1
~ 25.»: £2". ,3,

r‘k'

11"“h ~

M

I

a {as

0:; . ._ 3|”. ' :3

4::

594“?“

V
--
o

’

m? a:

.
My. 3,3,‘3

'iJ‘Q

'4.
:0

3
0

ha-

. .../ .
D, “:3

«arm‘s

#:in

 

    

WWW-"K

3%

WWW mu

hiflom

i

mmammum

.
O
o

I

Imamqumtmuuné‘mm

«was?

#44

‘o‘fi‘éo

 

I

.1
I‘ 0‘4".

6

 

 

 

——'w_____- WV‘TV-v ' '

 
  
       
  
 
     
  
    
 
 

   

 

     
 

  
 

    
 
      

    

Y v—v— a I
V ‘V"? mo '~\w,-I’“ .| . - ....~§ - . . ‘ a
.— .-‘ . . v ‘ _ . ‘-— .ofLA. .V -‘-—.<- t... CH . . ,. , -, - -‘: t‘x‘Pa‘i..‘§;‘ O '- I . :‘J OP” I 3V,K . .0
wmram';\\::1 '- - . 0" - ' ‘ . .. - - - -- ~ ~ — . _ lid ~f“‘- flu“? W;’¢'I " ‘5" ' * ' “ .
r. ,_ I‘ _ -, ~ - . - q. I'..'~Iv.ho o\,{-I:n‘.;‘":«?. Vv A‘W"? .3 : P W) ' '. q . - fi'
(.3 .s' ‘ . I..‘..)". I ‘ luff?! J .. o._ -’.‘.-II , J -oI- . . * I , ..'.\ .-I . .fifilr.‘ 1.41%. lg;::\“ '4 ?‘:'I>'o I - *4-05 .~
I.-— - - .w . | " ""J:7.' 4;: a“. 9'" -- 40w: ' 0 - I, ' \ l!‘ .1 II. ‘iR- I‘M N. 2“; ?€*’:?3 {3 ‘v' " "5 ‘Q‘VI'L '9
l..- ' :‘a...¢-: 3.8. if. v . .‘ a; . .. ~ fo! : -. :It't }) 1.9.0 "‘3" ..fi1f;‘; (‘5 .rk‘”; ’ I; 3' -, 02:1‘. 01:1» Jx‘i‘l; v. .-'..“_“IL‘;-»g_ ,
._ -, . . _ , _. . . E .. ._'-:.- -,
., d- ‘ .I,I",,-.ou -.:. .o... u, ”or. -&r",\. . , ~.u;ui’.- f‘olfvi’ *anoi. J” ‘I r. . ”“21“a%'b. I£:*;w.;:c"v . . ;.t: " w. .'.“..,1 .
- 'c - . r ‘ .. - ' " " ‘ I - ‘ ' 2 ‘ ’
0o 4 . . I I' '9 ~ I- '5" .-. : )V - - ‘d ”NZ-m ‘7‘“ pvt-mar two. - "' '..' -.o I.. ' “.3333:
o. ' --~ - ‘.‘ ' P'V"_ar A” ~ - ‘---' . “J to“... '3; ‘-'.~ I 3'. "'-_ um: .
. '.' .. a .2 ' u ' ~ ' o'£"-."'.' — , ° . . . ' .. - ‘s 1-! - .‘. a o a ’w} or ‘3'. 3;." " ’ow‘a‘ I‘“ a "L r‘“
. ' _ . .- . , o . ‘0 _- , ..' _'- 4 -1, .',' - .1.
I. .‘ ' . “'~' I . .'.' ' '1 .r ..' f...‘ J: “H. . . 0‘ A. .P ' ’ . .l I. J,” 3‘} ::’;‘:"‘ '- f" “$f “2.". ‘v as“ ;. 2*3‘5. a 2. Y‘:~
. . o- . n. . o n " ‘. . -‘ ...., ‘91-
‘ v" ' ~ "' "' . ' - -. u.- " .‘ ' " “" ' ' ”II-"‘7 Il-fioffivg-fl; .wwafls..—...w.u.v.‘;a. -‘7.
. u o .I. ' ... _ . ’ . . _ v - '>‘.' ,1 »v on \1.‘ .. " I-.-’!n')i:,xr ., '3 -
J ' ' , ::- ‘. . ’-‘-.~ ‘. "4“".- ° ‘4! «:35: 'v ' fitm'w' hi.- xt'
. _ _ , . - I . , 4 l' Iv— ... o- . - ‘_- o oo 9‘4 foo“. -, _. ' :L'?!“ 1; VIP-5'3; ( 1
o , - I o n‘ n -. . . f ' f . .- § . . " .
- . ‘4 . - ' . p 1 o ’ f _. . u . - - - O . o .. 4,5": ,v Q... ‘ ‘C . “7'“:
v n — - _ . o . -. ‘
. I: ‘ -"- ' _.If. - IJII‘ I 30-: In. “‘fi‘ I " I "I‘ “" 1'3“ if"
__ .0 I . ‘ .' . »' ' a. a..fi.
a; '. .2. ' ’~ ~‘ ; " 'a ' ' ‘ 2.3-" yr." '-
V ,

   
 
    

    

‘—
.. ~-I-
. ‘4 no vying? '(“'
. «V? ’Ef ‘ ';'-"::..£.:..
. o;4-oo:r..... .L.::‘ o... ”:40 «gnu-.07. f. ‘
o p- .
'.'I ‘ 4-SM 4- “.0 Iroo 3 "13:"...

t
. .o-l‘::¥.o':lf' ",3

         
    
  

 

. .. . .0
5343;. kt

’\

v0.

   
  

   
 
     

.l ' .
.. .
I ' o. 'l'I'F ”9' ."
‘or J" a v ' i't' '
‘ ‘

.olo" .i‘¢-‘

3h.-

  
    
    
  
      
    
  
      

  
 
 

I ., -

of .' #3:» *0

l‘hv Q. . .53....)

.,, I.. C rd '-. -

of . ""d - 05" .
9:1“.b"’ .: .0 c‘ 3“. x"! -
- : — . _ ‘

“(I ’g'vJ‘" ‘
‘9'"13‘i-L'Wi“; .
."Q-S'n "mu-2""

  
  

' 'P‘¢J."Jn'.~fl “'2

én-u F‘fj'k ”afar.“ f3“!

. ma,nrfir!.r\...37 .-
II¢03$‘_ I, “3.3.3

 

 

 

 

5"? ‘ 2,
"3.;

 

 

 

 
 
 

 
 
 

       

If"

$1
,A

   
   

  
 
    
  
 
  
  

    

“0- ‘W‘CI: '
f ‘ ”u: 3?} ..
'1' . .' '~ ~ '39'i’§*€>”ft

I . A... .. .- r J‘P.."" -k‘
V“ ‘2 1.118: "Il'h’"’ 'Q‘C‘P’A ’g‘.’ .4. y... 1' ‘f -...._ .‘.§':

  
  
  
  
  
    
     
      
   
   

     
 

 
    
   
   

   

          

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

. ~ I. - wz";"‘: “'2'3:."' ; .Yr. ' I ": .'.' ;..r-' $:."r"‘::t.‘. D - I ‘ ‘fijitt .U: ;
. * ‘I’ V . ‘ ' ' ~ 'I' , ' . . . .9 ~
. “poo—'0 I ,. -' o 0': ~0- -.y :z‘g‘vfzo-dogm r an; 9:9;"1‘! ‘31 . 'r'I‘c 5 3:5, '“é 'M ‘ m off-o .- II 3 z».- '- (lg :81.
.4:£._"- ‘ 'I . .Ouzfiflt 4": N. .p no -'”'._u_ VO-V‘:‘_'"f I . m_ Ifio-vron-u onfi1;:'f'.‘.h;§’Io-o ‘III; ‘ .Ntmqn ”.33. t . ~ ‘%|'
o . ,~o . r.” . .al 9 .. _
, in; . “.4 I z 1'19" " ' gun tum-‘- ‘ '4t'iwma . ' - ‘ -~ “Xv V: ' ‘ ' -
'1 " - r. a» ;.‘- hum: 0".5 ‘3; 03': 5: wln- ' Inor-t ‘9'. Jr" a- a
“(I I on qr»: 333; I 'no;v:p. roz. ~‘n ,4.. f“ ogo¢ono!{;- ego: 432;" P‘s .‘i "pf- ‘22- 9! I\ 3*-
o. . , . . -,. l 04.... V‘.‘ “a lup.”u.",y.‘..‘.” ‘.i;:' "f ‘ 3":-. "3} ’3 .w .' . ' a, - o Lif‘ } '. '
2.? .3 4(.¢' . . 9..-". - s - ”I ; I .b '21-.- “‘1‘ “Hi i: " a. r .:\,. —. r':‘ o.” o-‘ogv-OO;~ I”..- : fl] "0‘
_ .. ‘ . .o ”— ~ m ‘.
'3‘ . c.- - I 1:5». 6 .a ." w .- .- w ' -" 0 . :9 - In- *o-zlm 1:40;:2'; ‘- -M:’:‘ if {1’35 ’3‘: 'tV'omg'}w v ;5{fl"iz' ‘ <45:
. q .l’! p c to o 0 no: {Eg' a:'}o:. . N .gm"; 1“: .n 3.x .1.
.—. ,.... 32:4, ,4, .... ..
‘ 9 g I. 0Q (I ‘ .
a
R
O
7 ‘ I

       
 
 
 

J

 

f
. l ' ‘
'5 - :CLvO: ‘.:\_4|' ‘

b
,l
\-

 
  
    
  

 

...- .;.

xt". 59'3“ '8":"-." WW
4‘0"" '

o “:0.

.. «’rr .P'W“ --,-v-.r ~eI:-'-v-w «~5-
rhv‘y a v} .Irqoplr;JFI° . -.P..-:.'a;::: 'I“"""’A

   

  

     
 
 
    
 
 
 

     
 
 

         
  
  
 
 
 
 

    

,I
I5? '3', r'-v-I - IA ‘33
. l ' 'Vc ' fl‘u‘ .l fl'v' r ‘I .; ..n
“r . .. '. ..~'.‘.'.:.. .w -‘-' r. W". . "5.3"- “Vi-L" ' . 1.9.2..
' . \ “ - I. a 0,. o .
' ""l-I‘O "oflf' "u POQ~1I¢;-‘|0-z."' ' 1.34.]? {m J, , «Q‘..' .421. }J¢w ’ (I) I O :‘4 ‘ "..
"' "M r:"'-‘"'"5' : . “.1'::.a'.’- ' . ' o .3...
.. . .fi ; 'uf'u .,. ‘- «o. n . . - ' ‘
r ;:?xd‘t.lo.' 40'. 0 -' «ai. ,r '3"! 'ko:. o‘- k V 1:”... :K" 3‘" n ' D
i... .tv'onn- on; I; o :o. no :0, . :u,"
' ‘°‘ 1'.‘ o I
32334-3“ , 1* a. five: rpm“ .3325:
«(.0 - 4, Ima- .or‘o gig- n “,3 ._:' .. :P'J
‘.'..-Os .1, I-M' j.-

  

       
 

 
 
   
 
  
     
  
  
  
 
 
    
     

 
      
  
      

 
 

 
 

. g» 03‘ ' . 1 _ :~‘,-.~, I 'm-.
.z“" "-0 r " ' ‘-' ”1““. v _ 1‘. J , , 0". I r iofiigoo r; .nal,’ lm-L“..' ‘1": .70.:
I. ' .. I l C p O I
o. .50 a I r ““5 ; .1". .- if”) _ n l ’2'! _Q_IP“OH a :o::£:f {“4”, nut-Ion
*uoora o. ‘
’ 1‘ coop-9”... my
‘05::M '. , .‘U‘WM «Ion-v rflfc

       
   
 
   
  
 
 
 
 
  

W
a. I. u' .’
.. . .q .0 o 5- u. .‘I ’::.~
.Q'rrvial:¢.. - .za‘f’Jf. :1... ‘ m{&):;:~'.
o ."\.... .."m:‘“

.'.:.111'.{"":r"'r"r°~ mgr,
Iva. .- our—

.0:
0"
g N .n:.:g:
‘m * . s

   
 

. . 1-", .

' :‘QnuCE: d I . o :I
0" u, on. pa‘g h i “._

o ;.oDI-Nnno- Qp-oo oer. :.:uVo-IIV:I.-O 'd

0
7"10" .:.=:.- no,’ . h-ot
' ,0”! “P ""

  

F-..

   

  

      
  
 
 
 
   

   
 

   
 
 

     
  
  
 
        

 
   

O 1- '0‘ fir '0'! ‘Ov-M
{I . ' Q "{-00 '0 ”:11, a -v .
'59:” 0-" .ngo .- oo" m- “T'- '0 w vino-92”, Mr. 0 -~Oo‘ ”M’s- '£:O?M’. ‘ '.::::A~o .0-
. ‘ ° RR! 00.3 00-: '- n“r.s’I~'o 01"" 0.:- a‘nun. rin’. .- .l'flo. Wom.’~o "upg- _
#1:. o- I': I I v - o . o :f- cog-n“- '70 ~un-mp-v: p. it; ".419 :.-"..r‘ '3‘!“ Wu»,;. “OrouI—ov ”a _..- "vorvrp
. p ..' o .W .'.,. . O . 'v 0 u xvi-nu. .M ~ vl-IoI-OOOO-I-fluvu .- I'vl- to”. *o.w~pr fimmrrfiumfil a u or ..oaoo-Iyo .0. g-fiov-I-
' -.- II no ‘ . 'uan-y &' vol-N I,» ~ hr- - h w: l‘r‘r. rrl?‘ Mr 6" p.’ fl. q \gzzou' “no a 4.... won. pp'o’ '0
...'n. n-I ' O I . - q . v ,0 0‘0; ~:---.'~o~o~ -_bou . - '0 - I.- ; ‘7‘! o o 9 - dz:..’.“ n. :§I.;‘:;q . o o “I . _ ‘roo mug-ac:- 9 ”I. . cig- b'ou’vo. H~>
m-.-. ».~' 0 o‘ b 4;. _ q - --: o.» "0' -'~I-o-' - non - - om- o'v-o I‘T‘r' to. q lDur v'v’up 0" .fr - . '. i‘ '2”: o. F.‘nd «a ...o yuan-.- .npmg' o- ‘g
" u.”| i... I: '1'. on 9. c . I . I". ' 4'" our: I .-::u. I :rII “0:10;:0' «o- fir. 'q-‘W’O'o a." a, . aduw.:.= Q'- no? :v- ‘ ”.0. or.
H?” . . ‘vo I , f o o o 0'... . '0'. l I 00 I ‘ to, viz-'9‘ Mow. p
‘gn a I - o . _

,. :;;:.;O 'm'buo , .IIpfiuvu
I 5'. .
$53.6."- ., :.'..-I,.“r.. ,. '.'.::. ‘
.‘vo'o It. untbong—r
-.;:‘., gmanI-b‘u‘ .t-t‘nnnlwovlvpfimmn
"r. [‘11 WIvv-rr’ fiI'”Ifigmn..¢--
#fifiarJn- git-0:. ."I.. ;.;.p- a}; u ..,.
OIQV'II-Ofl

     

 

Id
‘l.....-.'.I.:‘I" I'I* o g.‘

  
  
 

 

-I. oo?‘«
v-tl 0'."

   
 
 
  

"..'n..o. . a. ....'..~. ..

 
 

    
  
   
  
   
 
   
 

 
  
 

  
 

 

    
 

   

I: .':';. -0 cd'
.-:..».a..y ‘ofoo'32-v-Octpn , ,. .~,*..., A. '00".
“0". 'Q- no v 03-. ’ I on. aw or
.. . . ,
fv;'v20-o’u.‘. 'o...u 1.“; '- -;o'o:.4,. " .ogw ~'~W0§r"'fi'l" 0 v- v.0:u1au,.v
_ :r.‘ ':'i‘o.v"'l'
" o u '0‘ l. c 1 “60:0 ..,
.irgoxo..\..'.o.,n 1' I.”

 

 

‘ :-I . 00-9“ -u-'1-.-:.7..........i,ul.‘ J,..'_‘_ _. ,9.
”1;... “a .:$IIQ..W O'O'wcflh‘o-l; 1-” ' .n

  

 

  
 
  

 

       

  

 

   
 
 
 

     
 

     
  
   

 

  
  
 
    
  
  
      
      

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

v-Co'n-npc '
"v.1 WOO-r1- “0"?- N ‘ n» v
Nit, on. _ W Ito-0’- *m -
WWI-tr." ’3: "~‘°::"":"wa":"‘j
0' 3p '0' '0 0" 9". “0"..OC‘2-d IODWO;: w!“ .‘o'vO'I... v
”own”-.- - up; I u. 0. up... .07.!“ urou?p-.u~.uuo ”Hg—:O-fl , '0’...“ ”1.5 «.3000.- II' 0.61.". ”,-
p. .0 ’0'. ~..-5-.¢op ”(pay-7.1;MWOT:DIOIOM 7"". a-I-m-a"‘ 9“} 9o" 'C'v.‘ ‘4‘: . fl.
0 I , .s "g u -1 - .‘...... 4‘. “my.” you I MI 00:: vu:h w-..- -' upo».'o~.~..." V I‘I'poO-uoofifi No- b , Inn. .y.
"” f O "'5: ’I .’ om..vruo~y:» tyv—vrku‘ I ~r~~'-"¢W.o 4!, "do 0 co Wow 0 Wu ’
. 0-. v-l :- g “p- .'... to... 15'9” you "v con 7.7: "1‘0- 0’0”- wdo ‘W‘Gv' III-0' ' W-o voaaonnn. «an. 0" ~
'I' fir— gov. 9o. moglo- . ‘Iflo'vwflItu(wbooo (Ha-w MU FM. ..O-O :-‘~~“~OV.:.M~¢~.U.‘ ,ym
:' *: 2:33.431‘41m‘“ " 43:13.??? was}... rows-- ... .-r'°'"""" 7:: .. no”... - ,
g n v '0"
. .r‘; cfiwofl M o‘O'JWrJ-v‘o- ”on or... moo-.mvp. . " 5"...on "a“
Emil“.\h '7' “f Q- .roo. :uooo homeomo- ”on”
r 4“ “"0 " M -o,o " h“ " . ‘L W gm poo-01 .0. .oo .o-c’
a do 00' (0 0" .g o. 0...... ‘ WV: napoéovzuv+ ;“o-ftn-o-oq 100'. tngc... ”3.. ....-...
I ~ u-m'uw-oI-nv~*9~o- ”mm-”9r b-I-noo-vo . a;—. . .‘1.~‘p. w.o
..'._‘...' so..- 9- v I .o- 00- . -IH"I--0c>0mfimm.¢ 0‘." ,‘.-,.I,‘ "It-o- N... flue-ho
1-3....” wou0I0~o no: >v vu-D- «N's-o you...“ :ua‘QM’ I:‘O'Inzlru‘Qw-Iou0q~.n~uq .a... u. no: .,.-9. o."—
§ our.‘ - . 9-0.: , JI’Io-- IIpOO‘ N. 27.2.”. mzwi'. , v- QM 0"‘0..II'I.
0o. w» a». .0 nun-Ira an. :51“. I . Ix'r :-""m?.'” “"7”. r ’ no
o-nsn-qu 1.1 .n. .o... qvumo n." I... 'I:II.." Mowwg .w:, ”'"W ”-C‘..:'. ....
"Gaunt 'r' a P"... 'x —v ..v w .‘f.’ Iflongzbv-v O» I was 'I' a I
.I roe... VI A ‘o o. o--~. an... I... 0.- ¢I’. puognm..:-a::*:*.~ . -- rob-b -mfi'flrozul .-.o..-
oooo Pfrlr-vz'u «racy-oat...” o m1." r-I-voywn *rI'OIM: I- "woo-9*"? {zz-mn‘u _ y...-
p- u...- - I Notify canon-.10. y—yi‘a-cv ‘ o- ow pore - 0.00 ‘m cm.
.. '7 v .- .g.-.:; “quogqonpmo no M’Tb-u , 0.1--.-qu ”an. "2-. an” up, fro
- Co I ova-Tr. arr" Mono ado uomfigw o. o-o .3 I p v ,Jfio-v. v m.
'IO-C‘C'o 0,;- y ' vIO oar-“IQ Wt.” 0'? no .or..po-’rr “.0. :41“: amazy.:v:u;w "*aIMoupm-I Io.
'V‘OOCJO‘UH Itch-”0.00" :5..." u-v-o- b...“ .a—gvoooo' . m now-o 'v 3-.
onIi I'l-v '0 who“ 0" 'OOIIII‘".

