educated minority individuals in most American
metropolitan areas. But for the sites in a whole urbanized area,

they may have similar results for the education characteristic.

Percentage of Population Employed in Agriculture, and in Craft & Operative.
Doubtlessly, a lower percentage of agricultural labor force
exists in more urban places. With the increasing division of the
labor force in urban areas, the occupational status system develops
and results in a larger percentage of employment involved in the

craft and operative sectors.

Percentage of Housing with Public water, Sewer, Gas Utility.

An urban site becomes has a higher proportion of its housing
units connected to a public water supply system, a public sewer
system and utility gas system. The gas system may be provided by

either a private company or a public utility.

28

Median Rent, Median Mortgage and Mean Value of Housing Units.
Characteristically, places with higher rent, and a. higher
mortgage, higher value of housing units are more urban than those
with lower ones. Rent and mortgage, here, consist of monthly
payment by tenants or houseowner. Housing unit values, here, are
presented in thousands of dollars. Because of the greater demand
for housing in an urban place, housing costs are greater. Conse-
quently, the rents and.the mortgages will be increased to match the

higher housing costs.

Analysie Methodology

This analysis include.two parts. One is using'cluster analysis
in SPSSX program on Michigan State University's IBM 3090 mainframe
computeru .Another one is ranking the census tracts by the urbanism
index. Both of these two parts of the analysis are based on Z-
score data transformed from the raw data sets to avoid the
disadvantage of different scale.

Cluster analysis classifies the census tracts into categories
based on distance and similarities. The distance used here is
squared Euclidean distance. The less the distance between the
census tracts means higher similarities between them, and they will
be group together.

In the part II ranking procedure, 3 variables - fertility,

percent of women at home, and percent of agricultural employment

29
use negative values to show lower levels of urbanism/5 because a
more urban place will have lesser fertility and a lower percentage
of women at home, and a lower percentage of agricultural employ-
ment. The summation of the 12 Z-scores for 12 variables(except
population and housing units) for each census tract provides
combined information for its level of’ urbanization. iLarger
positive composite values indicate a more urban place, and larger

negative values indicate the less urban.

Statiatieal_89§ultsl_an§_Conclusion

In cluster analysis, an Hierarchical Icicle Plot provides the
case similarity and group information. Based on this information,
census tract N201.01(not incorporated into UA) and 31.02(part of
UA) have the most similarity and are clustered together with dis-
similarity coefficient 2.84(Appendix ii). This means census tract
N201.01 owns urban characteristics as well as tract 31.02, but was
excluded from UA by current UA definition. On a basis of urban
socio-economic characteristics, N201.01 should be incorporated into
the urbanized area. Analogously, tract N46.00 groups with 40.00;
41.00 groups with 39.02 and.N43.01; N49.02 groups with 38.01: 17.01
groups with 33.02, N201.02 and N201.01: 38.02 groups with N49.01
and N31.02; 21.00 groups with N35.00: 54 groups with 33.01: and 55

groups with 53.03. Thus, based on this cluster analysis, at least

 

2514.8. Kamiar & J .T.Darden, "Socio-Economic Development of
Black Ghetto Tracts in Michigan:The Microcosm Model Reconsidered,"

Ihe_East_Lakes_§eegranher. Vol.23, 1988. pp-71-84

30
another'lo census tracts (N46.00, N43.01, N49.02, N201.02, N201.01,
N49.01, N31.02, N35.00 and 2 tracts of Holt CDP -tracts 54 and 55)
should also have been included in the Lansing/E. lansing urbanized
area (see map 3).

Through the ranking procedure, the higher composite values
possess the more urban characteristics. As show in appendix iii,
the UA census tracts and non-UA census tracts are mixed together.
This demonstrates that not all the UA census tracts own more urban
characteristics than the non-UA census tracts. From the cluster
analysis, it can be seen that another 10 census tracts should be
parts of the UA. The lowest composite value of those 10 census
tracts is -.81 in tract N35.00. Thus, using the census tract
N35.00 as a borderline, the rank higher than the tract N35.00 will
be considered as more urbanized areas and be qualified to the UA.
In totally, 17 census tracts“, including the above 10 census
tracts, are qualified to be in the UA, according to their socio-
economic indices (see map 4). As a result, the Lansing/E. Lansing
urbanized area presents an underbounded city and the boundary of

this UA should be extended.

 

znThey are census tracts N202.o1, N46, N49.01, N31.02, N31.01,
N201.01, N49.02, N45.00, N48.00, N201.02, 55, N34, N53.02, N43.01,
N50, 54, AND N35.

31

Map 3 : Potential DA 1 : Results through Cluster Analysis

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  
 

 

 

  

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32

Social Economic Indicators

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33

V. POSSIBLE SOLUTION FOR Uh DEFINITION PROBLEM

The potential problems of the UA definition have been revealed
since the first definition. To find a method or another criterion
to delineate the urban boundary flawlessly is rarely possible. But
it is possible to incorporate some other methods into the current
UA definition and make the UA boundary more feasible and more

reasonable.

BMW

To use only population size and/or population density as the
predominant indices to define UA.has some shortcomings in present-
ing the whole urbanism. In some countries, administrative
jurisdiction or local government status are the major criteria for
urban classification.”' In some other countries, the urban
characteristics, such as the existence of public water and sewage
systems and the predominance of non-agricultural employment, are
used as prominent secondary urban definition criteria.28 Doubt-
lessly, no matter how large the population, urban characteristics
always present the true urbanism. Places with a high proportion

of agricultural employment will never be considered as urban.

 

27Department of International Economic and Social Affairs,
Statistical Office. "Urban and Total Population by Sex: 1977-1986,"

in l986 Demographic Xearbools, (New York: United Nations, 1988) , pp.
186-189

28Department of International Economic and Social Affair,
Statistical Office, 1988

34
Public water and sewage systems are usually connected to housing
units in urbanized area. Thus, to present the actual extent of UA,
integrating such socio-economic variables into the UA definition
criteria can better mitigate the UA problems definition. While
based on socio-economic variables, in the Lansing/E. Lansing
urbanized area, the census tracts N31.0l and N31.02 will positively

be part of the urbanized area.

MW

As to the fiscal imbalance problem in central cities, revenue
sharing can be one of the solutions to this problem. While the
central cities receive an increasing amount in grant money from
federal, state, and provincial government to balance the fiscal
situation, the suburban local governments are also developing
additional sources of revenue. In response to the government
fragmentation.problem, different types of government consolidation
are being attempted, such as city-county consolidation, the Atlanta
model. In Atlanta, there is a Atlanta Regional Commission, which
functions as an umbrella government, governing the operation of
local government within the area. This commission can construct
something that the individual local government unit lacks the
jurisdiction to build, such as a rapid transit system.29 This
commission even has its own power regarding zoning. It is respon-

sible for coordinating the region's overall zoning policy.

