A FAGMEMIC CLAUSE-LEVEL ANALYSIS OF BIN! Tam {-m. the new a; M. A. mcmm s‘ma Ummsm Rebecca N. Agheyisi 1968 A TAGMEMIC CLAUSE-LEVEL ANALYSIS OF BINI By J ,vé’” Rebecca NoAgheyisi A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Linguistics and Oriental and African Languages. 1968 5.4 2;-«3 fi-;‘,‘:;-— } «‘- ~J PREFACE The goal of this study is to discover and distinguish the various clause types in Bini, analyze their structure in terms of their components and variant forms, and finally discuss their general distribution within other grammatical levels. The formal corpus on which this analysis is based consists of four tape-recorded Bini folktales, which were later transcribed. The analysis is based on the Tagmemic Theory of grammar as developed by Kenneth L. Pike. I wish to express my special appreciation to Dr Ruth Brend, Miss Helen Ullrich, and Dr David Lockwood, members of my thesis committee, for their guidance and encourage- ment during the period of preparation of this study. I also gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr Ernest Dunn for his many useful hints regarding the technical aspect of this analysis, and most of all, for his continued inter- est in the study. ii CONTENTS. .Page PREFACE O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 ii 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.2 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 INTRODUCTION 1 The Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Nature of Corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Theoretical Medel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 General Methodology & Analytical Procedures . . Bini orth.8raphy . C O O O O O O O O O O O O O GNU! Conventions Used in Listing of Examples . . . . \0 CHAPTER ONE: Clause Types Etic and Emic Clause Types . . . . . . . . . . .9 General Basis of Clause Distinction . . . . . .12 CHAPTER TWP: Basic Simple Clause Types 14 Clause Contrasts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Cl‘use V‘riant. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 18 CHAPTER THREE: Basic Complex Clause Types 32 Clause Contrasts . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . 38 Nuclear Tagme-es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Marginal Tagmemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Claus. V‘riant. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 41 CHAPTER FOUR: Derived Clause Types 43 Claus. contrfi‘t‘ eeeee e e e e e e . e e e e e 46 CHAPTER FIVE: Derived Variants 51 CHAPTER 51x: Clause Distribution 56 iii Page APPENDIX I: Key to Phrase Symbols . . . . . . . 60 APPENDIX II: Symbols & Abbreviations Used . . . . 65 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 APPENDIX III: The Corpus e e e e e e e e e e e e 71 CHARTS Chart 1: Letters of the Alphabet . . . . . . . . 7 Chart II: Basic versus Transform . . . . . . . . .10 Chart III: Basic Simple Clause Types . . . . . . 15 Chart IV: Basic Complex Clause Types . . . . . . 32 Chart V: Contrastive Derived Clauses . . . . . . 47 Chart VI: Relator-Axis Clauses . . . . . . . . . 50 Chart VII: A Co-eccurrence Matrix of the Basic Simple Clause Type. .0 e e e e e e e e 59 TABLE A Summary Table of the Clause System in Bini. . . v iv A Summary Table of the Clause System in Bini. Basic Clause Types: Simple: Transitive Intransitive Ditransitive Locative Directive Stative Equative Descriptive Demonstrative Complex: Causative Benefactive Impersonal Instrumental Contrastive Derived Clause Imperative Concessional Hortative £E//€7i Conditional Dependent Initial Relator-Axis Class Derived Variants: Interrogative Emphatic Negative Sequential. INTRODUCTION 0.1 The Language: Bini is the native language of about a million1 people resident in Benin City, the capital of the Mid-Western Region of Nigeria, and the immediate surrounding villages. It can be regarded as the standard dialect of the Edo group of languages consisting of Bini, Ishan, Kukuruku, and Sobo. As one departs far- ther and farther away from Benin City, the influence of the three other languages becomes noticeable, riun Ishan and Kukuruku towards the north-east, and Sobo towards the south. According to Greenberg's classification? Bini belongs to the Kwa group of the Niger-Congo family. Like several other West African languages, it is a: tone3 lang- uage. 0.2 Nature of Corpus: The corpus which serves as the formal data for this study consists of four common Bini folktales which I recorded myself last summer and later transcribed. The tales were originally recorded to be 1This figure is estimated from the preliminary figures of the 1963 National Population Census of Nigeria given for the Mid-Western Region. 2The Languages of Africa , 1966, page 8. 3There are both lexical and phonological pitch operative in Bini, but a final decision about the number of signifi- cant tone levels is yet to be made. However, for this study, I have distinguished three level tones and two SlidGSe used as part of the text material needed for the peda- gogical text in Bini, being currently written for the Peace Corps Training Program, by Mr Ernest Dunn, whom I assist as chief informant. I decided to use the material as my corpus, because it was the only type of unconditioned free text I could collect here, since there is no other Bini speaker, besides myself, in Michigan, with whom I could record some free conversation. In spite of the predominantly narrative style of the corpus, however, it proved extremely useful for the preliminary discovery procedures, as I shall show later. 0.3 Theoretical Model: The theoretical model for this analysis is the tagmemic theory of grammar as deve- loped by Pike in Parts I and III of his Language in Rela- tion to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Beha- zigg, and also with special reference to its application in the following works: Iggmemic and Matrix Linguistics Applied to Selected African Lan ua es, Nov. 1966, by Kenneth L. Pike; Grammar Discovery Procedures, 1964, by Robert E. Longacre; An Introduction to Morphology and Szgtax, 1962, by Benjamin Elson and Velma Pickett. The above works have, for the most part, served as my chief references in the analysis, and I adopted, with little or no modification, all the major concepts of the theory they contain. Some of these concepts shall be defined briefly below, for the benefit of any reader who may be unfamiliar with the tagmemic theory and/or its terminology. M- 3 Syntagmeme and Tagggmg: The term "syntagmeme" can be regarded as the technical name for a construction or a sequence of bound tagmemes which operate together as a unit within any grammatical level. A "tagmeme" , on the other hand, is a functional unit within a construction or syntagmeme. The following quotation represents clearly the relationship between both concepts: Syntagmemes cannot exist without component elements, i.e. tagmemes. On the other hand, tagmemes exist only by virtue of placement 1 in one or more syntagmemes., Also the concept of the tagmeme as a functional unit within a construction is further explained thus by Longacre: The tagmeme is a functional point(not necessarily a point in fixed linear sequence) at which a set of items and/or sequences occur....... the function cannot exist apart from the set, nor has the set significance apart from the function. 2 By the term "function" in the quotation above, or in its general use within the tagmemic theory framework, is meant such grammatical relations as "subject" or "object" or "modifier", etc. The word or construction which fills any of the above slots or function-points is said to "manifest" the tagmeme. Since it is usual for more than one word or construction to be able to fill a certain 1Grammar Discovery Procedures, 1964, page 15. 2Ibid, page 15/16. 4 slot in a construction, such possible fillers of the slot are referred to as a "class" or "set-fillers" of the slot. Etic and Emic: These two terms are employed in tagme- mics to describe some types of distinctions that can be made between the units of the different levels of a language. A distinction is said to "etic" when the notice- able difference found between the units in question is based on a criterion usually external to the system of the language itself. On the other hand, if the differences between the units are internally significant in the language, then they are described as "emic". For example, the noticeable difference between "boy" and "boys" in the English sentences below1 is emic in English in that the lack of "s" in the one means singular number, while the presence 6f it in the other means plural number, a dis- tinction which is important in English. On the other hand, the difference of the forms of "either"--[iyZar] and [aiiar]--is etic in the English lexicon, in that it is not a significant difference. This however does not mean that etic distinctions are not important within the system of a language, because, after all, the etic variants generally constitute the possible variant forms of an emic unit within the language-- forms Which are useful to know. 1The boy is here. The boys are here. 5. Nuclear versus Margiggl: This is a distinction usually necessary in the description of the tagmemic composition of a construction, in that some of the tagmemes are more important within that construction than others in terms of its distinction from other con- structions. The more important tagmemes are referred to as the nuclear tagmemes, while the less important ones constitute the marginal or peripheral tagmemes. A fur- ther distinction usually drawn between tagmemes of a construction is "obligatory" versus "optional". The obligatory tagmemes, as the term implies, are those which must always be present in that construction, while the optional ones may or may not be present. All " obligatory tagmemes are also nuclear, but on the other hand, not all nuclear tagmemes are necessarily obligato- ry. 0.4 General Methodology and Analytical Procedures: For the muspopam of this study, my definition of a clause is: a construction which minimally consists of an obligatory subject tagmeme and an obligatory predicate tagmeme. The subject tagmeme is always manifested, except in the singular imperativeglthe predicate tagmeme is always overtly manifested. 1The singular imperative has no marked subject, while the plural does: Lire! ’ - Come 1 (singular) We larel - You Come 1 (plural). 6 My focus and goal in this study is to discover and distinguish the various clause types in Bini, analyze their structure, and discuss their general distribution. In achieving the first part of this goal, I relied mainly on the evidence provided by my corpus - though the results were further tested with some citation paradigms. For the second and third parts of the goal, the three works on tagmemic analysis by Pike, Longacre, and Elson and Pickett cited earlier, were my major guide, supplemented by the useful advice given to me at various times by the members of my thesis committee. In working with the transcribed corpus, first, the complete utterances were marked off at their boundaries} after which the different clauses were then marked off. In typing out corpus on cards, each complete utterance was first typed on a 4" by 6" card, and then the clauses comprising it were typed underneath it. Next each of the clauses was typed on a separate card. Thus each clause appeared on two different cards, with one showing its distribution within a higher-level construction. The clauses on the separate cards were then analyzed into their component tagmemes. Clauses with similar construc- tions in terms of their tagmeme types were grouped together, and the resulting groups constituted the etic clause types. There were 485 clauses in all, and the cards 1This first step was found useful because the distribution of clauses was mainly in higher-level constructions. 7 of the different clausee types were then organized into their different groups for further scrutiny and systematic study. The results were then analyzed into what follows in later chapters of this study. 0.5 Bini Orthographz: Since my focus in this study is on the clause level, I have refrained from making any far- reaching decision in matters directly related to other aspects or levels of the language. I have therefore adop- ted the standard orthography, with the following modifi- cations: . 1.Tone levels and glides are all represented as super- scripts over the syllable peaks thus: /a/ for high tone; /a/ for mid; /37 for low; /;/ for rising glide; and /8/ for falling glide. 2.Two /r/ liquids have been distinguished: /r/ and /;/, instead of the single one in the standard orthography. In the chart below, a phonetic approximation is given in parenthesis after letters which may seem unfamiliar. Chart I: Letters of the Alphabet. Consonants: Stops: p,kp,b,gb,t,d,k,g, Fricatives: vb (bilabial fricative), mw (nasalized vb), f,v,s,z,kh(x),gh (voiced x), h. Liquids: r,?(pa1atalized r), rh(trilled r), 1. Nasals: n,m. Semi-vowels: w,y. vowels: Oral: a, e, 2(open e), i, o, o(open o), u. Nasal: an, en, in, en, un. 0.6 Conventions Used in Listing:gf Examplgg: 1. In the analysis, all examples given in Bini are immediately followed with a literal English translation underneath each word. Occasionally, the examples are introduced with a formula; also in many cases a free translation is added in square brackets. 2. In the presentation of the corpus, each of the folktales is numbered according to its constituent sentences. A literal English translation is given imme- diately after the Bini text, with similar numbering. At the end of each folktale a free translation of the story is given. CHAPTER ONE: CLAUSE TYPES 1.1 Etic and Emic Clause Types: A close examination of the corpus yielded the following as the etic clause types of Bini: 1. Transitive 2. 3. Ditransitive 4. 5. Locative 6. 7. Demonstrative 8. 9. Stative 10. 11. Causative 12. 13. Benefactive 14. 15. Interrogative 16. 17. Emphatic 18. 19. Negative :0. 