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consice Ilhg its prooer relation to the pr odact ion of the
ec nomicrl house. Each material has a le iti ate ‘e ation—

‘2‘ - Q" n o r r: - A . --l {H1 f: ‘\ . I5 I" . 5" r ‘- ..- -§|~’--_..
snip to the srivate uVficllli.Q, aria this t-;e213 lo an a t e... :t
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wood coast a tion, brt the result is too costly for the

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‘fiafic. fifi: ‘N no 'LT‘. on‘§7.11.4'v fix .-
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ooured lull oi concrete reoiaceu the wood studs, soon lctfl,

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and plaster of the old oartitions; metal trim reolaced the

wood trim; and other smaller changes were effected. Th
f'nal cost slightly exceeded the figure of seventy thous-

 

and dollars, or better than four times as much the original

figure.

lie in the proper selecting of material for the duty to be

preformed, elimination of the waste in home buildins (which

‘50

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by the way is set by the Departmen~ of Conner e at fifty—
three percent), elimination of labor by buildin: units in
factories under mass production, the units being fithd and
ready for installation. B; combining the above economy,
then.eliminating from the home all unnecessary soace, and
replacing the more exp nsive sections of the home with
sections whose construction cost will *un less, you will
then have effected the possibilities of economy.

Few materials necessaril* require new methods. Gith
the use of steel for the frame of a house a change becomes
evident in the relationship of the structual parts, and

1

the function of the walls, partitions and floors must be

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studied in the 11 n. or ned conditions. “any successful

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to ceil in5 can be cotained witn01t the thiclness required
. 4.x ..1. x r- .. -t J-‘+' cuts" '~ . r. °,-.
of the lOaQ—beaiin5 Jartition. good insulat1n5 ;Jattri als

are available.

Partitions do not have to be large, bare suriaces
requiring soecial treatment to break their monotony. The
side of a room nay ce nade in easiiv— handled unit that in
themselves break the monotony, and require no artificial

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treatment to mat then attractive. oh c—naue units has

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extend fron fl 0
installation except decoration.
It is difficult to solve t1 e floor problem until we
i

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cease to imitate the traditional woos Joists hltn a hood

to the top anf a ceilin: plasteren to

51

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flooring fastens

the bottom. Thi was the only floor nossihle in its day,

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but the entire construction had all the bad qualities of

vood construction. The flat ceiling was
erpensive to decorate.

With the use of steel it is not necessary to have
the icists close to; ether. Slabs four feet wide need not
be over three inches thi.h if cementitious materialsare

I.

used. Sucn slabs are economical to make, easily installed,

a
f

can be insulated for sound. The bottom f the slab When
installed is ready forpaint or other finished decoration.
Thin, stron5 slabs for walls, partitions and floors
are wade possible by use of steel reinforcenent and the
str‘n'th of tmi steel connections to the steel frame.

‘Sich buildin:s could ~o through the convulsions of an

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for stren5tn, and lhsw ariL15 hateriais are
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slab construction will not

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permanence an" safety

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1ction in t;
e sillicn dollars a
5.1a and two-family ho

s1n uses

1”!- 1m “1 1 w ' I- -~. fig“. -. - \ F‘
ate1a5e 1es1dence costs about “t,uu-o

sfi ed economy

uirements must oe provided without

 

FJL $1;.3T 13:5 :

11.,

endou Medly foot in5 and foundation wall designs suffer

more fron our yresent day methods of cone ruction than any

other part of residenceor small buildin5 construction.

'reater oart of our homes originate not in the archi-

{3 -

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)

tacts office but in tne rooms of a real estate a5cnt. Plans

are forthcomin5 eitl er from the lunber com any or from the

hands of an individual even less able to design

a structure. Footin5s, usually of the continuous wall foot-

ing type, are the minimum size set by the building code.

Kc attention is paid to calculating of the loads suooorted

by the footing or to the bearin5 oressure of the soil, to

th e chan5 es in tyies of soil, and to the history of the

section which may have been a swamp filled with rubb’sh.

It is safe to say that setent y—five percent of the h uses

built are under the direct supervision of carpenters who

nave no hnowled5e of foundation work; pouring of the foot-

ings and buildin5 of the foundation walls are probably let

on a contract to so:ne individua.l omnin5 a concrete mixer,

with no attempt to obtain a concrete of definite stren5t‘

or uniformity. How can we expect to find hoies free of

unsightly cra.cks in the masonry, an d cl echs in the plaster?
Footin5s and foundations are two of the most inuortant

parts of.a residence. It would be too costly.to make

borin5s to determine the condition 0f the sub soil, and

since the size of the footing can be easily and quickly

figured it probably would be W'se to exc Hva e and then

I
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‘

desi5n the footing to meet tne requirements.

Three types of footings lend tlens lv es readily to

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residential construction.
First a cantilever slao which projects in two balanc-

irs directions. A projection of at least four inches

‘0

V

sho ald oe used whicn serves as a led5 e on vi1ic11 tall
forms can be con wiently placed. The minimum depth of
the footing should be twice th projection. In this tyne
of footing it would be advisable to place t1 ree five-

ei5 hth inch round reinforcin1 bars continously in the
bottom. Foundation walls on this continuous footing nay
be poured concrete either plain or reinforced, brick, or
concrete precast units laid in cement mortar.