 

29Martin T. Cadwallader, 1985, pp.22

35

Generally, in strengthening the role of government at the
metropolitan level, in an effect to remove the fiscal problem and
government fragmentation problem, federal government should provide
revenue sharing, develop more powerful regional agencies, and
institute a national land use planning policy(This situation is not
politically likely in U.S. because of the fear of centralized
government power). The state government, such as in California and
Florida, should then put efforts on making local government
participation in regional planning obligatory, providing financial
assistance for metropolitan government, and cooperating in the

° Consequently , the

organization of multistate metropolitan areas.3
Urbandale neighborhood (census tract N30) in Lansing/E. Lansing UA
will get better treatment and may result in its incorporation into
the current UA after the government consolidation. At present,
because the Urbandale neighborhood is in a flooding area and
excluded from the UA, the housing value is very low and developers
are reluctant to redevelop it. This area seems to have been
abandoned by local and metropolitan government. If the governments
can cooperate together, this area will get more attention and

better treatment. The flooding problem in this area will also be

solved earlier. Moreover, the place might be incorporated into the

 

3°R.D. Honey, "Metropolitan Governance, " in Urban Pol icy' making

gng Mgpropplipap ungmi cs ; A Coppgpgtixe Geographical Analysis, ed.
J.S. Adams,(Mass.: Ballinger, 1976), pp.425-462

36
UA.because of its socio-economic urban characteristics”; This may
result in increased land value and new development. With the new
development will come a better built environment and increased
housing value that will bring higher rent tenants or higher income
house owners, and accordingly change other socio-economic charac—
teristics (such as education status, fertility, and % of women at
home). All those possible changes in Urbandale will make this area
became a complete urbanized area. The less fortune after those
changes will be the people who can not afford the higher housing

costs and must move.

chgr Mgthggs

Some other new techniques were recently introduced to define
urban Iboundaries, such. us remote sensing' techniques and. GIS
techniques. The remote sensing imagery, such as airphoto and
satellite imagery, can present the ground truth and define the
urban boundary in physical rather than in conceptual terms. That
physical definition can make up for some deficiencies in the
conceptual definition. Through this method, the UA boundary can
separate the different internal areas according to the census
block, and the configuration of census blocks. Non-updated maps
will not constrain the shape and position of the UA boundaries.

Also, instead of sending people to do site observation or check in

 

31From the Case Study section, census tract N30 has 4.83%
agriculture employment, 100% public sewer, 100% public water and
88% utility gas connected

37
the traditional way, interpreting airphoto or satellite imagery may
save more time and labor, with higher accuracy.

Nowadays, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is very welcome
in every field of study. Remote sensing imagery currently can be
transformed into.GIS raster data and census data, are also put into
most of the GIS packages that make GIS more and more desirable to
planners. The advantage of this technique is that it can overlay
different layers of socio-economic data and land use data, and
present data in spatial patterns. With the integration of GIS and
remote sensing data, the results can be presented in spatial
patterns and can own the ground truth character. The urban
boundaries, therefore, will be outlined both conceptually and

physically.

38
VI. REMOTE SENSING-BASED TECHNIQUES

APPLIED TO 03 DELINEATION

The use of remote sensing in ‘the urban environment is
concerned with recording and interpreting an image procedure by
radiant flux, which exists from a ground source toward the sensor.
The most commonly used approach in remote sensing to aid in
understanding and interpreting urban features is spectral reflec-

2 In the last two decades, this powerful technol-

tance statistics.3
ogy has been magnificently used in urban analysis, such as land
use, population/ housing estimation, transportation system,
industry and commerce, and recreation. Since urban activities are
so dynamic, aerial photography and other remote sensing imagery'can
provide useful information quickly and economically to the planner,
developer, etc. through correct interpretation and classification.

Particularly, in defining urban boundaries, remote sensing

techniques can provide more advantages than other solutions.

Airphoto - pgsgg
Aerial photography(AP) is the principal remote sensing medium
used in urban application. It includes panchromatic AP, multiband
AP, color AP and color-infrared AP. Among all AP media, color

aerial photography' is the :most. often ‘used in ‘urban/suburban

 

32Spectral signature of a feature is a set of values for the
reflectance of this feature measured at specific wavelength
intervals.

39
application because of its true color advantage that makes it
easier to identify the urban/suburban features than other aerial
photography media. Compared to the color AP, the color-infrared
aerial photography is less preferred in urban application because
of some drawbacks such as loss of shadow information, odd color

present familiar urban features, etc.

Criteria

This aerial photography method uses visual and manual
identification on Black-and-White panchromatic or color aerial
photographys to delineate urban fringe and urban boundary. In
order to fulfill the intent of the study, initiating a series of
aerial photo samples to determine various land use proportions at
periodic intervals is needed. Based on the varying size of study
areas and the different scale of aerial photographs, the aerial
photographs might need to be arranged in the form of a mosaic to
present a whole area, especially with very large scale aerial

photographs.

Advantages

Aerial photography carries some useful information such as
shadow and texture that provide valuable aid in identifying urban
features further enhanced interpretation. Moreover, Interpretation
of color aerial photography is more straightforward because the

color balances with the real-world experience. Especially in

40
suburban applications, aerial photography is more effective.33 The
other advantage is its high accuracy through large scale to small

scale.

Disadvantages

Even though aerial photography has distinct advantages, some
disadvantages cause researchers to look for more effective methods.
First, it is manual interpretation. Hence, it needs a professional
and skillful interpreter to effectively do this job. Second, it
costs more than other remote sensing methods, and it is hard to
obtain up-to-date photography on a large scale due to the limita-
tion of time and funding.“ Third, the non-digital nature of
photographs will take more time to process than other digital
images which can be processed by using a computer.

In the last decade, some researchers have digitized aerial
photographs and then performed digital image processing to classify
urban features. As stated by Jensen, that was a drawback only
because it still required accurate interpretation of every feature
before it can be programmed to computer. Not only was more time
spent in this double work, all of the features cannot be programmed
to the computer in as much detail as required by the interpreter.

Thus, manual interpretation is still the main stream in handling

 

2""John R. Jensen, "Urban/Suburban Land Use Analysis, " in Magma].
2f_3engte_§en§ing. 2nd- ed-. Ch-30-

E"'N.C. Gautam, "Aerial Photo-Interpretation Techniques for
Classifying Urban Land Use, " 'nee ' Re t
figpgipg, Vol.42, No.6, June 1976, pp.815-822

41
aerial photography information and data.
Accuracy

High accuracy can be achieved through this manually -

interpreted aerial photography, whether it is a low altitude image,
high altitude image, or satellite platform image. Even the SKYLAB
color photography interpretation was 83 percent correct(1:970, 000) .
The SKYLAB S-19OB sensor system can also provide adequate spectral
and spatial information to classify Level III categories of urban

features . 35

Application

Falkner36 used periodic photography in determining short range
physical land use changes in the Parkway School District in
Missouri. The sampled land use data he used was coupled with the
information obtained from the school superintendent, and then
compared over time, Falkner concluded that the development of' this
school district was changed from a rural setting to a typical
suburban community. (figure ) McCoy and Metivier37 used photos as
an effective method for measuring house density in an analysis of

urban housing, but the temporal and regional elements of the socio-

 

35Jensen, 1985, pp.1573-1578

3“Edgar Falkner, "Land Use Changes in Parkway School District, "

Warm V01. 34 N01 1970
pp. 52- 57

37Roger M. McCoy, "House Density vs. Socioeconomic Conditions, "
e ric erin e nsi , Vol.39, No.1, 1973,
pp.43-47

42
economic correlation need to be understand better. Dennis M.
Richteru’also utilized sequential photography to detect the urban
change and showed that information useful to urban planning can be

obtained from the aerial photographs.

