. O o ESTHETI‘C CONSIDERATIONS IN THE EFF ECTWE USE. OF PLANT MATERIALS A; COMPREHENSIVE MP§OBLEM BEPORT {on ”Among?” of M. 'L. A. MMH‘AGAN STATE UNITEASTTT leham Eugene Beery 196.2 Q?! "-. l :, —» M: :59- RETURNING MATERIALS: IVIESI_J piece in book drop to LJBRARJES remove this checkout from “ your record. FINES WTH be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. “* EAST MNSING, MICHIGAN A A T" " ‘. ‘Vf ' . _49‘.~. I “H' A; . ,' 4 . , ,Aq _° ' .. I. ,, EA: _ .4“ .) l I ' . "1' hi?“ ukni'kmi‘,;‘1.s;l§.q ‘0 . (r ”7 V33, 5“. . ;_';JU1_TW MJZIIIZM 0‘11} ATE MAMA; AW 38133110 CONSIDERATIONS IN THE EPIBOTIVE‘UBE OF ELANT MATERIALS By WILLIAM mom am! .A OOMIRIHRNSIVB PROBLEM REPORT Submitted to the Department at Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of. the requirements for the degree or MASTER II'LANDSCAPE.ARGEIIEOTURI 1962 -- _._'—-..‘...—..-A- -. the plant grows from its seed. Ihe characteristics of its form lie concealed in the potential power or the seed. the soil gives it strength to grow. .And outer influences decide its shape in the enrironnent. lliel Saarinen PREIAOE the reason for my choice of this topic was two-fold. It was perpetuated by an intensive interest to improve my knowledge of planting design and I hope, in some small way, to help refocus a blurred relationship that exists between the landscape architect and plant materials. Many recent examples surround each of us, that point to the inadequate selection of plant material. Good design, to cite a few examples, is seen in some shopping centers, residential areas, and parks. But a well organs iaed. integrated planting scheme is lacking frcn.nost. this is due, in part, to a lack of study and thought; and I sug- gest the Iain fault reflects an improper integration of planting with the total design concept. . lhy is a basic knowledge in the use of plants not evident today? Such knowledge once gave expression to a basic philosophy in landscape architecture. One logical answer is the widening dimension of practices in the profession. Many of the schools and professionals in the field are having to specialize in order to encompass the various types of projects and to meet the increasing de- mands created by expanding technology and population growth. Hence, the principles of planting design are being deemphasized and the values of integrating plant materials Iith the total design concept is lost. iii Plants are being used today at a rapidly accelerat- ing rate. nurseries are stocking more plants than ever before. Many new and hardy varieties are increasing the potential of plant selection through techniques of graft- ing and controlled propagation. But this, by no standard, is a measurement to insure the proper use, selection, or placement of the plant. Ihen the architect conceives a design for a structure, he knows before the design is complete, the material of which it is to be built. Cinder block has one texture, color, and feeling, and wood another. Steel does not radiate the same qualities as brick, nor is it intended or expected to. Iced, glass, terraszo, or brick are all structural materials. Like plants, each have qualities of their own. lach.material is integrated into the total concept to meet certain standards and design criteria. the architect must know his material before he can com- plete each design. the designer of the landscape. I regrettably believe, does not hold his practice to such rigid requirements. color, texture, and the feeling created with various plants “may“ be inserted after the design is completed. though more often than not, a catch as catch can procedure of this nature reflects its genesis and fails. Planting design can.help or'hinder the landscape architect materially. It is by no means the only essential iv design factor as there are many others of equal or even greater importance. Certainly it can be agreed that the landscape architect's training in planting design sets him apart from other creative arts and affords him unimitated ability and freedom to design with plants. therefore it would be a professional error for the land- scape architect to neglect in the smallest degree to I utilize the resources of available knowledge in plant selection and design. the landscape architect should know’more about the environmental requirements of plants, the importance ecology plays in the design, and how to meet the site challenge in a clear perspective that each design imposes. He should follow a carefully guided course in the selec- tion and placement of plants and know the role that each is to perform in the composition. the physical design produced today does not look like the typical design product of one hundred years ago, nor may it be expected to appear any more the same one hundred years from.now. Iith population, technology, and modes of life changing so rapidly, it becomes impossible to have a list of principles, which never vary, in the selection of plant material. there are though, certain general factors embracing a knowledge of guiding considerations to serve in arriving at a sense of belonging in nature for men through the use of plant materials. these considerations 7 are flexible and broad enough to anticipate most fluctuat- ing conditions of the mind and environment. It is unfortu- nate that these considerations are little publicized, and found to be discussed only sporadically among other sub- Jects in the professional literature. For this reason I selected to pursue, for my comprehensive problem, a topic that focuses upon these guiding considerations. It brings together related factors for consideration in the effective use of plant materials there esthetio values are sought as a goal. Webster defines csthetics as: pertaining to the beautiful, as distinguished from the moral, appreciative of, or responsive to, the beautiful in art or nature. In this thesis it will refer to théghuman mind perceiving a pleasing comprehension.of phenomena by the natural vegeta- tion. these natural qualities, or phenomena, are set apart from any other object in space by the sculptural tendencies of the branches and foliage, the color and texture of the plant, and the process of change in time and space. It is hoped that this comprehensive problem will act as a guide and catalytic agent in helping to understand some of the potential latent richness of plant material under varying geographical locations and design situations. Also, this comprehensive problemthopes to expand and/or improve the reader's list of esthetio considerations in vi the selection of plant material and perhaps renew lost status to some old considerations thich have been neg- lected in the past. vii tABLE OF CONTENTS POREPIEOE ' muss 1.182! or tABLES use or Home StAtElflNt or nan PROBLEM CHAPTER I. IKE MAE MAN AND NATURE CIVILIZATION THE WORLD '3 LIVE IN II. THE PLAN! THE UNIQUE ESTHETIO QUALITIIS OF PLANT MATERIAL HOW THESE 38133110 QUALIIIES AFFECT ELAN! USE FORM Height Width Growth Habit tIXtURE COLOR Surrounding Ecological Effects of Color DIMENSION 0? TIME AND SPACE viii Page ii iii xi 15 17 18 19 19 23 25 27 30 3# 40 43 Page SPECIAL EPIECTS WITH PLANT QUALITIES 48 SHADOWS 48 MOVEMENT 52 PRUNING 53 SPACE ORGANIZATION 57 CHAPTER III. THE DESIGN 60 THE RELATIONSHIP OF ESTHBTIOS TO FUNCTIONAL DESIGN 61 THE PLANTING ANALYSIS 64 PLANTS 66 PEOPLE 68 SITE CONDITIONS 70 THE ROLE OF ECOLOGY IN THE ESTHETICS OF PLANTING DESIGN 76 HOW SENSORY PERCEPTION APPECTS TEE ' LANDSCAPE.ARCHITECT 86 CONCLUSION 91 A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 95 QUOTATION SOURCES 98 ix LIST OF TABLES tABLES Page 1. Psychological Stimulations of Color 37 2. Growth Increment Rate of Scotch Pine 47 IIGURE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF FIGURES the Black.Locust three Classifications of Plant Heights Branching Structure of an Oak Tree Color iheel A “Picturesque“ Pine 11.. Cast Shadow the Self Shadow Special Effects from Pruning A Formal Garden A Small Urban Garden Movement through Space Principle Factors of the Environment thermal Hardiness Zone Map Ioliage Line Dramatiaed 11 Page 21 24 33 36 45 49 50 53 5t 55 58 66 67 79 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Guiding considerations in the selection of plant material by the landscape architect for esthetio value is the primary function of this comprehensive problem. It is written for the planting designer, and entails general considerations that would apply under most geographical locations and design situations. In selecting plant material for esthetio qualities, limitations as geographical location or site conditions, immediately invoke certain restrictions on plant selection and use. to discuss all the problems involved in each de- sign situation with infinite variables suoh as for example, climate, soils, and site character would certainly be faceticus if not impossible. the author does not propose such an undertaking. Rather, this comprehensive problem is based on BOD! siderations which are related to varying design situations; factors the designer considers for most any environmental restrictions or physical limitations. Examples used of individual situations are for clarifying points in the discussion and are not intended intentionally to relate to any given location or individual phase of design. f‘ThO author wishes to emphasize that esthetio con- siderations are not a separate phase in design. lor is it a problem area to be approached individually after the 1 2 ,mechanical aspects have been solved. It is a considera- tion that should be congruently interwoven during the process of design, so that the end result manifests a totally unified and pleasing composition. Because of this interweaving that must take place during the process of design, it would be deceiving to believe that any discussion of esthetio concepts could be made without also implicating to a degree the mechanical aspect of design.4RHence, the main emphasis of this problem will be the esthetio considerations in the effec- tive use of plant material with mechanical aspects discus- sed only to manifest the relation between the two areas. the overlapping and meshing of the various phases should be borne in mind, both during reading and application of the considerations set forth in this comprehensive problem. Atthe author recognises that the basic principles of design, such as, balance, rhythm, and continuity, developed over the centuries are clearly understood. Without these principles applied in design, no esthetio quality may be conveyed through any media and serve its full potential. thus, these basic principles are not discussed individually. Certain factors involving these principles, however, are drawn upon freely by the author and discussed where esthetio qualities of plant material and their applica- tion overlap. It need only be mentioned here that these 3 principles are capable of variation to suit different materials, purposes and periods. they are flexible and serve only as guides. the fundamentals do not change, but their application does. It is definitely not the intent to set forth a cut and dried set of invariable “rules” to be memorized by any person wishing to derive the full potential of esthetio qualities from plant material. there is no problem.in design that lends itself to such a rigid approach. Design is a personal quality with no two de- signers solving a problem in the same manner even though both may be correct. As nature never repeats a design identically the same, neither should we. Certainly each design analysis proposes a varying palette from one situa- tion to the next. Because of this variety that exists in planting design, it is an exciting and