Secor dlv the ouilding load may be distriou ed to the
soil by a numoer of sin5le slab footings which would re--
ceive the buildin5 load from reinforced concrete beams
which also serve the puriose of foundation walls This
type of construction would need the most careful study
and design for not only must the footings suaport the
building but there must be a minimum of de flecti n in

the beam foundation walls

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cuse mi? “ted oy a concrete

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Thirdly the

aft foundation, coverin5 the e‘.1t ire ouilding site. 1ne

raft mi5h t be designed either as a flat slao or as beam

and sla To cons uction. The beam and slab is usuall more
ex; ens ive, but has the advanta5e over the flat slab of

allowing all eioin5 below the basement floor to be in—

stalled after the foundation work has been confileted.
All three ty1es o
drain tile as the rain or 5r uni tater may wash the super-
imposed earth into crevices allowing the residence to settle,
thus badly cracking the walls and plaster. This action
sometimes continues over a period of years.
Waterproofing foundation walls maybe accomplished
from the exterior very cheaply. A coating of asohalt,
thined slightly with oil, fills the pores and may be
an: ied with a three nob brush; this treatnent, under
ordinary circumstances and combined with the action of
drain tile, w rhs very well. Under severe coniitions
it mi5ht be advisable to apsly n asphalt saturated fabric

to the coated wall throu5h the medium of hot asphalt.

 

WALLS:

Walls present to the architect or ltuilder the 5reat—
est variety of 1roblens in the buildin; of a hone. The
tall Hist DC des15ned to Withst 3d all loads “hich ay

ance both from the exterior and irterior. haterial from
nhich to build the wall must be available in large quant—
ities, and :ust be of such a eha*acter thct it may be
readily erected without excess labor and equionent costs.
Incidental to these characteristics the wall must be re-
sis tant to corris ion, must be waterproof, and the interior
must be free from conder1s Mt on, and if the we ll is not
an insulatin5 material in its self it must be easily in-
sulated with insulatin5 naterial.

Seetite the 5reat nu1oer of conditions which must
be met in buildin5 walls there are a 1ar5e number of

materials available and the n”nber of combinations of

materials end their combinations we have yet to find a
perfect or ideal wall. alar;5 e number of baked shale
anc clay products, and mold 1ed concrete blocxs are usezd

in wall constr‘ction. To a lesser extent soured concrete

walls are used, and to a still lesser extent due to its

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new me e in tie field, li-‘t steel SCCL ions.

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An important class of materials of wall construction
coworises products of clay Hur1in5 kilns. The burnt clay
products include buildi n1 brick (hard and soft), terra

O

(C)
l

cotta blocks, clay tiles and porcelains.

Bricks and clay tile are formed from a plastic mass
of finely 5rou d clay and water. The molded bricks and
tiles are dried for several days after which they are burned
in kilns for approximately one week after this they are
cooled slo1ly. hree classes of brick are obtained: arch
brick (over burnt), red brick (well bu1nt),au sort brick
(under burnt) Of these three tyges of brick only the red
brick may be used for exteriors, and the soft brick may be
used for bachin5 up the face brick or for interior walls.

Terra cotta is made in the same 5 neral way as is
brick, except that it is burned at such a hi5511 tempera~
ture that the result' n5 product has a sli5htly vitrified
surface.

Porcelain is a special burnt clay product and is
comin5 into use in the construction field as a hard 5lossy
coatin5 n ri5id metal slabs or sneets. Its use has seen
limited to roof construction but with th introduction of
r1eta studing its use he; 3 been exter1ded to exterior and

nterior ‘xall finish.

hasonry is always used in comireo—ion. The compressive
stren5th per square 'n h of brick or tile masonry is much
less than the compressive stren5th of the individual units.

In 5eneral, stronger bricks and tiles ha} e stron5me masonry

3

I'

’A

than do weak crisis or tiles, but the quality of sorts
used, the closeness of fit between adjacent units, aid the

care used in layin5 the brick or tiles, are all. i1aorte.

factors in the strength of the rasonry. In walls cracks
occur most conmonly along the mortar join 3. Then indi-
vidual units crack it is almost always due to shear rather

than crushiré

Brick, clay tile, and terra cotta masonry,if well

H

built ar d of good materials, are as r.ear y oer1uneh- as
any structu al material. However, they may finally suffer
disintergration under weathering, and usually the freezing
and consequent expansion of absorbed water is a prominent
factor in the disin ergration process. Porous brick ab-
sorbs much more water than does hard burnt brick, and the
porous brick, in general, weathers poorly. Disfiguraticn
of the masonry may oe caused by the dissolvin: out of lime
and salts causing a streaked appearance. Mortar joints
in any type of masonry :re es_vccially liable to be dame ed
by weather. Absorbtionof water and freezing has the most
marked effects, altnaib h an acid effect of the atmoso_here
with the continually wash in5 by rains soon dis ir -tergates
the joint. .

Burnt clay nroducts are without a dOL fot the most
used of fireproof materials in homes and buildings now

constructed. From the stan‘ 3_1oint of a11earance ar y

color, texture, or design can be obtained. Jere every

.1

nome and building to be built of brick, such are the
combinations, that they would 1ever become monotonous.
flu-n . _, _:. a ‘- U— . . 9‘ ‘ . s_ 0 ~. n ”M” _. ”‘ _-.
lhe clay used in the manlflu of c11cns is very COmmOfl and

q

large deoosits of it are found in many locations. Raw

materials cost little and no extensive e u111e. i

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1 I .1. ~‘ , - ‘ pf u . 1* 'I “‘ '1 " $ - '34- ~ '~ 5 v9 -
ed in the &afldld0tdrlub, thus a Clea; many sections of