21. Dependent Initial 22. ' 23. Intransitive Equative Directive Descriptive Impersonal Instrumental Imperative Hortative Concessional Sequential Relator-Axis Class Conditional On the basis of the structure and distribution of these clauses (both of which will be discussed in fuller detail later), the clause system in Bini can be described as having a "wave" form, in that not only are there a number of basic clause types, but there are also a set of marginal ones, which can be derived from the basic set--as transform possibilities. Basic 1. Transitive 2. 3. Ditransitive 4. Intransitive Equative 10 5. Locative 6. Directive 7. Demonstrative 8. Descriptive 9. Stative 10. Impersonal 11. Causative 12. Instrumental 13. Benefactive Transform 1. Imperative 2. Hortative 3. Cencessional 4. Dependent Initial 5. Relator-Axis Class 6. Conditional This immediately provides a basic pattern of dimensional contrast: basic versus transform. The matrix below represents this contrast, with the transform clause types as the columns, and the basic clause types as the rows. Chart II Im Hort D.I. Con' R.A. Cond Tr X X X X X X Ditr X X X X X X Loc X X X X X X In X X X X X X Eq - X X X X X Dem - - X' X X X Dir X X X X X X Desc - X X X X X St X X X X X X Imp - X X X X X Ca X X X X X X Ins X X X X X X Ben X X X X X X 11 In addition to showing the contrast between the basic clause types and the derived clause types, the chart above also outlines the transform potentials of the basic clause types. Each "X" indicates that the basic clause type along the row of its occurrence can be transformed into the clause along the column of the same "X". On the other hand, a dash indicates that the basic clause type 'does ' not." haym1, as a transform possibility, the clause type along the column. For example, while it is possible to have an imperative transitive clause, it is not possible to have an imperative equative one. The basic clause types can further be sub-divided into simple and complex types. This sub-division is found necessary in that the construction of some of the basic clauses .involves more than one predicate tagmeme, and it looks like a clause cluster construction. The clauses belonging to this special complex subgroup are: 1.Instrumental 2.Causative 3.Impersonal 4.Benefactive. There is yet a fourth group of clauses which can be classified as etic variants of not only the basic clauses, 1This is true, not only from the evidence provided by the corpus, but also from the writer's intuition as a native speaker of Bini. 12 but also of the derived clauses outlined above. The clauses of this group are: 1.Interrogative 2.Emphatic 3.Negative 4.5equentia1 Thus, it is possible to have an interrogative transitive clause, as well as an interrogative imperative transitive clause, as etic variants of the basic transitive clause and the derived imperative transitive clause resea pectively} Before discussing each of the clause types, I shall first review briefly the general basis on which the different emic clause types have been distinguished.' 1.2 General Basis of Clause Distinction: Longacre2 recommends the establishing of at least two structural differences between clauses before they can be classified as distinct, and also that at least one of the two differences must involve the nuclear and/or obligatory tagmemes of the clauses. This recommen- dation has, in the most part, served as my basis for clause distinction. However, I have also utilized, where necessary, the following hint from Pike: 2Grammar Discovery Procedures,1964, page 47. 1See table on page v above. 13 .... a difference in the distribution of two constructions in higher-layered con- structions may, like a transform difference, count as one of the two required differences, provided this distributional difference is paralleled by a substantial difference in structural meaning (such as "declarative" versus "interrogative").¥ Structural differences distinguishing clause types inclu- ded the following: 1.A difference in the number of tagmemes in the contrasting clauses. 2.Presence of a special tagmeme in one clause type that is absent in the other. 3.A difference in the emic classes manifesting similar but distinct tagmemes. Differences of external distribution distinguishing clauses included the following: 1.0ccurrence of a clause as an independent base tagmeme of a higher-level construction versus occurrence as a dependent tagmeme on clause level. 2.Differences in occurrence of some clauses as wholes in higher-level slotsz. 3.Differences in transform potential. 4.0ccurrence of some clauses as slot fillers in lower- level constructions. 1Language, 1962, page 232. 2An example of such higher-level slots.is; a,slot for response to a question as opposed tohone for response to a statement. CHAPTER TWO: BASIC SIMPLE CLAUSE TYPES The basic simple clause types shall be discussed in this chapter, in terms of their tagmemic formulas, their minimal and maximal forms, and their constituent tagmemes. First there is a chart1below showing the different tagmemes of the different clauses. Under each tagmemic slot is listed the most frequent, or stylistic normal fillers of the slot. Thus the label of the tagmemic slot indicates the function, while the sub-column of fillers indicate the manifesting class, and both together represent the tagmeme as a whole. The chart however does not include any information regarding variation in the ordering of the tagmemes. All matters of ordering shall be discussed later under section 2.2 below. Also, the key to the constructions filling the slots, as well as some elaboration of the constructions, constitute Appendix I at the end of this 8 tudy o 1The idea of this chart originated from a similar one done for Vagala in Pike 1966, page 27. 14 16 RC 5.Dir: +S.A' +P.Dir ‘ iO.I" +P.D.P +L6c7,iM ‘i10cnfi ii '.ifur NPla,b VPlg NPla,b PP NPla,b Adv Locn .temp‘ R.A c,&f VPZg c,&f - c,d,f ideo NP3a,c NPZc,d Infinitive NPZQ -VP3g' NPZa‘ NP2a,e NPZb NP3b NP4 V1343 NP4 NP4 *NP3d’ ' D.I. NPSa NPSa NPSa RC RC RC 6.St:‘ +S.I +P.St ‘ i—M ‘:_|-_Locn' iT ‘iPur NPla-f VPlh same -Same same' same NP2a-e VPZh. NP4 .VP3h ‘NPSa-d VP4h RC u 7.Desc:+S.I +P.Desc‘ +Com “1L0cn',iT (Same asVPlk ideo same same St.) VP2k NPla—f NP2a-e ’ NP4 NPSa-d RC 8.Dem: +5.1 +Dem ' +L0cn ,iT Emp.NP1a-f “no" same same " ~NP2a—e ' " NP3a-c ll NP4 " NPSa-d RC 9.Eq: +S.I +P.Eq +Com '7ip ’,iLocn "iT (Same as Vle rNPla-f Adv same same .St.) . VP2m NPZa—c ideo NP4 ‘NPSa-d 15 Chart III: A Taggemic-Notation Paradigg for the Basic Simple Clause Type. in Bini. NUCLEAR TAGMEMES MARCINAL TAGMEMES IA.Tr:'+S.A +P.Tr _-1_-O.G ' iM ‘ iLocn iT iPur NPla-f VPla NPla-f Adv Locn temp R.A NP2a VPZa NP2a,b ideo NP3a,c NPZC,d Infinitive NPéa,b VP3a NP4a,b NPZb NP3b NpSa VP4a NPSa NP3d D.I. RC RC lB.Tr: +S.I +P.Tr +O.R jfli ’ iiocn‘IiT ”.iPur NPla-f VPlb NPa,b same same same same A c,&f NP2a,b VP2b NPZa NP4 VP3b NP4 NPSa VP4b NPSa RC RC lC.Tr: +S.A +P.Tr +O.T ' i-M ‘ _-l_-_Locn‘ 1T ' _-i_-Pur NPla,b VPlc R.A same same same same &f Vp2¢ ' NPZa VP3C NP4 VP4C NPSa RC 2.1m: +S.A +P.In "iM "iLocn .iI 'lifur (Same as VPld same same same same Tr.1A.) VP2d , VP3d VP4d 3.Ditr:+S.A +P.Ditr 10.1 +I.O‘ "iM ’,1Locn',iT "ifur (Same as VPle NPlb, NP3d same same same same ' Tr.1A.) VPZe c,&f VP3e NP2a,b, VP4e c,&e NP4 ‘ NPSa RC R.A 4.Loc: +S.A, +P.Loc +Loc ' jfll ' iLocnfi ii "iPur (Same as VPlf NPld same same same same Tr.1C.) VPZf NP2a VP3f NPSd VP4f 17 2.1 Clause Contrasts: The chart above immediately shows that, among other structural differences, any two of the clause formulas are distinct from each other in terms of the emic classes filling their predicate slots. Some of the other structural differences revealed by the chart are: 1.Among the transitive, locative, descriptive, and equative clause types, the only four clause types with thnse nuclear tagmemes, the transitive differs from the other three in that it is the only one whose third nuclear tagmeme is an "Object"-- the other three have "Locative" and "Complement" respectively. 2.There are three different subtypes of transitive clause; they differ from each other, not only in their predicate slot filler, but also in their types of Objects: 1A has an Object-as-goal, 18 has an Object-as-reference, while 10 has an Object-as-Topic.In spite of these contrasts however, they still belong to the same clause type by virtue of their otherwise identical structure and transform potential. 3.The demonstrative clause type further differs from the other clause types in that it is the only clause whose subject slot is filled by only emphatic forms. 4.The Intransitive and stative clause types are the other two with two nuclear and obligatory tagmemes, but they differ from each other in their marginal tagmemes: the stative has no purpose tagmeme. 18 5.The ditransitive differs from the other clause types in that it is the only clause with an obligatory Indirect Object as a nuclear tagmeme. 6.The directive clause type is the only one with as many as five nuclear tagmemes. 7.The equative is the only clause type with a Degree tagmeme as one of its marginal tagmemes. 2.2 Clause Variants: As chart III ibovg shows, all the basic simple clause types have both optional and obligatory tagmemes, either in their nucleus, or peri- phery, or both. Each of these clauses must therefore have both minimal and maximal variants, with the former consisting of only the obligatory tagmemes, while the latter would have all the possible tagmemes of the particular clause. Each basic clause type shall now be discussed briefly in terms of its minimal and maximal forms. 1.Transitive:1A Formula: Minimal Form. Min BS Tr C 1A : +S.A : NP/RC +P.Tr : VP1a Read: The minimal basic simple transitive clause of the subtype 1A consists of an obligatory Subject-as-Actor tagmemic slot filled by a noun phrase or relative clause, and an obligatory Transitive ‘Pre'd'ic‘aten ; slot filled by a verb phrase of the subclass 1a. 19 Illustrated formula: +S.A : NP1a +P.Tr : VPla 6kpia n3 P8. man this ate (it) As the illustration above shows, a transitive verb always carries with it the interpretation of a co-occurring object even when the object is not actually present. This implied object is usually translated as a third person neuter pronoun-- though occasionally the object may be self- evident in the context, in which case the known object is supplied in the translation or interpretation. Maximal Formula: Max BS Tr C 1A :;+S.A : NP/RC +P.Tr : VP1A iO.G : NP/RC :Locn : NP 1M : Adv':T : temp :Pur : RA Read:The maximal basic simple transitive clause of the subtype 1A consists of an obligatory Subject-as-Actor tagmemic slot filled by a noun phrase or relative clause, an obligatory Transitive Predicate slot filled by a verb phrase of the subclass 1a, an optional Object-as- goal slot filled by a noun phrase or relative clause, an optional Location tagmemic slot filled by a noun phrase, an Optional Manner slot filled by an adverb, an optional Time slot filled by a temporal, and an optional purpose slot filled by a relator-axis clause. An example of the above clause is: 20 6khu6 ni gbé ovbi ere khuerhekhuerhe vbe eki woman that beat child her severely at market n6d§ ne 6 ghé ghi rha. yesterday that he not ever steal. (That woman beat her child severely at the market yes- terday so that he may never steal again.] Thm other two subtypes of the basic simple transitive clause differ from the subtype above in that they have an obligatory object. Examples of each of the two subtypes are: 1B: +S.A : NP +P.Tr : VP1b +O.R : NP \ i A \ I owa na ye Ozo. house this pleases Ozo. 1C: +S.A : NP +P.Tr : VP1c +0.T : RA. 6kpia ni h6 us 026 kpa. man that wants that 020 leave. In terms of distribution, the minimal forms of the tran- sitive clause occur more frequently than the maximal forms. 2.1ntransitive. Formula: Minimal Form. Min BS In C‘: +S.A : NP/RC +P.In : VP1d Read: The minimal basic simple intransitive clause consists of an obligatory Subject-as-Actor slot filled by a noun phrase or relative clause, and an obligatory Intransitive _Predicate slot filled by a verb phrase of the subclass 1d. 21 Illustrated formula: +S.A : NP +P.In : VP1d ékita mwen 16vbie. “dog my lie down [my dog is lying down] Maximal Formula: +S.A : NP +P.In : VP1d iM : Adv :Locn : NP3a +T : temp I c I I-\ \e \ s I I s I skits mwen lere khuerhe vbe ughugha nason .‘ . ,. O . ' ‘ . iPur : Inf ya vbie to sleep 3.Ditransitive. Formula: Minimal Form1 Min BS Ditr C : +S.A : NP/RC +P.Ditr : VP1c +1.0 : NP3d Illustrated formula: +S.A : NP1a +P.Ditr : VP1c +1.0 : NP3d \ i i I \ e l I ¢ \ se mwen rh e no etisa iman O . . o0! friend my gave(it) to teacher us [my friend gave it to our teacher] 1For the rest of the basic clause types, only their minimal and maximal formulas shall be represented. The reading of their formulas follow the same pattern as those represented for the transitive and intransitive clauses above. 22 As in the case 6f the transitive clause 1A, the unmarked object in the ditransitive clause is usually substituted for by a third person pronoun in its interpretation. If, however, the object is obvious in the context, then it is immediately supplied by implication. Maximal Formula: +S.A : NP1a +P.Ditr : VP1c 10.1 : NP1b +1.0 :NP3d ose mwen ya ebe eva ne 026 friend my gave book two to Ozo 1M : idea 1 Leon : NP3c : T : NP3b : Pur : R.A. r§P§r§ vbe Esuku n6d§ ne 6 tie completely at school yesterday that he read In distribution, the minimal form occurs more frequently than the maximal form, but the Purpose tagmeme, though optional and marginal, frequently occurs with this clause type. ,4. Locative: Formula: Minimal Form. Min BS Lee C I + S.A : NP/RC + P.Loc : VP1f + Loc : NP Illustrated Formula: + s.A : NP1a + P.Loc : VP1f + Loc : NP1d 5kpia ni rie ugb6 'man that (is) going farm 23 Maximal Formula: + S.A : NP1a + P.Loc : VP1f + Loc : NP1d 1 M : Adv 6khu6 n1 y6 eki égiégié woman that went market quickly 1 Locn : NP3c 1 T : Temp 1 Pur : Inf vbe Oza n6d§ y; d§ iyan at Oza yesterday to buy yam 5. Directive. Formula: Minimal Form: Min BS Dir C 1 + S.A : NP/RC + P.Dir : VP1g + P.D.P : PP + Loc : NP/RC Illustrated Formula: + S.A : NP1a + P.Dir : VP1g + P.D.P : PP + Loc : NP1d I ashes ni mu r! em; woman that carry (it) into bush [That woman threw it into the bush.) Maximal Formula: + S.A : NP1a + P.Dir : VP1g 1 0.1 : NP1b + P.D.P : PP kaia ni zienzién dfén n1 yd man that squeezed rat that into + Loc : NP1c 1 M :Adv 1 Locn : NP3c 1 T : Temp 'ékpd egiégie vbe ughugha nas§n bag quickly at room last night 24 1 Pur : R.A ne 6 ghé 1% that it not run [that man quickly squeezed the rat into the bag last night in the room so that it might not run away.] 6. Stative. Formula: Minimal Form: Min BS St C 1 + 5.1 : NP/RC + P.St : VP1h Illustrated Formula: + 5.1 : NP1a + P.St : VP1h §vb0khan n8 mdsé child this (is) beautiful Maximal Formula: + 5.1 : NP1a + P.St : VP1h 1 M : idea 1 Locn : NP3a dkhué aa f1 P§n5§n5§n vbS ugbérd woman this shines (with grease) at forehead 1 T : NP3b vbe egh§ hié at time .11. [this woman's forehead is always shining with grease.) 