 

 

   
  
   
 
  

 

"‘1‘ V I V
01*." - mule ‘00 u II-cvqr I'flrflwl . - ldu D-Rp Nut—lo.» .. u
- v . r. >.-oo,‘oo ”-0 on I'm . ‘rc’o~oo:m.~9ur 3.0 INC-«ImeSVMO r. 9010 'fl'M°O' 'D'.. N”
O O" IWHI'O-O I NIQ-«oo-g-o'. ow pour .uu‘rg." 9.... - ~ » ‘7‘,
' r1 ' O 0'. I .0 Ivtw‘l O O I‘d-n .1"... fl'o. 00...." a” I; OO'ooO-O-Cvcc
I Vt- 'l'lohpI-o- o ohmw'o Qn'r-I -;O-J1m|‘~wvrouo
9 "" Moro-- ‘0’ o'vh...o~h" I“.
.10 m0 ’0! ID:

 
 
 
     
      

..
_ “I. "I :Ou‘v,

:::m w. root-o- Irvfiflovr‘”0\ UV '"l'fi'~ "I

' Iu;:'h ’QM- I00 infill."

. c ”an. r 0’ do. 1v r "0"”... '“'°‘

. ON~.:'-;I"vo ,. 0'96." “Ron-”Era ovu- 0-3,: ' ‘ ’”

    

  
  
       
 

 

 

    

    
      
 
 
 
     
         
  
  
 
 
 
 

-«r... on. w 7 IO"H".-C" ‘0 ‘M Ir“ "ht - shv no - . v!
D’ "' ' H’D ubalo 0:". ' :: Wow-5.;‘Y' “3", "‘0'” '3" " "Ti :rlt'fiothoi‘n” I01”! ”W’V:°.’:"';‘°":Q°r.' ‘I’O-P ' ‘ f.
1- , , . ~ . .u Jug:- m H... 0,30, .110 0“ I00".- flan
4 I l . \III:luflv‘l‘O'.: rfi'.o:0‘ Cooot- V‘s‘w;:95- fill-‘51. .C. r. .*'~{1V..1~.."‘:' "c wnfihfwnm 0 0".- Jam o-OI iwm'w... "83..
4‘ . .4. v D oIO~~n ”.m- .g. go; In 40'“ "9': JON". paw-209’ n-uo Iv-
, - s" . J. J‘ ‘ r I .o~.-‘r;I~-Mot. uI~.I.".,‘- ‘ . ‘3‘ ‘ ...'. .1... ..:’. r" .. Vfiofil ’I.‘ m' MC!" VWM «my fr, gr . “W. 90'...
u o u I ’ I‘DM'DII- II t‘ It. 0. ga»&3:! h- éuit‘: .‘J‘O‘ I I-ooovo-o -¢ “MMIm' my. I 3” (up.
..v' o H. N“. Q r aha-OI, CQ'I'". for on“ - pan-rm“ «1"; O

 

on '00 -
M 0-. “on. -.. 0*... ~..l~. 'IO." I'.">r' 0
, .«..~ov-(\§¢vHo.h:-'-‘.c I I 9"“ ‘mnno~ Ow.
, ....

.rrmgu to W.
J 'mfir. %n.”

    
 

   

 

.' K ’0 Q no.9
~ . I I'mosdp [In Imp“...
W . co W 900- n- 4.... n. ...... on" "no. an“ ‘- oroo-on not: I. '0! CI ‘0'?qu- vao ,n
.. .m - vow-o um. u” v.0 .0” .‘l own-o. was poo p Ito-vfi’ot‘uvv." ”‘0‘Ofl mum "an
r .. ,'- ': o- ." 00-an ppw-oou "Burt-w“ M‘- . wowrw'ohfifl‘vfi brt.’~.W~ up. n g.‘.
_-I. -.:-:I . . *o-«H-AruI-w rm!» 0:.N'm ow mom-r:- - In~30~10 ":0..-
oo“ “7-- M o "Ova-row 'IO‘ '“V'D’U on‘uv . ”I-
1 .u op . ”ca: 6.53:.- rpvowwgwomp- ”It! M
nob :wou-

 

Cum our? .‘I‘U'Q;OO‘O
“0““ own" I“-
.‘F -:

   

O
In! . 0+ Coyoto.
MW'I-o ”up”. oguvo'm-IM-tum1I - .....¢
’V'Dsooo. a any Ive-g iv... ':'“F‘ $0
wtg-tgs'mh—Q. "I 9.3-. *m“~:.,yq w. u.“

 

' a

;;;.-0- “av-mnut f§:n.' O“*Ifi;1or'. no

out u-noméwva-o v om .. ." Q r..-

o'm I'I o-oQ-O og'VC'Oho‘o-JOOn.‘

‘:~‘J"~1W-rd.'.'l“'.I‘:~....-.‘
, w”

    

O ‘. ' n
g 0. .." g-.-IflII-I'I It.) .0).
- 3.9:...“a. "up..- Ion--Io'fi IuI;OI(-N10I?oou¢
... I -o ~g-o . n.
O

      
 

   
  
 

       
  
 
 
 
 
 

         

 
   
    

."’.‘Uflr~a
. ‘oo-svvun .amgvummm ,
is“ a l‘ . I sup .n. r. 9. :.‘.a:‘ 'w-ctoomo - ‘ . I m it" ooiqéuflivfl'wv Ia. - COO-4v llylvmo
o H \loo' I.§uo~, 0 .~. .‘ fl ”I 9.10.; '01 mg.
.l..'.‘ ‘7. _ v >- v. ’6. '1."'"'-t' . o 0" ‘00“... A
o - I w... no“ cop-4‘ - 9v- .oMQ o .0 00‘." 0-. ..~. 5‘50“.F.D'.0«N‘ I
«.u-o «r o \ "',.'."l‘.l.“ l I M . g... vr v v. .0: m .g.
.. p - . c Mon; moon. I I. O‘W‘O‘:~UI UN p
‘ «Au; . . gnu-wan 0-?!" 'I'I'NI7'HWO-
I r I ~ pron» coon-- -M to um» wwwwma
- . . o. a . .nvrfnoooo hmyogvtwti'
., . . '7. . -qrv .4“... . .c. ...-w 1 u Ov- oo con moutq-qo-n O. o—‘V-§m0
. ‘~ .- -'.." . o , n. .oao as ;.§:: (Juno... vbJI-u ~0hmo .vI-w'r ”Gwen-out»... rfimx“ ~-
.. .,. v-r.u .o. I .. -- . . -..-. Ida'v‘ o” C 70" I-
I o ‘4 0 - ‘ I I 0 - I. o o u~ - — o - 'nj’vo'fioom'- O‘Qrc‘w I Q mum-moo. c-OIOO Ohm
' '- ‘ ‘ o . .,_. go _‘ .... u - .1 .-.c 04 'U 0”. 0"“. .o-I . hI'oIO-o 01.10:
I ' - o . . v - wo- I.‘-:~v- gvou-vvad .1... WI '
L ' o. ”Io-r.“ \mo Moo-v8”
' n. a I W'- N 9". ‘4" ‘OQ'f'. '0"
' - o . (w! no: IM1¥;IW"“V::'JV-P o v
' ‘ ‘ ' ‘ ' - o w. ' .0- I a :-.'A .=.W" ii 3” ‘
,‘I -' nun-'0.“ II- v I'M? -';‘V:‘O-"’.‘?W
' ..,..... Covrv w u.
’ " ‘ ‘0' . vou ,.... - - o ' oow.0vo~o cotton-1..
. - ' ‘ n .. - ' ...- ' " 7"":223'
‘ .-¢ ooQo- ,. O-th Q: n: """'.“I ‘ U ""
5 '_, D Y ' '0-. '. .'vuoov ‘.¢":no dqoov.‘.'.4~v'
‘3’ “O‘ ,', , .. - 94'. ‘ -.. oo.‘.A—:‘4o 0 .4§o.-~ '“9‘p‘..'t .I-
IN" o - . - o._.aoa-poov ‘1‘ . 7-: any 0 - 'o-I o~1or- .9 a...
. I . ..' '. IO. . '- . . V ' .Oqo‘ow" J . .— ..‘,. ‘7 .0- wzw fr....':‘. .51.- V'S;E;- ”E;
° ' ‘ .~..'..' .u.a-.,.-o H. 'O- -oo-.rv.n-o‘n'lrrinnrontv—u-
. _ _

 

 

Mi
6/2?
77‘?)

”on Ill. ”If f; .

—-.-
’ -

 

This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

AN EVALUATION OF A TREATMENT PROGRAM FOR

IMPRISONED CHILD SEX OFFENDERS

presented by

Theresa Joan Anderson-Varney

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY degreein Clinical Psychology

in.“ M

V X ' . V
Major prolessor

 

 

Date all] C“

MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771

 

r

 

\.

LIBRARY

Michigan State

University

 

J

_‘_—.

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.
TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due.

DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE

 

I' i ‘1. (T 155351 3-17
3:, i3- U‘ .2 ‘5
——-.' ,_

 

 

 

 

 

C;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

rl

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

__7

 

 

 

 

J
l

 

 

 

 

MSU In An Affirmative ActIorVEqual Opportunity Institution

CWM‘I

AN EVALUATION OF A TREATMENT PROGRAM

FOR IMPRISONED CHILD SEX OFFENDERS

bY

Theresa Joan Anderson-Varney

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University-
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Clinical Psychology

1991

677~ 7570

ABSTRACT
AN EVALUATION OF A TREATMENT PROGRAM

FOR IMPRISONED CHILD SEX OFFENDERS

by

Theresa J. Anderson-Varney

This study evaluated the effectiveness of three
components (social skills training, sex education, and
cognitive restructuring) of a behavioral treatment program
for child sex offenders. The purpose was to determine its

utility in a prison setting. In addition, observations
were made about self-esteem, attitudes toward women, and
history of sexual abuse. Sixty child sex offenders
imprisoned in one prison in southern Michigan were
randomly selected and assigned to either treatment or
control conditions. All subjects were assessed on
measures of heterosocial skills, cognitive distortions,
sexual anxiety, sexual knowledge, self-esteem, arrested
development/immaturity i.e., victim stance, history of
sexual abuse, and patriarchal attitudes toward women. The
30 individuals selected for the treatment component
experienced 5-1 1/2 hour sessions each of social skills
training, sex education, and cognitive restructuring. At
posttreatment all subjects were tested using the same
measures. The treatment program was successful in

improving social skills and sexual knowledge. It was

partially successful in cognitive restructuring. The
program was not successful in reducing sexual anxiety.
Ninety-five per cent of the sample reported experiencing
sexual abuse as a child. They were also found to be

immature and to hold patriarchal attitudes toward women.

DEDICATION
To my mother and father, Joan Lois and Joseph
Wallace Varney, who kindled the initial spark in my quest
for understanding..... and to Sharon Lee Bradt and Susan
Joan Varney who never swayed in their support of and

belief in me.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my appreciation to many wonderful
people for their support and assistance throughout my
Doctoral program.

I am especially indebted to the members of my
Doctoral Committee without whose continuing encouragement
and guidance this study would not have been possible.

Dr. Norman Abeles, Chairman of both my Dissertation
and Guidance Committees, who supported and advised me
through the process of making this research happen.

Dr. Rafael Frank, who has encouraged, guided and
supported me during my doctoral experience.

Dr. Robert Caldwell, who also sat on my Master's
Committee, has continually offered support and guidance
throughout my Doctoral program.

Dr. Bertram Karon, has been an exciting and inspiring
teacher throughout my Doctoral experience.

Dr. Raymond Frankman, offered advice and support as
this project progressed.

I would also like to express my appreciation to
Warden John Makowski who believed in and supported this
project from beginning to end.

I am also indebted to the staff at the Ionia
Temporary Facility who offered advice and support and
always made me feel welcome and part of the team.

It is my sincere hope that the understanding gained

through the findings of this study will repay both
Department Officials and inmate subjects for their time
and effort. There is a need, expressed by both, for
treatment programs for child molesters. Let us hope the

process has begun.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES......................................... Vi
INTRODUCTION........................................... 1
DESIGN........... ...... ................................ 55
METHOD................................................. 56
SETTING........ ..... ................................... 6O
MEASURES.......... ..... ................................ 60
HYPOTHESES..................... ...... .................. 65
RESULTS................................................ 67
DISCUSSION............................................. 79
REFERENCES............................................. 97
APPENDIX

A. mtterto sample.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0... 108

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1
Empirical Findings for Explanations of Child Molesting
BehaViorOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOI... 9

Table 2
Demographics Characteristics of Treatment and Control
Subjects Frequency and Percentile Distribution.....58

Table 3
Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (SADS) Means &
Standard Deviations................................69

Table 4
(MSI) Sexual Inadequacies Scale Means and Standard
DeViationSOOOO0.0.0.0....O00.0.0000...00.0.0000000071

Table 5
IRI Perspective Taking Scale Means and Standard
DeViationSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.72

Table 6
ABCS Means and Standard Deviations.................74

Table 7
MSI Justifications Scale Means and Standard
Deviations.........................................75

Table 8

MSI Sexual Knowledge Scale Means and Standard
DeViationSOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.000000000IOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0078

viii

INTRODUCTION

There are many definitions for child molestation.
Each investigator uses something different depending on
his or her views of its causes and manifestations.
Lanyon's (1986) definition seems broad enough to be
accurate. He suggests that child molesters can be defined
as "older persons whose conscious sexual desires and
responses are directed, at least in part, toward
dependent, developmentally immature children and
adolescents who do not fully comprehend these actions and
are unable to give informed consent" (p. 176). Child
molestation is associated with a serious risk to the
child's well-being and psychological, moral, and/or social
development.

The Council on Scientific Affairs of the American
Medical Association has recommended that child sexual
abuse be defined as the sexual "exploitation of a child
for gratification or profit of an adult" (p. 798), noting
that child sexual abuse often does not involve sexual
intercourse or physical force. The Council says that
sexual abuse ranges from exhibitionism and fondling, to
intercourse or use of a child in a production of
pornography. .

Adding to the confusion is the term pedophilia.
Often, pedophilia, which literally means love of children,

is used synonymously with child sexual abuse. The terms

pedophile and pedophiliac suggest that a mental disorder

is present: child molester refers to the perpetrator of a
more general sexual maltreatment of children and does not
mean that a mental illness exists. The DSM-III-R offers

the following definition:

A. Over a period of at least six months, recurrent
intense sexual urges and sexually arousing
fantasies involving sexual activity with a
prepubescent child or children (generally age 13
or younger).

B. The person has acted on these urges, or is
markedly distressed by them.

C. The person is at least 16 years old and at least
5 years older than the child or children in A (p.
285).

The DSM-III-R states that a person meeting these three
criteria may be considered a pedophile. That is,
pedophilia is a mental disorder that can be subsumed under
the term child molester - all pedophiles are child
molesters, but not all child molesters are diagnostically
viewed as pedophiles.

Estimates of the number of cases of child sexual
abuse in the United States range from 100,000 to 500,000
cases per year (Council on Scientific Affairs of the
American Medical Association, 1985; Moore, 1984). These

figures, however may underreport the problem, and they do

not indicate whether the incidence of child sexual abuse
is increasing or decreasing, although most investigators
are convinced that acts of child molestation are steadily
increasing (Finkelhor, 1987).

According to the American Humane Association, there
were an estimated 123,000 reproted cases of child sexual
abuse in the United States in 1985 (American Humane
Association, 1987). Insight may be gained by considering
the findings of several of the most recent and
representative studies. The first, a study of more than
900 randomly selected women, age 18 and older, from the
San Francisco area, found that 38% of the women reported
that they had had at least one experience of sexual abuse
prior to age 18, and 28% reported at least one such
experience before age 14. Less than 6% of these cases
were reported to the police (Russell, 1983, 1986).

One study examined the prevalence of child sexual
abuse among Afro-American and White-American women in Los
Angeles. Wyatt (1985) surveyed 248 women and found that
62% reported at least one incident of child molestation
before the age of 18. Fifty-seven per cent of the Afro-
American women reported some form of sexual abuse, while
67% of the White-American women claimed that they were
sexually molested.

Studies have not been limited to the United States.

Mrazek, Lynch, and Bentovim (1983) mailed questionnaires

to nearly 1,600 family doctors, police surgeons,
pediatricians, and child psychiatrists to determine the
frequency of child molestation in the United Kingdom. A
range from 16% (among family doctors) to 56% (among police
surgeons) responded that they had seen cases of child
sexual abuse. These researchers estimated that about one
child in 6,000 per year and three children in 1,000 over
the entire span of childhood have been reported to be
sexually abused in the United Kingdom.

A study conducted by Abel et a1. (1987) has helped to
illuminate the tremendous effect that sexual abusers have
had on their victims. These researchers conducted
structured clinical interviews with over 400
nonincarcerated child molesters to determine the onset and
frequency of the subjects' sex offenses. Working under a
federal contract, the resarchers were protected by a
government certificate of confidentiality that exempted
them from the requirements of reporting patients for
sexual crimes. Because of this exemption, the research
findings have been highly regarded. It is believed that
these results were not biased by the child molester's
frear of legal repercussions. However, these findings
have not yet been replicated or independently confirmed.
Abel and his colleagues (1987) concluded that child
molesters come from every segment of society, appearing in

representative numbers in every religious, ethnic,

educational, and socioeconomic group.

The most impressive finding, according to these
researchers, is the high frequency of paraphilic acts
committed by the sex offenders. To sum up the findings,
both the number of victims and the total number of
moilestations must be taken into account. The molesters
who targeted boys outside the home had a surprisingly
large number of citims (150.2) compared with those who
molested girls outside the home (19.8), with those who
molested boys inside the home (1.7), or with those who
molested girls inside the home (1.8). The mean number of
pedophilic acts per offender disclosed by these
nonincarcerated sex offenders reflected the greater
frequency of offenses committed by those child molesters
who targeted boys outside the home; nonincest male targets
--281.7; nonincest female targets --23.2: incest male
targets -- 62.3; and incest female targets -- 81.3. Based
on these figures, Abel et al. recommended that treatment
efforts be directed at those child molesters who target
boys outside the home when only limited evaluation and
treatment resources are available. They felt that
treatment of this group would result in the greatest
reduction of child molestation.

In addition to suggesting that child molesters come
from every socioeconomic category, this study also

suggested that they are usually well educated. Their

deviant interests and fantasies have surfaced by 12 or 13
years of age. Lanyon (1986) suggested that, "the child
molester is most commonly a respectable, otherwise law-
abiding person, who may escape detection for exactly that
reason" (p. 177).