challenging endeavor. the surface of plant selection and combination has hardly been scratched. I suspect that the general principles on which a garden may be constructed differ little, whether the garden is designated for Boston or Brazil. In any surroundings, a garden should be landscaped according to existing topography, and planted in accordance with the climate and soil conditions of the region. In other words, the garden that has the best chances of survival and that needs the minimum amount of care for such survival, will be indigenous. this sounds like an obvious state- ment but evidence proves the contrary. Roberto Burle Marx 4 to attempt designing with plants, without an under- standing of why the intended recipient values the designer's efforts, is like beginning at the ladder's top and working down! It would be worthy of the designer's time to pause in retrospect to preview basic plant history before striv- ing to use plants for their inherent qualities of esthetio value. the human, though physically subordinate in many ways, excels and reigns over lower animals because of one domi- nant aptitude. that is, his unimitated ability to reason i.e. analyze and synthesize his problems. Using this force- ful attribute and applying it to history, man gains insight by relating causations from existing phenomena and the conditions that surround life. {Meaningless dreary ways of life are thus avoided by man, and useful vistas of fruit- ful endeavors expanded. thus as we gain insight into man's background, the present task becomes simplified. At the start one might ask, for example, why does man seek nature in his surroundings? What benefits does he derive from the natural vegetation? lhat esthetio qualia ties in plants are most desired? then questions such as these are clearly answered, the challenge invoked by each problem may better be met.Ttthe following discussion is a brief survey of the philosophical growth of esthetio values by man. It merely touches the highlights and extracts data that is pertinent to treat plant material effectively for esthetio value today. ({jégbt I 'Nhnand nature (the physical pattern) It took the human, Homo-sapien, thousands of years to understand and revert to his favor, many of the natural phenomena surrounding him. He learned that fire could be useful for cooking food. Later, crude tools were used to ease his daily tasks such as hunting. He learned to till the soil and harvest crops and, of course, still later to / discover his greatest invention of all, the wheel. During this evolutionary process, man lived in the open, near and alongside cf/uature. Plants were a vital part of his everyday liffiy7 ' taste, smell, hearing, if" to/ sting his senses of sight, . He found that among nature' s various elem..;59?plants'were peaceful and soothe ing. the plant wa,-h, jr‘aggressive or ugly; nor was it a negative constit» gto be feared. Here was something obvious and eaei k;{gderstood. thus a tangible, friendly ally was accept3;:7o give shelter, food, and pleasure to man's senses. the ,z. plant relationship was a mutual adaptation more than one sided conquest of plant by man. man and plants i.ve always played such a reciprocal relation, each forming and shaping the other; although the weight one has on the other’has been shifted with time.’“In the early stages of evolution, man was more dependent upon the plant for his existence than the plant dependent upon man. today, almost the reverse is true. the plant is dependent more 6 7 upon man for its existence than is the man upon the plant. this is not meant to construe that today man can live withp out the plant. Rather, man may eliminate certain species, propagate and encourage others to best suit his needs. Regardless of the weight of influence one may have over the other, this relationship has always existed. Perhaps such interdependence, one always relying on the other, explains why man feels himself a part of nature. whether it were for a practical purpose such as for food, for defense, or for the pure peaceful tranquility that a landscape scene offered, man has always felt the need for vegetation surrounding him. During the entire process of evolution, man.has always been near the living landscape, carrying out an interdependent role with plants. He is physically dependent upon the plant for survival. the plant is a constituent which gives pleasure to man's senses of sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch. thus it begins to become understandable why man seeks natural vegetation in his surroundings. During this early stage of development, primitive man's reason was guided in accordance with the laws of nature. He acted creatively to protect himself from.the surrounding elements. the landscape determined an expression of his mode of life and was not necessarily esthetio, though undoubtedly it played a subconscious role in pleasing his emotions, lending peace and tranquility to his existence. 8 In other words, his motives were based on much the same principles as those that are fundamental in landscape Idesign today. Ham's aspirations were creative! He created his surroundings to meet his needs and desires. His actions were expressive of his desires, indigenous, direct, and true. In retrospect then, there is a common bond between primitive man and conditions that exist in the life of modern man. Plants have always been a friendly ally. Unp like the elements of weather, plants afforded a tangible influence that could be understood. Plants still are a vital source in the support of man's existence and also for his senses a pleasure giving feature. In addition to pleasure and life giving benefits, natural vegetation de- termines and reflects the pattern of man's mode of life. PART II Civilisation. (the social pattern) the cultivation of plants or tilling of the soil for Lany purpose could not take place until people began to take root and group together. this grouping probably resulted for protective purposes and undoubtedly to some degree for companionship. Instead of retreating from the enemy, walls or fences were erected. Shelters were built to ward off the elements of weather. As people became settled and stationary, they became more and more dependent on plants for food. they no longer moved with the seasons or with game migrations in 9 quest of food but relied more upon the controlled cultiva- tion of plants. these events can not be studied first hand, of course, but history tells of some of the earliest civili- zations growing cultivated vegetables and fruits for food and various herbs and roots for medicinal purposes. is early as 3500 3.0., the Euphrates Valley supported a pastoral and agricultural people. Although it is doubtful that the Sumerians were the first systematic agriculturists, they did introduce a canal system.for drainage of marsh lands and control of water flow. Along the canal banks they planted onions, and in the meadows they raised barley. They also planted extensive date orchards.1 the most important fact about the Sumerian culture was that it bred others in the field of agriculture.2 lhen it arrived in Egypt, gardening began to assume defini- tion. Vegetables and fruits cultivated in Egypt included onions, melons, watermelons, radishes, dates, grapes, figs, bananas, lemons, and pomegranates. Ihey also raised castor- oil plants for medicinal oil, flax for linen, and many other plants for purposes beside dietary consumption.3 One fact that is plain during the early stages of gardening, cultivation standards were not equal everywhere Inichardson Wright, Ihe St f ardeni (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1553}, p. 5%. 2 Ibid., p. 24. 3Ibid., p. 27. _ 10 or practiced according to plan. Gardens won from.the forest regions were quite different from.gardens of drier areas, bordered by the desert. this same phenomena holds true today. the plantings of landscapes in different regions are varied primarily due to the ecological inp fluences of adaptation. People, like plants, in different areas adapted to their surrounding ecology. Likes and dis- likes grew from.baokground experiences. thus, both physical and mental adaptations were forced by environment. This diversification and unequal cultivation of plants is closely related to the growing of plants for esthetio value.%gfo a large extent esthetio values bridge from.an individual' a background experience. In example, child— hood memories often accustom.one to a set ecological pattern. rho contrasts here are even greater than we have seen.in the regional patterns. Within one micro-climate, plants for esthetio reasons are grown at an unequal rate. Observe the suburban.honeowner who enjoys his one half acre of lawn and prize rose bed. Note also that he enjoys a weekend outing in the woods but would miss the lights and excitement of the city if he could not return. the farmer on the other'hand finds the reverse true. thus, due to familiar surroundings and background experience, we see plants are valued for varying qualities and grown in unequal proportions from one situation to the next. 11 A good example of landscape appreciation based on familiarity with the surrounding is a tourist of the middle eastern United States visiting the desert of Nevada or.Lrizona. Conclusions are drawn in terms common to his middle eastern background. Immediately he sees only a hot dried out piece of parched land, fit only for rattlesnakes and rabbits and extremely boring to him. Yet the rancher from Nevada or the urbanite from tucson enjoys the flat prairie spiritnand the rugged form of the Joshua tree. these men look forward to the spring bloom of the cactus and many other flowers found rich in beauty during the spring months in the desert. the sky and cloud hold an intrinsic form and are considered in high esteem as are the shadow patterns that fermion the distant buttes and mountain tops. 3“But to the mid-eastern tourist who was born and raised in a background of green grass and trees, the ornamentation of the desert seems superficial and without beauty.~ Psycological effects created by background are not the only explanation for the unequal enjoyment of plants by people or the varied amount of value they placed on the inherent qualities exerted by plant material. -But here is a definite beginning point. It should be borne in mind that the location and background of the intended recipient should play a major role in the landscape architect's selection of plants and that values sought 12 from the same plant may vary with the individual. Aside from its significance to the Christian religion, the Bible is an interesting source for the study of vegeta- tion in early civilized times. From Genesis to the end of Revelation, the Bible constantly refers to plants of the countryside. Most of the plants are of Palestine but included are a few from the wilderness of Sinai and some from Egypt.‘ Although the Bible is not our earliest reference about vegetation, it notes the essential role plants formed in life of the ancient Jews and ordinary man's contacts with them. In the religious sense, the Bible shows the whole philosophy of Jesus interpreted as a religion of the fields, not of the cities or towns. to the Prophets, nature was often fearful and awesome; to Jesus it was always near and kindly. Better than they, He saw in all of it the immediate expression of His father's love. His life was spent out-of-doors, walking through the fields with his disciples and beside the still waters. the tale of Ive and the apple is probably one of the best known of all Bible stories. However, nothere in the original Scriptures is it recorded that the tempting fruit was an apple.