‘ - A ‘ ‘1 "- 1 v.‘ 7‘ ‘ A q Q fi r. , .P a
the country are served by local slants. :‘Ca'g‘cc or the

availability of the 1aterial, freish and haulini are at
a minimum and the material can be furnishec for erection
without delay. Erection of burnt clay ma
costly. High ”redo mechanics and the influence of unions
run the labor costs a little high. Size of the units, the
weight of the material, and the care in laying, slows
down the speed of uroduction. Erection so increases tne
cost of this type of wall as to place it out of reach

of most home builders. Durability of the material has

.‘ V 1 ‘ ..D ‘ 4.- q . 4—: -.‘\r
SCHSSL a. The Chief lCJlL with mdSORI

C21

already been
construction is its inelasticity. Much disfiwuration
results fron excess deflection of lintels over Windows.
Tiis deflect 1n results in the masonry‘being subjected

to tensio on, and beire of nonuniform material it cracks

on the ple ne of weahness which is the joint. The great-
est asset of this wall is that if correctly designed and
constructed, the upkeep over a great nunber of years will
be oractically nihil. A solid masonry wall is not water

1

proof and if sucjecte i to large quantities of water, such

1"

as might be experienced from a leaking eavetrou5h or

conductor pipe, the decorations on the interior may suffer.

Proper ir sula tion of the tall, sucl cs furrin; ard using
an insulating olaster base, is necessasy to ayoid'heat
losses and 103 sible concewxs tion from cold walls ant high

hu1idit y within the house.

1”

.5 a 1- - ,. ' 1- 1,. ' _~ - 11
A modern ueveloement 11 the 1as011; f1elu is the

'1, ., .1? , 1.,4-‘ 1 .- 1 . .
1nereasin5 ass o1 asn1a: construction e;_1loyin3 concrete

nas onr y, which is the term applied to b iild n3 units
molded from concrete and laid by a rmison in a tall. The
cor more e is made by. xing portle nd ce meit with water and
other suitable materials, such as sand, neobles, crushed
stone, Cinders, burned shale, or sla
In cor crete as lar construction, Special effort is made
to produce tall effect having rchitectural inoerest. There

are various methods by which this nay be done: choosing

or gradinr aggregates to iroduce desirable textures; paint-

ing the cor cret e uni ts when they are manufactured; incor~
poratin5 mineral color pigments i21 the faces of the uni 8;
text 1 in; he units during manufacture by means of Wire or

fiber brushes or br s‘33rayin5 with tater; covering finished

k-‘

walls with one or two coats of portland cement paint, or
simi lar Inethods thich the architect may devise

Li1e con ret e naso nry construction, concrete ashlar
provides at noderate cost the desirable prouerties of
strength, fire safety and attractive annearance as well as
the permanence inherent in concrete. Concrete shlar is
used re 5ularly in constr uctin 5both nterior an ‘ erterior
walls, —- load—bearing or non~load—b earins.

F1"-

11s shap D13 of concrete masonry units sed in 0011 rete

ashlar is done in large machines w‘11ich mol: the units in

exactly the rirht sizes and which turn out great cuantities

I
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('13

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in a day's tirm Shen this rapid mass production of units

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considered, the economy of con rete ashla

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apparent.
Another factor which results in considerable savin3
is IOW'laoor cost. The erection of concrete masonry is
units and their

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128 01 th

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facilitated by the larc
lightness. One 8x8x16 unit reolaces twelve brick, and
consequently less mortar is used in tr e bedd ng of the
blocks.

Considerable trouble due to crac‘1r.ing has been ex-
perienced with concrete masonry in halls. Improper curing

footinzs and lintels

l—i,

of the blocks and poor design 0

might be blamed, but the fact reaains that the inelastic
yrooerties of the masonry wall still exists Concrete

masonry is not waterproof 1nd the a h should be furred
and be of an insulatin“ material.

Proyer layin * of concrete masonry will reduce the
trouble experienced with dampness and c1ncensation.
clocks are sorennat porous and contain considerable air
space which acts as an insulation, but the mortar con-
taining excess ce ent, fills the voids of the sand giving

ease mortar of no iisulatirg valu~. The mason could

9:
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be very careful to see that tne mortar ”see not extend

J.

the equivalent of an insula

liev'ng the trouble 1ith cond~nsation and ca ness

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monolithic cox‘.crete walls have been used extensivelv in
in commercial and factory buildinvs and to a Small devree
in residences. A monolithic or source concrete wall can
be made very *niform in structure, flexible in "esign and
cheap in cost. Its chief criticism 1
color and texture, and the trouble experienced ir renoael—
ing. Tire incoraorat on of color ans texture to exterior
surfaces on con.rete walls is an easy matter. Frequent.v
only a coat or two of white or colored ce ent paint on a
monolitic wall will give a pleasin3 annearance. A rou; 3her
coat may be obtained by mixin3 sand with the cement paint
nd brushing it onto the wall. A still rougher coat may

be obtained fron a

O

oat of stucco. Rubbin; the surface
wit an abrasive stone vzill produce a pleasing surface
and white color. This type of wall is acailable anyVJhere
that concrete masonry units are available, the same mater-
ials being used in sun ch one. There are three different
types of nonoli+ hic vallszsolid, hollow double, and cored
and rib‘ed sections.

Each section has certain advantages and disadvantaves
in comparison with the others.

q

Jall: It is 103' ical tr at the form nor: for tne

 

a

solid section should be more readily erected ana stripped
and cost less than forms for the other v.alL sections. The
cost of cozmcr te and reinforcinr material for the solid vall

Q

compares closely with the hollow and cored types but i

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hi3her than for th e riooea section. in ' reral the cost

a.)

of insulatinr

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the solid wall will he1'3rhcr than for the

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o ther ty zes.

the cored or ribbed s

10er 0.01.1018 “fall. n11 ’1'. pro}

nave

The followin3

walls: Adjustacle St
Huebcr, yaWr ilic, In
fiorrill, Schus, 5 nlex,

Hollow Double Wall: The

one air

vertically or

sufficient insulation,

direct tlius savin3 th
in3. The use of
fillin3
resultinr

s)

course narkin3s.