Treating child molestation as purely a symptom to be
cured by incarceration becomes unwise in light of the
following study. Moore and Zusman (1984) in their report
given on treatment programs for sex offenders in Florida
noted that although 6,039 persons were arrested for sexual
abuse, well over 10,000 sex offenses were actually
reported in Florida in 1982. Only 10.1% (612) of the
total number arrested for sexual abuse were sentenced to
prison that year; 9% (545) were merely placed on
probation. The criminal justice system is also
increasingly mandating that all types of sex offenses,
including child sexual abuse, be treated in clinical
settings on an outpatient basis. The fact remains that
most of these sex offenders are not in the prison system.
They are living in the community, and are free to commit
further sex offenses.

Clinicians in the public health community must
recognize that victim treatment is essential to reduce
psychological trauma, in addition to providing
preventative interventio. Overwhelming evidence indicates

that some child sexual abuse victims continue to act out

this victimization in adult life as abusers. As many as
50%-60% of incarcerated sex offenders have reported that
they were victims of sexual abuse as children (Finkelhor,

1984).

Etiology

Research is currently making a concerted effort to
determine what causes an individual to become sexually
aroused by children. Most researchers agree that there is
no single cause, but a complicated interplay of organic,
psychological, cultural, environmental, and sociological
factors.

Araji and Finkelhor (1985) developed a list of the
various theories that have been proposed to explain sexual
abuse behavior. Table 1 is a summary of empirical
evidence for explanations of child molesting. They found
that most of the theories could be categorized as trying
to explain one of four factors: (a) why a person would
find relating sexually to a child to be emotionally
gratifying and congruent (in the sense of the child
fitting the adult's needs), (b) why a person would be
capable of being sexually aroused by a child, (c) why a
person would befrustrated or blocked in efforts to obtain
sexual and emotional gratification from more normal
sources, and (d) why a person would not be deterred by the

conventional social restraints and inhibitions against

having sexual relations with a child. These researchers
suggest that these explanations are complimentary rather
than competing explanations for child molesting behavior.
Many or all may come into play in the creation of an
individual's pedophilic behavior.

These researchers also suggest that explanations of
sexual behavior focus on two levels: the individual
psychological and the sociocultural. As it has become
apparent that a great deal of sexual contact occurs
between adults and children, most of it undetected, a
point of view has developed that broader sociocultural
factors contribute to the problem. However, as these
researchers reviewed sociocultural explanations, they
found that they too, could be subdivided into the same

four factors as individual psychological theories.

Table 1

Empirical Findings for Explanations of Child Molesting
Behavior

WW

Children attractive because of one positive study
lack of dominance (Howells, 1979)

Arrested development/immaturity some support from
psychological testing,
but inferences aare
weak (Calmas, 1969:
Cavallin, 1966:

Cohen, Seghorn, &
Calmas, 1969: Ellis &
Brancale, 1956: Fitch,
1962: Groth et al.,
1982: Panton, 1978:
Peters, 1976:
Stricker, 1967:
Toobert, Bartelme, &
Jones, 1959)

Low self-esteem some support from
psychological testing,
but inferences are
weak (Hammer & Glueck,
1957: Panton, 1978:
Toobert, Bartelme, &
Jones, 1959)

Mastery of trauma through (Groth & Storr, 1965:
repetition Howells, 1981)

Identification with aggression several studies show
frequent histories of
sexual abuse in
offenders'
backgrounds (Howells,
1981: Groth, 1984:
Storr, 1965)

Narcissism untested

Male socialization to dominance untested

10

Table 1 (cont'd.)

Theory Evidence
Sexual.Aron§al
Heightened arousal to children clear experimental

evidence, except for
incest offenders (Abel,
Becker, Murphy , &
Flanagin, 1981: Atwood
& Howell, 1971: Freund,
1967a, 1967b: Freund &
Langevin, 1976: Quinsey
et al., 1975: Quinsey,
Chaplin, 8 Carrigan,

1979)
Conditioning from early several studies show
childhood experiences frequent histories of

sexual abuse in
offenders' backgrounds
(Abel et al., 1984:
Gebhard et al., 1965:
Groth & Burgess, 1979:
Groth, 1984: Langevin
et al., 1985: Seghorn
et al., n.d.)

Modeling from earlier childhood several studies show

experiences frequent histories of
sexual abuse in
offenders' backgrounds
(Abel et al., 1984:
Gebhard et al., 1965:
Groth & Burgess, 1979:
Groth, 1984: Langevin
et al., 1985: Seghorn
et al., n.d.)

Hormonal abnormalities mixed evidence (Berlin
& Coyle, 1981: Berlin,
1982: MCAuliffe, 1983:
Rada et al., 1976)

Misattribution of arousal untested

11

Table 1 (cont'd)

Theory Evidence
Socialization through child untested
pornography or advertising

Blockage

Difficulty relating to adult generally positive
females evidence (Anderson &

Mayes, 1982: Bell &
Howell, 1976: Cohen et
al., 1969: Fisher &
Howell, 1970:
Goldstein et al.,
1973: Groth et al.,
1982: Hammer & Glueck,
1957: Howells, 1981:
Langevin, 1983: Mohr
et al., 1964: Pacht &
Cowden, 1974: Panton,
1978: Virkkunen, 1976:
West, 1977)

Inadequate social skills suggested by several
studies (Frisbie,
1969: Gebhard et al.,
1965: Guttmacher,
1951: Hammer & Glueck,
Langevin, 1983: Storr,
1965)

Sexual anxiety some support from
uncontrolled studies
(Goldstein et al.,
1973)

Unresolved Oedipal dynamics family problems
evident, but not
necessarily the ones
Oedipal theory would
predict (Fenichel,
1945: Gillespie, 1964:
Hammer & Glueck, 1957:
Kinsey, 1948)

12

Table 9 (cont'd)

Disturbances in adult sexual
romantic relationships

Repressive norms about sexual
behavior studies

E' . l'l°!° n

Impulse disorder

Senility

Mental Retardation

suggestive evidence
from uncontrolled
studies (Cavellin,
1966: Cohen et al.,
1969: Fitch, 1962:
Gebhard et al., 1965:
Groth, 1979: Peters,
1976)

suggested by two
(Gebhard et al., 1967:
Goldstein et al.,
1973)

true for some small
group of offenders but
not all (Gebhard et
al., 1965: Hammer &
Glueck, 1957)

negative (Chaneles,
1967: Fitch, 1962:
Freund, McKnight,
Langevin & Cibiri,
1972: Gebhard et al.,
1965: Groth et al.,
1982b: Herman &
Hirschmann, 1980:
Marsh et al., 1955:
McCaghy, 1968: Quinsey
et al., 1975:
Stricker, 1967:
Virkkunen, 1976)

negative (Julian &
Mohr, 1980: Langevin,
1983: Mohr et al.,
1964: Peters, 1976:
Stokes, 1964)

13

Table 1 (cont'd.)

Alcohol

Failure of incest
avoidance mechanism

Situational stress
Cultural toleration

Patriarchal norms

many instances, role
unclear (Aarens et 1.,
Gebhard et al., 1965:
Morgan, 1982: Rada,
1976: Stokes, 1964:
Wilschke, 1965)

two studies show higher
rates of abuse in step-
father families
(Finkelhor, 1980:
Russell, 1980)

untested
untested

untested

14

Eastern MW

Some of the most widely cited theories about child
molesters explain that these individuals choose children
for sexual partners because children have some compelling
emotional meaning for them. Araji and Finkelhor (1985)
called this "emotional congruence". One such theory
states that child molesters have "arrested psychosexual
development" and are emotionally immature. They choose to
relate to children because they are at a child's emotional
level and they can respond to childlike preoccupations
(Bell & Hall, 1976: Groth & Birnbaum, 1978: Hammer &
Glueck, 1957).

A similar idea suggests that molesters are not just
immature, but have a low sense of self—esteem and little
efficacy in their social relationships. They are able to
relate to children because it gives them a feeling of
being powerful, omnipotent, respected, and in control
(Hammer & Glueck, 1957: Loss & Clancy, 1983).

Others have suggested that relating to children
allows sex abusers to try to overcome the effects of some
childhood trauma. By victimizing a child, they master the
trauma by reversing roles in the victimization they
suffered, and through "identification with the aggressor,"
they combat their own powerlessness by becoming the
powerful victimizer (Hobson & Gary, 1982: Howells, 1981:
Storr, 1965).

Another theory classified under emotional congruence

15

utilizes the idea of "narcissism" to explain child
molesting. In this case an offender remains emotionally
involved with himself as a child or his likenesses as a
result of emotional deprivation or possibly
overprotection. He attempts to give the love he misses or
wished he had to a child who resembles himself.

Lastly, recent feminist ideas about sexual abuse have
a similar underlying idea. According to these theories,
sexual abuse grows out of certain themes in normal male
socialization that tend to make children "appropriate"
objects of sexual interest. These themes include the
value that male socialization puts on being dominant and
the initiator in sexual relationships, as well as the
value placed on partners who are youthful and subservient.
Sexual abuse then occurs as a natural extension of some of

these values (Howells, 1981: Storr, 1965).

Qnilgngn are Attractive Due L2 Lack 9f Dominnnge

 

Howells (1979) has done the most to try to
substantiate the idea that children have a special
emotional meaning for pedophiles. Using a technique
called the Repertory Grid he found some support for two
propositions: (a) that issues of dominance and hierarchy
were more important in the social relationships of
molesters than in those of non-sex offenders, and (b) that
one of the salient characteristic that molesters point to

in their victims is lack of dominance. This research

16

supports the idea that molesters are drawn to children
because children make them feel powerful. However, the
methodology used is somewhat vaguely described and may
allow some subjectivity on the part of the investigator.
Further work in this area is needed.

Other studies using psychological tests do offer some
support for Howells' results. Langevin (1983) cites
studies by Fisher (1969) and Fisher and Howell (1970) in
which female-object pedophiles scored higher than normals
on deference, succorance, and abasement and lower on
achievement, autonomy, change, heterosexuality, and
aggression. These findings were based on the Edward‘s
Personal Preference Schedule. The high score on
deference, especially, might be viewed as supporting
Howell's idea that pedophiles have difficulty with
dominance. However, this does not substantiate the notion

that children are preferred because of this difficulty.

IEEQLEIILX and §§l£2E§L§§m

Emotional congruence theories also hypothesize that
molesters are immature and have low self-esteem. It would
seem that substantiation would be possible through
traditional psychological tests, however little work in
this area has been done. Hammer and Glueck (1957) gave
the Rorschach, House-Tree-Person, TAT, and Blacky picture
tests to 200 sex offenders and concluded that pedophiles

feel psychosexually immature and lacking in self-esteem,

17

but they do not say which findings from the tests
warranted these conclusions.

Stricker (1967) using the Blacky pictures, was more
specific and reported that pedophiles tended, when
compared to a college sample, to significantly "overuse
descriptive positives (e.g., beautiful, kind, fair) on the
evaluative dimension of the scale." (p. 37). Stricker
concluded that "pedophiles share this immature, feminine
approach" based on the fact that females also use more
positive responses on this dimension. This inference,
however, seems somewhat weak and reflects sex-role
stereotyping so must be treated with caution.

Peters (1976) used similar comparisons and found sex
abusers were more immature and regressed than normal men,
and had strong dependency needs and feelings of phallic
inadequacy. These conclusions were based on the results
of the Bender Gestalt test with a sample of 224 male sex
offenders who were on probation. He also found that child
sex abusers scored higher than other sex offenders on the
somatic scale of the Cornell Medical Index, meaning that
they had a particularly large number of physical symptoms.
He concluded that they have "a strong tendency to somatize
affective problems and thus view themselves as inferior.
They seem to feel unable to compete with other men in
efforts to attract adult women because of this felt
inferiority" (p. 417). However, conceptual conclusions

of this nature must be considered with caution until

18

additional objective research information becomes
available.

In addition to the above, researchers have given
offenders MMPI tests. One of the earliest was by Toobert,
Bartelme, and Jones (1959), who compared pedophiles with
other prisoners in general and found they scored higher on
the femininity and paranoia scales. They concluded that
pedophiles were "weak and inadequate and had low self-
esteem" (p. 277). They viewed this result as supporting
the theoretically predicted personality of a pedophile.
Again, it is possible that these conclusions are
unwarranted as they seem also to be affected by sex-role
stereotyping.

Panton (1978) compared MMPI test results of 30
rapists, 20 child rapists, and 28 nonviolent child
molesters. They reported that the profiles of the child
molesters, "implied self-alienation, low self-esteem,
self-doubt, anxiety, inhibition of aggression, aversion to
violence, need for reinforcement, feelings of inadequacy,
insecurity, and fear of heterosexual failure" (p. 391).
They concluded that "they motivation of the molester group
appeared to be the satisfaction of sexual needs at an
immature level of sexual development" (p. 393). Panton
found the MMPI mean profile for child sex offenders to be
a 4—8 MMPI code.

Armentrout and Bauer (1978) found the same mean

profile of 4-8 MMPI code in their study of child

19

molesters. They also found higher elevations on Scale 8
for rapists of children. However, they did not report
what statistical methods they used for the data analysis.

Langevin et al., (1978) examined the MMPI profiles of
several types of sexually deviant men. Although their
sample was large (N=425), it was a heterogeneous group
consisting of multiple deviants involved in a wide range
of activity from exhibitionism to rape of adult women.

The number of child sex offenders was relatively small,
consisting of 22 to 29 subjects per group. The hypothesis
that because of gender identify confusion, child sex
offenders would have higher MMPI Scale 5 (Masculinity-
Femininity) scores than other types of offenders was not
confirmed in a discriminant analysis of the data.

In a study of 406 hospitalized men who had sexually
assaulted children, Hall et al., (1986) found significant
elevations on both MMPI Scale 4 (Psychopathic Deviate) and
Scale 8 (Schizophrenia). However, this code was found in
only 7% of the sample and was not significantly more
frequent than several other 2-point codes.

Cavellin (1966) also utilized the MMPI in his study
of 12 incestuous offenders. He did not report the actual
MMPI findings, but he did indicate that the sex offenders
had "weak psychosexual identity" (p. 1135). Several
clinical studies agree with the above findings (Cohen,
Seghorn, & Calmas, 1969: Fitch, 1962: and Groth et a1.

1982).

20

The above results indicate that a number of
researchers agree that child molesters are immature and
inadequate. Some have found support in psychological
measures such as the MMPI. However, these researchers
often make broad, possibly unwarranted conclusions from
test data, so cannot be taken too seriously. Howells's
(1979) study does offer some confirmation that pedophiles
may interact with children because children have special
meaning for them in terms of representing weak and
nonthreatening objects. Obviously additional confirming

studies are necessary.

EAQLQI Z; SBEEQI Arousal

Another set of theories about sexual abuse refers to
how a person comes to find children sexually arousing.
One such theory is that some people have early sexual
experiences with children that condition them when they
become adults to find children to be arousing (Wennet,
Clark, & Hunner, 1981).

Several suggestions have been made as to what special
circumstances might work to give early childhood sexual
experiences the special compelling quality they seem to
have for many pedophiles. One possibility may be that
critical experiences are those in which some special kind
of fulfillment or frustration was involved. Another
possibility is that critical experiences may be ones

associated with traumatic victimization.

21

In their model of sexual deviation, McGuire,
Carlisle, and Young (1965), suggest that what is important
in the development of a fixation is that the early
experience of arousal be incorporated into a fantasy that
is repeated and becomes increasingly arousing in
subsequent masturbatory repetitions. Wenet et al.,
(1981), also made this suggestion. Any feature of the
experience that makes it prominent in the person‘s mind,
such as an association with great embarrassment or shame
or with great pleasure, will make the possibility of it
being thought of during masturbation more likely. Because
masturbation is highly reinforcing, the components of
memory come to be associated through a process like
"operant conditioning" with sexual arousal, even in
situations when the original experience might not have
been pleasurable.

Howells (1981), in another theory of sexual arousal,
postulated about how a process of "attributional error"
may play a part in creating arousal in Children. children
bring about strong emotional reactions in many people,
reactions usually labeled "parental" or "affectionate,"
but some individuals may mistakenly label these reactions
as sexual and then act accordingly toward children.

Others have suggested that the origin of sexual
arousal to children is biological and refer to hormone
levels or chromosomal makeup (Money, 1961: Goy & McEwen,

1977: Berlin, 1982).

22

A last theory about sexual arousal comes form
suggestions that some individuals might learn to become
aroused to children through exposure to child pornography

or other media that place children in an erotic light.

WWW! tee Ar.__lousa mm

When considering the above theories, we must first
consider whether or not child molesters are individuals
who have unusual sexual arousal to children. There is a
somewhat impressive body of literature that suggests that
they are unusually sexually responsive to children. This
particular research is the most methodologically and
statistically sophisticated research on pedophilia to
date.

Freund (1967a, 1967b) and Freund et al. (1973, 1976),
in a series of studies, investigated penile responses to
slides of female and male children and adults. They found
significantly more arousal to children in a group of
molesters than in either of two control groups
(heterosexual and homosexual males).

Quinsey et al. (1975) conducted a number of similar
studies and found similar results. Using penile and skin
conductance responses to slides of children, they compared
child molesters (N=20) with nonmolesters (N=20). Although
the child molesters claimed adult females were their
preferred sex partners, their tests exhibited the largest

penile responses to slides of female children. The penile

23

tests also confirmed that child molesters who preferred
females had peak arousal to female children, and child
molesters who preferred males had peak arousal to male
children. Interestingly, bisexual pedophiles, had peak
arousal to female children, although the second highest
peak arousal was for adult female.

Atwood and Howell (1971) also found that the pupils
of child molesters dilated to slides of children and
constricted to adult females, an opposite pattern from
that found for the control group.

Taken together, the above studies seem to establish
the fact that some pedophiles have an arousal preference
for children, but whether or not all child molesters,
including incest offenders, have such a preference remains
to be seen. At least one study indicates that incest
offenders do have such an arousal to children. Able,
Becker, Murphy, and Flanagan (1981) played audiotapes of
sexual encounters to 6 incest offenders who preferred
females as well as to 10 pedophiles who preferred females.
They found that the incest offenders "developed
significant erections to pedophilic cues that were not
descriptions of sexual acts with their daughters of
stepdaughters" (p. 171). However, another study
disagrees. Quinsey, Chaplin, and Carrigan (1979) examined
the penile responses of a matched sample of 16 incestuous
and 16 nonincestuous child sex offenders, they found "that

incestuous child molesters have more appropriate sexual

24

age preference (adults) than those who are nonincestuous"

(p. 563).

WWW

Information about the source of the arousal indicated
above is scarce. The best researched arousal hypothesis
is one that suggests that it may stem from early childhood
experiences. Many sex abusers appear to have been
subjected to early sexual contact with adults themselves,
as is demonstrated by a growing number of studies. One of
the earliest, Gebhard, Gagnon, Pomeroy, and Christensen
(1965) found that both their male and female preference
prisoner pedophile groups had higher rates of childhood
sexual contacts with adults than did a group of controls.
For example, it was found that of the 199 child molesters
who preferred females, 10% had childhood contact with an
adult female, compared to only 1% of the control group.
Also, 18% had had a childhood contact with an adult male,
compared to 8% for controls. The child molesters who
preferred males also had many child sexual contacts with
adults, in fact, they had more childhood sexual approaches
by adult males than any other sex-offender or control
group -- 33% (N=123). When considering all of the sex
abusers, only the incest offenders had less sexual contact
with adults during prepuberty. These findings suggest
that at least some pedophiles had sexual contact with

adults in childhood.