LANDflhizhfiéflfi

Prior to the advent of satellite data as a tool for remote
sensing, interpretation of aerial photography could serve to map
urban land use. In 1975, the Geography'Program.of Survey initiated
discussion. on. a land. cover' change assessment. methodology' by
including Landsat datafi” In 1977, the Census Bureau had to do a
similar experiment to use satellite data to update an urban land
use map and monitor urban growth that had to serve as a surrogate
for population density or other ground collected information.
Since then, Landsat data has been used to examine land use change
and urban growth. The principle of the Landsat based method can

be condensed into two criteria as below.

Criteria 1
Use visual identification on Landsat image enhancements and
classification overlays to define UA.

In outer liner delineation, image enhancement by using

 

38Dennis M. Richter, ”Sequential Urban Change, "
Enginearing_§_3en2te_§en§ing. Vol-35. No.8. 1971, pp-764-770

3"John R. Jensen, "Urban Change Detection Mapping Using Landsat

Digital Data", WW, Vol 8, No. 2, Oct 1981,
pp. 127- 147

4Z3
stepwise linear contrast stretch is needed because of the insuffi-
cient tonal contrast between non-urban and urban features on the
Landsat image. Moreover, the computer-aided classification of
Landsat multispectral digital data is training on known areas of
urban growth to produce thematic maps for urban land cover by a

feature-spacing partitioning algorithm.”

1‘

BRIGHTER

 

LANDSAT
HSS
BAND 5

     
   
   

SUBURBAN
RESIDENTIAL

COMMERCIAL
- INBUSTRIAL

FOREST

GRASSLAND

   
 

   

OARKER WATER

l

 

 

 

(— DARKER BRIGHTER "9

LANDSAT nss BAND 7
Figure 3: Feature—spacing algorithm

Criteria 2

The other Landsat-based criteria is using digital change
detection procedures to delineate UA. It is using spectral
signatures on multitemporal Landsat data to detect non-urban to
urban cover change on the urban fringe.“

Some consideration should be addressed in affecting change
detection, such as temporal characteristics and environmental

characteristics. Usually, the anniversary dates of the image are

 

“Jensen, pp.1611-1612

”Jensen, Ibid.,

44
recommended for use because they minimize the difference in
reflectance caused by seasonal vegetation change, or sun angle
difference, etc. Furthermore, an August date can provide better
results. In reducing adverse effects from environmental factors
(eg. different atmospheric conditions, sun angles, or surface-cover
moisture) which will affect the radiance changes between dates, the
data transformation and principal-component transformation are also

useful for urban change detection.

Change Detection Algorithms

Three change detection approaches have been used in criteria
2 - image differencing, image regression, and classification
comparison. Image differencing technology is based on differencing
two Landsat images obtained on two different dates to get informa-
tion on urban land cover change. It is the simplest one, and an
efficient change-detection processing approach. Its accuracy of
classification could reach 77 percent."2 Some results suggested
that this image differencing procedure is too simple to deal with
all types of change in a complex residential scene. However, this
situation could be improved in conjunction with other change
detection methods. Image regression is using a least squares
transformation between dates to reduce the effect of environmental
and system multiplicative factors. An advantage of using image

regression instead of image differencing is that image regression

 

”Jensen, Ibid.,

45
can adjust for between-date environmental difference in variance.
Recently, this technology was criticized as being a statistically
invalid method due to the non-Gaussian, bimodal distribution it is
based upon."3

The other change detection technology, classification
comparison, evaluates the classification of Landsat data for two
or more dates. This technique includes five alternatives -post-
classification comparison; spectral/temporal change classification;
layered spectral/temporal classification and clustering comparison;
but is useful only if accurate land use classification can be
obtained.

Generally speaking, digital change detection must be familiar
with the environment under study, and the quality of the data set.
It must also focus on identifying the optimum algorithm for the
specific study area. Image differencing or image regression of
spectral data are more practical, but may be too simple to identify
the various changes in the urban scene. One possible way to
improve the change detection accuracy is using textural data

together with Landsat spectral data in identifying urban change.“

Advantages

 

“J.W. Robinson, "Critical Review of the Change Detection and

Urban Classification literature", Ieghnical Memorandum 79(6235,
Computer Sciences Corp., Silver Springs, Md., 1979, pp.90

“John R. Jensen, and David L. Toll, "Detecting Residential
Land-Use Development at the Urban Fringe, " Photogrammetric Engineer

g Remptg Sensing, Vol.48, No.4, April 19
82, pp. 629-643

46

Landsat images can cover a larger area and are less expensive

than manual aerial photography. By using visual identification,
a Landsat image could develop the boundaries similar to those
obtained with aerial photographs. Computer-aided classification can
reduce interpretation time by 50 percent."5 Furthermore, it uses
physical, visual variables rather than two figures(population or
density size) to define urbanized areas and give a more unbiased

UA boundary.

Disadvantages and Accuracy

Landsat itself is not able to identify all various ground
categories by unique spectral signature. Low density suburban
housing and small villages may be misclassified as large gardens
or high vegetation content."6 Rural areas of bare soils, harvested
field, dry heath land, sand bank may also be misclassified to the
urban area. Because the spectral signature of those areas are
close to urban area, single date multispectral classification is
not sufficient to distinguish them. Moreover, while analyzing a
Landsat image by spectral signature, the researcher not only needs
to be familiar with the environment of the study area, but he also
needs to spend much more effort to develop and select the optimum

algorithms for each type of environmenta Even using visual identi-

 

“Jensen, Ibid.,

“This type of error is called Omission. The other type of
error is called Commission which is the misclassification of rural
area as urban area.

47
fication on a Iandsat image could produce a similar boundary to
those obtained with aerial photography, with its accuracy still
less than manual airphoto interpretation with large scale aerial

photographs.

Application

Jensen and.Toll"rdetected residential land-use development at
the urban fringe in Denver, Colorado by using band 5 Landsat
spectral data and derived texture data, with approximately 81
percent of change detection accuracy. Ellefsen and Peruzzi"8
proposed a method for delimiting the boundary of an urbanized area
by using computer-aided analysis of Landsat digital data. The
general rules in determining delimitation they adopted were from
the U.S. Census to encompass exclaves and to close embayments.“g
Haack5° also used computer processing and utilized Landsat digital
data to differentiate urban and near-urban land covers around
Miami, Florida. Moreover, some other researchers (Davis and

Friedman, 1974, Effefsen and Davidson, 1980, Welch and Pannell,

 

"Jensen and T011, 1982

‘wRichard Ellefsen and Duilio Peruzzi, "A Suggested Method for

Delimiting'Urbanized Area Using Landsat Data," Anericgn Spgipty of
P10 Hr-u -t.a Proc - - h -_ .e- ,. i b 'l-‘ o - .1 , Oct

1978, pp.176-183

“Enclaves could be brought into the urban mass if they were
within a distance of a mile and a half, embayment could be closed
into the urban mass too if the mouths were less than a mile wide.

soBarry Haack, "An Assessment of Landsat M88 and TM data for
Urban and Near-Urban land-Cover Digital Classification," Rempte

Sensing of Environment, Vol.21, No.2, 1987, pp.201-213

48
1975, etc.) used digital imagery and image processing technology

for the mapping of urban land expansion.