It has been used more extensively

4 , 1-,,

systems are oe513ned to build s

space usually

horizontally.

slidi

requires a semi-dry, s

Generally tile exterior of

erly built and

factory results.

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p,

eel For 0, Fell3ren, la33, Gleason,
3ersoll, Knipe, Lambie, Zetaforns

Tucker, and Uni-Form.

hollow vall with a continu-

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- 1-. ° 4. ”'44 .p ..1 ..J- .
lS Udllu Vllbll .LOI'L.1b facts 5:].

The air space provides

oermittin“ plaster to be adolied

4.”- - 4.1,
than €11.11

er

insulated, solid

e expense of furring strips and lath-

n“ forms which are moved soon a ter

Q

tiff concrete mix and the

surface is rou3h textured and \.'i h no oti ceabl

such walls is

stuccoed one or tab coats if a smooth finis h is desired.

Two coats of portland
good effect and at a
costs with the

are little more thc an

economic advantage of

widely used, there be

0and homes with no

proved as inexpensive as any.

nolithic hollow

cement:1aint also have been used wi
substantial saving over stucco. For:

Special hollow double wall mach'nes actual

for solid walls, and considerin3 the

the built-in air snace insulation,
It has been
thou-

ing an estimated three to four

\LOuule walls. 0

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1he followin3 systems are desi3ned to build holl w

*ole walls: Frost, hillman, Lehrack and Van Guilder.

in Califorria. Usu'lly it is nade twelve 'n hes or were
thick. Its main advanta3e coucared with the solid and
hollow types is its greater thickn s and lateral stabil—

ity for a 3iven aznount of material. The core sp-ces add

9.3

to its insulatin3 value and in California, it is comnon
practice to plaster directly on the concrete. However,

for sucq jobs built in Northern states, it would be ad—
visable to provide additional insulation by furrins out
tne plaster or by other means. The cored well ordinarily
will prove n.0re ex, nsive then the oth er tJoes due to the
higher form costs incurred in building the core snaces.
cored valls include: Adjust eile S-eel
Forms, American En3' neerin3 and DeveIOpment Company System,
Bangs, Brandt, Concrete Hollowall, Cresmer, Kreil, Larson,

‘te, Honolithic Hollow hall, and Simplex.
Ribbed Hall: The riooed section more co nonly is en-

1‘

plo"ed in conjwl ction with precast units out is also the

Lasis of a few monolithic systems includinr the Gottso

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and Olmsted. rrom the staniooint of concrete materials,
it is th nost economical of all types. For; work 3en—
erally is more e32 :ensive than for the solid section due
to the necessary for min3 for the ribs and for :ills, lin-

tels and ‘amos at Openin3s and for spa drel beans or other

_ 17 _

 

 

suitable searing for the floor s"ste1. The ultin ate econ-

omic po :ibilities are greater oerhaes for this Wpe then

for the others because of its basic economy in materials.
Less trouble with the inelesticity of: -o:o ithi

wall construction is ererienced due to uniforgity of the

material and the use of re nforcin; steel in the linte

o J— . up 1-... a- .Q -A 1 n1 m- , . .L o .0 J- s ‘u- 1 .
materproolness deg has upon the dehsity 01 the hateria

The ma eriel used in concrete wall is very ch as,

cract ice 113 no skilled labor is needed ezcept in the er-

d}

ection of the forms. Forms are an itional cost to the
wall, but may be used seve rel ti1 es. Plec 113 the concrete

‘

may also prove difficult if the wall is high.

 

 

 

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PLASTE‘R/ FURRING.

SOLID WALL

 

 

 

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RUBBED WALL

 

Precast unit systems deals with those e"ste s thich
employ or=cast concrete units other than the u&SOl 1y tyoe.
The various systems may be classified on the basis of size
of unit as follows: large uni systems - units up to 160
square feet or more in area; panel unit systems - H11 its
of story height and one to four feet in width ; and suall

unit systems - units up to four or five square feet in area.

 

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Larae unit cysts s: Tne MOSt extensive use 01 this

.0: .' n ' _ ~r .-~ 4- F’, ‘0 fi .9} ‘ 'P ’. 1

cla381iicat1oa was at Youn :sto ans rorest sills, song

‘rouo of attachej

to

Island. The latter :roject consisted of a
d.vell n3s built for the Russell Sage Foundation, mostly for
ex>eriien.al purposes to determine the )ossibilities of large
unit construction in chieving a durably built home at a

low cost. Grosver or Atteroury of ETew York City was the
architect. The units were cast in a central plana and
transported to the site by or industrial re.il..ay as con-
trastea tith the methods used at Youn3stonn where the slabs
were cast at a con enient location on the site and trans-
oorted by trucks from the storage piles to tne erection
derrichs. Accoraing to the information available, the

systenl as used at Youn stown )rove a the more economical
probably a'ue to the lar3er number and simoler aesivn of

the dwellings.

The Tri-Ply and Hansen system also esoloy a large

0')

wall unit which is cast flatwise on the floor construction
and is tilted to a vertical position on the foundations

as soon as the concrete nas sufficiently hardened. .h

_ 19 -

 

- a 1. .1, 1 y 1 .1 - 2,- '11:.-. a“
Witn reas011coie economy for several hunclr ed uneiiincs an

. \ . '1 I "l ‘ . ‘I\ V‘ V“ ‘1 1" " ' “" I r: P.

is cons1aered ads :ptaole to C,roup nousinC and sinUle unall—
A: ‘l P} 1 : . Iv ‘r‘ ‘4‘ 5 - 'Y‘ .-

1338. It piact ice 11y ui o n es nitntne oioole s of foin

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WOI’z'L 3.1.11 tra11s410rt1t-1 1311 01 1.118 Slcle. T118 21‘I‘l 101/11

-e nOlstina or ra sing r15

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extra equipment required is t
which will cost abo out VBOO to ,550. One of the main
disadva11ta‘es has been the delay in time necessary as
castin3 and erectin the section. Th use of nigh early
stren3' th co 11crete soulC tend to meet tliis obiection.