25

Groth and Burgess (1979) support the research done by
Gebhard et a]. (1965). Groth found that 32% of a group of
106 child molesters reported some form of sexual trauma"
in their early development, compared to only 3% of a
comparison group of 64 police officers. Groth found that
"fixated" offenders tend to duplicate in age of victim and
type of sex act the form of victimization they had
suffered. In more recent work, Groth (1984) surveyed
imprisoned sex offenders and found "sexual trauma" in 80%.
Groth's idea of "sexual trauma" includes witnessing sex
acts, suffering from physical abnormalities, and being
circumcised in addition to what is more commonly
considered to be sexual abuse.

Langevin, Handy, Hood, Day, and Russon (1985) also
found convicted child molesters to have had more childhood
sexual contacts with older persons that controls, but some
of their specific findings differ from those of Gebhard et
al., (1965). For example, among specific groups of child
molesters, 21% of incest offenders had had sexual contact
before age 12 with an adult male, compared to 10% of child
molesters who preferred females and 4% of controls.
Gebhard et al. found less molestation in the backgrounds
of incest offenders.

Seghorn, Binder, and Prentky (1984) looked into the
backgrounds of both rapists and child molesters and found
that significantly more child molesters (57%) than rapists

(23%) had been sexual assault victims. Abel et al. (1984)

26

also found more sexual abuse in the backgrounds of child
molesters (24% who preferred females and 40% who preferred
males).

Taken together, a number of studies support the idea
that an unusual number of convicted child molesters were
subjected to molestation themselves. This is one of the
most consistent findings in the research. It is not
possible to determine the exact proportion, considering
the variation in rates among reported studies. However,
all studies using a conventional definition of sexual
abuse, except Seghorn et al. (1984), report rates well
below 50%. This makes the significance of childhood
molestation difficult to determine. Most of the studies
in this area suffer from problems, especially related to
control groups. A well-done study with appropriate
comparison groups is yet to be done.

Setting aside methodological problems, it seems
important to note that if a history of sexual assault is
connected to later child molesting, this evidence is in
agreement with several theories. One possibility is that
such experiences condition an arousal to children. To
evolve this theory a bit further, because they have
participated in, and in many cases been rewarded for,
adult-child sexual contact, they may have fantasies about
or arousal for such contact as part of their sexual
repertoire. Another possibility is that the pedophiles

learn the behavior through the early modeling of their own

27

victimization. Already having seen the process of someone
else‘s arousal to children, it is a model readily
available to them when they develop their own sexual
scripts. The emotional congruence theories that
pedophiles reenact their own victimization in an effort to
take control of the trauma and take on the power of the

aggressor are also consistent with these findings.

Bielssieal F__9_r_act 8

Considering other possible theories as to why
molesters find children arousing, little research has been
done. There are some reports of physiological
abnormalities among some child molesters, such as elevated
testosterone levels and chromosomal abnormalities (Berlin,
1982: McAuliffe, 1983). Berlin and Coyle (1981) reported
elevated testosterone levels in a substantial number of
pedophiles seen at Johns Hopkins Hospital, but this
finding is in conflict with Rada, Laws, and Kellner,
(1976), who reported that pedophiles' testosterone levels
were within normal limits. However, even Berlin and Coyle
admitted that hormonal findings do not offer an
explanation of why children become arousing to pedophiles.
hormone levels are viewed as having a generalized effect
on sexual interest and sexual arousability. It does not

explain why this interest would be focused on children.

28

W

The postulation that child molesters may become
aroused by children from exposure to pornography or
advertising is also one that has not been researched a
great deal. Goldstein, Kant, and Hartman (1973) found
that pedophiles (20 who preferred males and 20 who
preferred females) had had somewhat less exposure to
pornography than controls. However, this study considered
only pornography dealing with adult heterosexuality.
Also, at the time of this study (late 60's) child
pornography was much less available than it is today.

In conclusion, empirical studies have shown that
children are sexually arousing to at least some sex
abusers, and that sex object preference can be determined
from laboratory exposure. It is not clear, however,
whether or not this is true of all child molesters,
especially incest offenders. Early childhood experiences
with adults may play a role in this process, and the data
are consistent with several theories, including the
"emotional congruence" theory (that the pedophile is
trying to gain mastery over the trauma by repeating it) or
the "sexual arousal" theory (that the earlier experience

conditioned the pedophile's erotic responses).

Lesserélmocae
The third group of theories about pedophilia are

explanations of why some individuals are blocked in their

29

ability to meet their sexual and emotional needs in adult
heterosexual relationships. These theories assume that
normal development leads a person to fulfill his or her
needs with adults. For some reason, in the child
molesters these normal tendencies are blocked, and sexual
interest orients toward children.

Psychological theories that rely on Oedipal dynamics
fall into this category. These theories describe sex
offenders as having intense conflicts about their mothers
that make it difficult or impossible for them to relate to
adult women (Hammer & Glueck, 1957: Gillespie, 1964).
They are said to have "castration anxieties" as a result
of early childhood experiences: their access to adult
sexual experience is blocked (Fenichel, 1945). Freud
(1905, 1906) suggested an abnormal persistence into adult
life of some component of infantile sexuality. The result
is the domination of the adults' sexual life by that
particular component of infantile sexuality.

Others do not view the source of blockage in Oedipal
terms. The man who finds himself to be impotent in his
first sexual attempts, or abandoned by his first lover,
may come to associate adult sexuality with pain and
frustration. Due to this trauma, he chooses children for
gratification instead. For example, Kinsey (1948)
suggested, "the offenders (are) sexually thwarted,
incapable of winning attention from older females and

reduced to vain attempts with children who are unable to

30

defend themselves" (p. 179).

Other theorists do not turn to psychoanalytic
explanations, but do perceive the same underlying dynamic.
Child molesters are viewed as timid, unassertive,
inadequate, awkward, even moralistic types with poor
social skills who have an impossible time developing adult
social and sexual relationships (Frisbie, 1969: Gebhard et
al., 1965: Glueck, 1965: Guttmacher, 1951:: Hammer &
Glueck, 1957: Langevin, 1983).

Theories that attempt to account for incest offenders
depend heavily on this blockage model. For example, the
family dynamics model of incest, suggests that the marital
relationship has broken down: the wife is alienated for
some reason: the father is too inhibited or moralistic to
find sexual satisfaction outside the family: therefore
blocked in other ways of obtaining sexual or emotional
gratification and as a result turns to his daughter
(deYoung, 1982: Gebhard et al., 1965: Meiselman, 1978).

The blockage theories are somewhat similar to the
emotional congruence theories. However, there is an
important difference. In the blockage theories, children
do become emotionally congruent for the offender and that
is why the sex abuse occurs. But the children become
objects of interest because there is nothing better, not
because they have some special attraction. In the
emotional congruence theories, on the other hand, children

have come to have an especially positive and compelling

31

emotional meaning for the abuser. An example of this
would be when the adult attempts to gain a sense of
mastery over his own childhood trauma.

There are studies that indicate that male sex
offenders have difficulties dealing with adult females.

In a study of 200 sex offenders, Hammer and Glueck (1957)
reported "fear of heterosexual contact" as common. When
responding to a TAT card showing a seminude mature woman,-
they reported that 85% of the pedophiles and 87% of the
incest offenders did not come up with a sexual theme
normally offered, but instead developed stories of the
female being sick, dying, or dead. These same researchers
utilized a panel of psychologists who compared the
responses to House-Tree-Person, Blacky pictures, and TAT
with those given by a group of normals. The clinicians
rated 90% of the offenders as having "marked" or
"moderate" castration fears compared to 55% of the control
group.

Panton (1978) compared several groups of rapists with
child molesters. Based on responses to the pedophile
scale (derived from the MMPI), he found that child
molesters tended to be anxious, inadequate individuals who
felt insecure in their associations with others and who
expected rejection and failure in adult heterosexual
interactions. In a later study (1979), be compared
incestuous and nonincestuous child molesters and found

similar profiles. The only significant difference

32

occurred on the social introversion scale. He postulated
that the incest sample had even greater inadequacies in
social skills and difficulties in decision making.

In a study of nonincarcerated pedophiles, Wilson and
Cox (1983) gave the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and
a Paedophile Questionnaire (developed for this study) to
77 members of an English Pedophile self-help group. The
pedophiles scored higher than controls on introversion,
psychoticism, and neuroticism scales, and war more likely
to be sensitive, shy, lonely, depressed, and humorless.
The researchers believed this to be indicative of an
absence of social skills and confidence.

In 1965, Gebhard et al. also found problems in social
relationships for child molesters interested in females,
child molesters attracted to males, and incest offender
groups. Howells (1981) reported additional confirmation
in studies by Mohr et al. (1964), Fisher (1969), Fisher
and Howell (1970), Pacht and Cowden (1974), and a review
by West (1977). Similar conclusions have been reached in
clinical studies (Anderson 8 Mayes, 1982: Bell 8 Hall,
1976: Cohen et al., 1969: Groth et al., 1982: Langevin,
1983: Marsh, Hilliard, 8 Liechti, 1955: Segal 8 Marshall,
1985: Virkkunen, 1976).

Researchers have also found that child molesters
harbor unusual amounts of sexual anxiety, which may add to
problems relating to adult females. Goldstein et al.

(1973) found that 80% of his pedophile group reported

33

guilt or shame from looking at or reading erotica,
compared to 47% of controls. These researchers also noted
that pedophiles interested in males expressed more
opposition to talking about sex than any of the other
groups studied.

The evidence, then supports the idea that many sex
abusers have problems relating to adult women and that
possibly poor social skills and sexual anxiety contribute
to this. However, many theories suggest that family
background and interactions contribute to these problems.
Gebhard et al. (1965) found evidence of poor parental
relationships for his heterosexual aggressor, incest, and
pedophiles attracted to male children: but not for
pedophiles attracted to female children. But the types of
poor relationships differed. Paitich and Langevin (1976),
utilizing the Clarke Child Relations Questionnaire, found
problems with mothers to be characteristic of incest
offenders, but not of other pedophiles. The evidence in
this area is inconclusive and does not support theories

referring to castration anxiety or Oedipal conflict.

Disturbansssinfliulfgexualgelanmshins

The other part of the blockage theory related to the
adult family life of child molesters and suggests that
they experience trauma or disappointment in adult
heterosexual relationships that results in pedophilic

activity.

34

Fitch (1962) called 56 of his sample of 139 child
molesters "frustrated" in sexual relationships. Gebhard
et al. (1965) found that offenses in the incestuous group
always started during periods of marital stress. Cavallin
(1966) found that in all of his 12 cases of incest
offenders the wife was viewed as rejecting and
threatening. In other sex offender groups, marital
problems were mentioned, but no specific association was
made between marital disturbances and pedophilia. Also,
publications by Groth (1979), Cohen et al. (1969), and
Peters (1976) all reported similar findings. The evidence
from those studies stated that the disturbance in a
marital or love relationship is a factor relating to
pedophilic behavior more among offenders who prefer adult

females.

WMME

The last blockage theory is the notion that
repressive norms about masturbation and extramarital sex
may be related to peodphilia. Goldstein et al. (1973)
found that pedophiles reported more guilt or shame from
looking at or reading erotic stories than either rapists
or controls. They also listed "fear of sex" as the main
barrier to seeking more mature sexual outlets, opposed
premarital sex, and expressed more discomfort with respect
to talking about sex than any other group. Gebhard et al.

(1967) also found strong moral inhibitions to premarital

35

intercourse among the pedophiles attracted to female
children, but not among any of the other pedophile groups.
In Total, it seems that some sex abusers may hold
repressive sexual attitudes that may predispose them to
sexual activities with children.

In sum, the blockage theory that receive the most
support is that sex offenders have trouble relating to
adult females and possibly to adults in general. There is
some evidence that they have unusual sexual anxiety and
also that they may suffer from frustration in love
relationships. Future research will need to address the
issue of how blockage combines with other factors to
create individuals who turn to children for sexual

activity.

mam

The last set of theories refers to why conventional
inhibitions against having sex with children are overcome
or are not present in some adults. According to these
theories, there is a higher level of acceptability for
this behavior, or ordinary controls are circumvented.

Theories in the individual psychological arena, have
referred to child molesters as individuals who have poor
impulse control (Gebhard et al., 1965: Glueck, 1965: Groth
et al., 1982: Hammer 8 Glueck, 1957: Knopp, 1982). In
addition, several personality factors have been associated

with molesting behaviors: alcoholism and alcohol abuse

36

(Frisbie, 1969: McCaghy, 1968: Rada, 1976), and psychosis
(Gebhard et al., 1967: Hammer 8 Glueck, 1957: Marshall 8
Norgard, 1983: Mohr et al., 1964). Although most
researchers do not believe that such conditions explain
most molesting behavior, instead they are considered to be
contributing factors. The mechanism at work in all of
these conditions is the lowering or disappearance of
inhibitions against acting on pedophilic urges.

Situational factors, as well as personality factors
are sometimes utilized in disinhibition-type explanations
to account for sexual abuse. An example of this would be
when a person with no prior history of pedophilic behavior
commits a pedophilic act under conditions of great
personal stress. The stressors may be unemployment, loss
of love, death of a relative, etc. These stressors would
be viewed as factors that lowered inhibitions to deviant
types of behavior (Gebhard, 1967: Mohr et al., 1964:
Swanson, 1968).

Incest theories often depend on mechanisms of this
sort to explain pedophilic behavior. Men are seen as
engaging in sexual acts with girls in their families
because these girls are stepdaughters or because the men
were away from their families during the children's early
life (Gebhard et al., 1967: Lustig et al., 1966). The
suggestion here is that being a stepdaughter or being
separated worked to reduce the ordinary inhibition that

would exist against sex between a natural father and

37

daughter who had lived together continuously since the
birth of the child. Some view these inhibitory mechanisms
as quasi-biological in nature, that is, coming into play
merely as the result of proximity during early stages of
development (Shepher, 1971: Van den Berghe, 1983). Others
consider them as developing from empathy and concern as a
result of being in a caretaking role (Herman, 1981). When
the inhibitory mechanisms are disrupted incest occurs.

Feminist theories of sexual abuse are also
disinhibition-type in nature. These theories highlight
certain social and cultural elements that encourage or
condone sexual behavior directed toward children and, as a
result, weaken inhibitions (Densen-Gerber, 1983).

Ruth (1980) has written extensively about the way in
which adult sexual interaction with children has been
sanctioned by relation and law throughout history.
Armstrong (1983) argues that the reluctance of the
contemporary legal system to prosecute and punish
offenders confirms the acceptability of this behavior.
These authors and other feminists (McIntyre, 1981: Nelson,
1982) also have criticized the tendency among both the
public and professionals to blame victims rather than
offenders. This then feeds justifications that offenders
use to defend their behavior (Rush, 1980: Russell, 1982:).
Anything that reinforces excuses for sexual abuse acts to
reduce inhibitions.

A common feminist theme, in accounting for incest,

38

has been to show how inhibitions are lowered by social
approval for the excesses of patriarchal and parental
authority (Rush, 1980). According to feminists, many men
see families as private institutions in which parents have
socially sanctioned authority to treat women and children
as they wish.

Nelson (1982) states that:

The seduction of daughters is inherent in a
father-dominated family system, where the man expects
to have his will obeyed as head of household and
expects his family to provide him with domestic and
sexual services. When patriarchal beliefs about
rights of fathers provide further excuses for
initiating sexually gratifying relationships within
the family, it is not hard to see how many "Mr.
Averages" can manage to overcame all the social and
emotional barriers to committing incest with their

daughters (p. 186).

Lag; 9f Impulse Control

Lack of impulse control is a disinhibition-type
theory that is supported by some research. Hammer and
Glueck 1957) evaluated responses to the Bender Gestalt and
Blacky pictures of 200 sex offenders and identified
inadequate control of impulses. Gebhard et al. (1965)
found that 10% of their pedophiles who preferred females

were "amoral delinquents" characterized by being "unable

39

to defer gratification and tolerate frustration until a
socially suitable situation is available" (p. 102).
However, they did not find that impulse control is a
problem for all of their pedophiles. The other 70% did
not have impulsivity as an outstanding characteristic. As
a matter of fact, Gebhard et al. stated that 80% or more
of the acts engaged in by all the pedOphile groups were
planned and, therefore, not impulsive.

These results suggest, then, that probably some small
group of sex offenders have problems with impulse control.
At this time there is not enough evidence to suggest that

offenders in general have this characteristic.

Seaflifxflientalllefardatign

The current literature suggests that senility is not
a possible explanation for child molesting behavior.
Studies show most offenders are between 35 and 40 years
old (Chaneles, 1967: Fitch, 1962: Gebhard et al., 1965:
Herman 8 Hirschmnan, 1980: Marsh et al., 1955: McCaghy,
1968: Stricker, 1967: Virkkunen, 1976). Other studies
utilized offenders who were even younger -mid-to late
twenties (Freund, McKnight, Langevin 8 Cibiri, 1972:
Quinsey et al., 1975, 1979, 1980). in a two-state sample
of sex offenders, Groth, Longo and McFadin (1982b)
identified two modal groups 0 one age 16 and the other 31.
Mohr et al. (1964) also found a youthful group between 15

and 24. Therefore, senile molesters do not seem to be

40

common.
The stereotype that the molester is mentally retarded
also is not supported in the literature. For example,
Peters (1976) utilized the Army Beta Intelligence
examination and found molesters had the lowest IQ of four
sex offender groups, but these findings seem to be the
exception. Mohr et al. (1964) used the Wechsler Adult IQ
test and found 57 molesters to have normal intelligence.
These results agree with a number of other studies that
found sex offenders have normal intelligence (Julian 8

Mohr, 1980: Langevin, 1983: Stokes, 1964).

5.1921191

On the other hand, many studies show that alcohol use
accompanies sexual abuse. Aarens et al. (1978) reviewed
11 U>S> and 2 foreign empirical studies and found alcohol
involvement in 30%-40% of cases in most studies, ranging
from a low of 19% of the cases in a German study
(Wilschke, 1965) to an overall high of 49% in a study
(Rada, 1976). These researchers also found that studies
showed 45%-50% of child mobster had histories of drinking
problems low to 8% to a high of 70%.

Studies by Gebhard et al. (1965), Rada, (1976), and
Stokes (1964) found sex offenders attracted to females to
be more alcohol involved than sex offenders attracted to
males. Gebhard et al. (1965), for example, found that

37% of their sex offenders attracted to females, compared

41

to 105 of those attracted to males, said alcohol was an
important factor in their lives. Rada (1976) found 57% of
the pedophiles who were attracted to females used alcohol,
compared to 38% of pedophiles attracted to males. Stoke's
(1964) figures were 25% and 8% respectively.

In a review of five relevant studies, Aarens et al.
(1978) found that incest offenders appear to be the most
alcohol involved of all sex offenders. A comparison
across studies found incestuous child molesters were
characterized by larger proportions of both alcoholism and
drinking at the time of the offense than were
nonincestuous child molesters. Morgan (1982) reviewed
many of the same studies and came to similar conclusions.

The results suggest that alcohol plays a role in the
commission of some sex offenses. Alcohol may act as a
physiological disinhibitor or there may be some social
meaning that allows a person to disregard the taboos
against child molestation. This is an unresolved question

in the alcohol abuse field (Morgan, 1982).

Ingeg; Avoidance Mechanisn

Only two studies were found that address the idea of
an incest avoidance mechanism. Based on responses from a
survey of a college population, Finkelhor (1980) reported
that one of the strongest risk factors associated with a

child's vulnerability to being sexually abused is having

42

lived with a stepfather.

Based on responses from a probability sample of 930
female residents in San Francisco, Russell (1986) reported
that approximately 1 out of every 43 women who had a
biological father as a principal figure in her childhood
(birth to 14 years of age) was sexually abused by him,
compared to about 1 out of every 6 women who lived with a
stepfather during the same years. There are various
possible explanations for the apparently high risk of
abuse at the hands of stepfathers, but one of the most
likely is found in the disinhibition theory framework:
Because of different norms or different exposure to the
child at an early age, stepfathers are less inhibited from
having sexual feelings toward a child than are natural
fathers (Finkelhor, 1980).

