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@343-929 ("1

A.PROPOSAL FOR INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF RESOURCE USE IN

ONE PHASE OF THE LAND GRANT COLLEGE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

By

J. C. Evans

A THESIS

Submitted to the College of Agriculture Michigan State
University of Agriculture and Applied Sciences
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
Department of Agricultural Economics

Year 1957

,-

4

Approved 251;:VV’f ‘)ol,,;& / L

/«:r<)‘§’
G»:£&55“Z

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to
Dr. James M; Nielsen for his forthright supervision and his
penetrating examination of this thesis, and to all members of
the staff of the Agricultural Economics Department with whom
the author conferred during the graduate program, particularly
Drs. L. L. Boger, L. Wk'Witt, and Glenn Johnson.

The author wants to thank Richard Bell, Assistant
Director of the Cooperative Extension Service, Earl C. Richard-
son, Extension Editor, and the members of the Extension Com-
munications Advisory Committee for their perseverance and their
support in helping to develop the Agricultural Handbook.

The author is also deeply indebted to his wife, Helen,
for her depth of understanding during this temporary period of
widowhood from a full-time staff member, part-time graduate
student husband; and to his four children for their youthful
patience during this period of being partial orphans, particu-
larly the llfiyear old son whose marginal.utility for fishing in
a boat with Dad was much higher than his marginal utility for
fishing alone for bullheads in the mucky Red Cedar River.

Much appreciation is due Mrs. Shirley M. Goodwin for the
Speed and care with which she typed this manuscript.

All errors of any character, in.typing, in omissions, in
observations, or in conclusions, are the sole responsibility
of the author.

v v.51 v v__ \ \ \
*‘K‘n n"I\"'i\ $29753)!"

ii

ABSTRACT

This thesis is concerned basically with five areas: goals of the
agricultural information staff, certain problems with printed messages,
a conceptual communication model for land grant colleges, one solution
to some of the problems, and the progress to date on the project.

The first chapter is devoted to outlining some of the major goals
of the agricultural section of the Information Services Unit at Michigan
State University. There is a growing amount of evidence that land
grant cellege information Specialists are becoming increasingly dis-
content with functioning primarily as processors of messages. They are
beginning to search farther out over the horizon for answers to questions
concerning (1) the impact of the messages disseminated; (2) how that
impact can be increased; and (3) how the whole process can be made more
efficient.

The problem covered in Chapter II can be simply stated as follows:
County Extension field staff members of Michigan.State University are
figuratively and literally drowning in printed information messages,
part of which are produced by researchers, teachers, and subject matter
specialists on the staff of Michigan State University. The balance
derives from numerous commercial and institutional sources.

The next chapter is devoted to the construction and examination of

a conceptual framework or model of the communication.process as it

iii

Operates in the climate of a land grant college with respect to agri-
cultural information. The model contains four major segments: (1) the
Source Unit where messages originate; (2) the Processing Unit where
messages are processed into various types of packages for distribution
to the general public; (3) the Distribution Unit which consists of both
direct and indirect channels; and (h) the target of these messages
typically called the audience. This chapter also includes an economically
oriented model for determining efficiency of the information process.

It appears to have much potential for developing new insights needed for
the development of an educational information prOgram with a high degree
of accomplishment.

Chapter IV concerns the development of a solution to the problem
outlined in.Chapter II, and within the framework of the conceptual model.
The solution was developed after a substantial series of conscious
observations made by a communications advisory committee that consisted
of Extension subject matter specialists, field agents, and administrators
from agriculture, home economics, h-H work, and the author of this paper
who developed the prototype of the package and the system of organi-
zation.

Chapter V discusses briefly the progress made to date on the develop-
ment of the project from an idea to a reality. Included also are some
observations on the problems encountered in the process of trying to
introduce this idea, and how'some of those problems might have been

avoided or minimized.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
I THE GOALS OF THE INFORMATION STAFF......................... 1
II THE PROBLEM OF THE FIELD STAFF............................. 7
The Consequences of Volume.............................. 12

III A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE LAND GRANT COLLEGE
COT’H'TU-IJICATIOTIS PRCXJESSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.0.000.00.00.00. 20

Communication of Information............................ 20
Functional Structure.................................... 25
The Pipeline Routes Through'Which Messages Flow......... 29
Information Needed to Design an Efficient System........ 36

The Source........................................... 37
The Processors....................................... A2
The Distributors..................................... he
The Audience......................................... N8

Efficiency and the Communications Process............... Sh
IV TIE SOLUTION AND THE PEOPLE IT INVOLVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

What the Agricultural Handbook is and How to Use It..... 61
The Table of Contents (Sample).......................... 6h
The Alphabetized Index.................................. 66
Examples of Good and.Poor Presentation of Educational
Material............................................. 68
The Mailing List for the Agricultural Handbook.......... 81
The Method of Mechanical Distribution................... 82
The Method of Keeping the Book Up-to-date............... 83
The Tie-in with the Master Filing System for Counties... 83
Presentation to the Staff............................... 8h
The Contributors and Their Role......................... 8h
The Advantages of the System............................ 86
The Disadvantages of the System......................... 92

V THE PROGRESS AND S‘NE OF THE PROBLEMS TO DATE.............. 93
VI SUIIE‘IIARYOO0000000000000...000000.000oeoooeoooooooeoooooooooe 100
BIBI—IIOGWI—IYOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOO0.000.00000000000000000.000.000 105

.APqu-DIX AOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0......0......00.000.000.0000009. 10?

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page
1. The average amount of feed required per day and per dozen
eggs by 100 hens of different weights and egg production

(Two-ounce eggs are assumed)................................. 70

2. Percentage of feed fed to each class of livestock to
minimize income variability.................................. 71

3. Principal poisonous plants................................... 73

h. Approximate ratios for converting quantities of corn at
various moisture levels to 15.5 percent moisture basis....... 79

5. Shrinkage in shelled corn dried naturally to Specified
moisture contents (1,000 bushels when cribbed)............... 80

6. Comparative costs of printing versus mimeographing........... 89

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1. Essential elements in the land grant college communications

proceSSo.0000000000000000000000000.00.00.00.00.00.000.000... 26
2. Essential elements plus typical pipelines to customers...... 31
3. Essential elements plus facts needed by the information

plmng teatm<s>000000.0.0...00.0.0.0...00.00.000.00...0.... 38
h. Essential elements plus the feedback channels............... h9
5. Essential elements, the pipelines to customers, the feedback

channels, and the information planning team in the land

grant college communication process......................... 53
6. An iso cost contour map for the production of two products.