7. Descriptive. Formula: Minimal Form: Min BS Desc C 1 + 5.1 : NP/RC + P.Desc : VP1k + Com : ideo 25 Illustrated Formula: + S.I : NP1c + P.Desc : VP1k + Com : ideo Cwa ni ye g6l6t6 house that be very high [that house is very high.] Maximal Formula: + S.I : NP1c + P.Desc : VP1k + Com : NP1a 1 Locn : NP3a erhan n8 yévbé évban vbe uria tree this be like person at distance 1 T : temp nason last night 8. Demonstrative. Formula: Minimal Form: Min BS Dem C 1 + 5.1 : Emp NP/RC + Dem : no Illustrated Formula: + S.I : NP1c + Dem : no ébé n'wén no my book” (it) is [it's my book.) Maximal Formula: +5.1 : NP1a + Dem : no + Locn : NP3a + T : temp Pen ghara n8 vbé éki nodé Emp. she past prog is at market yesterday [it was she at the market yesterday.) 26 9. Equative. Formula: Minimal Form: Min BS Eq C 1 +S.I : NP/RC +P.Eq : VP1m +Com : NP/RC Illustrated Formula: +5.1 : NP1a .P.Eq : VP1m +Com : NP1a \ \I a -\ \ a I okhuo na re ose mwen O O woman this be friend my [this woman is my friend] Maximal Formula: +5.1 : NP1a +P.Eq : VP2m +Com : NP1a 1D : ideo \ \I I -’ \ I I' I, I’ okhuo ni te re se mwen khuankhuankhuan . .4 . . . o.’ woman that Pm be friend my very close 1Locn : NP3a 1T : temp vbe Esuku nukp8 at school last year [that woman used to be my very close friend at school last year.) So far, two main variant forms of each of the basic simple clause types have been discussed; other types of variation within the clauses can result from the following: 1.0ptional order of tagmemes; 2.Variant fillers of tagmemic slots. Each of these types of variations will be discussed briefly below. 1.0ptiona1 orders of tagmemes:All nuclear tagmemes of the different basic simple clause types occur, relative to 27 each other, only in the order in which they have been represented in their formulas. Thus the Subject slot always precedes the Predicate slot, which in its turn precedes the Object slot, if any. If an Object and an Indirect Object occur together in a ditransitive clause, the former must precede the latter. Thus, in sentences 1 and 2 below, 1 is grammatical, while 2 is not: 1. O rhié igh6 ne 026. He gave money to 020. 2. 9 rhié n6 0.: igh6. The only exception to this ordering rule is in the case of emphatic clauses, where the emphasized item is brought to the pro-Subject position. This will be discussed more fully in chapter five. The representation of the marginal tagmemes in the formulas so far discussed has not included any informa- tion regarding the required ordering of these tagmemes. Usually, when the Manner slot is filled by a single-word adverb, it occurs immediately before the verb, or imme- diately after it, if there is no marked Object. If there is a marked Object, it then occurs after the last nuclear tagmeme. Generally, the verb and its Object form a very tight link and no modifiers are allowed between them. For example, sentences 3 and 5 below are permissible, but 4 is not: When the Manner slot is filled by an ide0phone or any long construction, it occurs after the last nuclear tag- meme. The Location tagmeme usually occurs after the nuclear tagmemes of the clause. If a clause is marked for both Manner and Location, the Location slot generally follows the Manner slot. The Time tagmeme usually occurs at the pro-Subject position if it is filled by a phrase or a long construc- tion. If, however, it is filled by a single-word temporal noun or adverb, it generally occurs after the last nuclear tagmeme, if there is no Manner tagmeme, or after the latter if it is present. It can occur before or after the Loca- tion tagmeme without altering the meaning of the clause. Below are some examples to illustrate this: 1.+T : D.I +S.A : NP1a +P.Tr : VP2a +0.6 : NP1c iran ghi re ‘ran n6 ri evbaré. they when come they Pm ate food [when they arrived, they ate some food) """‘< I l ‘ f 1The'variant forms of the adverb in the three sentences have no important grammatical or semantic consequences; they are rather the result of a phonological phenomenon which is irrelevant at this point of the analysis. 29 2. iran ri évbare n6d§. they ate food yesterday. \-f c . I er .. r s 3. iran r1 evbare egiegie node. 0 O O 0 they ate food quiCkly yesterday. 4. i mién im6t6 Ede vbe Oza nukp6. OR I saw car your at Oza last year. 5. i mién im6t6 rué n6kp6 vbe 025. I saw car your last year at 02a. The Purpose tagmeme always occurs in clause-final position, that is, after all nuclear and other marginal tagmemes. 2.Variant fillers of tagmemicshlots: As chart III shows, some tagmemic slots are optionally filled by more than one construction type. For example, the Subject slot of all the clause types can be filled by either a noun phrase or a relative clause, and the noun phrase, in turn, has several subclasses. In most cases, all accepted fillers of a slot result in a homogeneous construction, and they impose no distributional constraint on the clause. There are, however, a few cases in which the variant fillers of some of the tagmemic slots cause a signifi- cant difference in the ordering of its other tagmemes. One of such cases is with the ditransitive clause type: when its Predicate tagmeme is manifested by "khaman",[to say), and the Object-as-Item tagmeme is manifested by a sub- junctive clause, the Indirect Object has to precede the 30 Object-- the reverse of the normal ordering. For example, it is:‘ 026 kh6man 0t5b6 n3 6 léré. _Ozo told Otabo that he come. instead of: #026 kh6min n6 6 16r3 OtAbé. ”Th; osgeet-..-i.p1.‘t.ga.a. of the transitive 1C clause_typeis another tagmeme whose slot could be filled by a whole string of sentences, as quotation or "speech". When that tagmeme is filled by such a long utterance instead of the usual relator-axis clause, the whole clause could then fill a slot in a higher-level construe? tion-- like the_Initial SentenCe_slot on paragraph-level.1 Noun phrases filling tagmemic slots on clause level are regular endocentric constructions, which can be expan- ded_or reduced according to the number of modifiers the head2 has. The variant forms of these phrases result in variant forms of the clauses as well. _Clausos marked for mode could be called etic variants, or optional expansions of the verb phrase. Thus, \‘\ \ I I I\\ I 0 so owa mwen is a variant of 0 te se owa mwen.. . . 0 he visits house my he used to visit house lye 11h N0V.1966: Pike treats such a construction as a kind 0f Paragraph structure. » 2T‘henoun phrase and verb phrase types can also be realized by only their single-word heads; thus, the slots filled by a noun phrase of a certain subclass can also be filled by a noun or pronoun of the same subclass. See Appendix I o 31 Tense and aspect, however, are not only nuclear to the verb, but are also obligatorily manifeasted along with it, either as a tone notation or as a lexical item. CHAPTER THREE: BASIC COMPLEX CLAUSE TYPES. The second group of clauses consists of the basic complex clause types, and the clauses of this group are: 1. Instrumental 2. Impersonal 3. Causative 4. Benefactive. The chart below shows the tagmemic formulas of the clauses, and the possible fillers of their slots. Also listed with each clause type are the allo-constructions. Chart IV: A Tagmemic-Notation Parad1gm Showing the Nuclear Tagmemes of a the Basic Complex Clause Iypes. 1.Ins +S.A NPla,b, . c,&f VNP2a NP4 NPSa RC +P.Ins VRhl VP2m +0.1ns NPla,b c,e,&f NPfli NP4 NPSa +Act.P Sub. VP Infinitive Allo-Con l:+S.A same Allo-Con 2:+S.A - 3mm: 33' Alla-Con 3:+S.A’ +P.Ins +0.1ns +P.L0c +L0c NPla,b, VPln NPla,b, VPlf NP1d c,&f VP2n c,e,&f VP2f ‘NP2e NP2a NP2a . VP3f NPSd NP4 NP4 VVP4f NP5a NP5a RC RC ' Allo-Con 4:+S.A - +P.Ins +0.1ns +P.Ditr 10.1 ‘ +1.0 same same same VPle NP1b,c,f NP3d ' VP2e NP2a-c,e VP3e‘ NP4 , ) VP4e NP5a , RC . Alla-Con 5:+S.A +P.Ins +0.1ns +P.Dir' 19.1 +P.D.P +Loc ’ same same same VP1g NPla,b PP NP1a-d,&f VPZg 'c&f‘ NP2a,e VP3g ~NP2a NP4 ' VP4g NP4 NP5a,d NP5a , RC 2.1mp :+S.A +P.Imp +0.G-A +Act.P 1mp.pro VPlp NP1a-c,f Sub. VP 7 VP2pv NP2a Infinitive NP4 NP5a RC Alla-Con 1:+S.A' +P.Imp ' +0.G-A +P.Tr' +0.G‘ » same same same VP1a,c -NP1a-c,f VP2a,c NP2a VP3a,c NP4 VP4a,c NP5a RC R.A Allo-Con 2:+S.A +P.Imp +0.G-A +P.In -same same same VP1d , VP1d VP3d VP4d Allo-Con 3:+S.A - +P.Imp +0.G-A +P.L8c' +Loc same same same VPlf NP1d VP2f NP2e ‘ VP3f NPSd 34 Allo-Con 4:+S.A' ‘ +P.Imp +0.G—A +P.Ditr 19.1. +1.0' Imp.pro ‘VPlp NP1a-c,f vVPle ‘NPlb,c, NP3d VP2pr NPZa . VP2e &f NP4 VP3e'I NPZa,b NP5a VP4e NP4 RC NP5a RC ---‘-----_——--------‘-—--------—-_-- Allo—Con 5:+S.A +P.Imp +0.G-A ‘ +P.Dir‘.10.1" +P.D.P +Loc same same same VPlg NP1a-c , PP NP1a—d , f [VPZg - &f NPZa,e VP3g NP2a NP4 VP4g NP4 NP5a NPSa RC RC Allo-Con 6:+S.A +P.Imp +0.G-A ‘ +P.Desc +Com same same same VPlk ideo VP2k NPla-f NP2a-e NP4 NPSa-d RC Allo-Con 7:+S.A +P.Imp +0.G-A ‘ +PLSt same same same VBlh ' VP2b. VP3h VP4h Allo-Con 8:+S.A +P.Imp +0.G-A +P.Eq ' +Com samw‘ same same’ Vle NP1a-f VP2m NP2a-c NP4 NP5a-d RC 3.Ca ‘:+S.Ca ’ +P.Ca +0.G—A +Act.P NPla-c,f Vqu ' NP1a-c,f Sub. VP. NP2a VP2q. ‘NP2a Infinitive NP4 NP4 NP5a NPSa RC RC Allo-Con l:+S.Ca ' +P.Ca +0.G-A +P.Tr +0.G' same same same VPla,c NP1a-c,f VP2a,c NPZa VP3a,c NP4 VP4a,c NP5a ' RC 36 4.Ben :+S.Bene +P.Ben +0.Be +Act.P NPla,b,f VPlr NPla,b,f SUb. VP NP2aN VP2f NP2a Infinitive NP4 VP3r NP4 NP5a VP4r NP5a RC RC Allo-COn 1:+S.Bene +P.Ben +0.Be +P.Tr +0.G same same same ‘VPla NP1a-c,f VP2a NP2a VP3a NPA” VP4a NP5a RC Allo-COn 2:+S.Bene +P.Ben +0.Be' +P.In same same same VP1d VP2d VP3d VP4d Allo—Con 3:+S.Bene +P.Ben +0.be +P.L0c +Loc same same same VPlf NP1d VP2f NP2e VP3f NPSd VP4f Alla-Con 4:+S.Bene +P.Ben +0.Be +P.Ditr 10.1 +1.0 same same same VPle NP1b,c NP3d VP2e ‘ &f VP3e NPla-c, VP4e &e NP4 NP5a RC Allo-Con 5:+S.Bene +P.Ben +0.Be +P.Dir' 10.1 +P.D.P +Loc same same same ‘VPlg NPla-c,f PP NPla—d,f VP2g NP2a NP2a,e VP3g NP4 NP4 VP4g NPSa NP5a RC RC Allo-Con Allo-Con --------------_—_---‘-—------------- +P.D.P +Loc ' +P.Desc Allo-Con 2:+S.Ca +P.Ca NP1a-c,f Vqu NP2a , VPZq NP4 NP5a ‘ RC 3:+S.Ca ' +P.Ca same same same 6:+S.Ca +P.Ca same ’ same +P.Ditr ;VP1e VP2e ‘ . VP3e VVP4e ‘ +P.Dir' VP1g VPZg W38 W43 VPlk VP2k 10.1 +1.0' NP1b,c,f NP3d NPZa-c,e NP4 NP5a RC 10.1 NPla-C,'PP &f NP2a NP4 ANPSa NP1a-d,f NP2a,e NP4 -NPSa,d 37 A close study of the above charts immediately shows that the four clause types have at least two peculiar features in common, namely that: 1.Their construction involves a subcluster of clau- ses; 2.Each of the clause types consists of two base functional components, the first being the Special Action component, which introduces and dominates the second-- the Sequential Action component. A basic complex clause can therefore be represented in a special overall composite formula thus: +Special Action +Sequentia1 Action. This general formula can then be made specific for any of the basic complex clause types by including the special constructions of the clause type which fill the two base slots above. One more feature common to all the clauses of this group is the fact that the Sequential Action base slot can be filled by some of the Predicates of the basic simple clause types. This results in the various allo-conttructions listed with the clauses on the chart. It is important to note also that the verb phrases filling the second component are restricted, in inflection, to only the subjunctive mood or the infini- tive. Only the special action Predicate has unrestricted inflection in all the tenses and aspects. All these point to the important fact of the very tight and close-knit relationship between the two base components of the 38 clause, a relationship which is lacking in all other types of clause-cluster or serial constructions in the language. 3.1 Clause Contrasts:1n spite of the structural simi- larities between the four_clause types, they are however distinct from one another. Their first structural differ- ence is found in their Predicate tagmemes, as the chart clearly shows. The instrumental and benefactivo clauses further differ from each other, and from the other two clause types in the function of their Object tagmeme: the instrumental clause has an Object-as-Instrument, while the benefactivo clause has Object-as-Bonofactoe; the other two have Object-as-Goal and Actor. The impersonal clause type differs from the other three in that its Subject-as-Actor slot can be filled only by an impersonal pronoun. The function of the Subject tagmeme of the causative clause is Subject-as-Cause. 3.2 Nuclear Taggemos: The nuclear formula of each of the four clause types will now be illustrated, using one of its allo-constructions. 1. Instrumental. Formula: +S.A : NP/RC +P.Ins : VP1n +0.1ns : NPIRC +Act.P : VP1a 10-6 : NP/RC Illustrated formula: +S.A : NP1a +P.Ins : VP1n +0.1ns : NP1c +Act.P : VP1a 6kpi6‘ni y6 6P6 gbé‘. man that used knife kill (it). 39 Though the instrumental clause construction is used gene- rally to express such ideas as illustrated above, it is also used to express certain relations which have nothing to do with the instrumental idea whatsoever. For example, in expressing the period of time spent on something, the instrumental construction is used: Ckhu6 ni yé 1f1n153 isén ri Bvbir6. woman that used minutes five eat food. I Ills! \ \I ya ggogo oha s? owa e00 he used clock three reach home. [he reached home at three o 'clock.) 