The rest of the disinhibition theories found in Table
1 have not been studied empirically. Research is needed
to gain information in the areas of situational stress,
cultural toleration, and patriarchal norms.

The literature, then, gives the most empirical
support for alcohol involvement when considering the
disinhibition theories. Some support is also found for
the failure of the incest avoidance mechanism theory.

A close review of the scientific literature of child
molesting behavior brings to light both methodological and

conceptual problems with a single factor approach. To

43

date the research has shown that no single factor can
begin to fully explain all sexual abuse.

One current example of the problem is the explanation that
child molesters are simply persons who were molested as
children. Although the percentage is likely high, and
several studies do suggest that many incarcerated sexual
abusers have histories of sexual abuse (Gebhard et al.,
1965: Groth, 1979: Langevin et al., 1985: Seghorn et al.,
n.d.), these molesters make up a relatively small portion
of all offenders. These are the abusers who were so
compulsive, repetetive, and flagrant in their molesting
that they were caught, convicted and imprisoned. This is
obviously a pathological group and may be more likely to
have experienced a history of sexual abuse. A more
representative group of sex abusers might not be as
likely to have that experience in their backgrounds.

An additional problem with the findings is although
the amount of sexual abuse in the past of child molesters
may seem high, it has not been shown conclusively that it
is higher than among similar men who did not become
molesters. The studies so far have not really used
adequate comparison groups. There are even problems
comparing incarcerated molesters to men selected randomly
in the general population, because incarcerated offenders
come disproportionately from certain disadvantaged parts

of the population. It might be that incarcerated molesters

44

have been abused more than other men in general, but not
abused more than their brothers or neighborhood friends
who did not grow up to be molesters. The abuse may be
related to their social backgrounds or their families or
even that they got caught, not to the fact that they were
molesters.

Even if we eventually learn that a large number of
abusers were molested as children, that number will not
include all abusers. Eplanations are needed for the
nonmolested molesters and other explanations are also
required for those abusers who were themselves abused. It
is clear that being molested by itself is not enough to
create a abuser. Otherwise all those who were molested
would become abusers. What are the additional
circumstances that influence a victim of abuse to become
an abuser himself? These require other explanations.
There are certainly other contingencies involved in the
relationship between being victimized and victimizing
others. It may be that victims of sexual abuse who
develop the capacity for emotional and sexual intimacy
of a more normative kind --through corrective experiences
-- do not become molesters. It is also probable that
victims of sexual abuse who have well-developed social
consciences and an ability to identify with others do not
become molesters.

Only when these capacities are lacking, possibly due

to emotional deprivation or additional developmental

45

traumas, does the experience of being a victim form the
basis for becoming an abuser.

These are just a few examples of the possibilities.
The finding that many molesters were themselves molested
is not the answer to the question, but simply the
framework for many new questions. Research must consider
a whole complex of factors that in conjunction with a
history of molestation may go into the development of
molesting behavior.

There are other problems with the single-factor
approach. First, it has brought about a premature and
unfounded confidence that we understand the source of the
problem. This inevitably discourages the serious search
for other factors that may play a role in the creation of
the abuser. Second, because the explanation places
responsibility on a deviant childhood event, it has
reinforced a psychopathology-oriented view of offenders
at the expense of views that take into account
sociological aspects. The focus is on factors that make
the abuser different because of his childhood problem, not
factors that may be shared by broad segments of society.
It will be important for research to consider these
collective aspects, especially when considering
prevention. Because the intergenerational transmission
explanation relies exclusively on a childhood experience
that cannot be returned or exchanged, it breeds cynicism

that prevention can be effective.

46

The most serious effect of the intergenerational
transmission theory is the effect it has on victims. The
idea that victims grow up to become abusers has struck
terror into the hearts of victims, in particular male
victims, and their parents. These people, now even more
than in the past, have the unrealistic and unnecessary
fear that they or their children are inevitably destined
to become abusers. Although there is some possibility of
this occurring, their concerns are almost certainly
exaggerated. Because we do not know what the true
probability is or what other contingencies are involved,
we cannot target those concerns to the group that needs to
hear them or give families guidance about what to do.
There is even the possibility that the fear itself has
some self-fulfilling properties that may prompt some
children to become molesters who would not otherwise have
done so.

Because of these dangers, it is important for all
professionals and researchers to educate people about the
true scientific status of the idea of intergenerational
transmission. This theory is still to be confirmed, and
more importantly it is just one factor among many that
contribute to the development of molesting behavior.
Going beyond this, researchers must be cautioned against
any single-factor theories and quick explanations in

general.

47

The four-factor model, as previously presented, is an
alternative to the single-factor approach. It encourages
an appropriately complex view of the situation and at the
same time gives some order to the possibly confusing array
of theories that have been proposed. However, it is more
than a classification system, it can also be used to
generate a theory about pedophilia.

First, the model shows how many single-factor
theories of pedophilia really imply other processes that
have not been specified fully in the theory before. For
example, some theories of emotional congruence seem to
suggest that sexual arousal naturally follows without
having to be explained: A man's molesting behavior can be
explained by the immature emotional satisfaction he gets
from relating to children. But many people get a great
deal of their emotional gratification from relating to
children without turning to the children for sexual
activity. The four-factor model suggests that, in
addition to emotional congruence, arousal needs to be
explained, not just assumed.

Pedophilic behavior may not be explained adequately
simply by the fact that an adult is sexually aroused by
children. There may be adults who are aroused but who
have alternative sources of sexual gratification or who
are inhibited by ordinary social controls from acting on

their arousal. A full explanation may have to show why an

48

adult was capable of being aroused, why he directed his
impulse toward a child, and why no inhibitions halted the
enacting of the impulse.

Similarly, there are many adults who are blocked in
their ability to gain sexual and emotional gratification
from adults. However, most of those adults may have
little emotional congruence for children or little sexual
arousal to children and may be inhibited from acting on
such feelings even if they had them. An adequate theory
needs to explain the presence of pedophilia using several,
if not all, of these levels simultaneously.

It is expected that many of the aspects of the four-
factor approach are present in many child molesters, in
addition to a history of sexual abuse. The present
research will allow observation of several of those
factors and make an attempt to treat some of the
identified problems. The basic principle, then, of the
present research is that an individual becomes a molester
due to a complex interplay of factors all of which we may
not yet understand. The best current scientific knowledge
offers is the four-factor approach suggested by Finkelhor
and Araji (1984). The present study will not be
sophisticated enough to deal with all aspects of the four-
factor approach, but will make observations about some
factors that may be present in a group of incarcerated

child molesters. In addition, treatment will be

49

implemented in an effort to assist molesters in dealing
with some of the problems observed.
Following are the components of the four-factor

theory that will be considered in this study:

Theory
Emotional Congruence: arrested development/immaturity low
self-esteem identification with

aggression

Sexual Arousal: conditioning 8 modeling from

childhood experiences

Blockage: inadequate social skills sexual
anxiety
Disinhibition: patriarchal norms

Treatment will consist of three elements of a
behavioral treatment program developed for child sex
offenders. The program was developed by Abel et al.
(1984) and consists of a 30-week format including 5 group
sessions each of satiation, covert sensitization, social
skills training, assertiveness training, cognitive
restructuring, and sex education.

The program was developed during a study by Abel et

al. (1984). His study utilized 87 voluntary sex

50

offenders in an attempt to evaluate the six elements of
the program. The project had a Certificate of
Confidentiality from the Secretary of H.E.W.. This
certificate (an actual federal law) made it illegal for
any city, county, state or federal agency or agent to
obtain information pertaining to the participants. Of the
six elements described in the manual, the first two,
covert sensitization and satiation, are designed to assist
the molester in decreasing his sexual arousal toward young
children. According to the manual, satiation therapy
attempts to reduce arousal by boring the client with his
own deviant sexual fantasies, while covert sensitization
teaches the individual to disrupt fantasies of young
children by replacing them with aversive images. Sex
education and cognitive restructuring make up the next two
elements of the program. Cognitive restructuring is
defined as an attempt to modify the faulty attitudes or
beliefs regarding child molestation by gaining feedback
from others regarding the molester's cognitive
distortions. Sex education is used to increase a
molester's basic sexual knowledge and to provide solutions
to problems that can develop during sexual interactions
with age-appropriate partners. The final two elements in
this treatment program are social skills training and
assertiveness skills training. Specific social skill
techniques are created to help the child molester interact

more effectively with adults in such situations as

51

carrying out an initial conversation, maintaining the flow
of the conversation, and other social contact with adult
partners. As part of the assertiveness skills training
module, the manual encourages that child molesters be

trained to express their feelings and thoughts.

5 . J 51.1] I . .

Many sex offenders have poor sexual and social skills
with adults and have sometimes chosen children because
they seem less threatening. Abel et al. (1985) found that
40.8% of child molesters as well as 46.9% of rapists had
poor social skills. Due to the social and sexual nature
of human beings, an offender who is unable to meet his
social and sexual needs with adults may relapse to meeting
those needs with children. The finest treatment program
to decrease deviant arousal may fail to prevent relapse
unless the offender's ability to meet his needs in
appropriate ways are at least somewhat successful. Social
and communication skills are key to the offender's ability
to initiate and maintain adult relationships.

The social skills module was developed specifically
to teach offenders, through didactic and experiential
sessions, to interact more effectively with adults in
social settings. Sex offenders are taught to pay more
attention to their appearance, to make appropriate eye
contact during conversations, and to actively listen to

others. These components have been found to be

52

determinants that cause women to choose continuing to
interact with a man in social situations (Barnard et al.,

1988).

ngnitiye-Restnngguring Module

The cognitive-restructuring module has been adapted
from the work of Lange (1986). There are three primary
goals that are accomplished during the sessions of this
module:

1. Challenging the irrational beliefs and
rationalizations that have been used to justify
sex-offending as well as other disturbed
behaviors.

2. Increasing the child molester's beliefs that he
can control his deviant thoughts and behaviors.

3. Developing increased interpersonal effectiveness
cognitive and behavioral skills training.

The cognitive-restructuring module uses rational-
emotive therapy (RET) originally developed by Albert Ellis
(1974, 1977). In RET, the offender considers process
thinking. In other words, he is encouraged to observe and
understand how thoughts, feelings, and actions are linked
together and how one behavior may significantly influence
other behaviors. He is taught that often what happens to
us may not be as important as how we perceive and
interpret what has happened. The ramification of this

perspective is that the way we think about events

53

significantly influences whether we perceive them as
pleasurable or painful. The strength of the model relies
on the premise that individuals can learn to alter their
experience of events by modifying their thoughts and
beliefs about those events. The treatment begins by
looking at the cognitive distortions that accompany other
types of behavior. The shift is then made to the specific
problem of child molestation, and what thoughts a person
has that justify sexual contact with children. A series
of exercises in this module help the offender to look at
his cognitive distortions that facilitated and encouraged
his child molesting behavior. At the same time he learns
strategies to help eliminate cognitive distortions. He is
encouraged to challenge his irrational beliefs and to
replace them with more socially acceptable beliefs.
Changing deeply entrenched beliefs is difficult.
However, this module attempts to help the sex offender to
become a healthy person with a sense of control over his

feelings and experiences.

fig; Education Module

The Abel et al. (1984) manual includes factual
information about sexuality in addition to coverage of
opinions and attitudes about sexuality. Some offenders
have been found to be lacking in factual information, but
more common deficits seem to occur in the area of opinions

and attitudes relating to sexuality. This module begins

54

by asking offenders to take a sexual myth test
anonymously. The tests are then given to other offenders,
and group members then take turns reading the answers, and
commenting on them. Other sessions focus on male and
female anatomy, on what is "normal" and what is not, on
questions group members have about sexual dysfunction, and
on sexual communication. Materials include sex education
slides (Crooks 8 Baur, 1987) as well as a text that is
provided to each group member (Strong et al., 1981).

The covert sensitization and satiation module, and
the assertiveness module will not be described in detail
here because they will not be utilized for this study.
Additional information can be found in Abel et al. (1984).

Abel and his colleagues determined that the most
effective treatment sequence was covert sensitization and
satiation, followed by social skills, assertiveness
training, cognitive restructuring, and sex education.
They stated that the optimal group size was 14 and noted
that less than 7 hours per patient of therapist's time is
necessary. The reported success rate after 6-12 months
was 97.22%.

The Abel et al. (1984) program was chosen because of
the high success rate and the 3 modules utility in a
prison setting. The limited amount of therapist time

necessary was also an important point.

55

DESIGN

The design selected was a pretest-posttest two group
design. The individuals studied were randomly selected
from all child sex offenders found at the facility. Those
chosen were then tested by administering the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), the Abel and
Becker Cognition Scale (ABCS),the Attitudes Toward Women
Scale (ATWS), the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI),
the Multiphasic Sex Inventory (MSI), and the Social
Avoidance and Distress Scale (SADS). Following the
initial testing session, participants were randomly
assigned to experimental (N=30) and control (N=30)
conditions. Subjects assigned to the experimental
condition were then randomly divided into two groups of 16
to experience the treatment program. Following treatment,
all subjects were retested using the same measures. The
treatment program utilized was developed by Abel et al.
(1984). This program evolved from grant MH 36347 "The
Treatment of Child Molesters," funded by the NIMH: Center
for Studies of Antisocial and Violent Behavior. This
clinical treatment-research project investigated the
relative effectiveness of various treatment elements for
child molesters. Because it was not feasible to implement
the entire 30-session program at this time, a shortened
15-session program utilizing 3 of the 6 treatment

components was conducted. The program consisted of 5

56

sessions of Social Skills Training, 5 sessions of
Cognitive Restructuring, and 5 sessions of Sex Education.
The covert sensitization and satiation modules were
omitted due to the difficulty implementing these
treatments in a prison setting. The Social Skills
training module was chosen instead of the Assertiveness
training module because Assertiveness training is
essentially Advanced Social Skills. Therefore, Social
Skills, Cognitive Restructuring, and Sex Education seemed
the most appropriate modules to utilize for this study.
Participants attended 2 sessions per week with each
session lasting 1.5 hours. The 2 group meeting times were
counterbalanced to avoid confounding. Felons incarcerated
for sex offenses against individuals age 13 or under were
compared with felons convicted of the same offense. One
group received treatment for this problem, the other did

not.

METHOD

ec s

The sample of subjects used in this study consisted
of felons committed to the Ionia Temporary Correctional
Facility located in Ionia, Michigan, a medium-security
prison. All offenders met the following criteria for
inclusion in the study: they were convicted of sexual
offense against an individual 13 years of age of under,

they had no sex offender treatment prior to the study,

57

their intellectual functioning was defined as a total IQ
of 95 or above on the Shipley Institute of Living Scale
(Shipley, 1940). This figure was well above the minimum
published criteria (average IQ=80) that has been used to
assure good comprehension of the MMPI (Maloney 8 Ward,
1976). Those with Shipley Score lower than 95 (5 cases)
were eliminated from the sample. Valid protocols were
those with MMPI profiles having an absolute value of the F
< 17 (raw scores) or F from 17 to 22 and F-K < 12
(Dahlstrom, Welsh, 8 Dahlstrom, 1977). When these
criteria were applied, an additional 2 cases were
eliminated from the sample. Study participants were not
eligible for parole or transfer during the study period.
Each subject completed a consent form (see Appendix A for
a copy of the form) and five dollars was deposited into
their prison account in an attempt to enhance
participation.

The 60 sex offenders who met the above criteria for
inclusion in the study had a mean age of 38.7 years
(SD=9.90). Of these offenders 49 were white and 11 were
nonwhite. Forty-five members of the entire sample were
married and 15 were unmarried. Ninety-five percent of the
entire sample reported a sexual experience with an adult
as children. (See Table 2 for complete demographic

information).

58

Table 2

Demographic Characteristics of Treatment and Control

Subjects

Frequency and Percentile Distribution

 

 

Control

Group (N=30)

Treatment

Group (N=30)

Race: 29;; Fregnengy
Black 20 6
White 80 24
Edugngignal Lgygl: Grade
1-7 13 4
8-10 20 6
11-12 57 17
13+ 0 3
c 'on:
Professional 3 1
Skilled Trade 54 16
Unskilled Trade 26 8
None 17 5
Marital:
Single 20 6
Married 77 23

Table 2 (cont'd)

3O

67

54

23

23

20

73

25

20

16

22

59

Divorced 3
11111331! Service:
Yes 30
NO 70
AlEQthLDIBQ 299 During Offense:
Yes 70
NO 30
831191911:
Catholic 20
Protestant 13
None 50
Other 17
listim:
Male 0
Female 100
Musing magnum
Yes 67
NO 33

10

20

20

1O

15

30

20

10

27

73

57

43

17

4O

37

97

54

46

21

17

13

12

11

29

16

14

60

No attempt was made to match individuals on the basis
of race, socio-economic status, religion, intelligence or
other characteristics.

Setting

The study was conducted on the premises of the Ionia
Temporary Correctional Facility at Ionia, Michigan, a
medium-security prison. The facility has an inmate
population of approximately 900 felons.

The prison has an educational system through high
school and some college courses, therapeutic programs and
leisure time activities. Basic diagnostic and test data
are available on all felons entering the facility. These
consist of IQ data, average academic grade records, and
some personality test data.

All interviews and the treatment program itself were
conducted by Theresa Anderson-Varney, M.A., L.L.P.. This
researcher is a doctoral candidate at Michigan State
University and has experience conducting both group and
individual psychotherapy in addition to experience in the
classroom. The psychotherapy experience includes both
group and individual work with sex offenders and their
families in addition to other populations.

Héfléfllfié
Minnggngn Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). The

 

MMPI is the most widely known and best researched
personality instrument used with sex offenders. It

was developed by Hathaway and McKinley (1940) and

61

consists of 566 true/false items that produce 4
validity scales and 10 clinical scales. The 4
validity scales of the MMPI were extracted for use in
this study in order to determine validity of
protocols because other measures used are relatively
new and most have not been extensively researched.

In addition, it is well known in the sexual abuse
research community that it is very difficult to
obtain valid profiles from sex offenders (Margargee 8
Barbaree, 1990).

In; Multiphasic Sn; Invengony (MSI). The MSI
consists of 300 true/false items. These produce 20
clinical scales and a sexual history. The clinical

scales are as follows:

Numbe;
Validity 6
Sexual Deviance 3

Atypical Sexual Behavior 5

Sexual Dysfunction 4
Sexual Knowledge Scale 1
Treatment Attitudes 1

The Paraphilias (Sexual Deviation) Subtest,
consisting of the Child Molest Scale, the Rape Scale, and
the Exhibitionism Scale is considered the backbone of the

MSI. These scales measure cognitions and behaviors

62

thought to be common to child sexual offenders, and
therefore are considered to measure universal aspects of
molestation.

The Paraphilias (Atypical Sexual Outlet) or P(ASO)
consists of five scales: Fetish, Obscene Call, Voyeurism,
Bondage and Discipline, and Sado-Masochism. These are
considered along with the scales on sexual dysfunction,
sex knowledge and belief, and sex history, to measure
individual differences among sex offenders. The P(ASO) is
designed to assess behaviors that, although often a cause
for clinical concern, rarely result in legal action
against the offender.

The validity scales included a Parallel Items Scale
(identical items to a subset of the MMPI), Sex Obsessions
Scale, Social Sexual Desirability Scale, four Lie Scales,
of which only the relevant one is used (child molestation,
rape, exhibitionism, and incest), a Cognitive Distortions
and Immaturity Scale which is a characterological scale as
well as an assessment of self-accountability. It is
intended to assess early childhood cognitive distortions
which stay with the offender and help him to set the stage
for his personality disorder and potential to act out
sexually deviant impulses. The final scale is a
Justification Scale, which measures the degree to which
the offender justifies his behavior. Nichols and Molinder
(1984) reported concurrent validity of .61. In another

study, they found test-retest reliability of .86 for all

63

subtests and scales of the MSI.