ELABLEAB:§££!§_lB§§BI:§§§£Ql

Aerial photography and Landsat imagery have received the most
attention and are more widely employed than other techniques in
urban analysis. Unfortunately, those data will become useless
while the study areas are covered in cloud or bad weather condi-
tions. Under those situations, all-weather radar imagery can be
an appropriate medium to be employed. Unlike other sensor systems,
radar records' signatures on film are the result of interaction
between terrain features(surface roughness) and actively produced
microwave energy, rather than spectral natures of urban and
suburban feature. It therefore can overcome the limitation of bad

weather conditions.

Criteria

One example of this methodology is hiring visual identifica-
tion on radar imagery. Henderson and Anuta(1980) used images
produced by X band or K band radar from different areas, with
different scales of the United State for settlement detection.
After that, manual interpretation by using a Baush & Lomb 24oz

stereoscope in mono-mode was conducted to examine the imagery.51

 

$1Floyd M. Henderson and Michael A. Anuta, "Effects of radar
system parameters, population, and environmental modulation on

settlement visibility," In;. J, Bgngpg Sensing, 1980 Vol. 1, No.2,
pp.137-151

49
Another approach is employing digitally processed SAR L-band images
for mapping urban land-cover. Data obtained from digital process-

ing could then be used to delineate urbanerural fringe.52

Advantages

The main advantages of using radar imagery are its all-weather
capability and its high accuracy. In urban analysis, all level II
and.most level III categories of the urban land cover are identifi-
able with a radar system, such as residential(including older and
newer housing), commercial core and large strip developments, and
major transportation networks( including smaller residential
streets.) Henderson and Anuta detected all settlements over 1,000
population on X - band imagery at a scale of 1:200,000 through
manual interpretation. By employing digital enlargement of SAR
imagery at Denver, Colorado(Henderson, 1980), the.accuracy'of urban
land-cover classification was from 77% in the inner city zones to
94% in the new residential areas and urban fringe zones at a scale
of l:410,000. The most identifiable land-cover categories were
residential, industrial-commercial, open space, and water; those
categories could also be obtained with an accuracy of 87.9% at a

scale of 1:131,ooo.53

 

52Jensen, Ibid.,

53Jensen, Ibid.,

50

Disadvantages
Radar imagery may not be available for the entire United
States. Thus, for analysis of an entire nation, radar imagery
might need to include various scales, different wavelengths and
different systems. Its accuracy will be decreased with a small
scale. Settlement size, radar azimuth or look direction will also
influence the settlement detectability and visibility. Using
manual interpretation in settlement detection would have the same
shortcomings as manual airphoto interpretation: time-consuming and

lower efficiency.

Accuracy

Larger scale radar imagery could provide higher accuracy.
Detection of settlements with population of 1,000 and more can get
100% accuracy at a scale of 1:200,000. For all the K-band imagery
and scales, the type of error was omission not commission. The

maximum error of commission was less than 1 percent.“

Application
As mentioned above, Henderson.andaAnuta used.radar imagery for
population settlement detection with high accuracy. Lo55 also

employed Shuttle Imaging Radar-A(SIR-A) in detecting Chinese

 

5"Henderson and Anuta, Ibid.,

5"’C.P. Lo, "Chinese Settle Pattern Analysis Using Shuttle

Imaging Radar-A Data," Inp. S, Bgngpg Sensing, Vol.5, No.6, 1984,
pp.959-967

51
settlement patterns and population. These settlements reflect
strongly the radar beam and against a dark background. Each
individual settlement stands out against the dark background and
therefore the sizes of the settlements can be differentiated.(see

figure 4 in Baoding area and figure 5 in Dezhou area)

 

In general, remote sensing-based methods are very welcome in
many fields of study because they can provide relatively high
accuracy in testing the ground truth. In a private or an individual
research, remote sensing techniques have always been considered
perfect solutions in providing accurate physical data, high
accuracy and high efficiency. Many researchers, even the Census
Bureau, have conducted studies of the UA delineation by using
remote sensing technique. Unfortunately, those highly efficient
remote-sensing techniques have been rejected by the Census Bureau
to use as a methodology in defining UA boundaries for the entire
nation because of the budget constraint. For the entire country,
the cost of reproducing images will cost the Census Bureau millions
of'dollaru Even those techniques can save labor and.time; compared
to the cost of imagery, the cost(from the view of the Census
Bureau) is still far above the benefit. Hence, remote sensing-
based methods become infeasible because of the imbalance of cost

and benefit.

  
 

     

  
   
  

      
    

10

. , '- L?
ggdéfifiii“
Tiffijf‘. ;

‘0' f'- ‘l
. (a ,
.. . '
IIEE; :- C

t
. t'
I.
u
D
u

:h

4

 

4: '§ ‘. trip.
A"? "K "S. I‘m“ ”r “
41933444?"
9.41% 2.459.‘

  

O

3
4f?

. 7 "0;
‘QQR: %. F
'13: 543‘

. g _ ‘ .-
r$i\ ' ‘ ‘
. u- mu".

Figure 4: Shuttle Imaging Radar-A Image of Boading Area
(Source: Lo, 1984)

52

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it...

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u. 0".

,I
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an.» fiV-flie ~r

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”*4on " .‘Lfi'i 3";'i4'.’-1t-‘.,_:.. .
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3‘ ' ; '; "T7" #5:? "’-
figfiffi ,. 2*: 3:”. L i
b ' 4‘."- t... s};...l.’-;; '

 

 

A
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Figure 4: Shuttle Imaging Radar-A Image of Boading Area
(Source: Lo, 1984)

53

54

VI. CONCLUSION

Either from the conceptual view, or the potential problem of
UA, it is appropriate to consider a multivariate approach for
defining urban population and place. Also, using census data is
the easiest and cheapest way to improve the UA definition because
of the ease of getting existing census data. Some industrialized
countries use the presence and utilization of public utilities
and/or public services as indicators of urbanism. The employment
of non-agricultural activities has been used frequently too. Even
government consolidation can relieve some UA definition problems.
A more appropriate definition using more variables can reduce the
problems to the lowest level. The case study in the Lansing/E.
Lansing 'urbanized area, reveals that the 1980 UA. definition
produces an ‘underbounded. city ‘without. considering' the socio-
economic urban characteru Only population size can not present the
socio-economic characteristics or lifestyle of inhibitants.
Recently, some researchers and the Census Bureau have tried to
conduct some projects by using Landsat data to define the UA's.
If one does not consider the high cost of satellite imagery, the
remote sensing technique can probably be another surrogate in
defining urban boundaries because it provides great savings in
labor and time involved in defining boundaries physically. If one
uses another technique, Geographic Information System (GIS), the
urban boundaries can be presented physically, and the socio-

economic characteristics can be intergrated into the results.

55

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pp.1447-1464a

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Cadwallader, M.T. "Urban Social Areas." in Aneiypieei__gppen

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Carter, P. and Jackson, M J. "The Elimination Approach to Monito-

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Davis, James B. "Assessing Urbanized Area Expansion through the
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Ellefsen, Richard and Peruzzi, Duillio. "Urbanized Area Using
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Proc., Fall leehnicei Meeting. Oct. 1978, pp.175-183.