‘“fibst authorities agree that whether or not it was a citron, quince, or apricot, itflgguldflnqt have been an applg, It appears that if an apple had been grown in 4L. i..Lnderson, Pl ts the Bible (New York: Philosophical Library, Inc., 95 ,p. . 13 Biblical times it_weuld have been.hard, small, and acid. the sweet juicy apples have all been developed in the past one hundred fifty years.5 ‘ ¢*Lnd when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleasant to the eye, and to be desired to make one wise, she took of the fruit thereof, and did eat, and gave also unto her husband with her; and he did eat. Genesis 3:6 the Bible contains many errors in plant references due to mistaken identity or mis-translation. it this time there were no botanical classifications and thus, forgive- able errors, through human imperfection, were common. too, these early writers and translators were interested in points of theology more than in particular plant names. But doesn’t the use of tangible items such as plants, add significance and interest to the reading? I went down to the nut orchard, to look at the blossomm of the valley, to see whether the vines had budded, whether the pomegranates were in bloom. Song of Solomon 6:11 We find references to plants in hundreds of verses both of the Old and new testament, so it is of no surprise that an intense interest in this subject dates backzhune dreds of years. there was a time, when no one dared to challenge any Scripture of the Bible but as sects and denominations appeared, translations were questioned. 5Brnst Lehner and Johanna Lehner, Folklore and S bolism of Ilowers Plants and trees (New York: tudor ishing Company, 19 O ,p. 5. 14 the earliest recorded book dealing specifically with plants of Biblical mention was that of Levinus Lemmens' book of 161 pages in 1566. Since then, several other works have followed. the Bible is not the only religious connection with the plants of old civilizations. the Japanese 'Bcnsai' and its culture is religious in a sense. It dates back to the Jodo sect of Buddhism in the 12th and 13th centuries. the priests in different temples tried to dwarf nature in scale to communicate with it. aélumerous plants were, and still are, held in high reverence, deep rooted in religious significance. the Lotus, for example, has held uninterrupted symbolic history over 5000 years! though the significance of the symbolism behind it has changed many times with each nationality. can study of ancient folklore with its symbolism of flowers, ahrubs and trees can be an interesting as well as beneficial study showing esthetio and other usage of plants in times past. Greek and Roman mythology and oriental antiquity held many poetic and exciting legends of plants. the record of the dark and middle ages of the western world provided many weird stories of strange plants, of witches' brews, and sorcerer's potions. é:these examples confirm that even after man emerged from primitive life living next to nature, he was still 15 deeply involved with plant life. the townsmen of the pre- industrial age, for example, were very aware of the influence of the natural ecology and economically dependent upon their surroundings. they were made aware of the passage of the seasons by having fresh vegetables only during the spring and summer months and fresh fruit only during the fall. most homes were heated by fuel that came after hard labor from.a neighboring wood lot. *-throughout history plants have been interwoven with human existence. they have been symbols and legends, magical, mystical and medicinal, often admired, held in reverence, and even used for representational purposes. Heanings attached to plants have been handed down through the ages and are still known, and in many cases still used. ror example, in Christian communities, plants such as the Madonna lily (Lilium candidium) are used in age-old symbolism.in association with Easter. the evergreen re- presents everlasting life in the observance of Christmas. many other plants are used for such festive occasions as weddings, Halloween, and St. Patrick's Day. Pint III the world‘fle Live In Neither man nor any other animal could exist without ‘plants. they are the direct or indirect source of all food, natural fibers, and rubbers, some fuels and drugs, and many other products without which the progress of civilization would have been impossible. Many interesting l6 facts may be written and learned about this historical relationship. As it is important to understand the historical background and apply insights gained to present conditions, it is also important to understand the problems surrounding man's relationships with plants today. the present associations between man and plant are different in many ways from.the relationship of one hundred years ago. this fact has come about because of expanding technologies shaping every man's mode of life. Ian plus man equals the social pattern; man plus nature equals the physical pattern; the social pattern plus the physical pattern equals the world we live in. Garrett Eckbo the author suggests that a clarification of the fundamental conditions surrounding the relationships existing today between man and plant now be made. It is to this concept that the balance of this problem is dedicated. Iith this association, past and present, a. more satisfying evaluation of mankind's esthetio apprecia- tion of plants may then be made. EH! UNIQUE BSIHETIO QUALITIES OF PLANT MATERIALS the physical qualities of plant materials are unique to man. In addition to the botanical classifications, ‘*plants.retain inherent esthetio characteristics that are unobtainable through any other media. this is the nature of the basic material with which the planting designer has to work. the searching out of these esthetio characteristics is a process of imaginative planning which should always be a genuine pleasure to the landscape architect. Plant character may refer to the compounding of differing quali- ties produced by an individual plant or the product of these qualities initiated through grouping or massing effects. In either case, the plant character is a causa- tion resulting from an interrelation and interaction of these qualities to produce an emotional effect upon the observer. 4 a20H94§MMmmo .SS .3 28a so .nomEoE .mpssoo masopsoz .mdnpuo>aha madam vac mach sumac .coasomums so» macaw nomads one he cephampc Apronw ton asadmda ems smaHmHa Ho «enema wmfiwomm canoe .N canoe a} 33 9mm .3 saw neon: fie some 5.8 .5235 .2323 Emacs .m n} mJn mén i. am among a: some 38 £235 gang Ema .o a} mim 0.8 .3 gm amour a: mom." Eon .mozamm and.” 9283 .n Cu 93 one a: a: muons a: some ES .5238 game amass .m H 0.03 0.03 .mm .3 qmomz m2 .H 35 mamas” a: memes 2H Enema u a 5:25 5:28 momma no mean Enema n35 spasms opossum spams: seizes $33 so 5333 4834 was. some was. none masons finds.” manage was an no Brown 38.. mZOHHmomomm HH mandm ho mHaDoSd 2H flea; SPECIAL EFFECTS WITH PLANT QUALITIES To list the endless and fascinating effects that might be created with plant qualities, would be far beyond the scope of this thesis. Yet, some specialized creations such as shadows, movement, pruning, and space organization are worthy of discussion to add clarity to the preceding chapter and to give helpful examples for finding the es- thetic considerations in the effective use of plant materials. Shadows f£Shadcws would certainly be high on the list of es- thetio effect created by plant qualities. Against build- ing. screens, and fences, on the patio or spreading across the lawn, the shadow provides a moving pattern; varying in intensity and value and changing with each hour. The planting designer has little, if any, control over shadows produced by existing architectural elements or clouds. But he may control, in his designs, the shadows produced by plant materials that are needed for shade, excitement in character, and the welcome change in visual patterns. With the proper intensity of illup mination, whether the plant is broadleaf or conifer, deciduous or evergreen, ground cover or canopy, shadows are present during all seasons. At noon they are well defined by sharp lines of contrast: in the evening they are deep in value; and at night, when created by 48 Fig. 6 The ”cast shadow" is typified by foliage patterns that play upon the walls, patio, and lawn. artificial illumination, often weird, mysterious and excit- ing. The shadows produced by a full moon are one of the most exciting effects to witness that can be created by plants, especially trees. This scene is often further enhanced by movement caused from clouds, wind, or the earth's rotation. Any object in space, whether organic or inorganic, is capable of exhibiting two different types of shadows: the ”cast shadow”, and the "self shadow”.12 The average viewer considers them both as just ”shadows”, following the old proverb "pigs is pigs". But the designer should be more articulate and consider shadows as two types, each playing different roles in the design. The ”cast shadow”, (See Fig. 6) is that which is projected upon another object. This type of shadow, created by foliage, produces the pleasing visual patterns that play across the walls, lawns, and terraces. Otherwise uninteresting, monotonous walls may be completely redeemed by cast shadows of stems and 12 George Howard Opdyke, Art and Natu e A reciation (New York: Norwood Press Linotype, Inc., l93§), p. 58. 50 leaves. The shape, size, and length of the cast shad- ow are dependent upon the size of the plant and the angle of light. Its sharp- ness is influenced by the amount of illumination, the distance the surface is from the shadow and the pro- portion of translucent quality exhibited by the casting properties. In contrast, the ”self Pig. 7 In this photograph, the ”self shadow is well shadow”, (See Fig. 7) is the displayed on the trunk of a dead Honterey Cypress. unilluminated face of an object when light is reflected upon it. Here the sharp lines of contrast are noted on stems and trunk or the grad- ual softening from light to dark of translucent leaves. The effect of light on vegetation is very different from its effect on architecture. With foliage, the sun at various times of the day can produce a series of different effects from the same material. The leaves are usually translucent and shadows are soft, ranging from light to dark in a graduated process. The trunks, twigs and branches though, are impervious to the light rays and cause sharp lines of contrast. Unlike most inorganic 51 surfaces which reflect light in a regular and predictable way, plants have an infinite variety of textures, which absorb and transfer light in various manners. A surface may appear darker with foliage than that of a hard sur- faced architectural feature, but still maintain a greater range of tones. ' Shadows in vegetation range from the blackness of the yew to the light and soft shadows of a birch. Leaves and flowers when lit from.bshind by a low sun make the colors seem more intense or when placed in contrast against a darker surface of trees, rocks, or buildings, display deeper tones. Light bounces off thick or waxy leaves giving them.a special luster with sharp contrasts of dark and light. The needle-like foliage of a conifer absorbs large quantities of light, making its overball appearance darker than the broad leaf foliage, and with deeper shadow variations. ‘ 'Rven the length of the patio and the arrangement of the foliage upon the plant influence the character of the ”cast“ and “self” shadow; Bold, large-leaved plants create deep, eyeostopping shadows that may be used to hold the eye. Conversely, small-leaved plants allow the eye to slide over the plant to something of greater interest. 