Abel nnd Begke; Cognitign -gale (ABCS). This scale
consists of 29 statements that measure cognitive
distortions relating to pedophilic behavior. Subjects'
responses range from "Strongly Agree" to "Strongly
Disagree" (Abel et al., 1984). A higher score suggests
fewer cognitive distortions. Abel and Becker reported
internal consistency coefficient (Kuder-Richardson 20) of
.64 and test-retest coefficients of .80 for a sample of
pedophiles.

aggignggg Innnng flgngn Sgnle (AIWS). This is a 15-item
scale that measures attitudes toward a number of aspects
of the female role, including vocational, educational and
intellectual aspects as well as interpersonal
relationships. Subjects indicate their degree of
agreement on a four-point scale from "Agrees Strongly" to
”Disagrees Strongly" (Spence 8 Helmreich, 1978). Spence
and Helmreich (1978) reported internal consistency
coefficient of .70 and test-retest reliability of .73.
Intgxngnsgnnl Reactivity Inggn (IRI). This 28-item index
measures personal distress, self esteem, fantasy, and
empathic concern (Davis, 1980). Responses are made on a
five-point scale from A ("does not describe me well") to E
("describes me very well"). Davis reported internal and
test-retest reliabilities of .71 to .77 and .62 to .71

respectively.

Snginl Ayoidance and Distress Scale (SADS). This is a 28-

64

item true-false scale that was designed to assess an
individual's social competence and the desire to avoid
social interactions with others. In addition, it measures
the extent of personal distress present in social
interactions. Higher scores indicate greater discomfort
(Watson 8 Friend, 1969). The authors reported internal
consistency coefficient (Kuder-Richardson 20) of .94 and

test-retest reliability of .79.

W

This study makes the assumption that an individual
becomes a child molester due to a complex interplay of
factors, all of which we may not yet understand. It is
also assumed that some factors found in the four-factor
approach are present in at least some child molesters.

The four-factor approach was delineated by Ariji and
Finkelhor (1984) in an effort to bring together the
empirical work done so far in this area. In addition, this
approach encourages a more complex view of the situation
while providing some order to a possibly confusing array
of proposed theories. The measures used in the present
study allowed observation and consideration of several
aspects of the four-factor approach. This research
focused on arrested development/immaturity, conditioning
and modeling from childhood experiences with resulting
cognitive distortions relating to sexual activity, low

self esteem, identification with aggression, inadequate

65

social skills, sexual anxiety, and patriarchal norms. The
treatment program utilized social skills training,
cognitive restructuring, and sex education modules in an
effort to reduce cognitive distortions and sexual anxiety
and enhance social skills. As a result, the treated
individuals would be more likely to develop adult
relationships and less likely to turn to children for

sexual gratification.

Eyeglasses
The following hypotheses were tested with reference

to social skills and sexual anxiety:

H1: From time 1 (pre) to time 2 (post), subjects in the
experimental group will show improved social skills
and reduced anxiety when compared to control subjects
as evidenced by scores on the Social Avoidance and
Distress Scale (SADS).

H2: From time 1 (pre) to time 2 (post), subjects in the
experimental group will show less sexual anxiety when
compared to control subjects as evidenced by scores on
the Multiphasic Sex Inventory (MSI) Sexual
Inadequacies Scale (SI).

The following hypothesis was tested with reference to
self-esteem:

H3: At time 1 (pre), all subjects will exhibit low self-
esteem as evidenced by reduced scores (<16) on the

Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) Perspective

66

Taking Scale.

The following hypotheses were tested with reference

to cognitive distortions and arrested

development/immaturity:

H4:

H5:

From time 1 (pre) to time 2 (post), subjects in the
experimental group will show less cognitive
distortions than control subjects as evidenced by
scores on the Abel and Becker Cognition Scale (ABCS)
and the Multiphasic Sex Inventory (MSI)
Justifications Scale.

All subjects will exhibit arrested development/
immaturity at time 1 (pre) as evidenced by scores on
the Multiphasic Sex Inventory (MSI) Cognitive
Distortions and Immaturity Scale.

Following is the hypothesis that was tested regarding

identification with aggression:

H6:

All subjects will exhibit an identification with
aggression at time 1 (pre) as evidenced by scores on
the Sexual History Scale of the Multiphasic Sex
Inventory (MSI).

Following is the hypothesis that was tested relating

to patriarchal norms:

H7:

At time 1 (pre) all subjects will exhibit patriarchal
feelings toward women as evidenced by elevated scores
on the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (ATWS) (overall
mean > 25).

The following hypotheses was tested regarding sexual

67

knowledge:

H8: From time 1 (pre) to time 2 (post), subjects in the
experimental group will exhibit enhanced sexual
knowledge when compared to control subjects as
evidenced by scores on the Multiphasic Sex Inventory

(MSI) Sexual Knowledge Scale.

RESULTS

A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used
to assess overall treatment effects and to control for
inflations in alpha level resulting from multiple tests
(Barker 8 Barker, 1984). Univariate analyses of variance
(ANOVAS) were then used to determine the detailed pattern
for each dependent variable.

As predicted, the MANOVA showed significant
differences between the groups at the second assessment.
A significant multivariate effect was found for the main
effect of time Wilks lambda = .058, p < .01. The
interaction for group x time was statistically
significant, (Wilks lambda = .619, p < .01). The results
of the univariate analyses of variance are noted below.
Summary tables are shown following each hypothesis.
nynggnesis ;. It was predicted that from time 1 (pre) to
time 2 (post), subjects in the experimental group would
exhibit improved social skills and less social anxiety
than control subjects as evidenced by reduced scores on

the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (SADS). This

68

hypothesis was supported. The univariate analysis of
variance reached significance [F(1,58) = 11.65, p<.01]. A
significant main effect for time was also obtained
[F(1,58) = 11.21, p<.01]. The group effect was not
significant [F(1,58) = .389]. The scores on the Social
Avoidance and Distress Scale indicated significant
differences between subjects in the experimental group
(Time 1, M = 14.13: Time 2, M = 10.63) and subjects in the
control group (Time 1, M = 13.60: Time 2, M = 13.63). See
Table 3 for means, standard deviations, and the summary

table for main and interaction effects.

69

Table 3

Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (SADS) Means 8
Standard Deviations

 

 

Time 1 Time 2
ngntnent 14.13 (16.22) 10.63 (8.47)
QQngnnl 13.60 (15.39) 13.63 (14.98)

 

Summary Table for Main and Interaction Effects on the SADS

 

Mean Square Mean Square F(df1,2)

 

Effect Error 1,58 p-level
Main E e t
figgnn 182.533 468.439 .389 .534
Ting 360.53 32.154 11.212 {001

Ingegaction 374.533 32.154 11.648 .001

 

70

Hynggnesis 2. It was predicted that from time 1 (pre)
to time 2 (post), subjects in the experimental group would
exhibit less sexual anxiety than control subjects as
evidenced by scores on the Multiphasic Sex Inventory (MSI)
Sexual Inadequacies (SI) Scale. This hypothesis was not
supported. The interaction between group and time was not
significant [F(1,58) = .461]. A significant main effect
was found for time [F(1,58) = 404.44, p<.01] but not for
group [F(1,58) = 3.78]. At time 2 (post), scores on the
Sexual Inadequacies (SI) Scale of the Multiphasic Sex
Inventory (MSI) did not indicate significant differences
in sexual anxiety between subjects in the experimental
group (Time 1, M = 22.57, Time 2, M = 48.33) and subjects
in the control group (Time 1, M = 26.97, Time 2, M =
54.53). Both groups scores changed in the expected
direction. Table 4 for means, standard deviations, and

the summary table of main and interaction effects.

71

Table 4

(MSI) Sexual Inadequacies Scale Means and Standard

 

Deviations
Time 1 Time 2
:rgagngn; 22.57 (10.15) 48.33 (16.33)
ggngzgl 26.97 (6.07) 54.53 (12.02)

 

Summary Table for Main and Interaction Effects on

the MSI SI

 

Mean Square Mean Square F(df1,2)

 

Effect Error 1,58 p-level
Main Effects
Gnoup 842.700 222.915 3.78 .056
line 21333.32 52.747 404.44 .001

te 'on 24.299 52.747 .460 .500

 

72

Hyngthgsis 1. It was postulated that all subjects would
exhibit low self-esteem at time 1 (pre) as evidenced by
low scores (<16) on the Perspective Taking Scale of the
Interpersonal Reactivity Index. This hypothesis was not
supported. Mean score for all subjects at time 1 (pre)
was M = 18.70. A post-hoc comparison of the 2 groups found
no difference at time 2 (post) [F(1,58) = .067]. See table

5 for means and standard deviations.

Table 5

IRI Perspective Taking Scale Means and Standard Deviations

 

 

Time 1 Time 2
Treatment 18.03 (4.47) 37.13 (9.99)
angzgl 19.36 (4.62) 37.93 (9.04)

 

Mynntnesis A; It was predicted that from time 1 (pre) to
time 2 (post), subjects in the experimental group would
exhibit less cognitive distortions than control subjects
as evidenced by scores on the Abel 8 Becker Cognition
Scale (ABCS) and the Multiphasic Sex Inventory (MSI)
Justifications Scale. The results of the univariate
analysis of variance with the Abel 8 Becker Cognition
Scale (ABCS) reached significance [F(1,58) = 4.64,

p<.035]. The main effects for group [F(1,58) = 4.73,

73

p<.034] and time [F(1,58) = 4.75, p<.033] were also
significant. Subjects in the experimental group (Time 1,
M = 123.77: Time 2, M = 134.53) exhibited fewer cognitive
distortions at time 2 (post) than control subjects (Time
1, M = 121.03: Time 2, M = 121.10). The ANOVA interaction
with scores from the Multiphasic Sex Inventory (MSI)
Justifications Scale did not reach significance [F (1,58)
= .637]. The main effect for group [F(1,58) = .006] was
not significant. However, a significant main effect was
found for time [F(1,58) = 63.70, p<.01. Subjects in the
experimental group (Time 1, M = 7.03, Time 2, M = 12.73)
did not exhibit fewer cognitive distortions than control
subjects (Time 1, M = 6.57, Time 2, M = 13.53) as
evidenced by scores on the MSI Justifications Scale. This
hypothesis was only partially supported. See Table 6 for
means, standard deviations and the summary table for main

and interaction effects.

74

Table 6

ABCS Means and Standard Deviations

 

Time 1 Time 2
Igeggmen; 123.77 (20.19) 134.53 (12.05)
ggngzgi 121.03 (21.18) 121.10 (14.04)

 

Summary Table for Main and Interaction Effects on the ABCS

 

Mean Square Mean Square F(df1,2)

 

Effect Error 1,58 p-level
Main Effects
ngnn 1960.208 414.342 4.730 .033
Ting 880.20 184.976 4.758 .033

t C '0 858.675 184.976 4.642 .035

 

75

Table 7

MSI Justifications Scale Means and Standard

 

Deviations
Time 1 Time 2
Treatment 7.03 (6.01) 12.73 (10.25)
antzgl 6.57 (5.26) 13.53 (10.82)

Summary Table for Main and Interaction Effects on the MSI

 

 

J Scale
Mean Square Mean Square F(df1,2)
Effect Error 1,58 p-level
Main Effects
QIQQQ .833 124.104 .006 .934
Time 1203.33 18.890 63.701 .001

Ingennggign 12.033 18.890 .637 .428

 

76

Hynggnggig 5. It was predicted that all subjects
would exhibit arrested development/immaturity at time 1
(pre) as evidenced by scores on the Multiphasic Sex
Inventory (MSI) Cognitive Distortions 8 Immaturity Scale.
This hypothesis was supported. The overall mean for all
subjects at pre-test for the MSI Cognitive Distortions 8
Immaturity Scale was 7.83 (SD = 4.71). A score from 4—9
suggests cognitive distortions and immaturity.

Mypgtnesis g. It was predicted that at time 1 (pre)
a significant percentage (>50%) of all subjects would
exhibit an identification with aggression as evidenced by
a reported history of sexual abuse in their backgrounds
found in the Multiphasic Sex Inventory Sexual History
Scale (MSI). Ninety-five percent (95%) of the entire
sample was found to have reported sexual abuse. X (4, M =
60) = 91.73. This hypothesis was supported.

Hypothesis 1. It was predicted that at time 1 (pre)
the overall mean of the Attitudes Toward Women Scale
(ATWS) would be greater than 25, suggesting patriarchal
feelings toward women. The mean for the entire sample at
time 1 (pre) was 28.53 (SD = 7.39). Therefore, this
hypothesis was supported.

Mynothesis 8. It was predicted that from time 1
(pre) to time 2 (post), subjects in the experimental group
would exhibit increased sexual knowledge when compared to
control subjects as evidenced by scores on the Multiphasic

Sex Inventory (MSI) Sexual Knowledge Scale. This

77

hypothesis was supported: [F(1,58) = 11.65, p<.001]. The
group main effect was significant [F(1,58) = 3.99, p<.05],
as well as the time main effect [F(1,58) = 351.91,
p<.001]. At time 2 (post), subjects in the experimental
group (Time 1, M = 14.87: Time 2, M = 17.93) had greater
sexual knowledge than subjects in the control group (Time
1, M = 14.80: Time 2, M = 14.67). See Table 8 for means,
standard deviations, and the summary table for main and

interaction effects.

78

Table 8

MSI Sexual Knowledge Scale Means and Standard

 

Deviations
Time 1 Time 2
Treatment 14.87 (6.53) 17.93 (7.52)
tentrel 14.80 (3.39) 14.67 (3.40)

 

Summary Table for Main and Interaction Effects on

the MSI SK

 

Mean Square Mean Square F(df1,2)

 

Effect Error 1,58 p-level
Main Effeete
Qngnn 326.70 81.718 .997 .050
Time 9469.63 26.909 351.911 .001

t 'on 313.63 26.909 11.655 .001

 

DISCUSSION

The findings of the present study for hypothesis 1
suggest that members of the experimental group exhibited
improved social skills and reduced anxiety when measured
by the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (Watson 8
Friend, 1969). The Social Avoidance and Distress Scale
measures an individual‘s thoughts and feelings about
certain behaviors rather than the behaviors themselves.
Additionally, the SADS is a manifest scale and may be
influenced by demand characteristics and social
desirability. Nevertheless, the result suggests that
members of the experimental group were amenable to change
as a result of the intervention while the control group
remained unchanged.

There were no statistically significant results for
hypothesis 2 or 3. Hypothesis 2 predicted that sexual
anxiety would be reduced for experimental subjects at time
2 (post). This was not the case. Sexual anxiety was not
reduced by the treatment program. It may be that
individuals gained knowledge about social skills and sex
education, but having little or no opportunity to practice
these skills with peers of the opposite sex, allowed
little change in anxiety relating to sexual issues. In
addition, self-esteem scores were not low as expected, and
there was no difference in scores between groups after the

79

80

brief exposure to intervention. One would expect
incarcerated child molesters to have low self-esteem
simply because they are in prison, aside from assuming low
self-esteem is a result of (or cause for) abusing 72
others. However, when the literature is reviewed, it
becomes obvious that inferences are weak due to
methodological and conceptual problems. For example,
Toobert, Bartelme and Jones (1959) found pedophiles to be
"weak and inadequate and had low self-esteem" (p.67).
Posible sex-role stereotyping is a problem with this
study, as well as with Stricker's (1967) study. Stricker
used the Blacky pictures with pedophiles and concluded
that "pedophiles share this immature, feminine approach"
(p. 38). Panton (1978) reported that the MMPI profiles of
child molesters "implied self-alienation, low self-esteem,
self-doubt, anxiety, inhibition of aggression, aversion to
violence, need for reinforcement, feelings of inadequacy,
insecurity, and fear of heterosexual failure" (p. 391).
Again, possible sex-role stereotyping is a problem with
this study.

In other studies, Hammer 8 Glueck (1957) used
Rorschach, House-Tree-Person, and Blacky pictures to test
200 sex offenders and concluded that pedophiles feel
psychosexually immature and lacking in self-esteem but do
not say which findings warranted these conclusions.

Peters (1976) found sex abusers to be more immature and

regressed than normal men, and had strong dependency needs

81

and feelings of phallic inadequacy. These conclusions
were based on Bender Gestalt test results with a sample of
224 male sex offenders on probation. There is no empirical
evidence that the Bender Gestalt test measures phallic
inadequacy. He also found that child sex abusers scored
higher than other sex offenders on the somatic scale of
the Cornell Medical Index, meaning that they had a
particularly large number of physical symptoms. He
concluded that they have a "strong tendency to somatize
affective problems and thus view themselves as inferior.
They seem to feel unable to compete with other men in
efforts to attract adult women because of this felt
inferiority" (p. 417). However, conceptual conclusions of
this nature must be considered with caution until
additional objective research information becomes
available. In addition, a thorough investigation using
only child molesters has not been done.

Hypothesis 4 stated that members of the experimental
group would exhibit less cognitive distortions than
controls at post-test. This hypothesis was supported when
using the Abel and Becker Cognition Scale (ABCS). That was
not the case when utilizing the Justifications Scale of
the Multiphasic Sex Inventory (MSI).

It should be noted that the Abel and Becker Cognition
Scale items are transparently obvious and may be affected

significantly by social desirability and demand

82

characteristics. Much of the data reported by Abel et al.
(1984) was based on a sample of voluntary offenders who
were promised confidentiality. Whether this scale will
reveal the same distortions among sex offender under legal
pressure to appear normal needs to be further explored. In
the present study changes have occurred. This intervention
may be instrumental in activating changes in response to
these items. If demand characteristics were operating
they do not seem to change the responses in the control
group.

The Justifications Scale includes a large number of
items labeled "psychological justifications”, such as "my
sexual offense occurred as a result of my wife's lack of
understanding of me" and "My sexual offense occurred
because of stresses in my life." There are also a number
of items related to attribution of blame to the victim,
such as "My sex offense would not have occurred if the
victim had not been sexually loose." This scale covers a
narrower range of potential distortions than does the Abel
and Becker Cognition Scale. Both groups changed in the
expected direction. These findings are also consistent
with the findings of the next hypothesis.

Hypothesis 5 predicted that all subjects would
exhibit arrested development/immaturity at pre-test as
evidenced by scores on the Multiphasic Sex Inventory

Cognitive Distortions and Immaturity Scale. The CDI is a

83

characterological scale as well as an assessment of self-
accountability. It is intended to assess early childhood
sexual experiences and resulting cognitive distortions
which stay with the offender and help him to set the stage
for his personality disorder and potential to act out
sexually deviant impulses. The results of the present
study suggest that this group of child molesters do,
indeed, suffer from arrested development/immaturity.

Hypothesis 6 predicted that all subjects would
exhibit an identification with aggression (i.e.,
conditioning from early childhood experiences) as
evidenced by a reported history of sexual abuse in their
backgrounds. Ninety-five percent of the entire sample
reported a sexual experience with an adult as children. It
was expected that most would report such an experience.
This also supports past research suggesting that a high
percentage of child molesters have had sexual abuse in
their past.

Hypothesis 7 predicted that the sample would evidence
patriarchal feelings toward women at pretest as found in
the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (ATWS). Patriarchal
feelings can be defined as a world view that seeks to
create and maintain male control over females. It is a
system of male supremacy. In contemporary society men as
a class dominate women as a class. This dominance is

maintained by men's organization and control over the

84

structural systems that constitute the society we exist
in, for example, the health, legal, welfare, educational,
economic, judicial, religious, and family systems. In
addition, the way these systems function is primarily
determined by patriarchal beliefs and values.