Falkner, Edgar. "Land Use Change in Parkway School District. "

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Friedmann, I., & Miller, J. "The Urban Field." na 0 e
American_1n§titute_gf_21anner§. Vol.31, 1965. pp.312-319-

Freudreis, J.P. "The Information ZRevolution and. Urban Life."
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Gautam, N. C. "Aerial Photo-Interpretation Techniques for
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56

Haack, Barry. "An Assessment of Landsat M88 and TM data for Urban
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Handerson, Floyd M. and Anuta, Michael A. "Settlement Detection
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Meeping. 1979, pp.89-104. ‘

Handerson, Floyd M. and Anuta, Michael A. "Effects of Radar System
Parameters, Population, and Environmental Modulation on

Settlement Visibility." IDE1_11_BQEQL§_§§n§iDQ- Vol 1, No.2,
1980, pp.137-151.

Ha ard Law Review, "Demography and Distrust: Constitutional
Issue of the Federal Census.” Feb. 1981, pp.841-863.

Honey, R.D. "Metropolitan Governance." in uppen_£eiiey_neking_eng

Me 0 olitan amics: ve o a 1 8,
pp.425-462. ed. by J.S. Adams. Massachusetts: Ballinger, 1976.

Jensen, John R. and Toll, David L. "Detecting Residential Land-Use

Development at the Urban Fringe." EhQtegranmetric_Engineer_§
Remote Sensing. Vol.48, No.4, April 1982, pp.629-643.

Jensen, John R. "Urban Change Detection Mapping Using Landsat

Digital Data." Amepicen Sertogzepner, Vol.8, N02, Oct 1981,
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Jensen, John R. "Urban/Suburban Land Use Analysis." In Mennei
of Remote Sensing. 2nd. ed., Ch.30.

Kamiar, M.S. & Darden, J.T. "Socio-Economic Development of Black
Ghetto Tracts in Michigan:The Microcosm Model Reconsidered."

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Lo, C.P. "Chinese Settle Pattern Analysis Using Shuttle Imaging

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McCoy, Roger M. "House Density vs. Socio-economic Conditions."

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57

Richter, Dennis M. "Sequential Urban Change." Wetpie
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Robinson, J.W. "Critical Review of the Change Detection and

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79(S23S. Computer Sciences Corp., Silver Springs, Md., 1979,

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Truesdell, L.E. "The Development of the Urban-Rural Classification

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a Focus on Ru ' o ' v .
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Beu§i_g-

U-S- Bureau Of the Census. QQQQIQEhiQ_AI§Q§_B§£§I§nQ§
Mennei. 1987, Ch.15

APPENDIX I

DATA LISTING OE THE 14 CENSUS VARIABLES FOR THE
LANSING/E. LANSING SAMPLE AREA

 

V01 V02 V03 V04 V05 V06 V07 V08 V09 V10 V11 V12 V13 V14
Census HS TRVL SCHL HUMAN CRAFT HS
Tract POP UNXT TIME FRTLTY CHPLD HOME AGR! OPRATNUATER SEHAGE GAS RENT HORTG VALUE
102.03 0 0
202.02 364 1184 17.8 2559 85.1 5.9 0.41 26.60 99.8 100.0 92.6 297 361 42.6
214.00 1076 642 16.8 1607 94.4 4.5 0.90 29.67 99.2 98.4 76.9 218 476 53.6

38.01 4323 1625 16.1 2291 96.1 4.9 0.42 8.05 100.0 100.0 83.8 275 652 73.7
38.02 2002 977 18.5 1633 93.9 3.4 0.00 5.29 98.2 98.1 81.7 302 505 61.5
39.01 1791 719 15.3 2541 93.4 0.0 0.65 7.00 100.0 100.0 82.6 383 868 124.1
39.02 3989 1576 13.2 2307 96.6 2.6 1.28 8.53 99.8 100.0 73.0 272 475 65.2
40.00 3776 1700 13.9 2126 98.1 2.4 0.26 6.01 89.9 89.9 72.9 252 512 68.1
41.00 4882 1379 13.6 2115 94.3 4.6 1.16 8.37 100.0 100.0 73.7 292 447 45.6
42.00 5656 44 8.1 100.0 10.6 2.33 7.82 100.0 100.0 50.0 180
43.01 4253 1517 15.3 2121 94.8 3.4 0.36 9.59 100.0 99.7 81.2 372 434 51.3
43.02 2877 883 14.5 100.0 3.7 2.77 9.60 100.0 100.0 64.7 386 162.5
44.01 11436 188 7.9 667 100.0 8.7 2.21 7.27 93.6 93.6 16.0 240
44.02 3852 1537 13.8 1872 98.0 6.6 0.00 7.93 101.3 99.6 38.6 103
44.03 2993 1312 12.0 2241 97.9 1.9 0.00 6.40 99.5 99.6 29.1 164 389 50.4
45.00 0 0
46.00 269 126 13.5 909 100.0 4.9 2.30 13.22 100.0 100.0 93.7 343 80.0
54.00 7384 2899 18.3 2689 77.4 7.0 0.84 32.55 90.2 96.3 72.0 268 360 40.2
55.00 2713 895 21.4 2570 81.3 4.0 0.00 29.16 95.3 97.0 94.5 230 387 43.3
1.00 2466 874 15.0 3271 51.3 6.4 0.00 42.42 100.0 100.0 79.2 277 259 22.7
2.00 1561 684 15.2 3009 53.9 17.4 0.96 31.26 100.0 98.7 81.6 183 300 28.5
3.00 2894 1072 14.4 3481 56.5 20.0 0.59 45.69 100.0 99.6 83.1 268 296 22.4
4.00 3684 1403 14.2 3503 75.5 9.3 0.51 24.60 100.0 100.0 16.3 268 326 33.0
5.00 2185 772 12.5 3403 68.0 9.9 0.00 38.24 100.0 100.0 90.3 275 277 24.1
6.00 2547 1343 12.2 1000 83.0 13.8 0.47 21.04 100.0 100.0 76.3 218 365 27.3
7.00 3129 1659 13.9 2889 74.4 8.4 0.90 27.44 100.0 98.9 76.9 206 327 23.6
8.00 3966 1441 16.0 3844 56.1 11.6 0.14 29.42 100.0 99.6 80.8 242 267 21.2
9.00 1803 715 14.1 3653 72.9 8.8 0.00 29.83 100.0 100.0 85.6 291 309 30.6
10.00 2701 1108 17.4 1972 77.9 6.7 2.22 22.96 100.0 99.5 88.1 296 308 29.5
11.00 4167 1934 14.8 2474 77.3 5.8 0.83 25.65 100.0 100.0 81.5 217 291 26.7
12.00 2660 996 15.9 3520 60.2 14.6 2.85 26.93 100.0 99.4 89.0 266 282 21.3
13.00 1629 824 16.6 3650 57.5 5.0 1.64 36.99 100.0 100.0 73.7 189 292 20.3
14.00 229 200 11.3 58.6 0.00 0.00 100.0 100.0 42.0 76
15.00 2271 1007 13.8 3710 49.4 21.8 1.50 30.07 100.0 99.4 69.5 212 280 24.4
16.00 1567 488 15.5 1761 78.3 2.7 0.00 23.17 100.0 100.0 86.7 306 370 44.2
17.01 1007 460 20.8 2630 89.9 3.1 0.00 5.89 100.0 100.0 96.7 380 580 78.0
17.02 3978 1497 15.4 2125 87.7 1.8 0.24 18.39 99.6 100.0 84.6 265 422 59.8
19.00 743 516 12.0 2438 80.1 1.8 0.00 16.10 100.0 98.8 63.4 211 163 35.0
20.00 4815 2053 15.6 3141 60.3 16.8 0.37 36.86 100.0 99.1 80.5 213 284 21.0
21.00 2609 978 15.4 3103 56.5 9.3 0.28 39.70 100.0 99.4 83.0 273 267 22.1
22.00 1835 776 12.7 2379 82.8 4.6 0.80 20.45 100.0 100.0 88.1 241 334 38.3
23.00 3774 1640 13.9 2558 73.3 6.1 0.98 21.26 100.0 99.6 90.7 256 312 33.1
24.00 3809 1511 14.2 2520 73.3 6.0 0.34 27.60 100.0 100.0 86.5 231 303 30.6
25.00 2518 1120 13.6 2163 81.5 2.4 0.00 22.22 99.7 99.7 84.1 285 341 39.5
26.00 2452 1085 12.3 2982 69.4 4.1 0.32 32.59 100.0 99.8 84.1 232 304 29.0
27.00 3588 1034 17.3 2780 73.2 4.0 0 28 27 49 100.0 100.0 97.8 280 301 32.2
28.00 3110 1271 17.8 2520 75.5 2.9 0.00 27.29 100.0 100.0 80.3 245 284 33.7
29.01 2572 840 14.5 3015 75.8 6.7 0.60 24.57 97.0 92.5 86.9 335 401 45.2
29.02 2090 934 16.0 2435 86.1 4.3 0.46 17.82 100.0 100.0 69.0 308 320 25.7
30.00 0 0
31.01 0 0
31.02 2485 742 16.0 2681 84.4 4.7 0.43 14.35 100.0 99.1 95.3 247 458 67.0
32.00 2669 925 13.7 3610 49.4 17.6 0 00 38.54 100.0 96.8 82.5 232 283 23.6
33.01 3398 1375 15.4 3082 73.4 3.0 1.00 28.06 99.5 100.0 81.4 253 343 37.1
33.02 2780 965 16.0 2449 89.0 0.9 0.00 19.01 100.0 100.0 86.0 288 412 54.0
34.00 109 37 8.5 4353 100.0 0.0 0 00 0.00 100.0 100.0 100.0 263 475 80.9
35.00 0 0
36.01 4695 1368 20.0 2922 81.8 6.5 0.78 33.38 99.2 100.0 96.1 213 330 37.5
36.02 4344 1443 20.7 3133 69.0 6.6 0.17 36.71 100.0 99.4 86.7 223 315 30.2
37.00 6366 2525 15.8 2556 66.0 8.0 0.35 34.01 99.7 100.0 82.4 239 310 34.5
51.00 3138 1003 20.1 3174 60.2 5.2 0.52 41.41 97.8 95.3 87.6 230 356 31.7