U

Panel Uait Systems: The most exte11sively used panel

_‘A n J. ‘1' + . f ‘5 ‘IP - C) O '2‘. ‘2‘ AP‘ ‘ ”4.,
uakl iv €7II‘S be..;b are Ar ;.OStOl‘€’ -«OO-L‘e’ filinjsoncrai L) a-nkl 3110 VIDA;—

hton units are' made in a

slant whereas the floors and Sim osoncraft sy ste1s employ-

Tne economical use of this class of construction de-

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5": 1- N ' J— 1“ fi‘i‘ . N ‘ . x—n -\ Lia ,
,e an b5. The laoorious nand metno

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in making the units in the past have nroved inef
and costly. It has been estimated that in order to com—
pete with concrete masonry, it will he necessary to attain
a production of eighty 3 by 8-feet slabs oer day with a
five man crew. It does not seem that this car ce done

Vithout substantial improveaents in nanufacturing technique

and equipment.

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in a.

.1es high are set in a double row fiih cre-

cast or cast—1n-plsce st JCS provided at the ends of the

ins mo st e1 :tensive use of this method has been in

Great Britain where groujs of dwellings totalino about

(‘1‘
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tnree thousand have been erec 4d at Leecs, Swansea and
newcastle in England on? at Edinb rrh, Scotland. The
Ehrlich sysuem was develoned by Sir Edw'n Airey of fin.
Airey and Son, Ltd., the contractino firm on these ero—
jects. The erection proceeded in much the same manner

as employed in this country, the main difference beiqgixi
the nanu.fact1re of tlie slabs, which was done on the job
usil1g simple molds. It is claimed that one excerienced
workman would cast lOO slabs in a day, which figures acout
2% Gele per square foot based on a ware of 90.00 per day.
In this country, fiie Hahn, Hartley, Locxw ed and Underdown
svstems have beent 11sed in actual tork. It 1.'ill be oo-erved
that several of tiese emplo* specially slaned units is—
signei to inter- lock with the cast—in-place stud. This

featire is desirable from a structural standpoint but

tends to comrlicate the economical 1roduct ion of the slab

(I)

1

in large volume. ne pla 11:, rectanflular secti n with the
beveled ends as in the Airey and Underdown slabs is better
suited to large scale production. Iultiole molds set up
large numbers of sl.11os on edge at one tine

should be practicable. Tne molds could be assembled n a

viorat' n" table in sets of 100 or more and the illing and

g.)

castin“ comgleted in a relatively short time. A production
of 100 to 150 units oer hour so s 01} could be accomplished
with a five-nan crew at a labor cost of around one cent a
S!uare foot of slba. Tn manufacture of tue un'ts in
sinrle molds and with hand Operations obvi usly cannot
conpete with the high production machines used in 1-3 king
concrete masonry.

In addition to the use of vibratio n and multiple
molds, it should be feasible to design a power tamper
for making units that are two inches or more thi oh and

which are not more tl1an twelve inches high.

Khere li 1ght-wei rrht aggre ten are available, their

use for concrete slabs of this type should be given parti—
cular consideration.

The stud forms in this construction are of simple
desigr and quickly erected andhcld in place by clamps

or ties. Ordinarily, intels are not required over oper-

~s the: come between the studs. Bo d beams at the floor

‘ ,
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v

levels may be built by ola1cin3 the reinforcenent and con-
crete in the space bet"een the op~;1 site rows of slabs.
Strips of metal lath inserted in the joint will serve as a
bottom form for .he beam.

In th preces unit classification, it is believed

a 1 ... 1.1.. '1 ' ,1... , .s. - , 4. 1 I)
that tne s,stens employinb orecae_ un ts aLOlo l; or w

H.

inches thick by 13 inches by 36 nches in conjunction with

orecast or cast—in-place studs h vs th

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it‘-

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a Stcel MCmUcr iCT a CDrr€fi8)0n ilnq MOUQEA me er. .418
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idea is Sulu by oeep t‘ehts of this squect to ce eri

‘f‘ 1 r- I‘— ~--— 4— (H. ‘5 ,:
eous. TAe strActure shot 11o oe des i5n lea as a cemplete .ho

Tariouiouo xhole 1811 steel and other uaterials whereever

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they can be best aoaoted to the ouroose at anc. This

too ld not be a mere substitution of one material for another

a

of similar characteristics but would forniso a new t'oe
J a.

of structure cirreri*1 from its predecessor in most cozistr—

‘ Q ”a I" 0 fl A o 1 O a r‘ g o .A A A A-
action eotaiie ano lire it only in toet 1t ihclOSes rolrs
r a . w u
.L or $AL'l C I: OCC‘J.)C‘J.LLCJ O

”’1“ " \I 'N r\ 1‘ 1" 9" *’ a ”I? . .__' IN . av .

the s—arch ior oetter wajb of c0135 tAinbs is never

ending. Tooay's methods, however successful, can never
be taken as wholly rL 5ht. They represent sifioly the best
efforts of the moment. Tomorrow must b ing imoroveu nts
in the azethod as of the vbefo re.