52 Movement Nhile physical movement is basically a time and space dimension, movement may also be viewed in a simulated sense.3“The physical swaying of branches and stems, or fluttering of foliage created by wind, accelerates the fluent qualities of a design, but the general intention of simulated movement is revealed through suggestive motion. This is conceived by providing for changes in color, lights and darks, height variations, and texture to lead the eye throughout the design. Because these contrasting changes are closely related to motion, they will contribute as much to the perception of motion as actual movement itself. Such suggestive motion in the landscape is accomp plished by proper use of the principles of design with special emphasis on rhythm and sequence. Sequence adds continuity to the scheme with a succession of visual expe- riences having connection, while rhythm aids the eye fluently in passing throughout the composition. Although rhythm is essentially repetition, it need not be monoto- nous repetition of equal proportion. It may be an interest appealing repetition of elements whose differences progres- sively unfold uniformly. Thus the rhythmic patterns may get larger or smaller as they appear in a landscape. Just as rhythm in music produces a feeling of movement, so can the use of rhythm in the landscape. But music can only be studied or played one way, beginning at a note in 53 Pig. 8 Special effects that otherwise would be unobtain- able may be procured through lifting the foliage line and exposing the branching structure. the score and playing to the end. In the landscape, howa ever, rhythm must maintain the capacity to be appre- ciated in every direction. People live a mobile exist- ence and their experiences are rarely static. Almost always there is physical movement involved in human associations with the land- scape. The observation pattern is seldom from one fixed focal point but rather from an infinite number of viewing points. The comp plexity of the problem, therefore, requires the designer to combine the principles of design, lights and darks, textures, colors, height varia- tions, and human mobility in achieving the simulation of motion. Pruning ' Because of inherent growth habits, natural woody plants provide a living sculpture; a unique scene that is by it- self, magnificent. Yet through cautious execution of pruning, the scene may be modified to create effects that are otherwise unobtainable. Pruning is usually done for three reasons: to aid the health of a plant, improve its appearance, or train in- to an unnatural form. The first of these three reasons adds new vigor to the plant Fig. 9 A Formal Garden by removal of dead, dis- eased, and excessive growth. This practice will often so- celerate growth and produce a much heartier specimen. Pruning techniques may be employed to provide accent to an interesting plant feature. This technique may yield con- torted growth pattern or expose an interesting branching structure. Also, shadow patterns may further be enhanced if some of the foliage is removed, allowing more light to penetrate through the plant. Through pruning to modify appearances, an unlimited potential exists. Sometimes it is not easily discovered because of confusion from large foliage masses. Once found though, just a light pruning will often reveal the most of the richness at hand. Clipping and training the plant into an unnatural form should not be totally rejected as ”outdated" by the contemporary movement of naturalized settings. People have different personalities, and no two people will neces- sarily favor the same type of landscape. The two schools of thought on formal and informal gardening were once bitter enemies, though today, the purposes of each may be utilized effectively, each in its own adapted setting, striving to serve the final goal of giving man a sense of belonging in nature. Pruning from the out- side of a plant is often un- wisely resorted to when, Fig. 10 This small urban actually, the plant should garden by Thomas Church is an example of plant material that be discarded because of age has been clipped and trained into unnatural forms with or excessive size. Pruning satisfying results. for no more purpose than reducing circumference is to be looked upon with skepticism. In fact, shearing or trimming other than for formal effects is generally undesirable for the mere sake of neatness. No project of limiting growth for practical purposes should be considered unless it also serves an esthetio function. If a plant's shape is to be maintained for such attributes as espaliers, pleaching, or trained vines, pruning of the out- side foliage may be desirable. Topiary work, however, is time consuming and requires careful execution as well as a suitable place in the landscape. Some topiary work as seen in formal European gardens and in early American colonial gardens may be well adapted to the small urban gardens of today. Woody plants may need control to keep them in proportion to their surroundings. But the pruning of plants goes far beyond utilitarian 56. . practices. Its fundamental aim should be to please the senses of man. Pruning can also be an asset to the naturalized land- scape planting. Even when plants that are best sculptured by nature are brought into captive surroundings, they often may be assisted by pruning to accentuate, but not change, the basic form. 'tthen a dense mass of foliage is not needed for screening or enclosure, the use of pruning shears may create exciting spatial effects. isSince the volume of air space in a garden . is just as important as the volume of foliage, you may gain more than you realize in scale by lifting the foliage line, clearing out the center or even reshaping trees by major surgery. Thomas Church Hr. Church often takes advantage of large existing trees and accents their branching structure by pruning of lower branches, exposing the natural form of the plant. The effectiveness of both large coarse trunks and thin multi- stemmed plants has been demonstrated when some foliage bearing stems are removed. ¥?If the designer remembers that pruning is used as a means to an end, a sense of belonging in nature for man, he will concede that all three reasons for pruning are acceptable, and an advantageous function that adds further to the versatility of his profession. But each 57 method must be used with discretion so that each plant may adapt to its individual setting. Space Organization The purpose of the planting designer is not just the grouping of forms of varying sizes and proportions, in a three dimensional arrangement. Rather, the purpose is to create the kind of space that will orient an individual to nature. That kind of space is inherent in a mechanical civilization? It certainly is not the bareness experi- enced by the leveling for a new subdivision, the cleared eight hundred feet right-of-way made for an expressway, or the cold expression of a skyscraper. Space in a mechanical civilization that will orient an individual to nature is a relationship that may be created by plants. +2The plant's structure and foliage, combined with .grth and sky, produce the surface, sides, and canopy to define or limit space into volumes of various proportion. As with sculpture in art, the effects depend largely on the interspacial balance that is achieved. The well planned landscape is a conscious organiza- tion of materials in space, contrived in a high degree of order. The relationship of air space should be as impor- tant to the planting designer as the foliage mass which he used initially in creating this space. The designer may, by planned intent, establish a volume sequence with plant materials creating a mood of spatial excitement for 58 rig. II A figure illustrating a quick passing glimpse through foliage, to a wider enframed vista, to the magnificent dynamics of the panoramic view; Adapted from John Ormsbee Simonds, Landsca e Architecture: The Sha of Ngg's Natural ggvironmen , p. TI7. the observer as he moves through the landscape. People enjoy moving through space, around and past objects. They derive pleasure in moving from one space to another, with a pleasing volume transition. The opportunity of walking along a trail winding alternately through enclosed spaces, restricted spaces, and open prairies is more likely to offer an exciting experience than one limited in spatial variety. :wThe observer in motion throughout the design, receives as great a pleasure in sensation from volume transition as from changes in texture, scent, patterns and color. Sometimes the transition is subtle, sometimes powerful. The design may compress plants into tight spaces, creat- ‘ ing a relatively small volume. In respect to the movement 59 of the observer, these volumes may sequentially increase in proportion until the volume is released into a large open space which exhibits a dynamic feeling of awe. t _Thegziew‘is often the reason for the selection of a site. In organization of space, in such a case, the plant- ing designer should study and analyze the view. And he ‘ should contrive to dramatize its full esthetio potential. Just as unity alone will crave variety, a view may lose its initial impact. To offset this phenomena, the use of foliage in the foreground develops visual excitement and constant appeal by change, accent, unknowns, enframement, and silhouette. The view enframed by a pine branch or a tree silhouetted against the horizon is often more moving than a direct view itself. The foreground planting pro- duces darks and lights, color contrasts, shadows, balance, textural variations, and the element of unknown by obscurb ing the full panoramic view. “ Every plant, regardless of shape, size, texture, color, or form, is an object in space and an enclosure of space. The richness that plants may contribute, singly or in masses, as materials for the creation and organization of space is limited only by its cultural limitations and the or! scope of the design objectives.”ffli:. THE RELATIONSHIP OF ESTHETIOS TO IUNOTIORAL DESIGN To draw a sharp line between csthetics and utilitar- ian design would be a mistake, for it would serve only to confuse the designer in arriving at a sound basis underb lying a truly functional landscape design. The functional landscape design must be expressive of the client's desires, as well as creative, indigenous, direct, and true.9*It must also satisfy both utilitarian and esthetio design entities so both aspects blend together congruently and appeal favorably to human emotions and form a pleasing mental response. 