2. 3.1-Ami. Formula: +S.A : Imp.pro +P.Imp : VPip +0.G-A : NP/RC +Act.P : VP1d Illustrated formula: +S.A : Imp.pro +P.Imp : VP1p +0.G-A : NP1e +Act.P : IPid 9 ‘9? in. in y; i. it quicked they all to run away [they were all able to run away.) 3.Causatiye. Formula: +5.0. : NP/RC +P.Ca : vpiq +0.G-A : NP/RC +Act.P : VP1a 10.G : NP/RC Illustrated formula: +S.Ca:NP1a +P.Ca:VP1q +0.G1A:NP1a +Act.P:VP1a 10.G:NP1c 3khu6 ni igé mwon gbi 636 woman that caused me break bottle. 40 Like the instrumental clause construction, the causative is also used to express permission: §kh§6d6 gi6 ibiéké n1 gb3r6. gatoman allowed children that pass. [the gateman allowed the children to pass.) 4.Benefactive. Formula: +S.Ben:NP/RC +P.Ben:VP1r +0.Be:NP/RC +Act.P:VP1e 10.1:NP/RC +I.0:NP3d Illustrated formula: +S.Ben:NP1a +P.Ben:VP1r +0.Be:NP1a +Act.P:VP1e 10.I:NP1c Otén mwén g6 1y; mwén rh13 evbare sister my helped mother my give food +1.0:NP3d n3 ibiéké ni to children that. [my sister fed the children for my mother.) The benefactive clause construction is also frequently used for expressing the idea of accompaniment: iran 3v; mi 1316 §s3 mwén yd Csési. they two that followed friend my go church. [those two followed my friend to church.) s3 mw6n g6 mwon rinmwién 3kpi6 ni. e.’ friend my helped me beg A man that. [my friend and I begged that man.) 3.3 Marginal Taggemes:All four complex clause types have as marginal tagmemes Location and Time, and with the 41 exception of the_impersonal clause, they all also have a marginal Manner tagmeme. As with the basic simple clause types, those three marginal tagmemes are optional. The Purpose tagmeme frequently occurs optionally with the benefactive and instrumental clauses, but hardly ever with the impersonal and causative. Below are some exam- ples of marginal tagmemes occurring with complex clause types: - 1.Instrumental: ‘ \ I \ 0 y; .TéPii gii 3gb6 vbe 6d§ node n6 6 gb3r6. he used cutlass cut fenfle at 4 road yesterday that he pass. 2.1-personal: 0 k6 mwen yd khimin rén vb; 6w; n6d§. it qiicked me to tell him at home yesterday. 3.Causative: Okhu6 n1 gi6 avbi 6;; sékan. woman that caused child her spoil. [that woman spoiled her child.) 1.8enofactive: 026 g6 irin gid 6rhin n6d§ 1 n3 irdn ghé gb6 6;; Ozo helped them cut wood yesterday that they not flog him. [Ozo helped them to cut some wood yesterday so that they might ._ not flog him. 1 3.4 Clause VariantszThe main variant forms of the basic complex clause types are the different allo-con- structions which result from the different possible slot _a.__. _ 42 fillers of the Sequential Action component. Thus the instrumental clause has five main variant forms, the causative and impersonal eight,and the benefactive five. Also, further_variations can occur from the presence or absence of any of the optional tagmemes. Below are some examples of variants resulting from allo-constructions: 1.0 y6 6:6 fiin iyén. he used knife cut yam. 2.0 y6_ 3w6 ldvbié. he used mat lie down. [he lay on a mat) 3.0 ye iméta y3 isési. he used car go church. 4.0 y; 6kp6n rhi3 zvbdr6 n6 026. he used plate give food to Ozo. I 5.0 y6 drhin rud iku fi uvun. he used stick push dirt into hole. CHAPTER FOUR: DERIVED CLAUSE TYPES. The clauses of this group have in common a derivation- al relationship with the basic clause types. However, in spite of this derivational relationship, they show suf- 1 differences from ficient structural and distributional the basic clause types to warrant their classification as contrastive clause types. These differences shall be discussed later, but first will be presented a citation paradigm showing the derived clauses as transform types of some of the basic clauses.‘ 1It is necessary at this point to mention that the criteria used as basis for clause distinction in this chapter and the next are subject to revision and possible modification, with a larger and less restricted formal corpus. Some of the clauses now classified as derived and emic(i.e., contrastive) may be found to be only etic variants, while some of those now classified as etic variants may fit into the contrastive derived group. However, one major distinction, at this point, between -thoso two groups of clauses is that while the members of the derived variants can be simultaneously derived, the members of the contrastive derived group cannot: that is, while it is possible to have an interrogative emphatic transitive clause, it is not possible to have an imperative hortative transitive clause, or an impe- rative concessional transitive clause, etc. 43 44 A Citation Paradigm Showing the Contrastive Derived Forms of Some of the Basic Clause Types. 1.Transitive: a.Dec: Okpia ni gb6 §w6. - [That man killed a goat.) man that killed goat. b.1m: ab; §w$l - [Kill a goat!) Kill goat! c.Hort: G13 6 gb6 -§w6. - [Lot's kill a goat.) Let we kill goat. d.D.I: 0 ghi gbd éw6... - [When he killed a goat..) he WhCB kill goat... e.Con: 9 ,rhé 3b; §w6.. -[Though he killed a goat..) s. though kill goat... f.R.A: N3 é gb6 §w6 - [who killed a goat.) that he killed goat. g.Cend: 0 ghi ng §w6.. - [If he kills a goat...) he if kill goat... 2.Eguative: a.Dec: Okpié n3 E3 3h§n., - [This man is a priest.) man this be priest. b e III! 3 -"--" c.Hort: 613 6 ghé P3 6hén. -[Let's be priests.) lot we (preg)be priests.“ 45 d.D.I: 0 ghi r8 6h6n.. - [When he was a priest..) he when he priest.. e.Con: 0 rh6 ;3 6h§n.. -[Though he is a priest..) he though be priest.. \ f.R.A: Ne E3 ohén. - [who is a priest.) e0! that he be priest. -I g.Cond: 0 ghi re dhén.. - [If he is a priest...) be if be priest... 3.Demonstrative: a.Dec: Okhu6 n3 ne. - [It's this woman.) woman this (it)is. c.Hort: ----- d.D.le0 ghi :6 6khu6 n3:.. -[When it was this wonam..) it when be woman this.. e.COn: 0 rh6 P3 6khu6 n5... -[Though it's this woman..) it though he woman this.. f.R.A: N3 t khin. - [who it is.) that it be. g Cond: 9 3h; Ea ashes n3... -[If it's this woman..) it if b0 woman th13eo 4.1nstrumental: a.Dec: 0 y6 6r§ fiin 3rh6n. -[He cut the wood with a he used knife cut wood. knife.) 46 b.Im: Y3 6P§ fiin 3rh6n: -[Cut the wood with a knife!) usd knife cut wood}! c.Hort: Gié 6 ya 6:6 fidn 6rh6n. -[Let's cut the wood with let weuse knife cut wood. 6 a knife.) d.D.I: 9 ghi y: 3F§ fi3n 3rh£n.. -[When he cut the wood he when us; knife cut w6od.. with a knife..) e.Con: 0 rh6 yd 3:3 fiin 3rh6n.. -[Though he cut the he though use knife eat”...a.. wood with a knife..) f.R.A: N3 é y: SF§ fi3n 3rhén. -[who cut the wood with that he use knife cut wood. a knife.) g.Cond: 0 ghd yd 6:6 fiin 6rh6n... -[If he cuts the wood he if use knife cut wood... with s knife..) Clause Contrasts:As the examples above indicate, the derived clauses differ from each other in their consti- tuent structure. They also differ in distribution, as will be shown later. To highlight their structural differences, the nuclear tagmemes of the different contrastive derived forms of the basic transitive clause have been represented in the chart below. 47 Chart V: The Iuclear Taggemes of the Six Contrastive . Derived12YPe§ of the Basic Transitive Clause. 1.Inperative: I+S.A:Wa, +P.Im:VP1a 10.G:NP/RC 2.Hortative: +Hk.Mk:Gie +S.A:NP/RC +P.Hr:VP1a 10.G:NP/RC 3.Dependent Initial: +S.A:NP/RC +T:ghi +P. D.I:VP1a 10.G:NP/RC 4.Concessional: +S.A:NP/RC +Con:rhe +P.Con:VP1a 10.G:NP/RC 5.Conditional: +S.A:NP/RC +Cond:;h3 +P.Cond:VP1a 10.G:NP/RC 6.Rslatsr-Axis: +Su.Rel:ne/Adv +S.A:NP/RC +P.Su:VP1a 10.G:NP/RC As a supplement to the information on the above charts, each of the clause types has been further des- cribed below. 1.112erative:The imperative differs from other clause types in that it is the only_one without a sub- ject filler in the singular. In the plural, the only filler of the Subject slot is the plural second person personal pronoun. For example: Singular: Ri 3vb3;3:" eat food! Plural: W3 ri 3vbi§61 You eat food: “r... 48 In distribution, the imperative clause is the only clause type that fills a command slot in a higher-level construc- tion. 2.Hortative:The hortative clause has a special marker "gie", which occurs obligatorily before the Subject. A further peculiarity of this clause is that it does not have a past time form. Also, its Subject slot can only be filled by the first person plural noun phrase or pronoun, or a relative clause. _3.Dopendent11nitial: This clause type is characterized by the presence of an obligatory temporal tagmeme mani- fested by "ghi", [ghi], which immediately turns the clause into a dependent one. In distribution, it occurs only ini- tially in a clause, filling a Time slot. 4.Concessional: The concessional clause differs from the other clause types in that it has an obligatory Con- cossion tagmeme just before its Predicate tagmeme. 1A dependent clause is taken to mean one that contains a subordinating tagmeme and therefore lacks the potential for occurring as a complete or entire utterance on a_ higher-level, whereas the independent clause has this potential. There are two types of dependent clause: the bipartite structured «type, like the clauses of the relater-axis group, whose subordinator is also the in- treducer or relater of the rest of the clause that forms the axis; the second type is a regular non-centered clause whose subordinator occurs medially in the construc- tion. Examples of the second type are the dependent initial clause, and the concessional. 49 Like the dependent initial clause, it is a dependent clause, but it is not restricted to only the initial position in clauses, for it can also occur after the last nuclear tagmeme of the clause it modifies. A 5.Conditiong1: There are two types of conditional clauses, one is a relater-axis type(to be discussed later), while the other has a Condition slot filler "gh3". This slot usually occurs Just before the Predicate tagmeme. In distribution, it occurs only initially in higher-level constructions. 6.Relator-Axis:The relator-axis clause type is a spe- cial class of distinct dependent clauses, which have been grouped together because of their similarity in structure. Apart from the structural similarity of the clauses, they are each distinct from the other both in their distribution and in the emic classes filling their Subordinator slots. The clauses of this class are: 1.Rslative 2.5ubjunctive 3.Time 4. Manner 5.Condition1 6.Reason. The chart below shows the component tagmemes and class fillers of the clauses of this group. 1This clause shall hereafter be referred to as Condition R.A, to distinguish it from the other Conditional clause. 50 Chart VIzThe Component Tagmemes of the Transitive Relator- Axis Group of Clauses. 1.Relative: +Su.Rsl:n3 +S.A:NP/RC +P.Rel:VP1c4 10.G:NP/RC 2.Sub unctive: \ +5U.Rel:n3 +S.A:NP/RC +P.Sub:VP1a 10.G:NP/RC ' (Sub. need) 3 oTi-O 3 +5u.Rel:vb§gh3n3 +S.A:NP/RC +P.T:VP2&4 10.G:NP/RC 4.Manner: I \ ' +Su.Rel:vbene +S.A:NP/RC +P.M:VP1-4 10.G:NP/RC 5.Condition R.A: +Su.Rel:d6gh§ +S.A:NP/RC +P.CondeP2&4 10.G:NP/RC 6.Reason: +5u.Rel:rhinwand$n3 +S.A:NP/RC +P.Rea:VP2&4 10.G:NP/RC The following are the distributional differences between the clauses charted above, and other clauses in general: 1.The relative clause, in addition to its distribu- tion on clause-level, is the only clause type that can fill a Modifier slot on phrase-level. 2.The subjunctive clause is the only clause that can fill the Object-as-Topic slot in the transitive 1C clause type. 3.The other adverbial clauses fill different adverb- ial slots relevant to their type. CHAPTER FIVE: DERIVED VARIANTS. The clauses of this group add one more feature to the dimensional pattern of the clause system in Bini, as shown by the diagram below. CLAUSES Basic Types——>-——-Contrastiee Derived Types \\ ‘, ” =1 €r \ / \/ Derived Vhriants. The arrows indicate the direction of development, while the broken lines represent non-contrastive relationship. The variant clauses are therefore etic variants of all the other contrastive clause types. The tagmemes found in the different derived variant clauses may ce-occur in a single clause, for example, there can be a negative interrogative transitive clause, just as there can be a negative transitive one or an inter- rogative transitive clause, all three clauses being derived variants of the basic transitive clause: 1.Basic Tr: 026 gb6 §w6. Ozo killed seat. 2. Neg. Tr: 026 m6n gb6 §w6. ,Ozo not killed goat. 3.Neg.Int.Tr: T6 023 mén gb6 §w32 (Q) 026 not killed goat? The citation paradigm that follows is intended to show the forms of the derived variant clauses, showing the 1See table on page v above.51 52 basic transitive as the derivational source: a.Dec: 026 gb6 6w6. -[02o killed a goat.) Ozo killed goat. b.1nt: Gh6 § gb6 6w6? -twn. killed a goat?) (1) who he killed goat: :(ii) yb3 026 6-gb6? -[What did 02o kill?) what Ozo killed: (iii) 026 gb6 6w6 F3: -[Did Ozo kill a goat?) 02o killed goat (Q)? (1') T6 026 'gb6 6w6? -[Did Ozo £111 a goat?) (0) Ozo killed gout: c.Emp: 026 §P§ é gb6 6w6. -lggg killed a goat.) (1) Ozo it is he killed goat. (ii) Ew6 6r6 026 gb6. -[02o killed a £331.] 3... it is 02. killed. d.Neg: 026 m6n gb6 6w6. -[02o did not kill a goat.) (1) Ozo not killed goat. (ii) 1 1 P3 026 § gb6 6w6. -[It's not 02o who kill- it(neg)be 02o he killed goat. ed a goat.) e.Seq: S6kp6n 026 gb6 6w6. -[But Ozo killed a goat.) but 02o killed goat. The structure of the clauses will now be briefly discussed. 1.Interrogative:TAn interrogative variant has a spe- cial interrogative tagmeme which immediately turns a declarative statement into a question. Apart from the 53 "Yes" or "No" type of question, the Interrogative tag- meme usually occurs at the initial position in the clause; in the "Yes" or "No" question, the Interrogative tagmeme occurs at final position in the clause. The interrogative variants result from the fact that different items form the focus of the different questions, such that the question focussed on the Subject-as-Actor differs from that focussed on the Object-as-Goal. Generally, however, whatever distributional differences exist between a basic clause type and its interrogative variant can bs attributed to the presence of the obligatory interrogative tagmeme in the latter. Thus the basic difference between both clauses remains only one, which is not enough to cause their classification as distinct clauses. 