Superimposed on this are several consumer indifference

curves to locate the optimum combination of the two products

to produce for a given cost................................. 56
7. A consumer indifference map with an iso cost curve

superimposed-0.0.0.000...OOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 9h

vii

CHAPTER I
THE GOALS OF THE INFORMATION STAFF

Students of administration and prOgram development often consider
it quite essential to elaborate a fairly explicit set of broad goals
toward which the organization or unit for which they are reSponSible is
moving. With the relatively rapid and recent growth of land grant
college information programs in the magnitude of dollars expended,
numbers of information packages being prepared, and by most any other
unit of measurement, a number of Information Service Departments across
the nation have developed a serious interest in creating a well-
integrated, overall prOgram for relaying information messages from the
source to the ultimate consumer. Some are becoming discontent with
functioning strictly or even largely as processors of messages for the
subject matter staff pe0ple. One of the Iowa editors recently reported:
"Our entire staff Spent a day, got away from the campus, and took a
squared away look at our total job, how well we were doing it, and what
we would like to do."1 No conclusions were revealed but the main tapics
under discussion were increased staff training, much increased communi-

cations research, and expansion of the visual aids program.

 

1
Candace Hurley, "we Took a.Look at Our Jobs," ACE, Vol. 39, No. 1,
(February, 1957), P. S.

The current l2-man staff of the agricultural section of the
Information Services staff at Michigan State University has been engaged
for several months in periodic meetings for essentially the same purpose.

This staff, however, explicitly stated a series of guiding assump-
tions at the outset:

l. we are thinking through our problems and opportunities in a
general climate expressed by the following question: "If you
were organizing an educational information prOgram for a new
college of agriculture with an annual lO-million dollar
operating budget, what would you propose?

2. Current persons, personalities, programs and/or policies in
this institution are unimportant in this process, and we must
not permit them to interfere with imaginative thinking, sound
planning, specific decision, or effective action.

3. Any educational information program that is developed must be
simple and flexible, as free as possible from administrative
red tape, but comprehensive in scope.

Before setting the overall goals for the entire program, the staff
constructed a set of penetrating questions to be used.by each individual
staff member as a device for serious introspection:

1. What are you doing, and why? (Inventory and evaluation)

2. Which of your current activities are the most productive, and ‘

why? (Evaluation)

3. What are the key prOblems in.accomplishing your goals, and

why? (Identification and cause of barriers)

u.

5.

6.

What should you be doing that you are not? ‘Why not and/or
why should you be? (Projecting, evaluating, planning)

What additional resources do you need (personnel, money,
equipment, administrative support) to make the transition
from what you are doing to what you think you should be
doing? (Planning and acting)

How can you contribute most to the development of a program

of strong leadership for the whole information program?

" Out of the hours of discussion on these pertinent questions came

the following tentative set of broad goals of the agricultural infor-

mation staff at Michigan State University:

1.

3.

To provide strong and continuing leadership in (a) developing
and.(b) maintaining a highly efficient and effective educational
information prOgram.

To work with staffs of the various colleges and counties:

(a) to get useful information (accurate, understandable, sys-
tematically organized messages that are needed); (b) in sale-
able pgckgges (television film, kinescope, or live Show,

radio script, news and feature cOpy, publications) (c) through
gppropriate channels (channels to which people have easy access);
(d) to a selected audience (those who are interested in and
want and need the message); (e) at the right time (when they
need and want it).

To provide effective communications training for students, and

for new and present staff members.

h. To evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of the communi-
cation effort of the staff, to combine this information with
basic communication research information, and to modify the
educational information program accordingly.

In the opinion of the author, the first goal is a highly generalized
one that will have to be earned by successful accomplishment of the
other three goals, particularly No's 2 and h, each of which certainly
implicitly, if not explicitly, suggests a determination to attempt to
increase the efficiency of the whole process. Therefore, it might be
worth-while to digress temporarily and examine somewhat cursorily some
of the inputs and outputs of this process.

In the opinion of the author, some of the more important inputs are:
man hours of time used by authors (for preparing the copy which might
include some part of the research effort), reviewers, administrators,
editors, and secretaries; processing costs such as art and layout, type
setting, engravings or negatives for offset duplication, paper, second
colors, binding, presswork; and costs of distribution to the recipient--
the total costs of promoting the message via newspapers, radio, television
and circular letters.

.What is the desirable output of these inputs? Identifying, defin-
ing, classifying, and measuring the output appears to be difficult
enough to have inspired few any place in the nation to attempt to do so.
This author is not certain that he can, but he is willing to try. Output
appears to have quite different meanings to different people. For
example, authors sometimes define output as the number of messages they

can get published.

Publications editors occasionally use the number of publications
they process as output. With publications varying so much in numbers
of pages and size of format, a more meaningful measure might be the
number of words handled per year. Perhaps an even more precise measure-
_ment would be the thousands of square inches of page space processed.
Even this does not really reveal much for there is a tremendous variation
in the number of hours of time needed.per page between one filled with
straight narrative copy, one filled completely with tabular capy, and
one involving varying degrees of art and color work. Also, there is a
tremendous variation in the amount of editorial work and hence hours
of effort needed on manuscripts depending in large part on the ability
of the author. The ability of the author depends in large part on his
experience, training in writing, and natural ability. Actually there
doesn't appear to be a very meaningful measuring stick for editorial
efforts, particularly if the educational value is overlooked or ignored.

Authors sometimes identify output as the number of different
publications released under their name in some Specified time period.
This may not to too useful a measure.

At this point the author would offer several notions that should be
considered when attempting to measure output in a meaningful way. In
the development of an efficiency concept for an information effort, not
only for publications but for all information work, the following ideas
should not be overlooked: (l) the relative and absolute number of}
different, important, clearly and simply expressed messages produced per

year; (2) the relative and absolute number of people that were made

aware of the existence and the importance of these messages; (3) the
absolute and relative proportion of the audience that received timely,
understandable, useful, important messages which resulted in some kind
of behavioral change (change in thinking, feeling, action, which in-
cludes such things as attitude and skills). In general the author
suggests that the last item is a fairly useful definition of output for
an information program. The concept of efficiency with respect to
specific types of printed messages is discuSsed at the end of Chapter III.

Finally, inasmuch as the principal problem to be discussed in this
paper will concern a Specific segment in the area of printed information,
most of the analysis of the later section on the conceptual framework
will focus around accomplishing goals 2 and h, though goals 1 and 3 are
recOgnized as overlapping and important. These goals are so worded that
they appear to be applicable either to the total information program or
to most any specialized area of it.