'But if either entity of design does not satisfactorily express its intended purpose, the ultimate goal of functional design is curtailed.7“If it be assumed then that beauty serves a useful function, it would be impossible to separate altogether utility from beauty; for both are dedicated to achieving the same goal. Perhaps an example of a simple residential entrance court could serve to further clarify this fact. If a given problem is to provide ease of access to and from the house, an eight foot wide sidewalk running directly from the parking area to the door specifically achieves this. lhy then should the designer carry the project further? A solution of this nature that solves only the economic and mechanical aspects of design would answer only half the challenge. Vlmoviding for man's well-being and happiness does not arise through utilitarian mechanics 61 62 alone.' The ultimate function of any design is for complete‘5 satisfaction of the emotions. The designer may go a step further and appeal to the psychological nature of man with esthetics. Through the use of form, color, line, texture, rhythm, sequence, balance, harmony, and a host of others, the design can complete its full intended potential. Now the sensory perceptions of sight, smell, touch, and. sound are stimulated and the entire emotional system trig- gers a sense of well-being and satisfaction. man has sought from the beginning of time to express his feelings for beauty through painting, sculpture, textiles, architecture, and many other means of expression so that the field of art has become integrated with all our activities.5¢In all useful objects society tends to prefer a visual appeal beyond that which results from merely satisfaction of utilitarian requirements. Human needs are not limited to the practical, and certainly there is no reason for them to be. In the art of landscape planting, unsightly views may be screened out and interesting vistas accented. Textures may be blended, and the fragrance of spring bloom may fill the air to paint a pleasing image. Cer- tainly csthetics may serve a functional mission in the solution of landscape design problems. This is not an aspect of the environment that can be neglected with satisfactory results. 63 .fiAs the landscape designer strives for the ultimate goal of functional design, he should remember the first requirement of beauty is that all objects serve a practical need. Ornamentation can not be justified unless it is properly designed for use. In the selection of plant materials, the designer's choice should be screened for the purpose of making his plants appear indigenous to their surroundings. The satisfaction of an object's ap- pearance is measured in part by its fitness to serve the particular intended requirement.4 In order for an object or volume to be satisfactory to look upon, it must serve its particular function well. To accomplish this, the planting designer should designvolumes in size and shape with materials that best express the use for which they were developed, and that best relate themselves to the surrounding ecology. TEE PLANTING ANALYSIS If a design functions poorly, more often than not it is a result of neglect in the infant stages of programing; the total concept not fully understood because the basic analysis was incomplete. It is important that all underb lying forces affecting the particular problem be considered if the designer is to arrive at the ultimate functional goal in which his solution answers the problems of util- itarian and esthetio design. To do this, the programing phase must be a carefully planned search for relative information pertinent to the problems so study and synthe- sis can provide the strongest possible foundation to support the final conclusion. This in fact is design analysis. In design, there is no dogmatic way of solving any given problem. For each design, there may be as many correct solutions as designers who would choose to ap- proach it.:3This versatility in the final design should not be accounted for by differences presented in the design analysis but in the designer's ability to solve 'the problems it presents. That is to say, regardless of the individual's ability to design, the information gathered for a single design analysis should be constant for all who approach the problem. Regrettably,_this fact is not always true. i The design analysis singles out all the requirements particular to the individual situation. There is no one 64 65 factor that would necessarily be intrinsic to every design. Each design in landscape planting presents its own indi- vidual problems, from the intangible concepts of line, mass, scale, harmony, and space relationship, to the tangible items of fruit, texture, bloom, and form. If by some miracle the design analysis could be tabulated, like a receipt, our mechanized civilization could be carried to further perfection. But, this advanced stage of evolution will probably never be reached. Somewhere near the exp tremes of the idealized diagramatic solution, each designer selects a means that adjusts itself to the topography, influences of environment, circulation, and space restric- tions. The degree of success for the final plan will in part reflect the accuracy staged in early programing. In other words,*tho final plan will be limited in success by the thoroughness and accuracy with which the planner initiates the design analysis. \ 'CPeople, plants, and the site conditions are the basic variables of planting design. The planting analysis, which is the main consideration here, is one phase of the -_design analysis. The two should not be confused. The planting analysis singles out all information pertinent to the plant scheme. The purpose of the planting analysis, like the design analysis, is to focus the design variables for each situation, so the designer may more accurately adjust all the requirements to fit the individual scheme 66 CARBON DIOXIDE WATER OXYGEN TEMPERATURE ATMOSPHERE WIND ANIMALS PLANTS LJGHT MINERALS 39 .4; WATEEB «- oxvc N SOIL TEMPERATURE w . HUMUS a ANIMALS !' PLANTS rig. 12 Diagram showing the principle factors in the environment of land plants. . and insure that the total concept will never be lost to that of its individual parts. Without first considering the entire composition the planting designer can not create individual pieces and expect them to sum up to a unified design. The closer the basic intentions are analyzed, evaluated, and criticized, the longer the composition will continue to please. Plants Plants are growing, living organisms which change with the seasons and alter their form with age. They are much like people, for they too must have certain conditions favorable to existence if they are to sustain life. Special requirements such as soil, climate, air circulation, expo- sure, drainage, and moisture especially affect the ability of a plant to produce the robust esthetio potential of which it is capable. Teople have certain associations in their minds about plants as to where they may appear natural when flI-q'u _ .——.-. --———- Fig. 13 Pictured above is the U. S. Department of.Lgriculture's detailed map of thermal hardiness zones. It is avail- able from the Superintendent of Documents, U. 8. Government Printing Office, flashington, D. 0.92? used in the landscape, or with what other plants they may best harmonize. The planting designer is not free, there- fore, to disregard the individuality of the plant material with which he is working. If the planting list is selected before the planting analysis has been thoroughly studied, mistakes will appear that are not easily correctable after the physical layout is completed. It would seem illogical to attempt solv- ing all planting schemes with the same list of plants that would never permit variation regardless of the design situation. Rather, the plant list should be an outgrowth of the planting analysis and should be selected in relation 68 to existing features of the site, environmental factors, client's desires, and any other conditions particular to the individual design.§LIn most cases, the basic design intent is not the individual bloom or plant; but the sequence of line, mass, color, texture, and space relation- ship that the total composition plays upon the observer's emotions.*bThe whole should always dominate its parts. One fundamental concern that does not present itself immediately, and might otherwise be overlooked if it were not for the planting analysis, is the problem of mainten- ance. Oertain plants require more maintenance than others, and often the design may determine the degree of maintenp ance that can be expected. Because plant habits and growth increments vary, maintenance may be depended upon to sue- -tain a certain feeling, balance or character.:KThus, main- tenance becomes a very important factor in the initial staging of design. People There are two distinct types of landscape settings which exist today; the natural, and the humanized land- scape. It is evident that the planting designer works with the latter. Otherwise, for what purpose would his efforts exist, if they were not intended for people? The natural landscape removes the human element, plants are untouched and left to grow in their natural character. In the humanized landscape though, plants are usually 69 _ protected from damaging influences that might be exerted by external forcesgl Eon; plants are disease controlled and also they are often hampered from portraying their natural form. The best conditions of light, air circulation, and soil are afforded the plant. These cultural influences exerted by man upon nature are accepted in the humanized scene. They are the result of pressures from time, economics, and temperament. They exist to adjust the land- scape for modern man. None are in strict violation of nature's code. But in many cases, the planting designer does unjustifiably disregard the laws of nature in his adaptation of the landscape for man. Man no longer adjusts himself to nature; but now strives to adjust nature to bone efit himself. This is fine, but his conception of paradise will continue to fail if his environment is designed to stand in obvious violation of nature and nature's prin- ciples. A planting analysis should place strong emphasis on nature's code, and insure against any faulty conceptions that run in opposition to it. People live in cities, in the country, on ranches and in suburbs. Interests vary and no two people will view the same scene and observe the same things. To best meet the challenge of these varying situations;$the designer should be conscious of how people are affected by their surround- ings. An appropriate Arabian proverb explains the phoneme enon this way, ”The eye is blind to what the mind does not see“. Applying this proverb and studying values placed on various types of plant material by different people is one factor of consideration in the success of a planting design. When will people be using the design? Will it permit prolonged study or only a sudden glance? 