2.Emphatic3Emphasis leads to classes of emphatic clauses, differing according to the tagmeme which is emphasized. Any tagmeme, whether nuclear or marginal, can be emphasized in any basic clause type, but the resulting clause is an emphatic variant of that basic clause type. A tagmeme is emphasized by shifting it to a position before the Subject tagmeme, and it is linked with the rest of the clause by a special emphatic copula--"§;§", which can be translated as "it is". In rapid speech,- however, this link tends to be left out; so in this sense, it could be termed optional. If the Subject filler is emphasized, it is also shifted to the pro-Subject position, 54 while the original Subject slot is then filled by a corresponding pronoun. This fact therefore suggests that there is an Emphatic tagmemic slot which is filled by the emphasized item, and if this item happens to be the filler of another obligatory slot in the clause, it is substituted for by a pronoun in the latter slot. For example: 026 bé 3wé. --> 025 §§§ é bé 3wa. Ozo built house. 020 it is he built house. When the emphasized item is a pronoun, it is replaced by an emphatic pronoun in the Emphatic slot: 0 so éwu. --> §§n §F§ é so ewu. she made dress. she it is she made dress. In distribution, the emphatic clause usually doesn’t occur as the initial statement in a discourse. This is because it carries, as a shade of meaning, a refutation of an earlier statement, or an assertion of an initial claim. This distributional constraint, however, only points back to the fact of the presence of an emphatic tagmeme in its structure, and therefore does not consti- tute a second difference necessary for its classification as a distinct clause typo. 3.Squential:A sequential variant is characterized By the obligatory Link tagmeme which introduces it. Another common feature of this clause is that the Subject slot is occasionally filled by a pronoun referring back 55 to the noun phrase filler of a slot in the previous ‘clause; but this is more a stylistic feature rather than the rule. As with the emphatic clause, the presence of the initial Link tagmeme restricts the distribution of the sequential clause in higher-level constructions, because it can only occur as the second clause in a clause-serial construction. 4.Negative:1n a negative variant of a basic or derived clause, the item which constitutes the focus of the negative is expanded to include a negative modie fier, and this immediately transforms the positive clause to a negative one. When the Predicate filler is the focus of the negative, the negative modifier is usually a single-word particle; but when other items, such as the fillers of the Subject or Object slots, constitute the focus of the negative, the negative modifier is a special construction, "@ i F3" , meaning "it isn't". However, whatever form the negative modifier may assume, it should rightly be classified as a phrase-level tagmeme, rather than a clause-level one. CHAPTER SIX: CLiUSE DISTRIBUTION. With the exception of the relative clause, all other clauses are limited in distribution mainly to higher-level constructions, such as the sentence or paragraph. Also, some of the basic clauses frequently occur in a kind of clause cluster or serial construction. In structure, this construction is superficially similar to the basic complex clause types, but it is fundamentally different from that group of constructions in that it lacks the close-knit relationship which exists between the components of the former. It generally consists of a sequence of clauses which are very loosely linked toge- ther by the sharing of some tagmemes-- either for reasons of economy or style, or because the unrepeated tagmeme is self-evident in the context. Such clause serial construc- tions can be explained by the following structural repre- sentation:. Class 1: Initial Clause 3 Secondary Clause Class 2: Initial Clause - Secondary Clause In these formulas, "1" means optional presence, while "-" means obligatory absence. It therefore means that the clauses belonging to class 1 can occur alone as inde- pendent clauses, or can form a serial construction with another clause occurring as the second member. The clauses belonging to class 2, on the other hand, are terminal in the sense that they are incapable of forming a serial construction if they occur as the initial clause. 56 58 4. 0 vbié rhiére. -[He slept and woke.) he slept wake 0 vbi§;3.0 rhiére. (In.+In.) 5.0 nose y§ mwen. -[She is pretty and plea- she beautiful please me. sing to me.) 0 nose. 0 ye mwen. (St.+Tr.1B) 6. Efi ése nén di ivbfibé ya. -[He did her a good he'did good for-her stay po:;rty turn and ended in 0 Pu ése n§n. 0die ivbabé ya. (Ditr-+Loc.) poverty.) 7. 0 mi éghée fi 6t? mu éghomwén. -[He threw his own he take his onto floor take mine. down and took 0 lfi éshéé. fi oto. 0 mu oghomwan. (Dir + Tr) mine.) As the examples above indicate, not only are some clause types capable of occurring as the initial clause in a cluster, but they can also occur as the secondary clause. To show this more clearly, below is a co-occurren- ce matrix1 of the basic simple clause types, with the secondary clauses forming the columns while the initial clauses form the rows: 1The matrix is based primarily on the evidence provided by the formal corpus on which this analysis’ is based. 59 Chart VII: A Co-occurrence Matrix of the Bini Basic Simple Clause Types. Secondary Clauses. Loc Tr In Ditr Dir St Eq Dem Desc Tr: x 'x x 'x x x x a x : Imu x x x x x - x - - a : Loc: 1: x x x x - x - - '3 Ditr: x x x x x - x - - ,4 d .p a Dir: x x x x x - x - - 1 An "x" means that the clause along the row can co-occur with the clause along the column. A dash indicates that the negative is the case. APPENDIX I The following is an elaboration of the phrase 1 types filling the tagmemic slots in charts III and Iv above. Noun Phrases: NP1: This stands for all types of basic noun phrases. NP1a: +Head Ani.Hum.noun pro prOo n“. Examples: ibieka eha gieghegieghe children three small [three little children] NP1b: +Head Ani.N.H.noun Examples: ekita nokhua hia does. his all [all big dogsI NP1c: +Head Ina.noun Examples: 3b; ni. book that [that book] NP1d: +Head Locn. noun Examples: eki nore. market far [distant market] NP1c: +Head Time noun Examples: uzola eva ni week two that +Modifier(s) :quan :Dem num adj idOGo ikpié dan hia n8 _men bad all this [all these bad men] :Mediriertg) Same \Iel ofen eso rats some [some rats]. :Modifior(s) Same ~ iPé :si hi thought good this [this good idea] :Modifier(s) Same :Modifier(s) Same [these two weeks] 11The analysis below is by no means a complEte analysis of. phrase constructions in Bini. 6O 61 NPlf: +Head iModifier(s) Numeral :qual :Dem_ Examples: evi gedugédu ni two ’ big _ that [those two big ones] NP2: This stands for all kinds of relative noun phrase. NP2a: +Head.Rel. iModifier(s) E noun a,b,c RBlator-Axis clause. iDem. " " phrase Examples: omwin no u mien ni owa vberio person that youisaw that house lika that [that person who you saw] [a house like that] NP2b: +Head.Rel :Modifier(s) :Dem Adv R.A clause Examples: vbe n3 3 Eu. vbe ne 3 khiin how that he does how that he walks [how he behaves] [how he walks] NP2e: +Head.Rel iModifier(s) ' iDem Time noun RaA~clause Examples: uzola n3 3 d; week that it(is) coming [next week] NPZd: +Head.Rel iModifier(s) iDem temporal R.A phrase Examples: avid no ikhue isén no §F§ morning that tomorrow night that today [tomorrow morning] [to-night] NP2e: +Head.Rel iModifier(s) :Dem Locn. noun R.A clause Examples: 3vbo no 6 ke re town thatihe from come [the town that he comes from] NP3: This stands for all types of relator-axis phrase types. 62 NP3a: +Relator :Modifier(s) +Head :Dem vbe directional noun noun a- d Examples: vb; uwu uvun ni vbe uhunmwun ateburu at_inside hole that at, head U table [inside of that hole] [on top of the table] NP3b: +Relator iModifier(s) +Head iDem vbe noun Time noun Examples: vbe 33h; Bwio vbe 3vb3re ota at time morning at food evening [in the morning] [at dinner] NP3c: +Relator +Modifier +Head ' vbe Iocn noun Place name Examples: vb; okpen Ed; at proximity Benin [in the vicinity of Benin] NP3d: +Relator +Head iDom no ' noun a,b,f NP2a, NPQ, NP5a Examples: n5 ckpié ni n3 3mwin n3 5 re n3 to man that to person that he come this [to that man] [to this man who came] NP4. This stands for possessive noun phrase. +Head iModifier(s) NPE: +Poss.....1 +Possr Same as_for NP1a Examples: as; 3vbi 3kpi$ ni 3vbire ekité 026 chair child man that .food” ”dog. 020 [the chair of that man's [Ozo's dog's food] child] 1Dots indicate recursivoness. 63 NPs: This stands for all types of co-ordinate noun phrase. NP5a: +Head iModifier(s) +Coo :Link +Coo :Link...1 +Coo See NPlf NPla- vbe NPia- vbe NP1a-c c, c Examples: 026 vbe Otabo vbe Iyayi...... Ozo and Otabo and Iyayi..... NPSb: +Head 1 iModifier(s) +num :Link +num iLink..... +num Same Examples: 3v; vbe eh; vbe isen.... two and three and five..... NPSc: +Head :Modifier(s) +temp tLink +temp :Link... +temp Same Examples: dwie vbe Evin vbe oti.... morning and afternoon and evening.... NP5d: +Head ‘ iModifier(s) +Loc :Link +Loc iLink....+Loc Same Examples: onwén vbe Edo vb deri... phone and Benin and'Warri.... Verb Phrases: The four ”in: classes of verb phrases are: VPl: all types of simple verb phrase; VPZ: all types pf pre-modified verb phrase; VP}: all types of post-modified verb phrase; VPQ: all types of pre- and post-modified verb phrase. The different subgroups of each verb phrase (indicated on the charts by letters) represent the special verb class of the clause type.Thus, VP1a means simple transitive verb phrase. A verb phrase usually consists of the verb-word 64 and its modifiers such as tense, aspect, and modal. While the first two are obligatory as well as nuclear to the verb phrase, the latter is optional though also nuclear. Thus the formulaic representation of a typical verb phrase would be: +tense imodal +aspect +verb-head. Tense is usually realized as a tone notation on the verb, but mode and aspecé are usually realized as lexical items. 1Threeaspects operate in Bini: progressive, completive, and habitual. The last two aspects, like tense, may occur as tone on the verb. Thus a single tone mark on a verb could mean both tense and aspect indication. APPENDIX II Symbols and abbreviations used in the analysis: Symbol i 4. / Interpretation optional obligatory filled by (in formulas) consists of eithernuor(in formulas) The abbreviations are arranged alphabetically below. Abbreviation Act Adv Alla-Con Ani BC Be Ben Beno BS Ca Com Con Cond Dec Deg Interpretation Action Adverb Allo-construction Animate Basic Complex Benefactee Benefactive Benefactor Basic Simple Clause Causative Complement Concessional Conditional Declarative Degree 65 Abbreviation Dem Dep Der Desc D.I Dir Ditr EL Emp Eq Hort or Hr Hum ideo Im Imp In 1.0 Ina Infl Ins Int Loc Locn Max Min 66 Interpretation Demonstrative Dependent Derived Descriptive Dependent Initial Directive Ditransitive Emphatic Link Emphatic Equative Hortative Human ideophone Imperative Impersonal Intransitive Indirect Object Inanimate Inflectional Instrumental Interrogative Locative Location Manner Maximal Minimal Abbreviation Neg N.H NP num 0.Be 0.6 0.G-A 0.1 0.Ins 0.T 0.R P.D.P Pm Poss Possr Post.m PP pros pro pro.name Pur Q qual quan 67 Interpretation Negative Non-Human Noun Phrase numeral Object-as-Benefactee Object-as-Goal Object-as-Goal and Actor Object-as-Item Object-as-Instrument Object-as-Topic Object-as-Reference Predicate Predicative Directive Particle Pro-modifier Possessive Possessor Post-modifier Predicative Particle Progressive pronoun Proper name Purpose Question qualifier quantifier Abbreviation R.A RC Rel S.A S.Ca Seq SeI St Su Sub temp Tr 68 Interpretation Relator-Axis Relative Clause Relator Subject-as-Actor Subject-as-Cause Sequential Subject-as-Item Stative Subordinator or Subordinate Subjunctive Time temporal Transitive Verb Phrase. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cook, Walter A. S.J. 0n Tagmemes and Transforms, Georgetown University Press, Washing- ton D.C.,Institute of Languages and Linguistics. 1964. Elson,Benjamin and Pickett,Velma, An Introduction to Morphology and Syntax, Santa Ana, California, Summer Institute of Linguistics. 1962. Longacre, Robert E, Grammar Discoverngrocedures:a Field Manual, The Hague, 1964. ----- "String Constituent Analysis", Language 36, 63-88, 1960 McClure, David H, A_ngmemic Description of the Indepen- dent Transitive Non-Emphatic Clause in a Small Sample of Yoruba, A Thesis for Degree of M.A., Michigan State University. 1966. Pike, Kenneth L, "Dimensions of Grammatical Construc- tions", Language 38, 221-244, 1962. ---4- "A Syntactic Paradigm", Language 39, 216—230, 1963. ----- "Language as Particle, Wave, and Field", The Texas Quarterly, 2.2, 37-54, 1959. ----- Language in Relation to a Unified h t r 0 Hum n Beh - _1193, Vols. I,& III, Glendale, California, 69 Pike, Kenneth L, Wescott, Roger W, 70 1954, 1960; Zhd Edition: The Hague, 1967. Iggmemic and Matrix Linguistics Applied to Selected African Languages,Ann Arbor, Michigan, The University of Michigan Center for Research on Language and Language Behavior. November 1966. A BINI GRAMMARL_Part I: Phonolqu, African Studies Center, Michigan State University, 1962. THE CORPUS The four folktales presented here constitute the formal data on which this study is based. The tales are arranged such that the numbering of the Bini text corres- ponds to that of the literal English translation. A free translation follows at the end of each tale. In the Bini text, only low tone and the two glides are marked. 71 .7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 72 Folktale One: Ekpén have: orinota. Ede okpa ke d6 re. Ekp§n ne oba avbe iPanmwen-oha hia ke d6 bio. Ugbén vb; o ghi bi; nen, 9 na we: fl'Vbi i Pa khian Pu émwen vaire'hé vbe éghé n3 he i khian n8 s§tin y' ébdfi?