Before launching a discussion of this analysis, however, it might
be well to examine the Specific problem situation as it was perceived
and documented by some or all members of the communications advisory

committee mentioned in the Abstract.

CHAPTER II
THE PROBLEM OF THE FIELD STAFF

The members of the agricultural field agent staff of the COOperative
Extension Service of Michigan State University are besieged daily with
tremendous volumes of printed material. Printed material is defined as
any piece of paper with symbols imprinted on it regardless of the method
of duplication. It emanates from many sources other than the 20 or more
departments in at least four colleges at Michigan State University
(Agriculture, Veterinary Medicine, Science and Arts, and Business and
Public Service). For example, county agricultural agents get printed
material from national, State, and local pressure groups, various groups
such as feed, fertilizer, machinery, and agricultural chemical manu-
facturers and dealers; Special interest associations such as a national
feed manufacturer's association and hundreds more similar ones. The
Michigan Agricultural Conference has more than 80 organizations in the
state which fit into this Special interest category such as the Michigan
Onion Grower's Association, The Michigan Celery Promotion.Association,
The Michigan Swine Breeder's Association, and others, many of whom send
the county agricultural Extension staff material from time to time.

Still another source of volume which adds to the general confusion
is the questionnaire kind of communication. One agent reported to the

author that currently he gets an average of one questionnaire per day

from commercial peOple, staff members, administrators, graduate students
working on theses, researchers, and others. And so the list grows
almost to infinity, all of it creating competition for the county agri-
cultural agent's attention with reSpect to subject matter material from
the land grant college in the state.

‘At best, this kind of competition makes it highly desirable, if not
absolutely necessary, for the college to provide the agent with a care-
fully planned, well integrated, purposefully coordinated, overall printed
publications prOgram that will permit the agent to spend a minimum of
time examining the messages, filing them for future reference and/or
sending them along to some audience. Instead, what is found?

In the 1956-57 fiscal year, the Michigan.Agricultural Experiment
Station printed approximately 120 publications in the six series with
which it is immediately concerned; the Cooperative Extension Service
printed approximately 180 in an entirely different set of series for a
sum total of more than 300 publications, printed by commercial printers
for one year. That is more than one per working day; And this is only
a part (and no person in the institution knows what part) of the total
amount of printed material going out. For example, in a recent mail
survey, county agents listed some 52 different news letters, tip sheets,
service letters, and other communications that they could "recall" having

2
received in the "last month" from some staff member at Michigan State.

 

~—

2

.Survey conducted.by George H. Axinn, administrative assistant to
the Director of the Michigan State University C00perative Extension
Service, October, 1955.

Most of them confined these lists to material from agricultural people.
(See Appendix A, Table 1)

Many of the publications on this long list combined news material
with how-, what-, and when-to-do—it types of subject matter material,
research progress reports, outlook material, and others. Apparently,
very little thought was given to continuity, regularity of release,
organization of material, type of material, or quality of duplication.
If it can be assumed that there is some merit in these particular
characteristics, then some of the good subject matter reference material
being processed and mailed out to county offices is being destroyed along
with the news material. A

And this is only the beginning with subject matter material being
mimeographed in reams and mailed out. Even a cursory examination of
subject matter now being duplicated by many of the departments involved
with agricultural material reveals clearly that some of the best material
is in mimeographed form. It is best in the sense that much of it is
concise. Some of it is good in the sense of being needed in the field,
but very poor in the sense of effective idea presentation, primarily
because no experienced writer has helped with it.

As an interesting example, the combined total of publications of
the three departments in the Animal Industries-nAnimal Husbandry,
Poultry, and Dairy--is less than 50 printed publications itemized in the
list of available publications published quarterly at Michigan State

University. Fifty out of more than 500 in the list is a rather small

lO

ratio, particularly in view of the fact that nearly two-thirds of the
gross cash receipts received by Michigan farmers in 1955 came from these
three areas. Strangely enough, or perhaps not so strangely, these

three departments have a wealth of very good information in mimeographed
form. Obviously, departments such as Agricultural Economics, Agricultural
Engineering, EntomolOgy, and others are also releasing material related

to the animal world, but it is difficult to find it. One cannot always
be safe in assuming, however, that sheer numbers of commercially printed
publications are very valid criterion of the service being given any
particular area of subject matter.

Hyman and Sheatsley3 write that "those responsible for information
campaigns and programs cannot rely simply on 'increasing the flow' to
Spread their information effectively. The following statements create
V real problems and/or Opportunities for those charged with the task of
informing the public: V

1. There exists a hard core of chronic 'know-nothing's.

2. Interested people acquire the most information.

3. PeOple seek information congenial to prior attitudes.

h. PeOple interpret identical information messages differently.

But printing, if nothing more, accomplishes at least three purposes:

1. Authors generally do a more careful job of preparing the message.

3 _

Herbert H. Hyman and Paul B. Sheatsley, "Some Reasons'Why Infor-
mation Campaigns Fail," in Public Opinion and Propaganda, edited by
Katz Cartwright, Eldersveld, and.Lee, (New York: The Dryden Press,
195h3, pp. 523-530. '

11

2. The messages get indexed and placed in an organized series.

3. The c0py is submitted to an experienced editor who presumably
can make a contribution to the clarity, organization, and
presentation of the message.

According to the observations of the aforementioned advisory com-
mittee, it is precisely these mimeOgraphs and some of the material
duplicated by the offset process that are causing considerable conster-
nation among field agents, not because the material isn't good and
potentially useful, but because of the excessive heterogeneity of:
subjects covered, degrees and detail of coverage, formats, colors, styles
of writing, types of presentations, timeliness, types of duplication,
individual or departmental recognition and identification schemes, and
a host of other lesser characteristics that add to the general confusion.
In addition to this, there is also an unknown quantity of mimeographed
letters being prepared by individual specialists and mailed to the
agents--letters containing minute bits of Specific subject matter that
may be particularly timely and highly useful for future reference.