V01 V02 V03 V04 V05 V06 V07 V08 V09 V10 V11 V12 V13 V14
Census HS TRVL SCHL HUMAN CRAFT HS
Tract POP UNIT TIME FRTLTY CMPLD HOME AGRI OPRATNUATER SEUAGE GAS RENT HORTG VALUE

 

52.00 5387 1921 18.4 2904 75.4 6.9 1.07 30.08 95.5 95.3 89.2 219 310 31.6
53.02 2887 1308 19.1 2463 84.9 7.1 0.36 26.23 91.2 91.2 58.0 352 325 35.1
53.03 4624 2009 20.6 2240 74.3 4.1 0.09 29.56 98.9 96.5 85.1 243 360 41.4
53.04 3452 1451 16.9 2804 74.4 3.4 1.30 30.43 99.6 98.0 75.7 279 355 42.4
N101.02 1953 747 16.9 2406 74.1 5.0 1.06 41.21 40.2 48.9 65.3 216 394 48.5
N102.01 2697 890 16.3 2566 78.2 2.6 0.29 33.45 9.7 92.0 80.3 232 394 48.4
N102.03 1971 809 14.8 2837 58.3 8.6 2.06 43.46 63.8 98.4 88.5 264 288 27.8
N102.04 1308 426 21.6 2551 73.6 6.6 1.05 38.15 15.0 73.9 72.3 218 405 43.0
N103.00 3062 1180 21.4 2873 79.1 2.1 3.08 31.36 3.3 4.2 46.2 219 450 57.9
N111.02 2730 965 23.4 3396 64.2 7.5 1.50 43.44 18.8 59.3 65.1 201 289 31.0
N201.01 6742 2376 16.2 2813 87.4 2.3 0.17 19.43 92.9 94.4 77.7 242 539 71.4
N201.02 6267 2659 13.8 2436 87.6 3.0 0.51 18.55 99.6 100.0 77.1 307 389 49.2
N202.01 2693 922 15.4 2623 91.0 1.6 0.00 20.98 100.0 100.0 87.2 321 474 68.1
N202.02 1158 403 14.1 2857 75.8 1.3 1.09 29.89 11.9 3.0 63.5 262 355 39.8
N214.00 6078 2068 18.0 2217 79.7 5.2 0.92 30.79 62.7 62.7 76.5 231 433 51.0
N17.01 180 72 7.9 1833 68.1 0.0 0.00 23.76 8 3 86.1 84.7 636 80.7
N30.00 410 158 11.5 2000 45.9 18.7 4.83 23 45 100.0 100.0 88.0 316 19.4
N31.01 1559 918 11.5 1160 85.1 1.5 0.00 9.67 100 0 100.0 78.5 248 372 47.1
N31.02 1558 614 16.7 1527 89.2 3.6 0.00 14.67 90 7 93.2 71.3 288 416 51.5
N32.00 0 0
N34.00 2828 1112 13.3 2508 86.4 5.7 0.00 19.42 100.0 99 4 83.3 252 333 46.6
N35.00 3410 1521 12.6 3016 63.7 8.9 0 00 41.77 100.0 97 0 75.0 275 308 27.7
N38.01 27
N38.02 68 33 59.0 1200 81.0 60.0 0.00 46.43 66.7 303 43.8
N39.02 292 61.8
N43.01 1763 701 16.0 1925 96.1 4.6 1.12 9.49 98.6 96.6 66.6 236 436 60.5
N43.02 568 288 11.5 65.5 10.2 4.08 7.82 100.0 100.0 14.6 293
N44.01 35 4
N45.00 3321 1512 18.5 2264 85.0 3.9 0.94 14.26 92.8 98.3 87.2 309 499 45.6
N46.00 1477 494 15.4 2505 96.2 1.4 0.00 10.58 72.3 78.7 84.0 272 581 77.0
N47.00 2369 1125 24.9 2407 65.9 7.1 1.33 24.91 58.4 91.1 53.8 209 370 40.0
N48.00 5112 2364 18.8 2407 94.0 1.9 0.16 12.92 85.2 93.1 75.6 312 401 51.5
N49.01 5450 1097 16.4 2052 94.2 4.1 0.48 7.30 82.3 98.2 76.5 301 524 70.8
N49.02 3634 1390 15.8 2392 97.3 4.7 1.56 4.05 78.7 98.1 76.5 305 594 77.6
N50.00 4760 1644 20.1 2397 90.8 2.4 2.16 7.89 57.4 66.4 78.3 303 582 81.0
N51.00 128 45 14.3 63.9 0.00 31.11 0.0 84.4 68.9 375 34.4
N52.00 1159 449 21.5 2963 69.4 5.2 1.39 34.98 46.3 85.1 80.8 259 390 43.3
N53.02 1702 575 20.5 2492 83.1 1.9 0.00 24.74 23.7 84.7 80.0 297 452 56.0
N53.04 50 17 2.0 89.1 0.00 44.19 41.2 0.0 70.6 325 30.0
N55.00 4008 1333 23.4 2535 75.7 4.7 1.68 35.15 33.3 38.9 54.5 304 468 53.0
N56.00 2845 935 18.9 2991 83.8 3.7 4.21 25.74 3.0 5.2 16.6 325 431 53.0