The importance of the us e of steel in relation to the
private residence is in proportion to its a3ility to make
possible an improved constructioii at a reducel cost. The
rellaCih: of the wooden frame with e
in a subst anti ially ir creaseo cost a more ri in and
oeruanent strocture.

There are in general three oifferent types of exterior
walls using steel as a main ue1o~r namely: steel framing,

structua 1 steel fre me, and the all steel wall. Each type

has cert n aovan e 5e: and disadvantaree in corearison with

true oth ers,

Cu

ramiAr: It is natAral that the first netho

s
(enroloy'ng steel in wall sections would be to reglace the
vc>co fraaing Witfl a steel framing used on similar centers.
'Tlie cost of the steel sections renlacing the nooo studs
Elrld runners is considera oly more, but the taste is eli—
nij.nated and a great savin on laser is effected. In gen~
(ezsal, the cost of insulating the steel frauing will be
lagigher th'n insulatin either masonry or con crete wall s,

lsiit will compare favorably nitn the cost of insulating

vsood framin5. t follows that practically every exterior
tray Le used with a framing of this type d 3 ;atented
eerteriors, d si5ned to give a massive a,,eorarce .t a uln-

:imum of veigit and cost, are now being placed on the market.
These exteriors etploy artificial stonepanels, aAc enacaled
porcelain steel plates.

The ”alter Bates Steel Corooration, Gary, Indiana,
'built all - steel frame houses by substituting steel studs'
and joists for wood. The bracing mas mace by fa: tening
together the thin strips sh ared from one leg of the ver-
tical angles.

The Gabriel Steel Co., Detroit, has a distinctive
steel frame sage of channels fastened together with a
welded bracing. auotiz‘ig from their catalog: "The sections
which ve have eouloyed are eta nzk rd rolled steel sect ions,
built into s.alltru°°ed members, in such a form as to

permit the erection of the steel fra;e in about one—half

I,

of the time that would be required for its construction
in wood. The form of the ateria al also over cones'the usual

fficulty which a comparati .*e.ly thin wall constrActio n
oresents, naxwel transmission of heat and cold. The at—
tachment of the interior olaster lath is made to one main
member of the vertical studs, and the attachment of the in-
sulatinfi matevial on the outside to the other member. Ex-
cept at the corners of Openings, no through—b to for the
att achxent of anv material are required.

Walls of this cha cter pose ess an insulating vala

far superior to that of stud walls or steel structures

using solid sections. The design of the individual member

L.J

used creates a flexioility of construct on conoarable with
that of wood. Al vertical and no: is omit l members are multi—
J...

punched on Bainch centers so as to permit attachment, one

to the other, of any given spacing within the 8-inch mul-

The Safety fielding Comoany, Ken YorA, has an all
steel frame, similar to Gabriel Steel Connany's, with its
sections welded together to form large nieces. The claim
is that shoo welding saves money on both fabrication aid
erection.

The Stran—Steel Corporation develooed stlds 001m .t-

ing of two 13 gauge channels with siecial corrgaetions

:
I

rolled in the web. The e channels are welded each to sscA

f‘!

and bossed at the weld so that a shall space is left be-
tween the channels in which nails maybe driven in attach~

A narioner stud is made as atove except that it has Ode
corru:ation of a slirhtlv lonter rafiius, mid dime231ons

'._ fl 7" . A ~.«-,-- . ‘\ H "N .q'l,- .-
of B-o/lo”Ls". It 18 recommenced that toes: stLCs Le

a r in GA 'L

ilLoeu we” on center.
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should be Lade to carry all the load, then the well would
Deco e merel" a qaim;nt, cloth'nc the L gee, its construc—

a

1'? l. '“TLT :- '~‘r‘-r‘. .‘fin '. no ran ‘-
4.‘ l )--.I..:;--GL 14-1.“ ll-(_.f-_‘....U.\J.J. as 0.1.1“

thfl will be Eb once lea

- -‘ .4. "7, ..J . ' “.3 '~; ...—.1 "-4.1. 4.x“ ': 43 n ,

OrlbeLb “all Laterials are e s1;nLL Elva tau iuea oi cerrv-
‘ —~ -—-' .. . \fz‘ ‘ -~- o “N -~‘ . ~,‘\. A —A w - ~ - . L. - '-\

lLC loads, he fiLL tn m oLsiitaCle log use alto e fraue

Which will sup,ort them. leLce research work is neCCs.- ry

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to a final solution of the Draper meteiials and

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OJ: .LA r31. .1le wile 0.; \cd(}..L-l. 1;.L!.tel‘lal MSQQC at UTCSUILt IS a, USU

- y . - -,. A ... -, 1-: (a n" 1‘ 1 \ -'-”‘.- - »-_ y -A 3-2 . 1“ r.
'Lf;Sdfl oloek, to; 83L droveu as limoer, ELL LteLLiuu

(a
from floor to floor in one niece.

f construction conform- rith our wreeent

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Office buildints 1nd COMlie ial Cogs Tuction, and is a
lOGIj-Cal {1'3 {311.351 to £01137: . Stanf‘f—‘zj‘ii S

1

H... u 4. ' 4.1- “JIM ,: J- .i-.“ ‘ . a .c“-. 1“. r-4~, .-4. -
.1qu [JG SbrlCLLf auxilereu LO any“. SflOJlLl .Ll lire _)Q0....~D.P.ILL :f

Q '\ .ya ,\"- ,q f . ‘1- V. 4-4-1 . ’AJ
1J1 redw~3 ;Q Vwkll (masts. as: Cit ion LLu' Le C]-tLeT13 :1L.Qi:LAA

at no ext a cost in the prayer election of v.all Lateri? L13.