Then add to all this the numerous communications from research
'peOple in the Agricultural Experiment Station in the form of progress
research reports, Special material for a variety of purposes, requests
for help with research survey projects, and many others. Very little
of that material coming from any segment of Michigan State University
other than that being commercially printed is identifiable through file

,numbers, any comprehensive indexing or numbering system, or in any

12

other fashion other than by name of the author. Occasionally, a depart-
ment will number some of its mimeographed publications for its own

use, but only one or two of the 18 or 20 departments are doing that.
Frequently the individual mimeographed material does not even contain a
name or departmental identification, particularly if the material is
going to be mailed with some type of covering letter. The letter usually
soon gets separated from the subject matter material and what little
identification one might have had is quickly lost. Usually the material

is lost too.
The Consequences of Volume

After numerous discussions with county agricultural agents in three
states over a period of several years, the author concludes that county
agricultural agents of many states are confronted by similar problems
with respect to information messages coming from the staff members at
the land grant college. Each in his own way seems to say about this:
"I am getting so much information from so many different people at the
college that I can't possibly keep up with it. I set most of it aside
hoping that I will find an opportunity to examine it. But being honest
about it, I frequently do not find time to do even that. After the
pile gets about so high, or my mail basket gets full, I finally toss
it in the wastebasket. I know that I'm throwing away much good infor-
mation, but it is usually easier to phone or write the Specialist when
I have a problem than it is to sort out all the mail and keep what I

need. It is shortsighted, but I don't have a very good-filing system,

13

so I'm never sure just where to put it. After I put it someplace, I
often can't find it. At first I tried to tear some of these mimeo-
graphed series apart and keep only those sheets that were of concern in
my county. I tried to put them in a folder or a notebook so I could have
them with me in the field, but I found many of them poorly identified

or not identified at all. It didn't take long for my notebook to get
fairly well filled up. And then I couldn't find the material in the
book because the job of indexing it some way just never got done. So,

I finally tired of that and bought information from a commercial organi-
zation that was performing the service I needed so badly. It is not
ideal, but it is the only organized source of information that I can

get my hands on. And-I often find material in there from our own and
many other land grant colleges. I would still, however, much prefer the
information either produced at our college, or at least approved by
them. But it is just not available."

This last solution reported by the agent is, in one sense, highly
ridiculous, and, in another, extremely sensible. This and other com-
mercial sources have simply asked to be put on the mailing lists of
the land grant colleges in order to get the basic material which they
promptly rework and publish for sale to the same people who had paid
for: (l) the research work to be done in the first place; (2) the
publications to be printed; and (3) the Extension educational work to be
done. In effect, the public was and is donating its own hat to the
public auction and then buying it back through a broker who gets his

percentage from the charitable donation.

1h

There are several relevant examples drawn from Michigan sources
that are easily documented which reveal a few more of the obvious conse-
quences of this unrestricted production of material. One rather
interesting example of unknown significance and prevalence, but one
which is suspected of being rather common, is illustrated by one special-
ist's experience in an agent's office. By reputation, this agent is
one of the top agents in the state. The county in which he is located
was in the tOp 20 with respect to gross value of agricultural products
sold according to the l95h census of agriculture. This particular
Specialist had been chairman of a commodity committee that had prepared
a series of mimeographed letters, posters, slides, news articles, and
other packages of information as a part of a state-wide Extension edu-
cational prOgram for the year. The mimeographed subject matter material
was distributed through local commodity organizations and firms that had
places of business located strategically throughout the state--places
which farmers frequented rather often. The Extension agents of the state
were sent single copies of this material and fully informed of the
distribution pattern, who was doing it, and why. The only Specific jet
the agents were asked to do was to place the posters in appropriate
places in local business establishments such as banks, stores, and
other places of business, where the public would see them. .According
to the commodity people over the state, "this material was some of the
best to come out of Michigan State University on this particular subject

in many, many years."

15

Out of curiosity, the specialist, when in this particular county
office on other business, casually asked the office secretary if he
might see what they had on that particular subject. Much to his sur-
prise and chagrin, the secretary, after a diligent search of all
possible files, located one out of the thirteen different letters that
had been produced and distributed. This gave the specialist reason to
ask to see what they had on the latest technolOgical developments in
other Specialized areas of his work. Almost to a subject, he found the
latest material on file was from five to twenty years old. Mimeographs
had been released with the last year on every subject about which he
asked. After this disillusioning experience, he, quite by accident,
noticed the posters mentioned earlier neatly stacked against the wall
behind a file cabinet. None of them had been placed about the community
as had been suggested and expected by the committee.

If this experience could be duplicated in substantial degree in
more than a very few counties, one might logically ask at least two or
three related questions. Are Extension Specialists Operating under an
illusion when they rely on the field staff to handle the bulk of the
distribution of printed messages? Where does the weakness of the system
originate--in the county Office, or at the state level? Whose job is it
to correct such an Obvious weak link in the chain? These and many other
pertinent questions will be discussed in the next sections.

Another serious consequence of this somewhat loosely organized or

unorganized system of communicating ideas via the printed word is the

16

rather frequently observed practice of specialists or researchers pre-
paring material for some special purpose and nOt making much other use
of it. For example, a group of Michigan State agricultural researchers
in October of 1956 prepared a 12dpage mimeographed publication on the
costs and returns that could be expected from using various combinations
of production practices and fertilizer application levels for a number
of crops, and for several different geographic sections of the state.
This was done in response to a Specific request from a large farm supply
distributor for use in its fertilizer meetings throughout the state.

It was Six months before anyone in the Inferratlan Services Office
accidentally stumbled across this excellent paper. The first question
asked by the information Specialist of one of the co-authors was this:
Has this been sent to the county agricultural agents? The answer:

"No, I don't think that it has, but I guess it should have been. I have
gotten letters from two or three agents asking for c0pies. They said
they had been told by several farmers that the farm supply distributor
had said that Michigan State University had prepared it and that they
could get extra copies from their county agent."

One could go through innumerable examples, but the author hesitates
to belabor the point. One more example of efficiency is in order,
however, to illustrate another point. Some months prior to this writing,
a district marketing agent came to the campus to get the latest infor-
mation and advice on several different types of Specialized subjects

related to his work, one of which was some Specific data on various phases

17

of drying either Shelled or ear corn. He went to the Farm Crops
Department first. After being shuttled around between at least three
Offices, he was directed to the Agricultural Engineering Department
where he found essentially the same situation. His third stop was the
Agricultural Economics Department with similar results. He did succeed
in getting part of what he came after, but not some material he wanted
most. Finally he gave up; he didn't know of any place else to turn.
About three months later he noticed some copy prepared for the radio
stations in the state that gave him the lead that eventually got him to
the right person, (the person with the best answer). And where did it
come from? Strange as it might seem, it originated in the Soil Science
Department.

AS Extension diversifies its program and employs new Specialists
who turn out c0py in a new subject matter area, each agent gets each new
Specialist's product added to his daily collection. It is just one more
area about which each agent is supposed to know something. .Adding new
agents in the field does not relieve the veterans, except as "specialist
agents" are added.