“ Uwu§;e ni 9 na yére‘ighé § i mwen avbe 5Pamwen-6ha man do tu i;§n n' i;§n na da bie n3. na ghi yaa igh§ iPAn §?' iE§n ghi y; kok' omen, kak' 0finot§ gb; ekpen s6 vberié, é ghi .a hen igh' §kp§n hiss, ? na kp' 6t§ kp' 6t§ y; ladian vbe ugua f;3.. ” ” ' ' 0 ghi gui lddiin nen, 9 na 26 eken kherhe gu' uvun ni. 9 na féke léPe y' awn uvun ni gha damwen-ého eyan k' eyan ne ekpen gha yan. 0 ghi w; hon ighé §kp§n w' i;§n gha y' avb' a?amw§n- gha ni gha do tul o-re‘koki émon kok' 6gbe, o na w; tulemu gha rie uw' oha. 0 na si avb' 3Pamwen-oha hia kdko. 0 na khaman iFAn igh' ekpen w' iFAn eP' i§§n khian ya kdk'fldmnn k6k' egbe. 73 14. 0han ke ghi mu iPEn esese. 15. IPEn na gha ha yo ha re.” 16. UwieP; ni §rinot§ ghi a: w§z 17. "Wighe gil 6han m' uwa; ode re n' i gha l' ekpén P3." 'W‘ eat 18. Hi ghi h' iks gi' eFB, w: ghe l 'Fé"5w;; sakpan' w; ghi kl ;;e;e d3 khaman P§n ighg t"uw3 hi aka gi'ePS. 19. W; gha ghi khaman‘;§n non, wd sétin l§.nl 20. Iran hia kgghi ghéghé y' éwaén n' éfinoté zoo. 21. 0 man ghi he kpee, edomwandcghee na gb' ikun-erhan mu mwen n' iPan mu gi' ekpen. 22. N' o rhirhi s' ogh' ekpen ghi mu ikun-erhan P§n fua 2‘ ihuan s6: \ 23."Ekp§n mi' erhan, gbele; erh n n' u k6ko ni; n' u o0! ya rdnmw' imSn;" 24.naaa 9 as. §Pezn 25."0finot§ n' 3wa,45betu wowewe, é su ekhen y' ekl, 6 man ghi su §Pe re." 26. @kp§n ghi hin 'hain n' iEan so, § ghi hun 'dé n' éfinoté bu iran Po, 6 ke mob? yan Pen unuafl. 27. 0h& ke vbe mu'én ésesa. ' 28. Q'na suén gha yan Byan hia kh§ éfinoté, bhen' i;§n gha w; lie h? vb; imen-arhen. 29. Vb' uw' eghé n3, éfinoté vbe 1%;3 y' uvun e3§n nen sin. 30. 0 P6n§§n igh' . p ‘ I . , _‘, i mwen ekpen man 2' iro n' O O O oOI 'khé da on no igh§HP§n n' ofinoté é?‘ o'bu O O ._‘, ‘ - iron vb' o 'a 0 O " \- " ‘ s \ avbe aramwen-oha ude. 0 . 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38¢ 390 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 74 0 na feko gha damwén-éh6 vb' uw'uvun ePen. 0 hon éyan hia n' Ekpén yan kh'oge. 0 ghi gie avb' aPamwen-Bha hia y' ogh' ekpen gha obo nen, 9 na ya gual' ab' erhan. 0 na gha di' 6da;' ow' ekpen. 0 ghi 8' 6b? dédédé nen, 9 na dahkhAman ekpén n' c ki' urh6 igh? te irén do tu' 9:5. Ekpen ghi hon, 9 na zégiegig si y' Amen ne ? mu yan erhén n' 6 khian mu éfinoté fi. Ekpén ghi kie urh6 nen, gie gha vin yan oéfinoté, éfinoté na 1% fua. Ekpen na ghi we swaEn Pen gha ya Pu'se. Ere o ghi na gha go tie 6 finoté n' o wériégbe gha d3 Ighé ten i rfi ér' cmwin rhékpa. 0 na we ofinoto man ren ighe t' iren te khian ded' ere? 0finot§ na gele weriegbe gha d3. Ekpén man Pen igh' §finot§ 2' iPO emwin n' 6 gha Pu men. 0 ghi 3' she n' ékpén ye nen, ekpen na we n' 9 15h? n' 9 do diak' émon khe iP§n igh' i;§n khian y' 3gbe- owa. 0finot6 na we 6 man. 0 ghi gie ékpén fi iyek§.gbe men, 9 na tén avbi eEé .- b \ \ \ \ . \ "’ ."'\ mu., 0 na mu'en fl amen-erhen ne iy'ee te ya 2'ir'iren. o o e o e 0 £16. 47. 48. 49. 50. 75 Ekpén ghi hén vb' avbi ere da tn, 9 na vin gha d8; [S6kpan, ? to 3' ans n' 6finot6 ye, éfinots san fi \ \ . \ uvun n, 0 teen nen. O. O \ Ukp' erhunrhun ePEn n' ob' ekpén ghi vba na bale y' . \- \ \ . \ \ \ ‘\ ‘ Uni o 51 ere n' ukperhurhun oflnoto na ba rierlerl O O O O Q 0 O O om, b \ \ \ -\ , -\ ikinegbe erhunrhun eren n' i kere. O O O . Evba ni 6kha na na ya d3 wu. 19 39 4. S. 79 8. 76 Folktale One: A Literal English Translation. One day then finally came. Tiger that king all beast-forest then finally born. When that he after born already, he then said: flWhat I will do matter food how at time this that I not going be able to hunt?" Inside it that he then remembered that it not have all beast-forest not come greet him that he now just born like this.. ' ’ He then threatened that they it is he will use grow child, grow himself. The rabbit know tiger reach like that, \ He after really hear that tiger born, he then dig ground dig ground so come out at room his. He when dig come out after, he then gathered sand ,little cover hole that. 10. fi%' 129 13. 149 15. He then carefully hid in hole that be listening threat by threat that tiger will make. when really hear that tiger said he will use all beast- forest that will come greet him grow child grow himself, he then just run going into forest. He gathered all beast-forest together. He then told them that tiger said they it is he will use grow child grow himself. Fear did then catch them very much.. They then be fret forward fret back. 169 17. 18. 199 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 279 28. 29. 30. 77 Inside it that, rabbit then said: "You don't let fear catch you; road exists that we will pass tiger by. You when take gift to him, you not enter house his; but you from_outside shout tell him that you bring gift for him. You after when you tell him already, you can run away." They all happy for wisdom that rabbit made. It not yet long, each one then tied bundle wood carry with him that he carry to tiger. Who. ever reach tiger's place throws bundle-wood his down start song sing: "Tiger, take wood,(gbele: drum refrain); fire that you made that; that you use fry us;" "Who he say it?" "Rabbit of house, the bearded one, he follows women to market, he not again follow them back." Tiger when hear the song that they sing, he when hear the advice rabbit advise them, it really open him mouth completely. Anger catch him too very much. He then start be threatening threats all await rabbit, how he will really cook him in Hater-fire At time this, rabbit again hide in hole his already since. He knew that it not have tiger not think thought that 78 it bad towards him when he has known that him the rabbit it is he advise all beast-forset advice._ 31, He then carefully be listening inside hole his. 329 33- 34. 350 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. He hear threats all that tiger threatened towards him. He after let all beast-forest go tiger's place finish, he went look for branch wood. He then be coming to front house tiger. ‘ He after knock hard already, he then shout tell tiger that he cpen door that he come visit him._ Tiger when hear, he then quickly push (wood pinto fire) for the water that he put on fire, that he will put rabbit into. Tiger after cpen door , let him be springing on rabbit, rabbit ran away. Tiger then said wisdom he will use do it. It is he then be shouting call rabbit that he turn- be coming back that he not do him thing any. He said rabbit not know that he was going to embrace him? Rabbit then truly turn be coming back. Tiger not know that rabbit think thought thing that he will do already. He when reach place that tiger be already, tiger said that he please that he come stand near child for him that he about to go behind house. Rabbit said it good. 79 45. He when let tiger turn back already, he then lift child his up, he then throw it into water-fire, that mother him had used to await him. 46. Tiger when he hear child his shout cry, he then sprang back; 47. But he before reach place that rabbit be, rabbit jump into hole that he dig already. 48.Tip tail him that hand tiger reach peel for tiger hand. 49. That caused it that tip tail rabbit be red slightly more than skin tail that is‘left.‘ 50. Place that story this go fall die. I 80 Folktale One: The Tiger and the Rabbit. Once upon a time, the tiger, king of all the beasts of the forest, had a cub. Soon he started to worry: "What will I do for food during this period when I canlt go hunting?" Then he remembered that the other animals will not fail to come and pay homage to him and his new baby. So he decided that they will serve as his food for that period. The rabbit knew the tiger very well, and suspected that he must be making some evil plans now that he can't -go hunting. So he started to pipe out a hole until he came out at the tiger's room. As soon as he had come out at the tiger's floor, he covered_his hole with a layer of sand, and then hid quietly in it,,listening to hear whatever plans the tiger might be making. As soon as he heard the tiger decide to feed on the animals who would come to visit him, he immediately ran into the forest. He assembled all the animals and announced to them that the tiger was planning to feed on them. They were all greatly frightened. The rabbit then told them not to be afraid. He advised them that when they take their gifts 'to the tiger, they should not enter his house, but should shout from outside that they had brought him a present. After that, they could run away. They were all happy with the rabbit's wise suggestion. Soon afterwards, each one carried his bundle of fire~ 81 wood to take to the tiger. Whenever each get to his house, he would throw down his bundle and start to sing: Song . Refrain Tiger, accept firewood! Gbele That fire you made o o o o "H To roast us in.... "" Who said it? . "" The house-rabbit! "" The bearded one! "" Who escorts women to market, "" But never returns with them. "" When the tiger heard how the rabbit had advised all the animals, he was very angry and started to lay plots down for him. But the rabbit was again listening_in his hole, and heard all the plans that tiger had made. After all the other animals had been to the tigers house, he then went and looked for a branch, and went to the tiger's door. After knocking hard, he shouted to the tiger to cpen the door because he had come on a visit. As soon as the tiger heard who it was, he quickly added more fire-wood to the fire so that the water he was boiling to throw the rabbit into might boil faster. As soon as he had opened the door and wanted to spring on the rabbit, the latter ran away. The tiger then decided that he must be more careful and plan more wisely. So he started to shout to the rabbit to come back and that he wouldn't hurt him. 82 The rabbit then came back. The tiger did not suspect that the rabbit had his own plans. The tiger than requested the rabbit to come and watch over his cub for him while.. he went to ease himself.The rabbit agreed to do so. As soon as the tiger turned his back, the rabbit picked up his cub and threw it into the boiling water which the tiger had meant to throw him into. When the tiger heard his cub cry, he rushed back; but before he got to where the rabbit was, the rabbit had jumped into his hole. The tip of his tail, which was the only part the tiger could lay his hands on, peeled off with him. That is why the tip of the rabbit's tail is lighter in color than the rest of his body. That ends the story. 19 2. 3. 49 5o 83 Folktale Two: Enabulele Okha okpa ke d6 re. 0 na ya do mu évbokhon-dkhuB okpa n' a ti' é?! Endbulele. Ken' a ya bi' ore gha de, igbakhuan Enabulele khianrén. Ed' okpa ghi re, Iy' ere ke ghi khian gha ri' ugbo. 0 na gb' uhi man Endbulele n' o ghe kph hin.3wa no iPEn t; r5: N' e ghe gEle sétin kpaa, iy' ePe na rhd Bkuta y' ére akhe n' o gha le. ~ I 0 na we ne Enabulele ghe kpa hin 3wa re a te mien ighe cmwin n' 0 1e gae. Enabulele na "é he. Gi' 'ye Enabulele gha 2' 6w§ kpa hin‘awg re, avb' osi .Enabulele na re d6 ti' e}; n' iFan ya rh§ okp5gh3. 10. 11. 129 13. 14. 150 169 17. Enabulele n3 khaman avb' osi ore igh' iy' iPen we n' iP§n ghe kpa hin Bwa re. 0 na we: "0ko, wa d6 ghe emwin n' iye mwen mu yo mw§n erhen n' i gha le. 0 man ga nen, 6han i gun mwen kpa hin 6wa re." Avb' osi Enabulele na gele yd ghe 5kuta n' iyee mu y' §PE erhen n' o gha le. IPAn ghi mi' or§n nen, okp8_vb' iEQn na w' ihén ren vben' 8 gha ya rherhe ga h§., 0 na rhule gha ri' iyek' owa. 0 na ya gb' eb' iydkho re; . "\ 9 na vl' ore yin Skuta ni O 18. 199 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 299 30. 31. 329 33. 34. 35. 84 0 na k5kabo si erhén y' akhe. 0_ghi kpee kherhe, iran na w' égePe ghé. Endbulele ghi y' ob? kan Pen, 6 wa ye khuérhékhuérhé. Uwere ni ihua 're na zegiegie w§: " Endbulele, man mien igh? 6 ga nen! Gi'a gha ri' 6h' okpagha nian." inshulele na gel: 151: ir5n. Iran ghi 2e khian, iPan na d6 s' ezé. E26 n1, 5 gha ve 6:6 emwin, o ghi wa eva n' émwhn gbera. Sdkpan degh' a man rhi' emwin n' a v' e2; Pe n' eze, é i gi' a wEriégbe gbérd gha ri dwa. Enabulele vb' avb' osi 6rd ghi s' dkpen ézé, Edaa- doghee kgghi ydn man ezé Ighé 6 gha wan n' i;§n gbérd, Pén gha rhi' 3kpagh57n§n vb' i;§n 5 gha dee. Ezé na goled n' iPAn gbera. IFAn ghi rh§ okpagha £6 hen, iFSn na 2' 5a: owa. Irin ghi s' ezé, edaadoghee na gha rhi' 8kpagha V . ‘ n' o v' eze re fl eze. o o o o’ o N' o rhirhi f1 oghee fl eze, éze ghi wa nen n' o gbera. Iran hia na d6 gberd; 6 na ke Enabulele okpa. Ihua 'Pe na k' 6b§ n' o keFe van khéman Pen n' o fiqdkpagha ogh' ePe fi e26 n' iPan gha ri Bwa. Sdkpan Ehdbulele man damwen-Eho iPan. Serio 6 EenEen ighe degh' ifen man rhi' 5kp5gh5 fi ‘5 ‘-\ \ \ \‘ —V \ e2e,vbhn' iren yan man eze, e i we n' iren gbera. Q 0 O O O 0 Q 36. 379 38. 39- 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 479 48. 49. 50- 519 529 539 54. 55- 56. 85 S6kpan rhumwunda n' é na P' ighékhdén, d man damwén- 6ho avb' 6si 9Fé° 0 ghi 2e kpee, 9 na 2' udu 16 uwu 626. 0 rotighé rén gha sétin lae gbéra vb6 n' 9 man na wa n‘ irén. 0 man he k' 6;e ya 2' 6w' éha vb'ézé suen gha Po lega 9:6. Ihua 'Pe ghi ghé vb' 626 Po 3' 6re igbon, iran na 2' ihuan s6: Enabulele rhi' okpagha f1 eze, rhi' okpagha fi e26 Enébulele. ngn' iPan s' ihuan ne se, 6 man rhi' 6kp6gh§ fl e26. E26 na gha Po ga' 6E6 khian. 0 na d6 s' ore 6kun. 0han ghi mu avb' osi ?;é' Es6 vb' iPan na ghi rhfilé y; ti' iy' ePe r6. Iy' ePe ghi t6 re, 626 Po 8' Enabuleletéwee nén. Iyee na ffin 'rhu Eda, 6 na 2' ihuan s6:_ Enabulele rhi okpagha fi 626, rhi' okpagha fi Bze Endbulele. Enabulele man y; damwen-ého iy' e;6. E26 na y6 gha ro gu 6;; khian. Iy' eFe man ghi rén vb' 6 gha F6. 0 na ghi wé: "0 man, i gha ya ti' igbdkhién Pen re. U gha ghe 6 gha démwén-eho oni." Iy' ePe na g616 y; ti' igbékhian Pén re. . \ t 0 ghi re, 0 na vbe 2' ihuan so: 0 O 57° 589 599 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 86 Enabulele rhi' okpagha fi' e26, rhi' okpagha fi eze Enébulele! Vben' 9 s' ihuan $6, Enébulele man rhi' eho nen t5 yi. Vb' éghé n' a kha n5, amén ghi a P6 5' 6:6 6ho. Igbdkhian Pen na ghi w' iPen Pen 6mwin n' iPén gha Eu. 9 na wé: "I gha ya gb' aden n' i do y; 565 6kp6gh§ \ \ \ ‘ \ ni fua vb' uhunmwun eren." . C 0 na gélé zégiegie y; gb' aden n' o taén r6. 