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lAe Luiversal :liiLluz sortoratiOL oi QAEUOJQLH,LlCH-

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All floor conetru ctitns so far diseased are in
eral considered by most authorities to is fireproof. The
remaining types of floor constructions will be given a
ratir: of fire resisting. I

The use of steel for lith floor loads has evolved
three 3 era thes. The majority of builders use the 09-
en web j~ist closely spaced (13” to 27" on thics three
tyfl3e of forms may be filaced to take the 8~irch concrete
slab. One is a paper—backed lath stretched across the
top of the

:er is a By I rib aetal lath p aced

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way a“* the thi“d is a solid plate floor. Shen—

CF-
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ever concrete is used over a flexi?;le form, care must be

tahe n to is en all stresses off the floar until it is
thoroughly set.

The Joxi es and Laudhlin Steel Corporction uses a tyfe
of light floor similar to the floor previously discussed,

excert the Hi're lace the ODED weo joist vith a light rolJeJ
section called the J and L Junior Beam. This sectior is

stronger and more rigid, thas allot

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saace d further apart (30"tc 56"). With such wide spacing

. o . g . '1 ... o . .
a more rigid form 18 needed and a a" hi ric lath is us;-
se battle de.k type of floor construction is admir-

ably suited to the architects needs with reference to floor,

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I NSULATION

STEfiL DECK°/
WELDE D To PURLINS

STEEL Rom—“DECK
AND \\

ROOF C ONSTR

PARTIT 3133:

The elimination of hes.**y, ll: :3
resideno e may he one
ducing the cost of our fireproof home
already He: itioned that steel frame and
should remove the need of wall bearing

building. It necessarily follows that
tions can he no different in construct
than the exterior valls »"h'ch have bee
In develonin; a curtain partition whic
wei 5ht to sujp ort it may be possi lzle t
all material excep t a )lester oase ans

hetel letli sueported by one inch
on centers, bent

floor and ceiling has been u in con

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inches of solid olester. Alone this

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Steel has develoned a self sunnorting

Truscit which has been used to date on
construction as a stucco ease. nasmu

worked satisfactorily with stucco, it

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assume it mi5nt be used as a plaster h
of solid plaster.
The reinforcing

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:ne rial, such as celotex,
ri5- idi ty and strength, mi ht not onlv

in; plaster base for interior oartitio

means of effecting

and punched at the en'.

with steel of a one in

artitions in the
econoway, and re~
We have

construction.

cozmc etc construction

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par ions in the
wall eilire parti—
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n discussed previously.

h has only its own

ch nnels set 15 inches

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junction with two

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metal lath called

seems reesoncele to

see with two incnes

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llfl insulatino

maftex or insulite, to give it

 

 

prove to be a sound absorbing material which would be very

desirable in some parts of the house. A double insula

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hoard partition can be formed by cementin" to layers of

LAD

insulation t05ether with cement morter and plastering both

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;ossihle to build a partition from orecast

gypsum slabs, tongue and grooved, which are rigid enough to
support their own weight. These slabs are so finisued that
no plastering is needed and the appearance presented is that

of a paneled wall.

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or cinder block on steeo roofs with precast concrete foists.

enin5les could be nailef to the slabs and t3“ slaes held

to the joists by 5ravity. A poured header would be needed

‘- J—‘A . r v .-. 1". a I“ I. ~ 3 , -— I ‘ o ‘ . '-1 l" ". .‘3‘ f1
at the eaves to preten he SluLS irom sliu1n5 and as an
v“ ' 1‘ 3 ‘ . . [a \ . 4- ‘5 .\ .‘s ‘ Q ‘1 N 4- a5 r, '3 A
8p34OT lOT tne JOlSto. auOohoT “Cured COHCIELB Abodor .
I
‘5 . 1 1" 1 3“ 1“ r .L.‘ “1‘, p ..L'! g
should oe used a: an anchor at the pee“ or the rooi.

 

A good roof is just as essential as a safe foundation.

erfect founcation secures the buildin5 a ainst destruction
at the bottom; a 50o; roof affords crotection for
the buildin5 itself and that the huildin; contains, erevents
deterioratior startin5 from the top. In selecting the roof
and roofing material the 5-enera .l requirement is to provide
the best. To arrive at a solution for the best roof, the

1

a5encies must be considered which attack tne roof. These

a encies depend uoon the cli: atic cor ditic ns, ar d tne use

he climatic conditions WfliCfl tend to effect the in-

territy of a roof are the followinr: rain, snow, ice, winds,

V

Rain - To provide for r:1' n, the roof must be tigh

,3

._~ 1-.. . ' . ,. . ._ - :- .- 2,- .... -
and have proper draina5e. By JTODST drains); is me nt

:0

a fair 8103 e for the roof surface,so that water will not
res ain in puddles, and also a proner distribution of good
size gutters anf sumgs. The accumulation of leaves, tni
and ruoois h of variOIs kinds necessitates strainers at all
donntaies and a periodical inspection of the roof.

Snow - Snow sometimes causes exceptionally heavy
loads on roofs havin5 a sli5ht slooe, or on roofs with
snow may bank us and hold melted
snow in cntact tith the roof for long periods of time.