Michigan already ranks third in the nation among land grant colleges
in absolute numbers of agricultural subject matter Specialists, and it
ranks very high in the ratio of specialists to county agricultural
agents. Only two states of any Size, Indiana and Ohio, are equal to
Michigan in this ratio. Michigan has added approximately 20 Specialists
since 1951, most of them young, aggressive, and prolific. This means

essentially that each agent is now getting material from 20 more

18

sspecialists than he was only 6 years ago. In short, it would appear

iahat the situation will likely get worse rather than better for the

jfield agent with respect to volume and hence confusion with printed

Inatter.

The hypothetical but rather representative statement of agents

Vfith whom the author has discussed this problem that was quoted early

:in this section, plus the Michiganébased examples, seems to suggest

that the typical county agricultural agent wants several things:

1.

S.

Locally produced or approved subject matter information that
is clearly and concisely written;

A workable system for filing information so that it is avail-
able at a moment‘s notice;

A departmentally and subject matter integrated, simple to use,
uniform system of index labeling;

A reduction in the wide range in the types of format, variety
of packages, heterogeneity of style, and comprehensiveness of
coverage of subject matter or equal importance;

Any other feature incorporated.into such a system that would

improve his ability to service his customers.

The author took it upon himself to design a package and a system

that would meet as many of the agent's needs as were within his (the

author's) imaginative ability and the ability of those whom he could

interest in the project. The author is hopeful that the experience

l9

gained on this project may serve as a starting point for creating a
serious interest in a carefully planned, objective program of evaluation

for all segments of the information program.

CHAPTER III

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE LAND GRANT COLLEGE

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

As a means of helping the reader grasp the real potential of the
proposed solution, it might be profitable to have at least two kinds of
‘background information:

1. a brief resume of the definitions of the term "communications"
offered by researchers in the various disciplines interested in
communications; and

2. a conceptual framework of the functional structure, and the
reSponsibilities of and the interaction between the various
segments of the Cooperative Extension Service with respect to

conveying useful ideas from the source of the ultimate consumer.
Communication of Information

One of the essential functions of the agricultural staff members
<31? the Cooperative Extension Service appears to be that of translating
Etrui transmitting to some audience the ideas or information that flow
lffisonlthe tremendous reservoirs of agricultural research going on in land
E§P6u1t college Experiment Stations in these United States. These messages
must be in a form which the audience can understand and use. This is

frequently labeled communications. Although most all Extension workers

20

21

are deeply involved in communications work, it is quite evident to the
careful observer that they have about as many (though often less sharply
defined) concepts of what the term communication means as do people
conducting research in the area of communications. The author considers
it worth-while to report just a very few to illustrate the variety in

the area of communications research about which Westley and Maclean4

make the following statement: "Communications research and theory have
blossomed from a variety of disciplinary sources in recent years. People
probing the communications area have here focused on 'theoretical issues,’
and there on 'practical concerns.‘ Thus, one finds today a jungle of
unrelated concepts and systems of concepts on the one hand, and a mass

of undigested, often sterile empirical data on the other."

This Situation, of course, doesn't make it any easier for the
Extension "practitioner" to clarify a concept for himself. Nevertheless
it might be worth-while to examine some of the "expert's" expressions
on the definition and meaning of communications. R

Weaver5 has the following to say: "The word communication includes
all of the procedures by which one mind may affect another.l This involves

not only written and oral Speech, but also music, the pictorial arts,

4
Bruce H. Nestley and Malcolm S. Maclean Jr., "A Conceptual Model

For Communications Research," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 3h, No. 1,

(Iowa City, Iowa: Association for Education in Journalism, Winter,

1957), Po 31.

5

Claude E. Shannon and warren'Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of
Communicatigg, (Urbana, Ill.: The University of Illinois Press, 19H9),
pp. 95-96.

22

the theatre, the ballet, and in fact, all human behavior....there seem
to be problems in communications at three levels:

1. How accurately can the symbols of communication be transmitted?

(The technical problem)

2. How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired

meaning? (The semantic problem)

3. How effectively does received meaning affect conduct in the

desired way? (The effectiveness problem)"

"Communication means the mechanism through which human relations
exist and develop--all the symbols of the minds, together with the means
of conveying them through space and.preserving them in time. It includes
the expression of the face, attitude and gestures, the tones of the
voice, words, writing, printing, railways, telegraphs, telephones, and
whatever else may be the latest achievement in the conquest of Space and
time."

Hovland7 says:5 "I should like to define communication as the process
by which an individual (the communicator) transmits stimuli (usually
verbal symbols) to modify the behavior of other individuals (communicatee)."

Some suggest that behavioral changes are not the only or even the most

 

6
Charles H. Colley, "The Significance of Communication," in the

Reader in Public Opinion and Communication, edited by Bernard Berelson

and Morris Janowitz, (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1953), p. lh5.

7 7 p ‘

Carl I. Hovland, "Social Communication," in the Reader in Public
Opinion and Communication, edited by Bernard Berelson and Morris
Janowitz, (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1953), p. 182.

23

important objectives of communications, but Weaver8 states: "It may
seem at first glance undesirably narrow to imply that the purpose of
all communication is to influence the conduct of the receiver.. But,
with any reasonably broad definition of conduct, it is clear that com-
munication either affects conduct or is without any discernible and
probable effect at all."

A convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer
the following question proposed byLasswell:9 "Who says what in which
channel to whom with what effect? The scientific study of the process
of communication tends to concentrate upon one or another of these
questions. Scholars who study the 'who' (the communicator) look into
the factors that initiate and guide the act of communication. This sub-
division of the field of communication research is called control
analysis. Specialist who focus upon the 3says what' engage in content
analysis. Those who look primarily at the radio, press, film and other
channels of communication are doing m§§i§_analysis. When the principal
concern is with the persons reached by the media we speak of audience
analysis. If the question is the impact upon the audience, the problem

is effect analysis."

 

8
Shannon and weaver, _p, git,, p. 97.

9

Harold D. Lasswell, "The Structure and Function of Communication
in Society," in The Communication of Ideas, edited by Lyman Bryson,
(New York: Harper and Brothers, 19h8), p. 37.

2h

Schramm10 defines communications as follows: "Communication comes
from the Latin word communis, common. When we communicate we are trying
to establish a 'commonness' with someone. ‘we are trying to share at
least three elements--the source, the message, and the destination.