Blank = Missing Vlaue.

APPENDIX II

CLUSTER ANALYSIS IN LANSING/E. LANSING UR

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APPENDIX IV

1950 TO 1980 UA CRITERIA

I.

The Urbanized Area Criteria: 1950-1980
The 1950 Urbanized Area Criteria

An urbanized area is an area that includes at least one city with 50,000
inhabitants or more in 1940 or later according to a special census taken
prior to 1950 and also the surrounding closely settled incorporated places
and unincorporated areas that meet the criteria listed below: ...

The urban fringe of an urbanized area is that part that is outside the
central city or cities. The following types of areas are embraced if they
are contiguous to the central city or cities. or if they are contiguous to any
area already included in the urban fringe:

1. Incorporated places with 2,500 inhabitants or more in 1940 or at a
subsequent special census conducted prior to 1950.

2. Incorporated places with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants containing an
area with a concentration of 100 dwelling units or more with a density
in this concentration of 500 units or more per square mile. This
density represents approximately 2,000 persons per square mile and
normally is the minimum found associated with a closely spaced street
pattern.

3. Unincorporated territory with at least 500 dwelling units per square
mile.

4. Territory devoted to commercial, industrial,.transportational, recrea-
tional, and other purposes functionally related to the central city.

Also included are outlying noncontiguous areas with the required dwelling

unit density located within 1 1/2 miles of the main contiguous urbanized part,
measured along the shortest connecting highway, and other outlying areas within
one-half mile of such noncontiguous areas that meet the minimum residential
density rule.

- Although an urbanized area may contain more than one city of 50,000 or more,

not all cities of this size are necessarily central cities. The largest city
of an area is always a central city. In addition, the second and third most
populous cities in the area may qualify as central cities provided they have
a p0pulation at least one-third that of the largest city in the area and

a minimum of 25,000 inhabitants. The names of the individual urbanized
areas indicate the central cities of the areas.1 -

 

1An exception to the above central city rule was the inclusion of additional
central cities in the regional UA's, such as the 1950 New York Northeastern
New Jersey UA.

II.

The 1960 Urbanized Area Criteria

An urbanized area is an area that includes at least one city with 50,000
inhabitants or more in 1960, as well as the surrounding closely settled
incorporated places and unincorporated areas that meet the criteria listed
below.

In addition to its central city or cities, an urbanized area contains the
following types of contiguous areas, which together constitute its urban
fringe.

1. Incorporated places with 2,500 inhabitants or more.

2. Incorporated places with less than 2,500 inhabitants, provided each
has a closely settled area of 100 housing units or more.

3. Towns in the New England States, townships in New Jersey and
Pennsylvania, and counties elsewhere that are classified as urban.

4. Enumeration districts in unincorporated territory with a population
density of 1,000 inhabitants or more per square mile. (The areas of
large nonresidential tracts devoted to such urban land uses as rail-
road yards, factories, and cemeteries were excluded in computing the
population density of an enumeration district.)

5. Other enumeration districts in unincorporated territory with lower
population density provided that they served one of the following
purposes:

a. To eliminate enclaves.

b. To close indentations in the urbanized areas of one mile or less
across the open end.

c. To link outlying enumeration districts of qualifying density that
were no more than 1 1/2 miles from the main body of the urbanized
area.

A single urbanized area was established for cities in the same standard
metrOpolitan statistical area (SHSA) if their fringes adjoin. Urbanized
areas with areas with central cities in different standard metropolitan
statistical areas are not combined, except that a single urbanized area
was established in the New York, NY-Northeastern New Jersey Standard
Consolidated Area and in the Chicago-Northwestern Indiana Standard
Consolidated Area.

 

1There are a few urbanized areas composed of twin central cities. These
twin central cities must have contiguous boundaries and constitute, for
general economic and social purposes, a single community with a combined
p0pulation of at least 50,000, the smaller of which must have a pepulation

of at least 15,000.

Nith two exceptions, the names of the central cities appear in the titles
of urbanized areas. The central cities of the two regional urbanized
areas appear in the title of their respective standard metropolitan
statistical areas.

 

2The central cities of the New York, NY-Northeastern New Jersey urbanized
area are the central cities of the New York, Newark, Jersey City, and
Paterson-Clifton-Passaic Standard MetrOpolitan Statistical Areas. Likewise,
the central cities of the Chicago, IL-Northwestern Indiana urbanized area are
the central cities of the Chicago and Gary-Hammond-East Chicago Standard
Metropolitan Statistical Areas.

III.

The 1970 Urbanized Area Criteria

The major objective of the Census Bureau in delineating urbanized areas is to
provide a better separation of urban and rural population in the vicinity of
the larger cities. An urbanized area consists of a central city, or cities,
and surrounding closely settled territory. The specific criteria for the
delineation of an urbanized area are as follows:

1a. A central city of 50,000 inhabitants or more in 1960, in a special
census conducted by the Census Bureau since 1960, or in the 1970
census.

b. Twin cities; i.e., cities with contiguous boundaries and consti-
tuting, for general social and economic purposes, a single
community with a combined population of at least 50,000, and with
the smaller of the twin cities having a population of at least
15,000.

2. Surrounding closely settled territory, including the following
(but excluding the rural portions of extended cities, ...):

a. Incorporated place of 2,500 inhabitants or more.

b. Incorporated places with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants, provided
that each has a closely settled area of 100 housing units or more.

c. Small parcels of land normally less than 1 square mile in area
having a p0pulation density of 1,000 inhabitants or more per
square mile. The areas of large nonresidential tracts devoted to
such urban land uses as railroad yards, airports, factories,
parks, golf courses, and cemeteries are excluded in computing the
population density.

d. Other similar small areas in unincorporated territory with lower
population density provided that they serve

- to eliminate enclaves,

- to close indentations in the urbanized areas of 1 mile or
less across the open end,

- to link outlying enumeration districts of qualifying density
that are not more than 1 1/2 miles from the main body of the
urbanized area.

The central city category consists of the population of the cities named in
the title of the urbanized area.1 The title is limited to three names and
normally lists the largest city first and the other qualifying cities in size
order. This order is, in many cases, based on 1960 population because most
names were fixed before the 1970 counts were available. For other cities to
be listed in the title. they must have:

1. 250,000 inhabitants or more.