0 na ghi y6 n' aden r66 ikun 6kp6gh5 n' Endbulele mu \ \v yan uhunmwun fl eze. O. o'- \V o \ .. '5 \ 0warokpa ni, eze na ghi wa y' ihl' eva n' Enabulele O O O. v . gbera. V Q V \ Evba'ni okha n5 na ya d8 wu. 1. 2. 87 Folktale Two: A Literal English Translation. Story one then finally came. It then go fall catch girl one that people call her Enabulele. Since she was born coming, problem-child Enabulele became. Day one when come, mother her was about to go farm She gave instruction to Enabulele that she not leave house she till return. That she really not able to leave, mother her then pick stone for her pot that she be cooking. She then said that Enabulele not leave from house we till see that thing she is cooking done. Enabulele then said okay. Let Enabulele's mother be lifting leg leave from house them friend Enabulele arrived come call her that they ‘go pick cassia pods. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Enabulele then told them friend her that mother her said that she not leave from house. She then said: "fellows, come look thing that mother my put for me fire that I be cooking. It not cook already, fear not let me leave from house. Them friend Enabulele then truly go look stone that mother her put for her fire that she be cooking. They after see it already, one for them said she knew how that it take quick done. She then ran go back house. 16. 17. 18. 19. 2o, 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27+ 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 88 She went to pluck leaves cocoyam come. She put them on stones that. She then hard push fire for pot. It when stayed little, they open pot look. Enabulele when use hand touch it, it just be soft. Inside it that, friends her quickly said: "Enabulele, don't you see that it done already! Let we go search cassia pods now." Enabulele then really follow them. They after walk, they come reach river. River that, if we promise it thing, it divide two for person peas. But if we not give it thing that we promise it, it not let we again pass go home. Enabulele and frind her when reach side river, each one then promise to river that it if split for her pass, she will give it cassia pod when she will be coming., River really divide for them pass. They when pick cassia pods finish, they then picked road home. They when reach river, each one start throwing cassia pod that she promised river into river. Who ever throw her own into river, river will divide for her that she pass. They all then come pass; it then remained Enabulele only. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 459 46. £17. 89 Mates her from the other side shout tell her that she threw cassia pod into river so that they be going home. But Enabulele not listen to them. Yet she knew that if she not throw cassia pod into river, like she promised to river, it not dinide that she pass. But because that she be problem-child, she not listen friend her. It when stayed a while, she stubbornly enter inside river. She thinking she able to walk it pass when it not divide for her. It yet not quick her take three steps when river start filling round her. Friend her when see that river fill reach knee her, they then start song sing: Enabulele, throw cassia pod into river, throw cassia pod into river, Enabulele! Like they sing song for her reach, she not throw cassia pod into river. River continue fill round her. It then reach her waist. Fear began catching her friends. Some among them then ran go call mother her come. Mother her before come, water filled reach Enabulele chest already. 43. 49. 509 51. 52. 539 54. 55- 56- 57. 58. 599 60. 61. 62. 63. 90 Mother her then opened voice, she start song sing. Enabulele, throw cassia pod into river, throw cassia pod into river, Enabulele! Enabulele not still listen to mother her. River still continued to fill round her. Mother her not know what she will do. She then said: "Okay, I will go call fiance her come. Maybe she will listen to that." Mother her then really go call fiance her come. He when come he also start song sings, Enabulele, throw cassia pod into river, throw cassia pod into river, Enabulele! Like he sang song reach, Enabulele not give him ear talk in. At time we say this, water almost reach her neck._ Fiance her then say he knew thing that he will do. He said:"I will go make hook that I come use push cassia pods that from head her." He really quickly go make hook that it long come. He then use hook that push bundle cassia pod that Enabulele carry on head into river. 64.1mmediately, river divide into two places that Enabu- 65. lele pass. Place that story this then go fall die. 91 Folktale Two: Enabulele. . Once upon a time, there lived a girl called Enabulele. Right from the day she was born, she had always been a problem-child. One day, her mother wanted to go to the_ farm. She instructed Enabulele not to leave the house until she returned, and to be sure she wouldn't leave, her” mother picked some stones into a cooking pot, and put it on the fire. She then told Enabulele to continue cooking the stones until they would become soft. No sooner had Enabulele's mother left the house than Enabulele's friends came in to call her to go with them to pick cassia pods. Enabulele told her friends that her mother had instructed her not to leave the house. She showed them the stones that her mother left her to cook. Her friends told her that they knew how to make it_cook soft in a short time. They went and collected some cocoyam1 leaves, and placed them on the stones. A short while later, when they Opened the cooking pot, Enabulele touched the covered stones, and found that_they were very soft. Her friends told her that the stones were cooked, and that they could now go. Enabulele therefore followed them. After walking some distance, they came to a river. Each of them, including Enabulele pledged to the river that, if it would divide for her to pass through, she would give it a cassia pod on her way back. The river therefore 1The cocoyam is a plant in the lily family. It has thick broad leaves. 92 divided for them to pass. When they had finished picking cassia pods, they set out for home. As they got to the river, They each threw into it the pod that they had promised it. After each one threw her pod into the river, it divided for her to pass. Soon, they had all passed, except Enabulele. Her friends shouted to her from the other side of the river to throw her pod into the river so that she could pass through, and_they could go home; but Enabulele did not heed them. Yet, she knew that if she did not throw the cassia pod into the river as she pro- mised, the river would not divide for her to pass through. As was typical of her as a problem child, she refused to do as_she was supposed to, and stubbornly stepped into the river. She thought she could cross it without its divi- ding for her. She hadn't taken more than three steps when the river started to rise around her. When her friends saw that the water had risen up to her knees, they started to sing thus: Enabulele, throw the cassia pod into the river! Throw the cassia pod into the river, Enabulele! Enabulele, throw the cassia pod into the river; I'm sorry for you, Enabulele. In spite of how long they sang, Enabulele did not throw the_cassia pod into the river. The river continued to rise round her. It soon rose as high as her waist line. Some of her friends therefore ran to call her mother. 93 When she came and found that the water had risen to her daughter's chest, she started to cry, and sang the_same the same song Enabulele's friends had been singing; but Enabulele didn't heed her mother either. The water con- tinued to_rise round her. Her mother therefore decided to call her fiance. Her fiance came and also sang to her, but she did not listen to him. By this time, the water had risen up to her neck. So he went and quickly constructed a hook which was long enough to reach Enabulele. With the hook, he then pushed into the river the bundle of cassia pods Enabulele was carrying on her head. Immediate- ly, the river divided at last for her to pass through. That ends the story. 7. 8. 9._ 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 1s. 16. 17. 18. 199 20. 94 Folktale Three: Egui ne omwan Ere. Okha ekpa ke d5 re. 9 na ya de mi Egui vb' emwan hia_n' i re evbo ni. Ukhumwfin wa fi vb' evbo ni esesE. Egui man sétin m' ugbo. bb' ohénmw§n na d5 gha dae. 9 ghi kpee kherhe, 9 na we: "T' i gha F5 vb' i gha ?& emwen ohanmwén n5 h?." @d' eki ghi re, 9 na rhi! ovbi 3min; 9 na feko ya lare y' ovbi ode n' Ekhen eki 1a gbera. 9 man ghi he kpe kherhe, Ekhen hia na d5 gha la gbera. @ki na do :0. @ki ghi r5 nen, egui na z' ihuan so vb' Ehe n' o lere yi: @ki ogiso, kpuman; n' 0 man gha rie, kpuman; Emwin n' 00’ a; kpélo, kpuman. 0 na gha s3 é}; yan egbe. bhan na gha mu 5khen eki hia. Iran F5 igh' erimwin é kpe dee. Ehia na mu ve. Iran na 1% s‘ emwin iren hia EAe y' eki. Egui ghi gi' iran hia kpa nen, 9 na yankan ladian vb' Ehé n? o lere‘yi. 9 na ya kok' Emwin hia n‘ ekhén 1e sérac. \ . \ 0 us via gha rl owa. O O 21. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 329 33. 34. 35- 36. 95 Egui n' 9 man ghi he te mie 'vbare re 9 ghi ri_ede ’ha na ghi ri evbare re re re, eke na vu' 9E§n. 9 na we,"Ah, §na i ghi gha Puzfl Ed' eki n' o kere ghi vbe re, 9 na vbe ya lere y' ekpen eki. Ekhen hia na vbe do gha la gbera. 9 ghi vbe gi' iran hia gbera f5 nen, 9 na vbe z' ihuan so: @ki 5giso,kpuman; éki ogiso, kpuman; n' man gha 00 rie, kpuman; Emwin n' 5 a; kpolo, kpuman. O s . \ s ." " s \\ Ekhen eki ghi vbe hln 'huan ni, iran hia na vbe suen O O O gha mu ve. . \ \ \ \ . \ O te's' lfunaro eva, ehe hia vbe ye gbele nen. \ \ V \ $ . \ V \ . Sokpan 9 man ke uk' oba ya 1e hln ekl re fo vb' egul $\ \ \ - . \ . ladlan vb' ehe n' o lere yi gha Vl' emwln. O 0 Uk' oba ghi baghe Egui, 0 na we: " A?' i kha ighe O O 0' O O O s . s- "s "' A \ \ v . egul er‘ 0 ru a-ghe-ru na; ren er' 0 ve 'kl. O O 0 O O 0 O lwina 5mwin n' a vio mu egui, 6 man begh' uk' oba. . \ \ t . \ Onl na feko kon hln ekl re. 0 O O O 0 na zegiegie gha ri' eguae. O ghi s' eguae, 0 na khaman avb' eghaevbo n' iran 0 O O O O 13ho n' iran gi' iFEn mi' oba are egiegie, ighe emwin - O I O O O I O n' $20 iren mien wanwan kpolo se 'ren ghe. O O O O O O \ Q . - $\ Iran na gele rhi' ere gle oba. O ghi s? evba, 0 na we: “Do'mon n' o yaen mwen n' ehi mwen! Eki éE' i ke de n5. 379 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 459 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51- 52. 53- 96 y ' \"'\ . \" . ' . s -\ Emwln n are mwen mien er 1 we n 1 do khaman ruen. O O 0 I E . ". . s \_ s , . s \t , 1 re erlnmwln 0 do gha ve ekhen vb ekl; egul n O O O O O O - Q omwan ero no. 0 O Q . . Q '- 6 man ke mwen ya 1e hln ekl re fo vbe o ghara de 0 O O O O O . Q Q Q V Q- do vl' emwln n' ekhen 1e serae. O D O Q Q Q" . Q "Q Are mwen'veva n3 er' 1 ya begh' ere." O O O O . Q Q 3 . Q V - Q Q . Q Q Q Oba ghi hon emw1n n uke khare, ohu keghi kakabo mu 0 O -\ \ ren Sesee . . .00 em! om; t‘ V . . Q \ t 0 na gie na tie avb' owlna egiegl O O O ' .- Q Q ' .- ' Q \ Q —Q 0 na we n iran ka omwan, n lran y odan Slkan ren I I O 0 Q Q egbe hia. ’ Q V Q V v 0 na we: "Ed' ekl n' 0 de gha re, wa ghi ya muen y' 0 I O O O \ \ adese 'kl". O a. \ \ \ Q V g ' \ . Q Avb' owlna na gele ka omwan nl vben oba khaman iran. 0 O ’ .- v v - - Ed' ekl ghi re lran na ya mu omwan ni n' iran kare O I 0 \ t y' ades' ekl. O . \ . \ . -A \ \\ A \ figui ghl vbe gi' ekl ro nen, 0 na vbe suen gha su lhuan. O O O O ‘ c ‘ Ekhen eki hia na vbe mu ve. O O O Q Q Q . Q ‘ Sokpan omwan n' avb' ow1na kare ke ye gha r' ades' ekl. O O . \ - s s“ . Egul ghi ze kh' ore n' o kpa 0 man kpa, er' 0 ghi Q Q '- na bu ere. Oh"‘h"‘ '31" b'b" g l s e e n 0 ye, 0 na we n ren g u l y 6" 0 O O Q'- - Q Q- Q Q - er' aro, ob' ore na sikan mu eren.‘ O O O O ' 0 '-v 0 g - ,’ s \ "v 0 na ghl we n iren y obo n o kere sua re, obo re 0 ‘ e e e o e _ O Q \ Q Q '- nl na vbe sikan mu eren. O O ' ' .- Q Q - Q i Q 0 na we n iren y' owe suee, owe ore na vbe s kan muen. O O O O O O 54. 56. 57. 58. 599 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 679 68. 69. 70. 97 9 na ghi we n' iren y. egbe sua 're, Egbe ere na vbe sikan muen. Vben' o ghi zugh' egbe se, é man setin z' egbe hin odan n? o gbae mu emwin_n' a ka;e_ni re. Uwere ni oba na gi' evban 550 n' iran ya gh' ere ghe degh' ifi n' iran khuen kh§ égui muen. Iran ghi do vba, egui gha gfi' utukpumwerhan zugh' egbe. ."' V Q ‘ ." .‘ Iran na ya khaman oba emwln n' lran mien. O O Q s Q s . ss Oba na tl' lk' evbo eglegie. O O O O O ' Q Q . Q 0 na we n emwan eso ya mu egul re. 0 - c 3‘ v .- V Iran ghi muen re nen, 0 na n' evbo vben' lran ho n' 0' O 0 - ‘ O x a ru egul he. 0 - . ' . \-V - Iran hla na we t a gha gb ere rua. O ' .1- V . Q . Oba na vbe n' evbo vben iran ho n a ya gb' egul O O . - v rua he. 0 " \ s \ \-, \ Iran na we amen erhen er a gha muen fi. 0 O 0 O tQ ." \\ s Q Egiegle, lran vblevbie amen erhen nen. O O O O O O O O - ~ ‘ O 0 Iran na mu egul £10. 0 7' s s . . .\ Iran ghi mu egul flo nen, 0 na gha nlen. O O O QQ . ' Q Q Q ' a Egul ghi a wu vb evba, sokpan, 0 na ba yan ken vbe O I ‘ - n o gie. - A . o 0 Iran na we: "Egul, vb' u a gie yl?" ‘ - . a.‘ ‘ Egui na we: "Wa ro lghé t' u wa ru mwen kho n' u v s i \ s s "' . , wa na mu mwen f amen erhen, wa man ren lghe t u -\ s s . . . wa ru mwen ese: wa man mien lghe t' i ghl tan ya?" 71. 72. 73. 74. 759 76. 77. 789 79. Iran Iran Iran Iran Iran 98 ghi gele ghe, t'-? ghi tan yé; ghi na zegiegie ya mu amen 5didon re. Q Q . . na mu egul flo. ghi mu Egui fio nen, Egui na ba hunwan hiriri. ‘" . I Q \ na gha ro lgh o wu nen. O O ‘ Er' iran na ghi muen fi eha. Egui ghi gi' iran hia gha rie nen, 9 na ghi hiénrén s' oto. 9 na ghi yankan gha rie. Evba ni okha n5 na ya d3 wu. 19 2. 79 8. 9. 