A source may be an individual (speaking, writing, drawing, gesturing)

or a communication organization (like a newspaper, publishing house,
television station or motion picture studio). The message may be in the
form of ink on paper, sound waves in the air, impulses in an electric
current, a wave of the hand, a flag in the air, or any Other Signal
capable of being interpreted meaningfully. The destination may be an
individual listening, watching, or reading; or a member of a group, such
as a discussion group, a lecture audience, a football crowd, a mob; or
an individual member of the particular group we call the mass audience,
such as the reader of a newspaper or a viewer of television."

"Communication occurs whenever a sender acts upon a receiver by
means of some vehicle, so that some state or series of states of the
sendere-the message--is induced as a state or series of states of the-

11
receiver."
The heterOgeneity of definitions and the varying degrees of clarity

of meaning may be the product of numerous disciplines getting vitally

 

10
‘Wilbur Schramm, The Process and Effects of Mass Communication,
(Urbana, 111.: The University of Illinois Press, l95h): pp. 3:8.

11

.Philip H. Phenix, "A.Philosophic View of Communication," in
Communication and the Communication Arts, edited by Francis Shoemaker,
reprinted from the Teachers College Record, Vol. 57, NO. 2, (.......:
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1955), p. 80.

25

interested in the subject of communications: sociology, social psy~
cholOgy, psychology, philosophy, journalism, political science, and
others. This author rather prefers the definition and discussion offered
by Schramm because of its Simplicity and clarity. There is, however,
at least one very essential element missing in his process, and that is
the.distribution mechanism used to tranSport the message from the
source to the destination. Considerably more will be said about this
later in the paper.

If the author were interested in examining the various ramifications
of the communications process more closely, he would prefer to conceptu--
alize this subject into the framework suggested by Lasswell. It appears

to be much broader in Scope and potentially more penetrating in analysis.
Functional Structure

The: kind of background information that may be needed by most
readers is that of a conceptual framework or model of the functional
structure; the ways it Operates and/or fails to Operate with reSpect to
duplicated material; and the transmission and translation of ideas to
the ultimate consumer.

Figure 1 is designed to communicate the author's concept of the
essential elements in the typical land grant college communication
process, and the way it functions today in at least one of them.

There are at least three important broad categories of services

being provided by various people in the land grant college system for

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communicating ideas via the printed word. Occasionally certain indi-
viduals in two or three Of these categories perform more than one of
the functions.

The first category is labeled THE SOURCE. This means the source
of the ideas or message content of all information packages emanating
from the state institution and going to audiences. For purposes of
simplicity, the author has limited the groups listed under source to
the two important ones--the subject matter departments Of which there
are 20 or more concerned with agriculture and related subjects at
Michigan State University, and the administrative units Of the state
office. From observation, it appears that by far the large majority of
packages in terms of sheer numbers originate in the subject matter
departments.

The second category is labeled THE PROCESSORS. TO some degree now,
and to a greatly increasing degree in the future, this term is and should
be a misnomer, in the Opinion of the author. The Information Service
Unit does process most all Of the commercially duplicated messages now
going to county Offices or to commercial communication channels.
'However, as hinted at in the problem section, many messages are circum-
venting the processing unit. Many authors at this institution are
successfully failing to take advantage of the professional services
Offered.by this unit.

The third major category is labeled THE DISTRIBUTORS. First in

the model is the county Extension Office on whom Extension specialists

28

have traditionally and perhaps sometime blindly (see examples in prob-
lem section) relied to handle the distribution of their messages to the
public. This also will be explored more.fully in the next section Of
this paper. The major group in this distributor category is collectively
called the communication channel of which there are at least two kinds--
direct and indirect.

Direct channels are those which any member of the staff uses to go
directly to his audience without using any middlemen to translate and/or
transmit the message. Typical examples are the public mail, public
meetings where handouts are Offered, office pickdups of printed messages,
or any Of the commercial channels such as radio, television, personal
news columns in papers, special house organ articles and other which the
agent uses personally.

Indirect channels are those which are controlled and/or Operated
by organizations and agencies outside the message content jurisdiction
of Michigan State University. This includes all commercial professional
communication channels, various types of commodity organizations such as
the Michigan Milk Producers.Association, general farm organizations,
vocational agriculture teachers, and various other kinds Of groups that
might be happy to lend a helping hand.

The fourth and last major category, THE CUSTOMER OR THE AUDIENCE
cannot properly be called a service, but it does appear to be an
important element in the process. It is also one that seldom is accorded
a very high degree Of attention by either the source unit or the

processors. In this audience are the folks with whom the source

29

presumably is attempting to develop "meaningful message contact."

Obviously, in an organization as large as Michigan State University,
it is difficult to avoid some duplication and/or overlapping Of services
performed by these four groups. But this, in the broadest perspective,
is the system used.by land-grant colleges for communicating educational
ideas to any public audience with printed material.

The only remaining element in Figure 1 that has not been discussed
in some degree is the area labeled "The Information Planning Team(s)."
In laying out the broad Objectives in an annual-plan of work, this group
might well consist of at least one member of Information Services Unit,
a representative of the county staff group, and one or more persons
representing administration and subject matter departments. One of the
Objectives Of this kind Of team certainly would be to integrate the
information, administrative, subject matter, and county educational
programs as much as possible.

From the standpoint Of each individual printed message, this team
might consist Of the particular editor involved, the author of the
message, and probably the assigned representative of the administrative
team. Much of the activity of this kind Of team would be informal but

purposeful.
The Pipeline Routes Through Which Messages Flow

Before proceeding to a fairly detailed analysis of what needs to
be known by the information Specialist and/or the planning team(s)

about each of these groups in order to develop an efficient system, the

30

author finds it helpful to take an intermediate step. It is that of
examining fairly thoroughly the channels or pipelines (Figure 2)
through which information messages pass from source to audience for at
least two reasons:

1. to conceptualize the pattern Of flow Of various types of

messages;

2. tO point out what it is about the system that permits the

primary problem elaborated earlier in this paper to develop.

The essential difference between Figures 1 and 2 is the addition
of pipelines between the major elements through which messages flow
from source to audience. These pipelines are also convenient devices
to use in tracing for the reader the various routes and possible desti-
nations which messages take in going from source to audience. The small
circular terminal points in at least one Of the channels in each of the
last three units represents a wastebasket, the ultimate destination of
an.unknown number Of printed messages from Michigan State University.

.A practical procedure will be to follow a commercially printed
Extension publication through the pipeline, and enumerate the possible
roadblocks along the line between the author and the reader.