'Is it to suit a few or a few hundred? These and many other questions will need to be answered in relation to planting design for people. There is not a systematic approach to obtaining all the answers. It is up to the designer to search out the particulars that are important to the success of each design. The Site Conditions As indicated earlier, the existing site condition is one of three major design variables that must be investi- gated and analyzed during staging of the program require- ments for the planting analysis. It should be dealt simultaneously with the other design variables so all factors may properly integrate in the final design. The nature of the design will be the foundation on which to build the site analysis. Whether the design is to be a highway planting, park planting, or residential garden, it will immediately dictate certain criteria pertinent to the planting design. As an example, con- sider the implications involved in highway planting. Because of increased speed, the planting must not distract 71 the driver from watching the read. And since rapidly moving objects can not be perceived separately, individual plants on the roadside do not read as separate entities. What the motorist does see are areas of texture, volumes, voids, and silhouettes that are constantly changing. The emphasis on detail in this situation is meaningless. In contrast, emphasis on detail is of the utmost importance in the design of a residential site. * The methods and extent of the preliminary investiga- tion will also depend in large measureupon the nature of the design. The designer may, depending upon the design condition, consider such aids as maps of the surrounding area, zoning and deed restrictions, rainfall charts, weather maps, existing and proposed utility systems. He may also consult with people that would closely be con- nected with the project, as an engineer, architect, main- tenance personnel, and employees. Also a contour map is essential in most cases to understand fully the lay of the land.' But these graphics should only be a supplement in the programing phase to actual site visitation. Words and symbols are only abstractions and can not replace reality. How does one graphically or verbally describe a view? It is impossible to convey the initial impact of an exist- ing view, its prolonged effect, its textures, values, tints, and hues. No words can accurately describe the value placed 72 on a rock outcropping or the dramatic expression of shadows. The designer can never formulate an accurate mental image of the site from only a diagramatic and written analysis. . Regrettably, human imperfection denies us the possibility of conveyingthrough communication skills, the description of a scene with tangible and intangible features accurately portrayed. To counteract an otherwise inaccurate image of this nature, a site visitation study is essential. in example or two here may serve to illustrate the point that written abstractions may often give a false impression. The author of a book tries to achieve interest and clarity for the reader by using descriptive adjectives that will paint a mental image of his setting. He may describe a small white house with cape cod architecture, surrounded by a picket fence. Immediately from these few points, the reader's mind conceives a complete scene. Windows are placed, construction materials selected, and often it's pictured in a surrounding environment. Yet, these unknowns were never mentioned. Because people are slaves to their cultural past, it is difficult to imagine an incomplete image or not to associate such a setting‘ with a once-known similarity. In art the importance of the same principle is illustrated by value of suggestion. By the artist leaving something unsaid the beholder is given a chance to complete the idea and thus it irre- sistibly rivets your attention until you seem to become part of it. A vacancy is there for the viewer to enter 73 and fill up to the full measure of his esthetio potential. No written analysis can fully and accurately describe reality. Site visitation can stimulate the planner to a greater degree than the best descriptive explanation. Often a natural existing feature of the site, such as a rock outcrop or interesting tree, may become a center of interest with the entire design concept built around it. L.designer can accordingly achieve greater clarity in his creative efforts if he uses some visual, rather than all graphic means. If ”A picture is worth a thousand words”, imagine the value one could place on reality. The designer can study both the good and bad points first-hand. He can understand more clearly the nature of enframement that may be needed for a view. He may also study the existing natural supportive material of rock, water, and vegeta- tion. The sun paths, volumes, breezes, soil conditions, temperature can now be more readily discernible. In other words, he becomes a witness to the environment. To fully understand the problems more than a mere mental visualiza- tion is needed. He must ”feel” the influences of the site. This is important because it is through all five senses, not just one or two, that the users or observers will come to know his work. Each designer has his own ideas, his own thoughts, in the selection of plant materials, and his list is inevi- tably biased. The selection of plant materials for ’ I 7‘? esthetio qualities though, can not be a subjective choice if the design analysis is to serve its intended function. The designer's selections should be as objective as possible. His personal subjective notions may be inserted only when I they do not run contrary to information presented in the basic analysis. A carefully executed analysis will alleviate any danger of subjectivity in selection on the part of the designer. Through processes of questioning people involved, studying existing conditions, visitation to the site, evalu- ating and reevaluating all information, the planting analy~ sis will begin to form a logical and functional shape. The final planting will emerge as a solution to all the implica- tions presented in the planting analysis. *é In retrospect then, the planting analysis, like the design analysis, stresses the seeking out of differences for each design condition. It identifies and shows the designer the differences in each situation rather than pointing out similarities to other situations. Each prob- lem is a unique, individual situation and one that arises from its own set of conditions in time and space. Because of shifts in design variables, an adequate solution in one case will not produce a sound solution in another. The designer should see every set of conditions in variable respects as different from anything that he has seen before. That is, he does not preconceive the shape of the design but first studies the particular conditions of 75 his problem. He should limit his subjective selection of plant material so it conforms with the planting analyb sis. Oontour maps, verbal explanation, and written analyb sis should only be a supplement, rather than a substitution, to site visitation. The design will thus be staged organi- cally i.e. growing from within the framework of variables particular to each problem area. TE] ROLE OF PLANT BOOLOGY IN THE ESTHETIOS OF PLANTING DESIGN It is essential that the serious student of the living plant be aware of environmental conditions that would act upon the results of his studies. Unless the plant be per- mitted to respond favorably to the cultural environment in which it is placed, it may be so abnormal as to be of no functional value. Thus the study of ecology becomes in- dispensable whenever plant behavior is studied in relation to the management of vegetationtiga study of ecology, or a knowledge of the interrelationship between plants and environment, will provide a basis for the intelligent management of plant life for the good of mankind. Is this not a fundamental aim of the planting designer? Hr. Ernst Haeckel, a zoologist, in 1886 defined ecology as the study of the reciprocal relations between organisms and their environment.13 For the sake of cone venience, ecology is usually subdivided into animal ecology and plant ecology, although in places these sub- divisions merge with each other. Plant ecology is the science cf the interrelation of plants and their environ- ment. In the study of plant ecology it becomes necessary not only to evaluate the relation of individual plants to 13.3aecke1, Ernst Heinrich, German zoologist; b. Potsdam, Prussia, Feb. 16, 1834; d. Jena, Thuringia, Germany, Aug. 9. 1919. A foremost biologist of his day, Haeckel exerted a stronger influence on the direction of biological thought and research than any other individual. 76 77 the environment but also it is necessary to compare the relations of plant communities. The ecology of individ- ual plants is calledk"autecology', while the ecology of plant communities is designatedfi%synecology". *‘There is a definite and real relationship between ecological factors of the environment and the physical characteristics of plant material. Variations in the natural forms and features of the native plant materials are easily discernible as one moves across the landscape. Plants, in adapting themselves to individual environments, develop distinct plant characteristics, some of which are identifiable with other plants in the same region. The fire, for example, are native in most mountainous regions and adapt well to the heavy snow loads of winter with tall pointed spires and flexible branches. They also blend congruently in form and texture with the native spruce and hemlock, which like the fir, conform in growth pat- terns to the peaks of the surrounding terrain. Fine glossy surface textures, another physical characteristic in point, develop in the warm thermal zones; and the dull fuzzy plant surface adapts as protective covering in cooler zones. The naturalistic character of color varies with location as the desert foliage of sagebrush is typically graybgreen. At the other extreme, lush bog plants characteristically have vivid yellowhgreen foliage. Local micro-climate variations may assist further in formp ing and shaping the character of the individual plant 78 within the region. Each of these visual patterns, in which a balance is preserved by ecological conditions, could be easily de- stroyed visually through the introduction of any incon- gruent plant material. The lesson to be learned from a study of these natural patterns of growth is not considered to be confined to naturalization of plants nor to deal exclusively with natural landscapes. This study will suggest though, a framework of thinking, a logical method of approaching an understanding for the world's vegetation, and principles that may be followed for placing plants in surroundings other than their natural ones. 2 ”Fitness for purpose,” is a phrase particularly appropriate to the natural landscape and could easily be an adapted slogan for planting design. In achieving fitness for purpose, the designer may use native plants as a basic list supplemented by, if not always with ins digenous material, at least with plants which will "feel” right in the chosen setting and will not destroy the inherent character of the surrounding.‘iilthough vegeta-' tion is a living material, it is still subject to esthetio laws, and these can easily be formulated by reference to the order found in nature. This procedure will help eliminate the danger of mixing plants which do well to- gether in their environment but generate the wrong char- acter. working in this context, the plant materials will 79 Fig. 14 The foliage line may dramatize the natural site profile. never appear imposed or as preconceived patterns on land forms. It will complement the heritage and visual richness of each landscape region by preserving the valid ecological differences in plant configurations and encouraging the indigenous character of the native landscape. The planting designer should strive to strengthen the heterogeneous characteristics of the natural landscape, so the character displayed by individual regions will continue to reflect their surroundings. Toward the end of the nineteenth century in England, Gertrude Jekyll introduced a vigorous new approach in planting design which exercised a great 80 influence on landscape design in England and America.14 lundamentally her approach was based on a strong affec- tion for all growing things and a deep understanding of their cultural requirements. She was a pioneer in the art of adapting an arrangement of living material to the site.¥:She insisted that planting should appear to have happened rather than have been artificially designed. Gertrude Jekyll was not alone in her struggle for an understanding of the plant's cultural requirements and for natural beauty in the landscape.j Andrew Jackson Downing was also a spoke in the naturalized landscape wheel of evolution. Although he was a collector of plants with a fondness for the rare and exotic, he did abhor straight lines in nature, like those of the formal gardens in Europe. Careful landscaping, in Dcwning's own words ”does not disturb the expression of nature, but serves to give polish and elegance to her forms of colors which indicates a tasteful and refined art and marks the presence of cultivation and habitation, as‘ opposed to wild and savage nature.” Frederick Law' Olmsted revitalized the natural style and introduced a 1#Jekyll, Gertrude, English Landscape gardener; b. London, England, Rev. 29, l 43; d. Busbridge, England, Dec. 8, 1932. A foremost landscape gardener of her day, she established her right to self expression long before women had claimed their present independence in the arts and professions. Intimately loved the English country- side and devoted in sharing with others her delight for nature. 