99 Folktale Three: ‘A‘ .L‘ite-ra-l English Translation. Story one then finally came. It went fall catch tortoise and pe0p1e all that they be in town that. Famine_rea11y was on in town that very much. Tortoise; not fit make farm. Hand hunger start be hard on him. It after stayed little, he then said:"I have to think how I will do matter hunger this like." Day market when come, he ythen took child drum : He then carefully go hide at child road that market- people pass through. It not stay long little, market-peeple all started be ,pass through 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 179 18. Market became full. Market when full already, tortoise then start song sing at place that he hide in. Market Ogiso, kpuman(drum refrain); who he not he go home, kpuman; thing that it coming big, kpuman. He continue sing it over and over. Fear continue catching market-people all. They thought_that spirit it drum coming. All run away. They ran leave things their all at market. Tortoise when he let they all leave already, he then crawl out from place he hid in. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 100 He then went collect things all that market-people run leave. He then take be going home. Tortoise that not before see food eat it going to three days now ate food ate ate ate, stomach filled him. He then said: "Ah, this I will be doing!" Day market that it next when again come, he again go hide fof near market. Market-people all again start be passing through. He when again let they all pass finish, he then again start song sing. Market Ogiso, kpuman; who he not he go home, kpuman; thing that it coming big, kpuman. Market when again hear song that, they all then start be running away. It before reach minutes two, place all again be bare. But it not quick king's lame man to run from market finish when tortoise come from place that he hide be taking things. King's lame man when see tortoise, he then said: "It is I say that tortoise it is he do that-is-not- done this; he it is he dismiss market. Work of taking things hold tortoise, he not see king's lame man. That then carefully crept leave market. 33. 34. 359 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 1.2. 43. 44. 45. 46. 101 He then quickly be going palace. He when reach palace, he told the gatemen that they please that they let him see king's eyes quickly, that thing that eyes him see just new big pass him too much. They then really take him to king. He when reach there, he then said: "Greetings, my lord and master! Market it is I from come now. Thing that my eyes see it is I said that I come tell you. It not spirits he come dismiss market-people; tortoise that person of trick it is. It not quick me to leave market finish when he be coming to take things market-people run leave behind. Eyes my two this it is I use see it." King when hear thing that lame man say, anger then catch him hard very much. He then send to call them carpenters quickly. He said that they carve person, that they use glue rub body it all. He then said:"Day market that_it coming when come, you go putit in middle market. Them carpenters then really carve person that like king tell them. nay market when come they go put person that they carve for middle market. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 102 Tortoise when he let market full already, he then start be singing song. Market-people then again ran away. But person them carpenters carve,was still at middle market. Tortoise when wait it that it go it not go, it is he go meet it. He when reach place that it be, he say that he slap its face, hand him then stuck to it. He then say that he use hand that it remain push it, hand him that also stuck to it. 53.He then say that he use leg kick‘ it, leg him also 54. 55- 56. S7- 589 59. so, 61. 62. stuck to it. He then say that he use body push it, body him stuck to it also. Like he struggle body reach, he not able pull body_ from glue that it glue him to thing that is carved. Inside it that king then sent some that they go look if trap that they lay for tortoise catch him. They when come meet, tortoise was with the carved wood struggling. They then go tell king thing that they saw. King call assembly people immediately. He said that pe0ple some go bring tortoise come. They_when bring him already, he then ask people how they want that we treat tortoise. They all said that he must be killed. 103 63. King again ask people how they want that they use kill tortoise? 64. They then said that hot water it is that they should put him. 65. Quickly, they have boiled water. 66. They then put tortoise inside. 67. They when put tortoise inside already, he start to stretch. 68. Tortoise is almost dead there, but he pretend cpen teeth like he is laughing. 69. They then said: "Tortoise, what are you laughing for?" 70. Tortoise then said: "You think that iou are doing me evil that you put me in hot water, you not know that you are doing me good; don't you see that I be tall more?" 71. They when really look, he is growing taller; 72. They then quickly go bring cold water come. 73. They then put tortoise inside. 74. They when put tortoise inside already, tortoise then pretend remain quiet. 75. They start thinking that he dead already. 76. It is they threw him into bush. 77. Tortoise after he let them all go home already, he then breathe deeply; 78. He then crawl go home. 79. That place story this go fall die. 104 Folktale Three: Tortoise the Trickster. Once upon a time, there lived a tortoise and all the peeple of the town. A severe famine broke out in that town. The tortoise was too lazy to farm. Finally when starvation was getting the better of him, he decided he had to think of a way out. When the market day came round, he took a little drum, and went and hid carefully near the footpath which market-people take to the market. When the market was in full swing, he started to sing thus from where he was hiding: S225 Drum Refrain Ogiso's market! kpuman! Ogiso's market! ._ kpuman! Whoever doesn't flee home... kpuman! What is coming is terrible! kpuman! He continued to repeat this song, disguising his voice as much as possible. The market-people, fearing that the singer must be an evil spirit from the under-world, started to flee. They all ran away, leaving their goods behind them. After they had all left, the tortoise came out of his hiding place, and went and quickly collected all the things the women had left behind, and took them home. At last, after several days of hunger, he could now eat as much as he wanted, and he was happy he had found a clever way out at last. When the next market day arrived, he again went and 105 hid near the market. When the market was full, he again started to sing the same song that had frightened every- body away the last time. All the people in the market again fled. However, the king's lame-man was not quite. out of the market when the tortoise came out and started collecting the people's things. As soon as the lamefman saw the tortoise, he carefully crawled away and made straight to the king's palace. When he got to the palace, he narrated to the king what he had seen; that it wasn't an evil spirit that came to frighten the people away from the market, but the tortoise.The king was very angry. He sent for the carpenterse immediately. He instructed them to carve a human-figure, and rub its body over with glue, and that on the next market day, they should go and place it at the middle of the market. The carpenters carved the figure as they were instructed. On the next market day, they went and placed it in the middle of the market. When the market was full, the tortoise again started to sing. All the people in the market fled as usual. However, the figure carved by the carpenters remained at the middle of the market. After waiting for a while for it to go, and it didn't go, the tortoise then went over to it. When he got to where it was, he tried to slap it, but his hand got glued to it. Then he decided to kick it, and his leg got glued to it. Final- ly he tried pushing it down with his body, but again his 106 body got stuck to it. Meanwhile, the king sent some people to go and check if the trap they had set for the tortoise caught him. When they got there, they found the tortoise struggling with the wooden figure. They went back and reported to the king what they had seen. The king then called an assembly of the peOple in the town, and also sent some peOple to go and bring the tortoise. When they had brought him, the king asked the pe0ple what they would like to be done to the tortoise. They unanimously said that he should be killed at once. He then asked them how they would like the tortoise to be killed. They answered that he should be be thrown into hot water. Immediately, they boiled water, and as soon as they threw the tortoise into it, he started to stretch with the heat. He was dying, but he started to grin as though he was enjoying himself. So they asked him why he was laughing, and he told them that it was becau- se they thought they were ill-treating him while they were actually doing him a favour by putting him in hot. water. He asked them: "Can't you see me growing taller?" The people saw that he was actually taller than he used to be, and they were confused. The_tortoise then volunteered that the best way to kill him was by putting him in cold water. They therefore quickly put him in cold water. As soon as they had put him in, he remained very still. The people then assumed that he was dead, and so they threw 107 him into a near-by bush. The tortoise waited for everybody to get out of sight, after which he took a deep breath and had a good laugh. Then he crawled away, still laughing. That ends the story. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9— 10. 11. 12. 13. .15. 16. 179 18. 19. 108 Folktale Four: Uria 0 Man Ose Okha okpa ke d6 re. 9 na y; de ma trinoté vb' okpagha. Iran na d5 gha r6. Owi'owie,.§finot§ gha rhiére, 9 na ladian vb' uvun‘eren, ghi d6 vba vb' ikpo 'kpagha‘hia salo léga uvun eren. oo '0 0t: :3" P9 ghéghua. 0 ghi rhé ehia 15 uvun eren. @d' okpa ghi re, 9 na we: "Okpagha na, ese 'si we n6." A rhe mien ighe uvun mwen re ne se vbenian, 8 ye avbi- re khan mwen vbenidn. I gha ghi wa b' 5wa kee ghi vbo?" @r' o ghi na gale ya tun 'vun eren k' ezi okpégha. Ede ghi gbe, éfinote na rhule ladian vb' uvun eren. 9 Fa ighe n' iPén na ghi d6 si k' ezi okpagha na, t' okpagha khian wa y' Evba;e khan iren. 9 ghi ladian, éghi ghe ehe hia, ehe hia ye gbele. 0 na we u gha ghe t' iren rherhe ladian gbe. 0 na ghi wériegbe la uvun eren ya lovbie. ghi vbe ze kpee kherhe, 9 na vbe rhule ladian vb' ’00! Q uvun eren n' e do gh' ere ghe degh' ikp' okpagha Q Q Q Q Q - Q sale lega uvun eren nen. O ghi ye vbe do vba, es'eso i re. T' ob' ohanmwen ghi dae. @r' o ghi na we, "T' i gha do weriegbe gha ri éfié n' . Q Q Q Q Q 1 Rare vben' ohanmwen te ghe mwuan." O 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 109 \ s s \\ \ s . . \ gele werlegbe kun kpa gha ri' urla n' o O ' Q ' Q Q Q . vba, lkp okpagha vun ehe hia. ‘ o o ‘ ‘ - zeglegle rho ehia vun uvnn eren. O O O O O O ‘ — .— nen, eko vun oren,o na we: "Er' iran gele O O O . Q urla 0 man. ose." Q V Q Evba ni okha na na ya de wu. 59 110 Folktale Four: A Literal English Translation Story one then finally came. It went fall catch rabbit and cassia tree. They started to live. Morning morning, rabbit when wake, he come out from hole his, he will come meet that seed cassia all drop round hole his. He will happy. 6.He will pick all enter hole his. 7. 9., 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15' 16. Day one when come, he then said: "Cassia this, friend good really he is." He though see that hole my_far for him reach this, he use food fill me like this.. I if build house near him (0)?" It is that he really go dig hole his at foot cassia tree. Day when break, rabbit quickly run out from hole his. He thinking that now that he come dig hole his at foot cassia tree, cassia tree will use food surfeit him._ He when come out, he look everywhere, everywhere he bare. He then said maybe he quick come out too much. He then again enter hole his go lie down. It when stay small, he again run out from hole_his, that he come see if seed cassia split round hole his already. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 111 He_again come meet none there is. Hand hunger begin hard him. It is he then said:" I will go back to place that I >come from, before hunger kill me. It is he again really pack leave go distance that he first be. He when reach there, seed cassia fill place all. He then quickly pick all fill hole his. He after eat already, stomach fill him, he then said: "It is they really said that distance nourish friendship." Place that story this go fall die . 112 Folktale Four: Distance Nourishes Friendship Once upon a time, there lived a rabbit and a cassia1 tree. Every morning, when the rabbit would crawl out of his hole, he would find cassia seeds scattered around it. He would gladly pick all up and take them to his hole. One day, he said to himself:"This cassia tree,must be a very thoughtful friend! Even though I'm so far away from him, he sends me so much food. I wonder what he would do if I moved closer to him." Finally he decided to go and dig his hole right at the foot of the tree. The next morning he rushed out of his hole to go and pick the cassia seeds he was sure would be waiting for him, in a large quantity around his hole. When he came out, he looked around, and to his amazement, everywhere was bare. Well, he said he may have come out too early. So he went back into his hole. After a while, he crawled out again to see if the cassia seeds had now dropped around his hole. He still found everywhere bare. He was now becoming very hungry. So he decided to pack and return to his former hole. When he got there, he found cassia seeds everywhere. So he concluded that it really is true that distance nourishes friendship? That ends the story. 1The botanical name for this tree is "Pentacletra macro- phylla. - 2When the dry fruit pods of the cassia tree split, the seeds scatter far away. That explains why the rabbit didn't find any seeds near his hole when he moved to live at the foot of the tree. MICH’IGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES Wllfllll IIJIIIIIII