First, for one or more of several possible reasons, a specialist
or researcher prepares a manuscript. It is sent through administration
to be examined for policy such as a check to learn if there is any
material of a publicly controversial nature, or material that should be

examined by some other Specialist in a closely related field. Once the

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32

manuscript successfully negotiates this hurdle (and, according to many
Specialists and researchers, it is perceived as a highly unnecessary
hurdle), it is then sent to the Information Services Unit for processing.
This service includes copy editing, format selection, internal layout,
type selection, and a substantial list of related services, a process
which incidentally also has been considered as another irritating and
annoying hurdle. The author suspects that one rather common evidence
Of the existence Of this hurdle image is the large volume of institu-
tionally duplicated material not now going through this unit but around
it and through the channels at the bottom of Figure 2. However, once
the manuscript has been transformed into an attractive publication and
is delivered to the bulletin office, a single copy is then sent on its
way to the county Offices so that individual agent can order what he
needs. I

The county Extension agent can do at least three things with it:

1. He can order a bulk quantity to supply those folks in his

county who would be interested in the particular subject.

2. He can file it for future reference.

3. He can direct it to the wastebasket.

Assuming that the agent follows procedure No. l, he then has many
ways to distribute this particular package. He can use any one of the
several direct channels and contact the audience without the help of any
message content middleman. Or he can call on some Of the indirect dis-

tribution channels listed earlier to help get the package to the right

33

audience at the right time. And of course, he can use any combination
or the direct and indirect channels. If he uses the indirect route
only, however, he may run some additional risk of the message being
directed into their wastebasket, hence reducing the potential effective-
ness.

Of course if the county Extension agent chooses either NO. 2 Or
No. 3, and, at present, very few in the institution know or are attempt-
ing to find out which method the agent chooses, an effective roadblock
has been constructed. The existence of any roadblock certainly inter-
feres with the efficiency of the process.

SO much for the process Of taking a commercially printed.publica-
tion from inception at the SOURCE level, through the PROCESSING Unit,
into and through the DISTRIBUTORS, and finally to the AUDIENCE. It is
surprising and a source of no little anxiety to the author to discover
the large number of Extension employees in both the SOURCE and PROCESS-
ING groups who heave a sigh of welcome relief when the manuscript passes
beyond their particular service. They think that the job is done. The
author wishes to state that regardless Of how discriminating the subject
selection, how well the writing was done by the author, how perfect the
job Of editing and glamourizing of the package, little of it will bear
fruit unless the publication is successfully tranSported into the hands
Of persons in the audience who are interested and can use it. From
intimate Observations in at least three states-~Indiana, Maryland, and

Michigan, the author suSpects that few commercially printed

3h

institutional publications attain a very high degree of efficiency;
for those Michigan State publications that do, there is no one now in
the institution who has enough tangible evidence to demonstrate it
convincingly. Most Of the claims for success appear to be impression-
istic, intuitive, or Optimistic imagination.

What about the institutionally duplicated manuscript that does not
have to pass the acid test of administrative examination; one that does
not have to be placed in the hands Of an editor who may suggest making
changes in hgw_an idea is expressed in an attempt to improve the copy
and make it a more palatable message; one that does not have to spend
from two weeks to three months in the printing process. What route does
this kind Of manuscript follow?

The package containing such a message is usually duplicated within
the specific department on an office mimeograph machine in quantities
varying from 50 to 500 or more. Except for the rare’occasions when an
information Specialist accidentally stumbles across such.papers, many
of which contain excellent material, the staff members in the Information
Services Unit rarely know that they exist, and certainly have no
opportunity to increase the effectiveness Of them by performing some Of
their services. Information specialists will likely*persist in and
increase their efforts to devise ways to learn about and help with more
of these messages.

Once this kind Of package is duplicated, the Specialist becomes

the chief distribution diSpatcher. He may use it only for his own

35

special audiences while his colleagues are unaware that it is available.
He may send it to a select group of county agents or other special
audiences. He may use it only for answering his mail concerning the
problem. For sake Of making a point, assume that he sends a copy tO the
county Extension agent. The agent once again can do at least one Of
three things with it: (1) file it if he can find a logical place to put
it; (this was discussed in detail earlier); (2) he may rework it for
his local radio, television, newspaper or circular letter; (3) what
frequently happens, according to some Of our best agents and for reasons
already discussed, it finds its way into the wastebasket. Chances are
good that the mileage rate Of much mimeographed material is very low
because of the high ratio Of wastebasket destinations by agents' own
admission, the unavailability Of quantities Of it for further distribu-
tion, the frequently scant knowledge on the part of many Extension
personnel that it even exists, and numerous other reasons.

In summary, one can safely say that there is a tremendous volume
Of excellent material now being prepared and duplicated institutionally
which probably has a very low efficiency.ratio. In the author‘s Opinion,
this situation could be corrected with some imagination, courage, and
leadership, and with little serious loss of individuality or freedom
on the part of Specialists. At any rate, many seem perfectly content
to continue Operating, figuratively Speaking at least, at half mast
efficiency wise, but individually with their printed information prOgram.
If this is true, there are few excuses that would be plausible to

business-like farmer, legislators, or leaders.

36

All other messages, regardless Of the particular package into
which they are placed--television kinescope, film, radio script, news
and feature copy, and visual aids follow the same channels as those
traced out for the commercially printed and institutionally duplicated
messages. However, most Of these packages are processed through the
Information Services Unit, but seldom through the Administrative Unit.
Measured in terms Of administrative scrutiny, there seems to be some-
thing more official about a message in a commercially printed publication
than a message packaged in any other form. Perhaps it is because of its
permanence. It would be rather interesting to develop a list Of plausible
reasons for this procedure.

Now that the major categories and the main pipelineS'through which
printed messages travel have been examined, and problems and possible
causes have been reiterated, perhaps it would be helpful to elaborate
on some of the facts that anyone who faces up to this situation with the
sincere intention Of correcting it needs to know about each Of the major
categories. This includes specifically anyone who might serve in any

capacity on any planning team.
Information Needed to Design an Efficient System

Any individual or group Of persons, whether they be administrators,
information Specialists, or subject matter Specialists, need a minimum
amount of a specific information if they are charged with any part Of
trying to develop a workable, productive, efficient prOgram Of dissemi-

nating information, regardless Of the type of package, the particular

37

treatment Of the message, the audience, or the distribution pattern.
Goals stated earlier in the paper will be much easier to attain with
this kind of information, particularly goal No's 2 and h. Each category

Of Figure 3 will be examined and discussed separately and in some detail.

The Source

First, the SOURCE category. There are at least four different
types Of information needed here: (1) the broad policies, programs, and
projects Of the administrative unit--in this isolated instance it is the
Cooperative Extension Service, which incidentally is only one of several
units with which those in the Information Services Unit must deal;
(2) the Specific types of subject matter or administrative messages that
are possible; (3) the abilities of each.participating individual in the
source category who use each of the Specific media; and (h) tie No.2 and
No. 3 together and identify with a specific individual personality who
has the ability, the information, and the authority to issue it.