Male leadership is based on the assumption that men's
perception of reality is the only one. Women and children
are viewed as adjunct, secondary, objects for male
manipulation (Waldby et al., 1989).

Feminist analysis of child sexual abuse has been
concerned with presenting the experience from the position
of the woman and the child, to understand the family
dynamics as the playing out of a power relationship and to
look at the connection between this power relationship and
the broader operation of patriarchy (Waldby et al., 1989).
By linking the phenomenon of child sexual abuse with the
nature of the family and male-female relationships in
patriarchal society, intervention strategies can be
suggested that are social as well as individual: for
example, the very act of reconceptualizing the notion of
power is part of the empowerment process: and the initial
step towards recovery and survival.

How does the misuse of power relate to child sexual
abuse? Child abuse represents a misuse of the power that
society "legitimately" accords to males and to adults. As

this power of males and adults exists, there also exists

 

85

the pnggntinl for every man to misuse his power over women
(e.g., rape) and for every adult to misuse his/her power
over children (e.g., sexual assault). As well as this
potential, there exists the option for abuse, as society
actually legitimizes the misuse of power. The legitimizing
of the abuse of power is child sexual abuse. It occurs on
several fronts. For example, the child who discloses to
adults, who she hopes will protect her from abuse, is
often not believed. Society reinforces this situation by
perpetuating some of the myths about child sexual abuse.

Secondly, the legal system allows for relative ease
of removal of the child from the family, yet makes it
difficult to remove the offender. This, of course,
reinforces the blame on the child and grants the
male/adult the right to continue to offend.

Thirdly, society provides limited punishments for sex
offenders: imprisonment for those very few offenders who
are found guilty by the criminal justice system: and
public shaming for those even fewer offenders who become
news for a day. On the whole, most offenders are not
punished by society (Driver 8 Droisen, 1989). When the
misuse of power is also legitimized by society, there
exists a very real option for individuals to act on that
potential and thereby abuse the power granted to them. The
"traditional" values that contemporary society holds

support this view. This hypothesis was supported. As

86

expected, this sample evidenced patriarchal feelings
toward women.

As predicted, subjects in the experimental group
exhibited enhanced sexual knowledge at post-test when
compared to controls. The sex education module made a
difference for experimental subjects even though there was
no direct attempt to "teach" the items on the scale. The
subjects were clearly limited in their knowledge in this
area at time 1 (pre) and were able to add to their
knowledge base through the program. Control subjects did
not improve.

Overall, the social skills training and the sex
education modules of the behavioral treatment program
developed by Abel and Becker et al. (1984) had impact on
this group of incarcerated child 73 molesters.

Future research is needed to attempt implementation
of a long-term treatment program utilizing all components
of the program a presented by Abel et al. (1984). The
entire program includes social skills and assertiveness
training, in addition to covert sensitization and
satiation, cognitive restructuring, and sex education.
These modules are difficult to implement in a prison
setting and will require a great deal of cooperation from
the Department of Corrections especially since they
require 30 weeks of intervention. It will be important to

have the opportunity to assess recidivism as well as long-

87

term follow-up of subjects.

Several researchers have stated that a major problem
with research on child sexual abusers has to do with the
fact that almost all such research is based on subjects
recruited from the criminal justice system, either
incarcerated offenders or probationers in treatment. This
fact then casts doubt on the generalizability of almost
all known findings about sexual abusers. However, we can
generalize to incarcerated child molesters.

The suggestion is made that incarcerated offenders or
probationers in treatment constitute a small percentage of
all sexual abusers. From the studies reviewed earlier, it
is clear that millions of children are subject to sexual
advances and actions by older persons. We know that only
a relatively small proportion of these are ever reported
to the authorities. For example, in Russell's (1984) San
Francisco survey, only 2% of the intrafamily and 6% of the
extrafamily sexual abuse incidents were reported to the
police. Even when incidents are reported to authorities,
many offenders are not apprehended, many do not go to
trial, and only a few are convicted. Rogers (1982),
tracking reported cases in Washington, D.C., criminal
justice system, found that only half of all identified
suspects would be arrested, and that less than a third
subsequently would be convicted. Therefore, those sex

abusers who are convicted or even seen within the criminal

88

justice system are a small fraction of all offenders, and
probably the most flagrant and repetitive in their
offending. They are likely the most socially
disadvantaged, and least able to persuade the criminal
justice authorities to let them off. Although such a
group cannot be considered representative of all
offenders, it should be noted that this group surely needs
treatment. We strongly believe that incarcerated
individuals should be offered some form of rehabilitation.
Incarceration alone will not change their inability to
interact with adult women. It will not change the lack of
knowledge that they have about their own bodies let alone
the bodies of the opposite sex. It will certainly not
help them to change their abusive behavior. It is
essential that changes be made in the way the prison
system handles these individuals.

In those limited instances when treatment is
available, programs are biased toward selecting clients
for treatment thought most likely to succeed. Identifying
features of those men who respond most effectively to any
particular treatment program should not encourage the
establishment of criteria that will exclude individuals.
Instead, it will be important to encourage treatment
researchers to develop additional or alternative programs
for those men for whom available treatments presently

fail. Substantively, there are essentially two issues

89

here. Some researchers (e.g., Laws, 1986: Marques, Day,
Nelson, 8 Miner, in press: Pithers, 1990) argue that the
use of entry (instead of exclusionary) criteria permits
the isolation of various categories of offenders who are
most likely to benefit from a particular constellation of

treatment modalities. They argue that if this is

 

effective, it permits wide execution of the treatment for ?

those offender categories. Then, they argue, it is

possible to move on to less amenable populations of €

offenders. Other researchers (Marshall 8 Barbaree, 1990) I:
p

argue that this is a highly limiting approach, is probably
scientifically and statistically unsound due to the lack
of random selection of subjects, and limits
generalizability of any treatment tested under such
conditions. Marshall and Barbaree would offer treatment
to all candidates, adapt treatment to individual needs,
and sort out the groups versus modalities later.
Obviously, either process is a lengthy endeavor, and there
is at present no empirical support favoring one over the
other.

Sometimes the basis for exclusion is simply
practical. For instance, offering treatment to
incarcerated offenders who have very lengthy sentences is
seen by institutional programs as a waste of their
resources, at least until there is some hOpe of imminent

release for these inmates. Similarly, many community

9O

settings, especially those offering service for a fee,
often exclude individuals who also have nonsexual criminal
histories or persons with lengthy deviant sexual histories
(especially pedophilia or exhibitionism). Such programs
also often have restrictions against particular types of
offenders such as rapists, violent pedophiles, volatile
and dangerous juveniles, or persons with bizarre sexual
deviations. The usual reasons given for exclusion are
either that these offenders pose too great a threat to the
community to be treated on an outpatient basis or that the
particular program is not equipped to deal with these
problems. Unfortunately, the result is that those
individuals most in need of self-management and relapse
prevention skills do not receive treatment. These
programs select for success, where possible choosing low-
risk, first-time, nonviolent offenders who, to be sure,
make up a large proportion of known sexual criminals
(Marshall 8 Barbaree, 1990). Their treatment directors
can point to low recidivism rates among treated offenders.
However, the most needy are not being treated which can
result in disastrous consequences for victims.

Another important issue is relapse prevention.
Follow-up was not possible in the present study, but is
important to consider for future research. Treatment with
this population attempts to train these men to reduce

exposure to risky situations, to alter their views in a

91

prosocial direction, to develop alternative, more
acceptable responses to meet their needs, and to provide
them with the skills necessary to enact these
alternatives. Treatment, then is seen as training or
education rather than therapy, and is not considered to be
a cure which will eliminate all future probability of
offending.

Laws and Marshall (1990) point out that chronic
sexual deviation is a robust problem, highly resilient and
resistant to alteration. It is not a "sickness" that one
"gets over" (p.222). Therefore, the offender is seen as
continuing to be at risk after treatment, the aim of
treatment being to reduce that risk and make possible
subsequent self-management. This approach also dictates
that formal treatment should be followed by some form of
continuing contact with the ex-clients, and there are
several long-term options for follow-up, with each of
these options requiring development and evaluation. One
approach developed by Marshall and Barbaree (1988) is to
equip the clients with strategies for dealing with risky
situations and with ways of avoiding such situations.
Such a strategy is derived from a relapse prevention
protocol which is taught to the outpatient offenders as
part of treatment. This approach does leave the
responsibility entirely with the client, and many

clinicians think that this is less than satisfactory.

92

A second approach to the follow-up problem has been
to offer booster sessions spread over several years after
formal treatment he ended. Maletzky (1991) has employed
this strategy , and has some positive effects. However,
he does not evaluate the effects of the booster sessions
independent of the effects of the prior, formal treatment
program.

The final approach involves direct supervision of
the ex-client over an extended postreatment period. Abel
(1987) has described a surveillance procedure which
identifies four to five persons who are in regular
contact with the ex-client. These include family members,
friends, and professionals working with the client. The
members of each client's surveillance group report to the
therapist the occurrence of risky situations (e.g., the
offender becoming angry, stressed, or bored) or
provocative behaviors on the part of the offender (e.g.,
being in the company of children, near parks or
schoolyards, or unable to account for substantial periods
of time). Whenever such problems are reported, the
therapist takes whatever action is deemed appropriate,
which may include booster treatment. A more elaborate
version of this approach has been advocated by proponents
of relapse prevention, and the outcome from these
programs is very encouraging (Pithers, 1990). In this

variation, probation and parole officers are trained in

93

elaborate relapse prevention strategies, and they in turn
train the offenders and monitor their adherence to the
program. However, it is important to note that it remains
an empirical question as to whether or not this, or any
alternative approach, is satisfactory.

Future research has the responsibility of evaluating
posttreatment interventions as well as the treatment
programs themselves. If posttreatment programs are found
to be valuable additions, we will need to learn how long
the contact should be continued. These issues are open to
evaluation and hopefully will be the subject of future
investigation.

The study of child molesters is not an easy task.
Such individuals do not make enthusiastic or cooperative
subjects, and the matters of most interest to the
researcher are often the ones that subjects are least
interested in divulging. Yet there is perhaps no more
important need in the field of sexual abuse. Research on
offenders is an area in which little is known and
additional findings may provide large payoffs for
prevention and treatment efforts. For example, when
research on physical child abusers demonstrated that
single adolescent parents were at high risk of becoming
abusers, it led very rapidly to prevention programs aimed
at providing services to adolescent parents, therefore

reducing the likelihood of physical abuse before if

94

occurred. If we had similar information on persons at
high risk for committing sexual abuse, we might be able to
devise similar sex abuse prevention programs. In addition,
studies of offenders and their likelihood to reoffend may
cast light on many crucial questions concerning the
handling and treatent of child sex abuse cases. For
example, after disclosure is it crucial to remove children
from access to the offender? Can pretrial diversion
programs be as effective as postconviction treatment? Is
it important to incarcerate offenders for extended periods
of time? Is any form of offender treatment more effective
than any other? Do posttreatment interventions decrease
the likelihood of reoffense? Which method of postreatment
intervention works best? All these questions require that
we begin to have ways to measure the propensity of
molesters to reoffend. It is of the utmost importance in
the effort to deal with the problem of sexual abuse that
research be turned in this direction.

Currently, there are available means for managing and
treating child sex offenders, and if government and
funding agencies can be persuaded to offer greater support
for treatment and research efforts, the numbers of
innocent women and children who suffer at the hands of
these individuals will be reduced. In the long run,
however, treatment of offenders is not the solution to the

problem, although it is part of the solution.

95

The knowledge gleaned in work with offenders must be
added to that derived from associated research to develop
prevention strategies. Steps toward prevention include
social change which empowers women and children. The
sexual abuse of women and girls has emerged as a cultural,
not an individual problem. Sexual violence against women
presents a logical and inevitable extension of attitudes
and practices surrounding relationships between men and
women in a male-dominated culture (Brownmiller, 1975:
Clark 8 Lewis, 1977: Gager 8 Schurr, 1976). When over 50%
of a male college sample might rape if assured that they
would not be caught (Malamuth, Haber, 8 Feshbach, 1980),
and the majority of a male high school sample reports that
date rape is acceptable under a variety of circumstances
(Goodchilds 8 Zellman, 1984), it is difficult to view the
sexual abuse of women and children as other than a
culturally acceptable practice. Long-term prevention,
therefore, necessitates changing the societal conditions
which encourage and sanction a generalized hostility
toward women and children and the consequent sexual abuse
of them. Attitudes which trivialize or erase the damage
done to women and girls protect aggressors and create a
climate that is hostile to females and children. Cultural
institutions are designed to maintain the status quo,
including sexual violence against women and girls. To

this end, we socialize males to be aggressive, to devalue

96

women, and to relate to others in minimally empathic ways.
It has been suggested that sexual violence is a
powerful tool used to control women and children as a
group (Brownmiller, 1975) and an outgrowth of structural
inequalities (Clark 8 Lewis, 1977). Either way, sexual
violence will end when men no longer have the "power to
define what and who the problem is" (Russell, 1984, p.

289) .

References

Aarens, M., Cameron, T., Roizen, J., Room, R., Schneberk,

D., 8 Wingard, D. (1978). Alconol, Qaenaltiee ane
Qtime. Berkeley, CA: Social Research Group.

Abel, G. G. (1987, May). Surveillance Gteups. Paper
presented at the meeting of the Association for the

Behavioral Treatment of Sexual Abusers, Newport, OR.

Abel, G., Becker, J. V., Cunningham-Rathner, J., Renlean,
J., Kaplan, M., 8 Reid, J. (1984). The Treatment
enila Molestere. New York: SBC-TM (722 West 168th
Street, Box 17, New York, NY 10032).

Abel, G., Becker, J. V., Murphy, W. D., 8 Flanagan, B.
(1981) Identifying dangerous child molesters. In R. B.
Start (Ed.), Violent Benaviez. New York: Brunner-Mazel \

Abel, G., Becker, J. V., Mittelman, M., Cunningham-
Rathner, J., Rouleau, J. L., 8 Murphy, W. D. (1987).
Self-reported sex crimes of nonincarcerated

paraphiliacs. Journal at lntetneteenal Vielenee,,;y 3.

American Humane Association. (1987). Matienal gtngy en

guild Easiest and amuse Resetting. Denver. co:
Author.

American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Qiagneetie and
Statistical Manual at Mental Dieotdets, xnixa Egitien,
Revisea (DSM-III- ). Washington, D.C.: American
Psychiatric Association.

Anderson, C., 8 Mayes, P. (1982). Treating family sexual
abuse: The humanistic approach. Journal at eniia Care,
1, 41-46.

Araji, S., 8 Finkelhor, D. (1985). Explanations of
pedophilia: Review of empirical research. Bulletin at

the American Aeaaemx at Bayesiatrx a taxi 121 17.

Armentrout, J. A., 8 Hauer, A. L. (1978). MMPIs of
rapists of adults, rapists of children, and non-rapist

sex offenders. Journal at Clinical Psyenolegy, 24 330-
332.

 

Armstrong, L. (1983). The Mome Front. New York: McGraw-
Hill.

Atwood, R., 8 Howell, R. (1971). Pupillometric and
personality test scores of female aggressing,

97

98

pedophiliacs and normals.

Rsxenenemie seienee 22. 115-116-

Barker, H. R., 8 Barker, B. M. (1984). Mnlti_a£iate

Analysis at _arianse THANQYAI: A.Braetieal snide ta its

use in seientifie Deeisien Making University:
University of Alabama Press.

Barnard, G. W., Fuller, A. K., 8 Robbins, L. (1988).
Child molesters. In J. G. Howells (Ed.), Megezn
Eersneetixes in Esxenesesial Eatnslagxl New York:

Brnner/Mazel.

Bell, A., 8 Hall, C. S. (1976). The personality of a
child molester. In M. S. Weinberg, (Ed.), Sex
Researsni Studies tram the Kinsex.1nst1tute. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Berlin, F. S. (1982). Sex offenders: A biomedical
perspectives. In J. Greer 8 I. Stuart (Eds. ), aennal
Aggressienr Qurrent Eersneeti_es on Treatment 11211
ll: yietin Iteatnent ( Val. 21. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold.

Berlin, F. S., 8 Coyle, G. S. (1981). Sexual deviation

syndromeS- Jeans napkins neaisal leurnal..112. 119-
125.

Brownmiller. S- (1975). Against Qnr 21111 Hen. Hemen.
ang 82221 New York: Bantam Books.

Cavallin, H. (1966). Incestuous fathers: A clinical
report. Anetiean Journal at Ps chi t , 12;, 1132—
1138.

Chaneles, S. (1967). Child victims of sexual offenses.

genetal Pronation, al, 52-56.

Clark, L., 8 Lewis, D. (1977). Ran_: The Ptice at
teeteiye Seanalilty. Toronto: Women's Educational
Press.

Cohen, M., Seghorn, T., 8 Calmas, W. (1969). Sociometric
study of the sex offender. gonrnal at Abnormal
Esxeniatrxl 1&1 249-255.

Council on Scientific Affairs of the American Medical
Association. (1985). AMA diagnostic and treatment
guidelines concerning child abuse and neglect. Jo a

at tne Anetiean Medical Association, 254, 796.

Crooks, R., 8 Baur, K. (1987). Out Sennality. Menlo
Park, CA: Benjamin.

99

Cushing, J. G. N. (1950). Psychopathology of sexual

delinquency. Jonpnal pt Snipinal Esyehopatnelpgy, __
26-34 0

Davis, M. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to
individual differences in interpersonal reactivity.
isms Qataleg at seleetea Datuments in Esxsnelesul 19
85.

Densen-Gerber, J. (1983). Why is there so much hard-core
pornography nowadays? Is it a threat to society or
just a nuisance? neaieal Asneets.ef Human Sexualitxl
11‘ 35.

deYoung. M- (1982)- Sexual Yietimiaatien sf thildren-

Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

v u (es-we‘v-

Driver, E. (1989). Introduction. In E. Driver, 8 A.

Droisen (Ede-). tails.§exual Abuses: 2em1n1st
Petepeetiyee. Houndmills, England: MacMillan

Education Ltd.

Ellis, A. (1974). Rational-emotive therapy. In A.
Burton (Ed.), Operational Ineopies pt getepnality. New

York: Brunner/Mazel.

Ellis, A., 8 Geiger, R. (1977). Manabook pt Ratienal;
Enetiye therapy. New York: Springer.

Ellis, A., 8 Brancale, R. (1956). Ine Psycnology at Sea
Qttenaet_. Springfield, MA: Charles C. Thomas.

Fenichel, D. (1945). Ine Esyenoanalytic Ineety pt
Menzpei_. New York: Norton.

Finkelhor, D. (1980). Risk factors in the sexual

victimization of children. eniia apnea and Megleet, _.
265-273.

Finkelhor, D. (1984). eniia Sennal anuse: Mey Inepty
ang Researeh. New York: Free Press.

Finkelhor, D. (1987). The sexual abuse of children:
Current research reviewed. Psyehiatric Annals, l1,
233.

Fisher, G. (1969). Psychological needs of heterosexual
pedophiliacs. Diseases at the Nervous S stem, Si, 623-
625.

Fisher, G., 8 Howell, L. (1970). Psychological needs of
homosexual pedophiliacs. Diseases at the Netyous

System, 3;, 419-421.

100

Fitch, J. H. (1962). Men convicted of sexual offenses
against children: A descriptive follow-up study.

hritish Seurnal at Sriminelegxl 21 18-37.

Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the Theory of
Sexuality. Standard Edition, Vol. 7. London: Hogarth
Press.