2. At least one-third the papulation of the largest city and a papu-
lation of 25,000 or more (except in the case of the small twin cities).

 

1The four exceptions are: New York, NY-Northeastern New Jersey, which
includes New York, Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, Clifton, and Passaic;
Chicago, IL-Northwestern Indiana, which includes Chicago, Gary, Hammond,
and East Chicago; Los Angeles-Long Beach, CA, which includes Los Angeles,
Long Beach, Anaheim, Santa Ana, and Garden Grove; and San Francisco-
Oakland, CA, which includes San Francisco, Oakland, and Vallejo.

IV. The 1974 Urbanized Area Criteria -

The major objective of the Bureau of the Census in delineating urbanized
areas is to provide a better separation of urban and rural populations in
the vicinity of the larger cities. A UA includes a central city or

cities that qualify under one of the criteria listed below. All population
criteria refer to l970 census population counts (except as specified in
criterion la).

la.

b.

a.

C.

A city of 50,000 inhabitants or more according to the 1970 census,
a special census taken between 1960 and 1970, or the 1960 census,
provided that the city is located in an SMSA and is not included in
an existing UA,

A city with at least 25,000 inhabitants which, to ether with those
contiguous places (incorporated or unincorporated having population
densities of at least 1,000 persons per square mile, has a combined
population of 50,000 and constitutes for general economic and social
purposes a single community, provided that the city is located within
an SNSA and is not included in an existing UA.

In addition to a central city or cities, a UA includes contiguous
territory meeting the following criteria:

Incorporated places of 2,500 inhabitants or more but excluding the
rural portions of extended cities.

Incorporated places with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants, provided that
each has a closely settled area of lOO housing units or more; and all
unincorporated places recognized in the 1970 census.

Contiguous small parcels of unincorporated land determined to have a
l970 census population density of l,OOO inhabitants or more per
square mile. The areas of large nonresidential tracts devote to

such urban land uses as railroad yards, airports, factories, parks,
golf courses, and cemeteries are excluded in computing the population
density.

Other similar small areas in unincorporated territory without regard
to population density provided that they serve:

- to eliminate enclaves, or

- to close indentations of one mile or less in width across the open
end of the UA's in order to eliminate narrow fingers of "rural'I
areas,

- to link outlying areas of qualifying density provided that these
are not more than 1 1/2 miles from the main body of the UA.

 

1Unincorporated places as identified and defined for the 1970 census
by the Census Bureau.

3.

Urbanized Area Title. The title is limited to three names and
normally lists the largest cities in descending order of size. For
other cities to be listed in the title of a UA with a central city
of 50,000 or more, such cities--

a. Must have at least one-third the population of the largest city
and a population of 25,000.

b. Must have 250,000 inhabitants or more.

For those areas in which the largest city has a population of at
least 25,000 but less than 50,000 (criterion 1b), any named city or
cities must have a papulation equal to one-third or more of that of
the largest city and a minimum population of 15,000.

Area titles that include the names of more than one city start with
the largest city and list other cities in descending order of size
according to the most recent census, except that cities that qualify
the area under criterion 1b are listed prior to the names of any
other qualifying city.

V. The 1980 Urbanized Area Criteria

The following criteria are used to determine the eligibility and
the definition of 1980 urbanized areas.1

Urbanized Area Criteria

 

An urbanized area comprises an incorporated place2 and adjacent densely
settled surrounding area that together has a minimum papulation of 50,000.3
The densely settled surrounding area consists of:

1. Contiguous incorporated or census designated places having:
a. A population of 2,500 or more.

b. A population of less than 2,500, but having either a papulation
density of 1,000 persons per square mile, a closely settled area
containing a minimum of 50 percent of the papulation, or a cluster
of at least 100 housing units.

2. Contiguous unincorporated area that is connected by roads and has a
population density of at least 1,000 persons per square mile.

3. Other contiguous unincorporated area with a density of less than
1,000 persons per square mile, provided that it:

a. Eliminates an enclave of less than 5 square miles that is
surrounded by built-up area.

b. Closes an indentation in the boundary of the densely settled area
that is not more than 1 mile across the Open end and encompasses
no more than 5 square miles.

 

1All reference to population counts and densities relate to date from the
1980 Census of Population and Housing.

2In Hawaii and Puerto Rico, incorporated places do not occur in the sense
of functioning local governmental units. In Hawaii, census designated
places are used in defining a central place and for applying urbanized
area criteria; in Puerto Rico, zonas urbanas and aldeas are used.

3The rural portions of extended cities, as defined in the Census Bureau's
extended city criteria, are excluded from the urbanized area. In addition,
in order for an urbanized area to be recognized, it must include a popula-
tion of at least 25,0000 that does not reside on a military base.

4The area of extensive nonresidential urban land uses, such as railroad
yards, airports, factories, parks, golf courses, and cemeteries, is
excluded in computing the population density.

c. Links an outlying area of qualifying density, provided that the
outlying area is:

- Connected by road to, and is not more than 1 1/2 miles from,
the main body of the urbanized area.

- Separated from the main body of the urbanized area by water

‘ or other undevelopable area; is connected by road to the main
'body of the urbanized area; and is not more than 5 miles
from the main body of the urbanized area.

4. Large concentrations of nonresidential urban area (such as industrial
parks, office areas, and major airports), which have at least one-fourth
of their boundary contiguous to an urbanized area, will also be included.

Urbanized Area Title

The title of an urbanized area includes:

1. The name of the incorporated place with the largest population in
the urbanized area.

2. The titles of new urbanized areas qualifying as the result of the 1980
census are determined as follows:

a. The name of the incorporated place with the largest papulation in
the urbanized area is always listed.

b. The names of up to two additional incorporated places may be listed,
with eligibility determined as follows:

- Those with a papulation of at least 250,000.

- Those with a population of 15,000 to 250,000, provided that
they are at least one-third the population of the largest
place in the urbanized area.

3. Area titles that include the names of more than one incorporated
place will start with the name of the largest and list the others in
descending order of their p0pulation.

4. In addition to incorporated place names, the area title contains the
name of each State into which the urbanized area extends.

5. Regional titles may be used to identify urbanized areas with
populations over 1 million, in which case only the largest city of the
urbanized area is included in the title.

Central Cities

 

Central cities will be those named in the titles except where regional titles
are used.5 In such cases, the central cities will be those that would have
met the title criteria under items 1 and 2 above.

 

5Only Newark and Jersey City, NJ qualify under this provision.

The Extended City Criteria of 1970 (and 1980)

An extended city is an incorporated place that includes essentially rural
territory. A separation of the inhabitants into urban and rural is made by
an examination of population density under the following criteria:

1. The incorporated place, to be designated as an extended city, must
contain one or more sparsely settled areas, each of at least 5 square
miles in extent with a papulation density of less than 100 persons
per square mile.

2. The sparsely settled area or areas meeting criterion 1 must total at
least 25 percent of the land area of the legal city, or be greater
than 25 square miles.

3. The delineation of extended cities is limited to incorporated places
within urbanized areas.

Source : U.S. Bureau of the Census, Geographic Areas Reference Manual, 1987
Ch.15

  

 

 

 

 

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