81 new appreciation of natural scenery.15 He taught people to ' admire nature in her own dress. The adaptation of the site with its surroundings was the keynote to Olmsted's work. Jens Jensen, Danish born landscape architect, became a legend within his own lifetime. As an immigrant to IAmerica, trained in Danish and German gardens, Jensen first planted foreign plants in his parks. He soon dis- covered that in this different landscape, these plants were decorative only and lacked form and expression. He soon began making substitutions by planting the hawthorn, sumac, crab apple and beach plum which were all native to the Illinois prairies. Thus through a kind of ecological trial and error, the finest parks of Jensen's work were to become opposed to the European Baroque expressions. He came to believe that nature by itself was a style and that plants in the landscape held their own expression. He soon became a profound exhibitor of the native flora and would spend every week and climbing the dunes around Lake Michigan or walking through the Illinois woods studying the growth patterns of nature. 'He loved the hawthorn which was like a symbol with its horizontal branching structure expressing what Jensen knew as the 15Olmsted, Frederick Law, American Landscape Architect; b. Hartford, Conn., April 26, 1822; d. laverly, Mass., Aug. 28, 1903. Olmsted's distinctive service to the landscape gardening of America may perhaps be de- fined as having been the originating of the use of natural landscape resources. . 82 prairie spirit. worn out after a long trek, with his face red from windburn or the biting cold, he would laugh and explain what a delightful outing he had, and what beauty nature held. Here truly was a man who understood nature and was able to express his gift of appreciation. The study of physical function and limitation of plants, with an accompanying appreciation for natural landscape was obviously an advancement for planting de- .a sign. It showed the designer that plants found originally in the same environment are likely to go well together as elements in planting designgfifThis phenomena sometimes holds true because of similarity in form, but always for the practical reason that their similar original environ- ment has made them adapt to similar cultural conditions, and also for the associational reason that we are accus- tomed to seeing these plants together in their native haunts. It would be like taking a step backward though, if all plants were to be considered from the standpoint of absolute ecology. Such a position would consider only the physical adjustment and seek the fullest esthetio potential. It must not be forgotten that the landscape architect is designing in a humanized landscape. The physical adjust~ ment of plants in the natural landscape does not neces- sarily consider the functional landscape for man. Nature isn't faced with incongruent dissimilar features of 83 architecture or automobiles, and doesn't associate in its growth patterns the different situations faced by the designer who is seeking the full esthetio appeal of vegeta- tion. Nature is not limited by factors issuing from a design analysis which the designer recognizes as a limit- ing force. If the designer is to maintain the delicate ecolog- ical balance on which the existing landscape depends, he will need to study the relationship between plants, climate and soils; between one type of plant and another; and be- tween plants and animals, including man.Q{In arriving at a true humanized landscape, plants should be selected to form some kind of relationship with a feeling for order- liness with visual harmony in form and line, ease of maintenance and natural blending of vegetation. A knowl- edge of ecology is a reserve power for the planting designer. quuipped with ecology's biological relation- ships and knowledge of plants to their environment, the planting designer may more easily blend plants harmoni- ously without strain from foreign objects, and provide a reduction in maintenance, and more easily create a desirable effect. But to simplify the design by the use of only a few native plants can lead to monotony and finally to lack of originality. If the designer uses only native plant material, the esthetio potential of his design is lessened and his creative qualities reduced. 84 While there is a marked contrast between plant mate- rials from North and South, there is a similarity between plant materials of East and‘Uest regions due to similar local climates and latitudinal weather seasons which suggest a natural transferring. Many plant associations in different parts of the world are similar under like conditions of environment, even when the species are not identical. The designer should seek like materials, which appear to be native and avoid exotics or strained effects.% He should remember the basic fundamental practices of ecology but remain free to select plants that will fill a certain requirement. Modern horticultural practices have in recent years introduced through controlled experiments in hybridiza- tion, grafting, and propagation thousands of better and stronger plant strains improved in beauty and vigor. Many hybrids retain the same general outward appearances but inherently acquire new and more desirable traits of physical strengths. It may, for example, be that a plant species has a negative frost tolerance and will be killed back by a moderate temperature drop, but now through selection and hybridization a variety of this same plant species with the same physical features may be developed to withstand the moderate temperature fluctuations. A hybrid variety may be an improvement over the natural species in many ways. For instance, 85 the flower size or the plant rigidity may be improved, strengthening the plant's ability to withstand excessive snow loads. The fact remains, that the designer must know his variety selections, hybrid or natural, in order to avert the possibility of adverse ecological relations. A foxglove with a taller and more graceful stature, with richer colouring, with a rosy stem or deeper Spots inside its corolla may well be more beautiful, as a girl with smoother skin and larger eyes is beautiful; but a foxglove with flowers all around its stem is like a girl with eyes all around her head. Peter Shephard The life pattern of natural vegetation is reflected visually in the physical form and cultural adaptations. Through ecology, a science of the landscape, the planting designer can better understand and interpret better plant relationships to his design process. He should learn from nature, and apply his findings in practice, but he should never attempt to copy. Copying the natural landscape in the humanized scene is improbable, if not impossible. As evidence, note a naturalistic planting.‘ Always the hand of man is in evidence. Landscape planting, like art, is an individual process. Only after the student is a witness to the environment, where learning is a matter of experience rather than a matter of authority, can the creative attributes of the designer achieve full esthetio form. 0 " \I x \ HOV SENSORY PERCEPTION AFTEOTS THE PLANTING DESIGNER Since planting design is a facet of environmental design, the practitioner must not only comprehend a land- scape's character but he must go beyond and discern the processes of sensory perception which enable people to appreciate and benefit from his works. Such breadth of understanding should be one of the designer's basic aims. The art of modifying a landscape for beneficial purposes may be thought of as an extension of communica- tion skills among humans. It may be used as a technique to transmit deliberately and consciously planned ideas and feelings of inspiration. For example, one learns to perceive a given feeling that may be described as romanti- cism. Analysis may reveal how in this illustration, the resultant feeling was induced as a response to the stimula- tion of picturesque combinations of plant characteristics. Nevertheless, similar feeling responses can be the result of designed stimulation of man's senses of sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Discerning people who enjoy the landscape are subconsciously reading and interpreting its messages of subtle meanings and feelings. |To appreciate the landscape in its fullest esthetio potential then, one acquires the capacity to exercise more than visual or spatial sensationalism. The landscapist's position is unique in the realm of professional designers. His materials are derived from an 86 87 abundant world of differing plant species and varieties. His resources are unequaled by any other art media. Compa- rable variety and richness of usable raw materials are denied other design professions. The architect, engineer, and artist, all creators of new ideas, find eXpression only through the skillful use of inert, static materials. Their creations remain un-‘ changed by time, except perhaps through natural decay. Unlike these allied professions, the plant designer is uniquely surrounded by multiple assets occurring from the nature of his living material. His ideas must be expressed, not by dead, static materials but by the use of living, maturing flora. Nature's growing materials are always expansionable, always developing to reach or to spread, “and change with seasonal modification to effect scenes that can never remain static in time or space. It is in this way that the landscapist's limitations are unequaled in depth by the limitations of other designers. An integral part of the designer's effort is planning purposeful esthetio appeals for all avenues of sensory perception. His techniques are varied to suit the various senses; yet they must stimulate positive psychological responses in the observer's perceptions or they may fail, and the reaction response becomes negative. Basically, all benefactors of the plant designer's esthetio projections can only value his creative causations through perceiving 88 their ever-changing impact on all five senses; not just one or two. All five senses may be exploited in relative proportion to express the uniqueness of planting design. In nature the nose receives the scent of flower, fruit, pungent foliage, and the fresh aroma of out-of-doors. The cars pick up sounds of cascading water and the fine sounds of mist as it breaks the surface tension. The ears are also alert to the wind as it moves the foliage and the rustle of nature's materials underfoot. The tactile sense transmits the many ,textures found in nature, as leaf veination, bark structure, and foliage size. the observer sees form, color, size, arrangement, and structure. rinally, taste is experienced in growing fruits, and who has yet to walk through nature without allowing some projection of nature's palette to protrude from his mouth? It is commonplace to sit, view, and enjoy a beautiful scene; seeing the forms created by foliage masses and watch- ing the shadow patterns play on the ground. To see beauty is one thing but it is another to know and understand why there is beauty. for this reason, the landscape architect should seek out the answers to why any setting is beautiful; what there is about viewing the landscape that gives delight; and why the observer seeks beautyJXéWhen these questions are resolved, the designer becomes capable of shaping, in an intelligent manner, esthetio environment in which people may . 