Freud, S. (1906). My views on the part played by
sexuality in the aetiology of the neuroses. Stangata

Editien. 2211 1.
London: Hogarth Press.

Freund, K. (1967a). Diagnosing homo- or heterosexuality
and erotic age-preference by means of a

psychophysiological test. Senayiepal Reseaten an;
TDSIQEXI 21 209-228-

Freund, K. (1967b). Erotic preference in pedophilia.
Sehaviotal Researcn ana Thepapy, S, 339-348.

Freund, K., 8 Langevin, R. (1976). Bisexuality in

homosexual pedophilia. Arenives pt Sexual Senayiet, S,
415-423.

Freund, K., Langevin, R., Cibiri, S., 8 Zajac, Y. (1973).
Heterosexual aversion in homosexual males. Stitien

gentnal pt Esyeniatty, l22, 163-169.

Freund, K., McKnight, C. K., Langevin, R., 8 Cibiri, S.
(1972). The female child as surrogate object.
Atenives at Sexual Behaviop, 21 119-133.

Frisbie, L. V. (1969). Anothep Lpok at Sex Offendets in
galitetnia (Research Monograph No. 5). Sacramento:

California Department of Mental Hygiene.

Gager, N., 8 Schurr, C. (1976). Sennal Assanlt:
genitonting Rape in America, New York: Grosset 8
Dunlap.

Gebhard, P., Gagnon, J., Pomeroy, W., 8 Christenson, C.

(1965). Sen Oftenders: An Analysis at Type_. New
York: Harper 8 Row.

Gillespie, W. H. (1964). The psycho-analytic theory of
sexual deviation with special reference to fetishism.

In I. Rosen (Ed.), The Psychology and Treatment at
Sexual Seyiatipn. New York: Oxford University Press.

Glueck, B. C., Jr. (1965). Pedophilia. In R. Slovenko
(Ed-). Semual Sehaxiar ans the La_- Springfield. IL:

Charles C. Thomas.

101

Goldstein, M. J., Kant, H. S., 8 Hartman, J. J. (1973).
and Sexual Dexianee. Los An9e1e8=

University of California Press.

Goodchilds, J. D., 8 Zellman, G. (1984). Sexual
signalling and sexual aggression in adolescent
relationships. In N. M. Malamuth 8 E. Donnerstein

(Eds.), Bernesranhx and Sexual Aggression (pp- 233-
243). New York: Academic Press.

Goy. Ro. 8 McEwen. B- S- (1977)- Sexual Differentiation
91 the BIQli Cambridge: MIT Press.

Graham. J. R- (1977). The 82211 A Eraetieal guide. New

York: Oxford University Press.
Groth, N. A. (1979). Men Who gape. New York: Plenum.

Groth, N. A. (1984). Treatment of the sexual offender in
a correctional institution. In J. G. Greer 8 I. R.
Stuart (Eds ). The Sexual Aggresser1 turrent

en Iteatnenty New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold.v

Groth, N. A., 8 Birnbaum, H. J. (1978). Adult sexual
orientation and attraction to underage persons.

Arehixes of Sexual Sehaxierl 11 175-181-

Groth, N. A., 8 Burgess, A. (1979). Sexual trauma in the
life histories of rapists and child molesters.

Yietimelegx1 An International Seurnall 4 10-16.

Groth, N. A., Hobson, w. F., 8 Gary, T. s. (1982a). The
child molester: Clinical observations. In J. Conte 8

D. Shore (Eds.), Spcial Wong and Shilg Sennal anuse.
New York: Haworth. Groth, N. A., Longo, R. E., 8

McFadin, J. B. (1982b). Undetected recidivism among

rapists and child molesters. Stine ang helingneneyl gal
450-458.

Guttmacher, M., 8 Weihofen, H. (1951). Set Offenses:
The Erehlem Qauses ans £rexenti.n. New York: Norton.

Hall, G. C., Maiuro, R. D., Vitaliano, P. P., 8 Proctor,
W. C. (1986). The utility of the MMPI with men who
have sexually assaulted children. Sentnal pt

Senenlting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 493-496.

Hammer, R. F., 8 Glueck, B. C., Jr. (1957).
Psychodynamic patterns in sex offenders: A four-factor

theory. Esychiattie Quartetly, 31, 325-345.

102

Herman, J. (1981). Eathet-Daughte; lneeet. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.

Herman, J., Hirschman, L. (1980). Father-daughter
incest. In L. G. Schultz (Ed.), Ihe Sexual

Y1et1meledx of Xeuth.
Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Howells, K. (1979). Some meanings of children for
pedophiles. In M. Cook 8 F. Wilson (Eds.), pre ang

Attzaetipn. London: Pergamon.

Howells, K. (1981). Adult sexual interest in children:
Considerations relevant to theories of aetiology. In

No Cook 8 K- Howells (EdS-). Adult Sexual Interest in
Shilgx_n. New York: Academic Press.

Julian, V., 8 Mohr, C. (1980). Father-daughter incest:
Profile of the offender. V ct 0 ° An

International Journall 1. 348-360.

Karpman. 3: (1954). The Sexual dffender and his
Qfiteneee. New York: Julian.

Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E., 8 Gebhard,

P- H- (1948)- Sexual Sehax1er 1n the human Male.
Philadelphia: Saunders.

KnOPP. F- H- (1982). Remedial lnterxentien 1n Adeleseent
Sex foenses: Nine Progran Desetiptiens. New York:

 

Safer Society Press.

Lange, A. (1986). Rational-Emotive Thetapy; A Tteatment
Mannal. Prepared as part of NIMH grant No. 1 R01 MB
42035, "Prevention of Relapse in Sex Offenders," Dr.
L. Laws, Ph.D., Principal Investigator.

Langevin, R. (1976). Psychological treatment of
pedophiles. Sehavioral Scienees, 11 403.

Langevin, R. (1983). Sexual Strande: gnaetetanging ana
Treating Sex Anomalies in Men. Hillsdale. NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum.

Langevin, R., Paitich, D., Freeman, R., Mann, K., 8 Handy,
L. (1978). Personality characteristics and sexual
anomalies in males. Canadian Joutnal pt Behavioral
Seienee. 19. 222-238-

Langevin, R., Handy, L., Hook, H., Day, D., 8 Russon, A.
(1985). Are incestuous fathers pedophilic and
aggressive? In R. Langevin (Ed.), Etetie Etetexenee
Sender ldentitx and.Addressien1 New York: Erlbaum-

103

Lanyon, R. I. (1986). Theory and treatment in child

molestation. Iournal of donsultino and tlinioal
Esxoholoox. se. 176-182.

Laws. 0- R- (1986. February). Breuention of Relapse in
Sex Qttengeta. Paper presented at the NIMH Conference
on the Assessment and Treatment of Sex Offenders,
Tampa, F1.

Laws, D. R., 8 Marshall, W. L. (1990). A conditioning
theory of the etiology and maintenance of deviant
sexual preference and behavor. In Marshall, W. L.,
Laws, D. R., 8 Barbaree, H. E. (Eds.), Mandheex pt
Sexual Assault: Issues Theories. and Treatment of the
QIISDQSI- New York: Plenum Press.

Loss, P., 8 Glancy, E. (1983). Men who sexually abuse

their children. Hedioal Asoeets of Human Sexualitx.
11, 328-329.

Lustig, N., Dresser, J. W., Spellman, S. W., 8 Murray, T.
B. (1966). Incest: A family group survival pattern.

Arehixes of Seneral Esxoholodx. 11. 31-40.

Malamuth, N. M., Haber, S., 8 Feshbach, S. (1980).
Testing hypotheses regarding rape: Exposure to sexual
violence, sex differences, and the "normality" of

rapists. Journal of Besearoh 1n Eersonalitxl 111 121-
137.

Maletzky, B. M. (1991). the Eteatment pt Sex Qttengete.
New York: Grune 8 Stratton.

Marques, J. K., Day, D. M., Nelson, C., 8 Miner, M. H.
(in press). The sex offender treatment and evaluation
project: California's relapse prevention program. In

0. R- Laws (EdS-). Belaose Ereuention uith Sex
Qttenaete. New York: Guilford.

Marsh, J. T., Hilliard, J., 8 Liechti, R. (1955). A
sexual deviation scale for the MMPI. gentnal e:

eonsultins Esxoholooxl 1121 55-59-

Marshall, P. D., 8 Norgard, K. E. (1983). Shiln Ahuse
and neglect: Shaping Besponeihility. New York: John
Wiley.

Marshall, W. L., 8 Barbaree, H. E. (1990). A manual for

the treatment of child molesters. Seeial ang
Soeial_Se1enoe Doouments.

Marshall, W. L., 8 Barbaree, H. E. (1988). The Leng:Term
Eyaluation at a Qognitive-Sehavippal Treatment to:

104

Shilg Meleetetey Manuscript submitted for publication.

McGahy, C. H. (1968). Drinking and deviance disavowal:

The case of child molesters. Speial Enablene, lay 43-
49.

McAuliffe, S. (1983). Is sexual deviance a biological

problem? Esxoholodx Today. 84.

McGuire, R. J., Carlisle, J. M., 8 Young, B. G. (1965).
Sexual deviations and conditioned behavior: A

hypothesis. Sehaxior Researoh and Theraox1 21 185-190

McIntyre, K. (1981). Role of mothers in father-daughter
incest: A feminist analysis. Speial Math, SS, 462-
467.

Neiselman. K- (1978). lnoest1 A Esxoholooioal Studx of
dauses and Streets _1th Treatment Beeommendations San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mohr, I. W., Turner, R. E., 8 Jerry, M. B. (1964).
Bedoohilia and Exhibitionism Toronto: University of

Toronto Press.

Money, J. (1961). Sex hormones and other variables in
human eroticism. In W. C. Young (Ed.), Sex ang

Internal Secretion VIll. Baltimore, MD: Williams 8
Wilkins.

Moore, D. S. (1984). A literature review on sexual abuse

research. qurnal pt Nutse-Migwitepy , 22, 395.

Moore, H. A., 8 Zusman, J. (1984). Repettd en Sex
foenders ang Their Victims: Snnnaty and
Recommendations in Conjunction with the Gevernot's Taeh

Eotce en Se x Offendets and Their yietinet Tampa:
Florida Mental Health Institute.

 

Morgan, P. (1982). Alcohol and family violence: A
review of the literature. In national Institute at
Alooholisn and Aloohol Ahuse1 Aloohol.donsumot1on and
Related Problene, (Alcohol and Health Monographh 1).
Washington, DC: Department of Health
and Human Services.

Mrazek, P. J., Lynch, M. A., 8 Bentovim, A. (1983).
Incest and the dysfunctional family system. In P. B.

Mrazek 8 C. H. Kempe, Sexually Ahaeea Shildten and
Thai: Eaniliee (pp. 167-177). New York: Pergamon.

Nelson, J. (1982). lncest: Fact and Myth. Edinburgh,
Scotland: Stramullion.

105

Nichols, H. R., 8 Molinder, I. (1984). Mnltiphaeie Sex
lnyentety Mannal. (Available from Nichols 8 Molinder,
437 Bowes Drive, Tacoma, WA 98466).

Pacht, A. R., 8 Cowden, J. E. (1974). An exploratory
study of five hundred sex offenders. Ctiminal Snetiee

and hehaxior. 11 13-20-

Panton, J. H. (1978). Personality differences appearing
between rapists of adults, rapists of children, and
non-violent sexual molesters of children. BSSSdIEh

’ 1n Bartholoox. Estoniatrx and hehauior.
S, 385-393.

Panton, J. H. (1979). MMPI profile configurations
associated with incestuous and non-incestuous child

molesting. Esyehological Bepptte, SS, 335-338.

Pithers, W. D. (1990). Relapse prevention with sexual
aggressors: A method for maintaining therapeutic gain
and enhancing external supervision. In W. L. Marshall,
D. R. Laws, 8 H. E. Barbaree (Eds.), Mannheex e;
EQXBQI Afifiéflli‘ I§§E§§p IBEQIiQé. and IIQALEQDE 2: LEE
Qfijenget. New York: Plenum Press.

Quinsey, V. L., Chaplin, T. C., 8 Carrigan, W. F. (1979).
Sexual preferences among incestuous and non-incestuous

child molesters. Sahayie; Ihetapy, lg, 562-565.

Quinsey, V. L., Chaplin, T. C., 8 Carrigan, W. F. (1980).
Biofeedback and signaled punishment in the modification
if inappropriate sexual age preferences. Sehayip;

IDQIQRX. 111 557-576-

Quinsey, V. L., Steinman, C. M., Bergensen, S. G., 8
Holmes, T. F. (1975). Penile circumference, skin
conduction, and ranking responses of child molesters
and "normals" to sexual and nonsexual visual stimuli.

Sehaxior Theraox. s. 213-219.

Rada, R. T. (1976). Alcoholism and the child molester.

Annale at the New Yorh Acaaemy pt Seienee, 27;, 492-
496.

Rada, R., Laws, D., 8 Kellner, R. (1976). Plasma
testosterone levels in the rapist. Psyehpsomatic

WI 18.. 257-268 0

Rogers, C. M. (1982). ghila Sexual Ahuse Tteatment
Proposal submitted and funded by Department

of Health and Human Services, Office of Human
Development Service, National Center on Child Abuse and
Neglect.

106

Rush. F- (1980). The test Kent Seeret: Sexual Ahuse of
ghilgz_n. New York: McGraw Hill.

Russell. D- (1980)- The Tolltios of Base: The Yietimls
Eetepeetiye. New York: Stein 8 Day.

Russell, D. (1982). Sexnal Exploitatien: Rape, Shild
Sexual.Ahuse. Sexual Harassment. Beverly Hills. CA:
Sage.

Russell, D. (1983). The incidence and prevalence of
intrafamilial and extrafamilial sexual abuse of female

children. child Ahuse 1 Neoleot. 1. 133-146-

Russell. D- (1986). The Seoret Trauma: Ineest in the
Liues_of girls and Semen. New York: Basic Books.

Rush. F- (1980). The Best Kent Seoret: Sexual Ahuse of
Shilgz_n. New York: Basic Books.

Segal, Z. V., 8 Marshall, W. L. (1985). Heterosexual
social skills in a population of rapists and child
molesters.

Journal of donsultino 8 elinioal Bsxoholoox. SS. 55-63-

Seghorn, T. K., Binder, R. J., Prentky, R. A. (n. d. ).

Shildhood Sexual Ahuse 1n the Li_es of Sexuallx

Aggressiue Offendete. Bridgewater: Massachusetts
Treatment Center (Box 554).

Shepher, J. (1971). Mate selection among second
generation kibbutz adolescents and adults. atehiyee pt

§§ZEQ1.§§Q§!12£1 _ 293’307-

Spence, J. T., 8 Helmreich, R. L. (1978). The Attitudes
Toward Women Scale: An objective instrument to measure
attitudes towards the rights and roles of women in
contemporary society.

Esxoholooioal uoouments. 2(153)

Stokes, R. E. (1964). A research approach to sexual

offenses involving children. Qanagian l22£fldl.2£
SQI£§_LiQn§ e. 87 94-

Storr, A. (1965). Sexnal Deviatipn. London: Heineman.

Stricker, G. (1967). Stimulus properties of the Blacky

to a sample of pedophiles. Joutnal at Genetal
Magi. at 35-39-

Strong, 8., Wilson, S., Robbins, M., 8 Johns, T. (1981).

Hnman Sexuality: Essentials (2nd ed.). St. Paul, MN:
West.

107

Swanson, D. W. (1968). Adult sexual abuse of children.
Diseases of the Neruous System. 22. 677-683.

Toobert, S., Bartelme, K., 8 Jones, E. S. (1959). Some

factors related to peodphilia. intetnatienal _entnal
of_Soo1al_£sxoh1atrx. 4. 272- -279.

Van den Berghe, P. L. (1983). Human inbreeding

avoidance: Culture in nature. Sehayietal and Brain
Solenoes. o. 91-123-

Virkkunen, M. (1976). The pedophilic offender with

antisocial character. Aota Esxehiatriea Seandinaxiea.
aa, 401-405.

Waldby, C., Clancy, A., Emetchi, J., 8 Summerfield, C.
(1989). Theoretical Perspectives on Father-Daughter
Incest. In. E. Driver 8 A. Droisen (Eds.), Shilg

Sexual Ahus1: Teminist Eersoeotiues. HoundmiIIS.
England: Macmillan Education Ltd.

Watson, D., 8 Friend, R. (1969). Measurement of social-

evaluative anxietY- Journal of tonsultind and olinieal
W291: 3.3.! 448-457 0

Wenet, F. A., Clark, T. R., 8 Hunner, R. J. (1981).
Perspectives on the juvenile sex offender. In R. J.

Hunner 8 Y. E. Walker (Eds. ), Expleting _he

Relationship Setueen ohild Ahuse and Delinouenox
Montclair, NJ: Allenheld, Osmun.

West, D. J. (1977). H se ' Re;exaninea. London:
Duckworth.

Wilschke, K. (1965). Uber die kriminogene rolle des
alcohols bei sittlichkeisdelikten (The criminogenic

role of alcohol in sex offenses. M_nehenep Megainieehe
_oehensohrif.ldl. 176-177.

Wilson, G. D., 8 Cox, D. N. (1983). Personality of

paedophile club members. Eersonalitx and Indluidual
Differenoes. 1. 323-329-

Wyatt, G. E. (1985). The sexual abuse of Afro-American
and White American women in childhood. Shilg anuse S

Neoleot. 2. 507-519-

APPENDIX A

Letter to Sample

LETTER TO SAMPLE

Your name has been generated from a Department of
Corrections list to participate in a research project.
This is a PhD dissertation research project. This
research is a treatment evaluation of a program for men
convicted of Criminal Sexual Conduct. This is a pilot
project being conducted in order to develop a
rehabilitative tool for this problem. This research is
being conducted with the hope that such a program may be
implemented in a prison setting in the future.

You will be asked first to take several tests. There
will be no announcement as to why you are being called out
and prison staff will not be aware of the ongoing project.
There will be no need to inform anyone of your
participation.

After the first testing session, half of the total
group will be randomly selected to participate in the
treatment component of the study. The individuals chosen
to participate in the treatment will be offered the
opportunity to take part in two classes per week for 8
weeks. Each class lasts for 1 1/2 hours and will involve
social skills training, sex education, and cognitive
restructuring (this means looking at the way we think and
feel and how our behaviors are affected by our thoughts).
After completion of the treatment phase all original
participants will again be tested using the same paper and
pencil tests that were used during the first testing
session.

You will be given $5.00 for your participation in his
project. This amount will be deposited in your account
after completion of the last testing session. You will be
given the $5.00 whether or not you are chosen to
participate in the treatment phase of the project. You
will be free to withdraw your participation at any time.

Please read and sign after the following paragraph if
you give your consent to participate in this study.

I understand that participation in this
experiment is strictly voluntary: that this
experiment is a project performed in partial
fulfillment of requirements for the
Ph.D. degree. I further understand that this
experiment involves no danger or harm either physical
or psychological, and that the privacy and rights of
the participants will not be violated. Finally, I
understand that I am entitled to a complete

108

109

explanation of the experimentation in which I am
involved as a participant- I also understand that I
am entitled to receive, upon request, a summary
report of the results of this experiment upon its
completion at no cost to me.

Participant's
Signature
Date

 

Yes, I would like a copy of the results of this
study.
Experimenter: Theresa Anderson-Varney, M.A., Michigan
State University

Please return this consent form by:

 

Please return the form in the enclosed envelope and I will
be in touch with you.

Thank you

{IHIIIINIIIIlllHllllHlllHIllllHlIllillllllllIIIIIIHIIHII

 

31293 02723 8207