Ice - Ice is likely to cause trouble on account of

' - '-~ I J- I, ‘A c 1",“ . -, V v r31 .". a . “1" ‘
its bkqa ansive dCLlCu and its tentency to actueuic-e then

‘nr‘ A “I

 

 

"‘two or three feet ni5h cue to

once started. On account of this it is necessary to have

A “ ‘1 '--"" ' . ‘. 1 "' ' f‘ 1" " 1'15 . 1
u115e, and GagaCth ocuntanes MulCh aie not

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perfectr ofo
irzp eded vvith rubbish. In valley's or 5utters where ice is

apt to form in Spite of precautions tak n in ola nine the

buildin5, a steam pipe unnin5 under the full len5 h of

the volley or 5utter will be found to do wood service. In

\J

he drein'n: of all flat roofs it will be found ad'snta eous

U

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to run the drain do1n t11rou5n the building ins

(—1}.

eai of down

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.u- .. '12. 1- “--r . -. .'- +1- 2 ..°..-
the outs1ce, inac ruch as he 1eat arcane the drain till

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Kind — The influence of hi5h wind on the roof or roof
coverin5 beco es most evicent in its drivin5 action on
snow an: rain; in its tendency to raise uo 1i ht roofin5

nits and dislodge thin roofing materials, lilze sheet metal,
corru5eted steel, prepared roofing felts and shin5les.

Heat and Cold —Heat and cold acts on roofs in rarious
ways. Variation in tewa1 rature causes eXians ion a.r 1d con—
tract ion, which 'n some materials causes bucklin5 and
cracking. Great heat will dry out tarr d 611d asohalt
allowin5 them to become like bl tin5 paper. Attention

.0 4.15.1

should be 5iven to the composition oi the coe

1+
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such felts, avoiding vol stile tar comwio nds which flow at
a cosim1re tively low to 1ersture. Some trouble hasteen
exocrienced in us i115 oil asphalt under hi;5 h tenserature,

bein5 volatile, gas is form ed between avers of felt.

several feet in diameter and

C);

Large blisters have been force

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and slooe of the roof t05cther tith the exvected life of the
hu ildin5 and r unt of money available. The various types

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1 4' ', a (‘H 1‘ 4 ': .13 - '- ‘ . 1 ' 4‘1“ j'fi ‘-
it u: ro 1s are clues111eu on the basis 01 the hind

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of felt and nunber 0: layers used in their construction. f
Three 5eneral tyoes of materials are used in t1ilt up :
roof construction: pitch and tarred felts, asyhalt and
asohalt felt" and asnhalt and asbestos felts.
Tar and Gravel - Tar and “r vel rool fin5 may be laid
.

on co crete, yr osum slac-, or 1lenn roofing. Jith plank

thin: the roof should first be covered wi h dry felt.

('1
OLA

The.: two ply of terred felt is laid and hopped with pitch.
. . . 1 _ I
On top of this tires-p ly,tarred felt is laid and hopped

on to; with pitch. uhilc the pitch is soft, it is covered

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1th four pounds per s uare foot of Clea

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corcr et e or 'v um lab the dry felt should be onitted

CD AJ

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ani the s ah nonped with oitcl11 befor e LLy’“r a :ood tar
and 5revel roof should last from 20 to 85 'ears. loses
of more than 1" in 18” should be avoide”es the pitch coat-
in5 nd r h igs tem;eratures will run, fillin
leav n5 he felts hare.

Asphalt Roof— An asphalt roof may ce laid on any
type of dece without orelininary treatment. First a h avy

" - ‘ ‘0 f‘. . "1 ‘3 ' 'N 4' ~-, P, v- “ .1 ‘- "fi \‘1 'w
to oly 1elt (Sex) is made fast LO teci e11ler Ly stichin5

1 s‘ F ”1',“ ‘A N - ‘3 ‘ . 1" h 'I‘ - :7 -- 1' -
Ol I.G.l.Li.L.4. ineii '1. 409’) 0.; Jllfs, tho Che—ply (lug) fdlis

.1 ,i .1 ._- x 1 1'4..- ' .11,- . 11 T‘f .‘ -‘- :3 1. l
are icon-ed aha the “his—lea 2.11 see hoax-ea with not 5233

Natural asolalt, such as mined in the Trinidad Islands,

:0

ha sprcved Kuch more sati sfactor:r than oil _ fialt in
wearin5 qualities

Asbestos noofs - Asbestos roois are similar to asphalt
roofs in apoearance and so lication. is difference is in
the material used in he felts, asbestos fibers bein5 sub-
stituted for rags and paper. This type of felt not only
gives a fireproof roof but is absolutely iapeivious to the
81 8.018111: 8

’11

ohin5r les — Shingles are made of wood, meta , asohalt

,

coated felt, slate, concrete tile, clay tile or asbestos

U)

LDC

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which is cor1oce; of lfica a toe fibers and 859 portland

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cement, co "'ce under aporoximatel
foot of oress are. All rigid sh‘ngles such as slate, tile
and asbestos are fireproof and suffer very little fro

climatic conditions, out their ouruose is entirely orna-

J
l

n enta l and all water proof qualities must »e sunolied hv

roofin5 felts kiid unc lerneat h the coin lb Good as halt
shin5 les are re teroroof and fire resisting, their life can

be aporoximately set at 15 years. Ietal roofs in this dis;
trict have not oroved satisfactory as exnansion and co:—

traction soon Ofiens the soldered joints.

 

q

..i— w- ' r :' . 4- 'u a». ‘- . ,: -, .
the roof oeci gilte reaeily an“ strilee tne col“ ULLET sor-
f‘ n .0 1» . .0 . 3A. «‘1‘ < . M ‘3 A‘f‘ . m 7 1 ‘H
face Oi toe roo_ii; Gauginb coloeecation. lo qievent COu-

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a r' ' - -- ' A c n,- H‘ 1 '- .‘N ~ .... ".- ' y
leisetion forming unuer the roof oechs thy must oe iosul

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ted.

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his may be done bv insulating the outer surface from the
cold or the inner from heet radiation.

All roois to be us,d as porch d ck must be protected

(3

g
fro; wear by cheap tile or aebeetos slabs laid in a wastic g
. 1
material. his treatment not only protects the roof from ‘
wear but also from the elements.
.

 

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