89 . enjoy living. Intellectually, csthetics may be studied, read, and talked about; but to understand their emotional fundamentals the planting designer's senses should be trained by experience. By really seeing nature, being near it, feeling it, smelling it, hearing it, and de- ciphering its components, the landscape becomes more than mere fields, buildings and trees.&§lt now becomes a symp phonic composition of harmoniously blended separate entities for sensual stimulation. Observation alone accomplishes little. the designer’s senses must be trained to differentiate what is observable in the landscape. By knowing what to look for, observa- tion becomes an intelligent approach to nature's funda- mentals of enjoyment. ‘An observer's sense of perception can be sharpened by taking frequent walks through the land- scape to notice how foliage varies in greenness from tree to tree; how hue, value, and intensity add to his enjoyb ment; and how the rustle of the leaves and the smell of nature all combine to create the living landscape. If for a moment the observer wore to lose just one sense, his scene would be incomplete and the experience would impress upon.him.that the fullest enjoyment of a landscape is derived from all five senses. "gplf we analyze the sources of pleasure derived from human sensation, we find that a given sensation will have a satisfying or unsatisfying quality according to the 90 duration, intensity, and character of the stimulus experi- 4 fl \‘ I" .\G‘V _ r Perception of an experienced sensation is by its very nature the segregation in the mind of the impressions coming from.the stimulus experience. Therefore it is possible when various associated sensations are harmonious or have qualities in common that perception will be attended with pleasure. Intellection, the process of idea association forming concepts, is the mental comparison of a number of precepts and the discovery of relationships among them. Thus con- cepts are formed by the production of mental images from generalizations of particulars. In brief, when a new precept accords with sensations conditioned in the mind, satisfying or unsatisfying concepts will follow; The material part of art can be bought with money, that is true, but the spiritual part of it can be had only through mental appre- ciation. lliel Saarinen . CONCLUSION The landscape architect should be vitally concerned with plant material and their use. Plants possess the ability in the environment to perform an economic, esthetio, and utilitarian purpose. Each of these functions is a means to an end; to create a “psychological equilibrium”, by pro- ducing a balanced environment. Today's graduate in the profession of landscape archi- tecture has been provided with a thorough background in his own field, and also a composite picture of various related fields. The curriculum is wide, composed mainly of architecture, city planning, engineering, construction, horticulture, and design. A graduate is qualified for various types of employment in both private and public work. He may choose to work, to cite a few examples, in city planning, the highways and parkways, parks department, or teaching. But a landscape architect's main training that sets him apart from the other creative arts is his unimitated ability to design with plant material. Due to the expanded scope of landscape architecture in recent years, many of the schools and active profes- sionals in the field have specialized in one of the various areas of the profession and knowledge in the use {f 12“” ‘1: - of plants is becoming neglected. The landscape architect should know more about the environmental requirements of 91 ' 92 the plant, the importance ecology plays in planting design, and how to meet the site challenge, in a clear light, that each design imposes. He should follow a carefully guided course in the selection and placement of plants and know the role that each is to perform in the composition. Planting design, like the other creative arts, has no set rules that may be applied in chronological order. Dealing with an everbchanging environment, varying problem requirements, and the human factor, there is no status quo for the landscape architect. Planting design is a personal quality and each composition will vary with the individual situation.T If the designer neglects the individuality presented by each situation, his solutions will be imita- tions of previous work and the plagiarization of past forms. The analysis of form itself will never lead to an understanding of the work. But the idea, the existence from which it was initiated, is the importance of design. J“ The design's ultimate function is for complete satis- faction of the emotions. Understanding that man's well- being and happiness does not arise from utilitarian mechanical design alone, the esthetio qualities of plant material must also produce a positive psychological effect upon the observer or the plant becomes negative, rather than positive, in the solution of the scheme. To achieve this psychological effect upon the ob- server, the planting must be integrated into the total A 93 Idesign staging so the entire concept blends together congruently and does not appear as preconceived patterns upon the landscape. The planting must also be in accord- ance with the recipient's desires, as well as being imaginative, honest, direct, and true. Through proper use of the unique esthetio effects of plant material, the senses of perception are stimulated and the entire emo- tional system ignites a condition of contentment and satisfaction. Thus planting design is not an art which practices only visual character of color, form, texture,' proportion and structure. The designer must possess an organic understanding as well. If he practices only the visual experiences, the planting designer limits the potential of the profession. One must perceive with all five senses. It is through eight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch that the observer will benefit from.the scheme. The physical qualities of plant material are unique to man. Plants retain inherent esthetio characteristics that are unobtainable through any other media. The searching out of these characteristics is a process in imaginative planning that always should be a genuine pleasure to the planting designer. But to properly arrive at the m1 esthetio effect, and allow plants to display their full potential, the designer must be thoroughly familiar with his material and its qualities; its growth factors, environmental requirements, esthetio potential, possibilities and limitations. He can not 94 select his plant material from a book without a basic knowledge of the plant's characteristics.‘ Neither can he use a few select favorites without materially hindering the result of his creations. The designer can not rely on luck or happenstance for the success of his planting, or he no longer may be classed as a professional. 1 knowledge of ecology is a reserve power for the- planting designer. The more a designer can study nature, the easier it will be to create a desirable effect with. out strain from foreign objects. His senses should be trained to‘acknowledge the importance in harmoniously blending each plant with its surroundings. There is a definite and real relationshipbetween ecological factors’ of the environment and the physical characteristics of plant material. Vegetation is a living material and sub- ject to esthetio laws. These laws are easily formulated by reference to the order found in nature. Conceiving a planting scheme in this context, the designer will complement the indigenous character of each landscape region by preserving the valid ecological differences in plant configurations. _-WQ’ Remember that it is people for whom a design is created. Their satisfaction, well-being and happiness are the prime motivations for all planting design. A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Anderson, A. I; Plants of the Bible. New York: Philosophical iibrary, Inc., I957. Daubenmire, s. 3*. Plants and Environment: A Textb 1: of Plant Autecolc . 2d ed., New York: John Wiley e '5"""'I""' "ng 5 one, nc., . Eckbo, Garrett. Landsca e for Livin . New York: I. I. Dodge Corporation. E950. Grant, John A., Grant, Carol L. Garden Desi n Illustrat d. Seattle, flashing on: n versity of iasEIngton Press, 1954. Halligan, G. P. First Princi les f Landsca e Architecture. Iii fiber, ficfiigan: Edwards Brothers, Inc., 19#2. Hubbard, Henry Vincent, Kimball, Theodora. in Intr duction to the Stud f Landsca e'DEsi . 53 ed., Few York: Ounce Press of flow EEgIanfi, Inc., 1959. Ishimoto, Tatsuo. Theigrt of the Japanese Garden. 3rd ed., New York: Grown b s ers, nc., 9 . Lehner, Ernst, Lehner, Johanna. Polkl r and S bolism of f§owers, Plants gfd Trees. New York: Tuior s ng ompany, . V'Newton, Norman T. in A roach to Desi . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Iddison—UesIey Press, Inc., 1951. 95 96 Opdyke, George Howard. Art and Nature A reciation. New York: Norwood Press iinotype, Inc., I935. Ortloff, Stuart H., Raymore, Henry B. Color and Desi for Evegy Garden. New York: N. Barrows and Oompany, Inc., 1951. Robinson, Florence Bell. Palette f Plants. Champaign, Illinois: The Garrard Press PuSIIshers, 1950. Saarinenerliel. Search for Form:.A Fundamental A reach to t. New York: ReIEhoId PEEIIsEIng OorporagIon TIES—‘9 . ' Shephard, Peter. Modern Gardens. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., . Simonds, John Ormsbee. Landscape Architecture: The Shaaigg g; Ham's Natural Environment. New York: . . ge Corpora on, . Waugh, Prank A. The Landscape Beautiful. New York: Orange Judd ompany, 9 . , wright, Richardson. The St r o Gard ni . New York: Dodd, Mead and ompany, . Articles and Periodicals Brown, Emily L. ”Training woody Plants in the Japanese manner,” Brookl Botanic Gard n Record, Vol. XVII, (Summer l53I.’ pp. II-IE. “'"" Hackett, Brian. “The Influence of Ecology on Choice of Plant material ” Landsca 4Ar hit ct e, Vol. XLV, (October 1954.5 pp. 15-17. - 97 Kammerer, B. L. ”Beauty in Shrubs Without Leaves,“ Bulletin of P ular Information, VOI. XXXIII,- (february T95§.5 pp. 5:8. . ”Color in Winter Twigs,“ Bulletin of PopEIar Information, vol. XXXIV, (February I959.) pp- 7- . Unpublished Material Bracken, John R. “Planting Design.” Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State College. (Mimeographed.) QUOTATION SOURCES Forepiece Saarinen, Bliel. Search for Form: A Fundamental A reach to Art. New York: isIfiEoId PubIIshing CorporagIon, Contents Church, Thomas D. Gardens are for Peo Is. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporat on, 1955. Bckbo, Garrett. Landsca e for Livi . New York: F. W. Dodge CorporatIon, I955. . The Art of Home Landscaping. New York: 5. 3. Badge orporation, 195 . Genesis 3:6 Marx, Roberto Burle. Public Lecture. North Carolina State College. (Mimeographed, 1960.) Rose, James. Creative Gardens. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, I958. Saarinen, Eliel. Search for arm: A Fundamental Approach to.Art. New York: ReIEEoId PEFIIEEing Corporat on, 948. Shephard, Peter. Modern Gardens. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 9 . Song of Solomon: 6:11 98 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EAST LANSING, RICHOGAN llHlNUllUlllllillllllllll!Ill!”INNlIllHllllHllelHill 31293 02938 3787