Why is knowledge needed about the policies, prOgrams, projects Of
Extension tO design a successful and efficient information program?
The position of anyone on the planning team who attempts to integrate
the writing efforts of many individuals without a full knowledge of this
kind of information might be likened to skipper an Old-time ocean-going
sailing ship that is on the high seas with a crude compass and under
instructions from his company to cross the oceané-destination, America.
His ship's direction is determined largely by the unpredictable whims Of

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Whether one is talking about the skipper of the nautical or edu-
<3ational ship, unless the skipper's imagination and vision is exceptional-
'ly good, the crew's contribution to the voyage will likely fall something
short of the maximum possible. And so it is with the skipper of a
printed information program, unless he knows which port his company
wants him to reach and with what cargo, he is not likely to have much
opportunity to make the company any more productive or profitable.
Without the relevant information, he can keep the ship and the creW'mov-
ing fast, but this proves little except that the crew is busy and that
the ship is moving.

Secondly, this person, in order to be of maximum service, needs to
have a complete knowledge of messages that have been, are, and can be
produced.by source people. Currently there is nobody at Michigan State
University that has any more than a slight knowledge of this.

.A clear idea of the whole is needed before the parts of the whole
can.be integrated so that any interested outside part or even a party
‘within the institution could locate quickly the Specific information or
‘person who has it. One example already given on.pages 16 and 17

'illustrated the inability of at least one to accomplish this. The
author would suggest that it might be equally difficult for other
persons and other subjects.

Thirdly, this person or his Specialized associates must have a good
working knowledge of each source person's ability to use the various
media such as radio, television, publications, and others. Information

Of this kind provides an opportunity to help use the talents that are

hO

available in those areas in which they are most productive. For example,
there is little point in expecting to get much good printed material
from a Specialist who dislikes to write. If persons in the Information
Services Unit knew who these persons Were, they could proceed to get
the material some other way such as sending a competent writer to the
Specialist to get the facts and to check them once the manuscript had
been prepared.
' As an example, when this author came to this institution two and a
half years ago, he learned of a frequently expressed need for information
on a particular problem concerning a certain kind of livestock. On
numerous occasions, several peOple had requested the specialist to pre-
pare a manuscript on the subject. Six months went by, and then a year,
then two years. Finally, it became quite obvious that nothing was going
to get done. Ultimately the information specialist directly concerned
learned that, among other reasons for not getting the job done, the
subject matter Specialist did not like to write. It was just plain hard,
disagreeable work for him. Currently, as an experiment, the information
Specialist is in the process of interviewing the subject matter specialist
and taking pictures as a.preliminary step to writing the publication
himself. Question--should county agricultural agents employed in a
state whose farmers derive one-third of their gross cash receipts from
that commodity have to wait more than two or three years for some official
printed material on a Subject of importance?

Had the appropriate persons on this suggested planning team had an

inventory of this subject matter specialist's abilities and interests

hl

at the time this author first became aware of the need for the manu-
script, chances are excellent that something would have been published
at least two years ago. As it was, county agricultural agents have had
to go without, or turn to other sources, a practice that was also dis-
cussed earlier.

This, of course, raises a series of interesting questions. Is it
efficient to have specialists who do not like to write, or who cannot
write well, struggling along even trying to write? Is this a good use
of personnel resources for the Cooperative Extension Service, or should
Extension have a battery of competent writers to assign to these cases?
Sould the ability to communicate via the printed word be one of the
important criteria for employment as a subject matter specialist?

It would seem reasonable to assume that one certainly needs more than
just a comprehensive knowledge of some subject to be of any substantial
'value as an adult public educator.

Finally, in the opinion of the author, this planning team must
Ihave a thorough knowledge of who has what kind of information, and to
lee able to associate and integrate this with the knowledge of abilities,
isomehow'combining the various productive resources into the most profit-
‘able combination. The full knowledge of policies, prOgnams, projects,
Inessages, abilities, and personalities would be a substantial asset
‘to anyone interested in developing and maintaining an integrated,
«efficient information program for printed material that meets the

.specifications of the goals stated earlier.

h2

The Processors

The second category of inputs is labeled PROCESSORS. What infor-
mation is needed about this unit, or about the services they can
perform?

Generally, one of the first things a good information Specialist
considers when planning to get a specific message to a particular
audience, is to ascertain (l) to what channel(s) does the intended
audience have relatively easy and frequent access? Is it only the public
mail through which institutional publications can flow? Is it tele-
vision, radio, or daily or weekly newspaper delivery by carrier. Or is
it a combination of these or others which appear to be the most practical
and efficient to convey the message to the audience?

12

Concerning the area of message and package selection, Schramm

lhas developed a “fraction of selection" which is expressed as a formula:

Expectation of Reward

The Fraction or Selection 8 Effort Required

OR

Motivation of Individual
Availability of Message

He suggests four characteristics of message or meaning availability:
(1) skill of reading; (2) time for reading (allowing for competition for

time); (3) economics of obtaining messages; and (h) the Space (time and

12
Schramm, 92, cit., p. 19.

1:3

distance) between the reader and the reading material. The latter is
the characteristic most frequently used when layman think about and
discuss communications, but the others are tremendously important in
terms of transmitting ideas successfully.

He says that motivation is the kind cf inner patterning that directs ;
us toward certain behavior because we expect to reduce inner tensions
or uneasiness. It is therefore the kind of patterning which directs us
toward most of our behavior. There is little undirected behavior in
the human adult.

Secondly, people in this unit have to know what packages to use and
'when. For example, for a particular kind of message designed for a
jparticular kind of audience that has access to a particular kind of
communication channel, which package technique is the best to use, or
'which combination is best to use? Suppose the best channel is the public
Imail, or a meeting, and the package is a publication, which kind of
Inackage is best--a mimeOgraph, a newsletter, a folder, a fact sheet, an
Ebctension bulleting, a research bulletin, a book, or numerous other
possibilities. Which is most likely to attain the goal? To do the job
WEiLl, an information person must know which package is the most likely
in) be successful for each purpose, for each audience, for each channel.
Fere than this he should be able to help other staff members learn it
too.

Thirdly, they must know what treatment to give a message. For
PUrposes of illustration, the treatment concept might be likened to

some common commodity-~apples that are packaged in a metal or glass

container. How are apples treated before packaging? Does the
processor bake them whole, quarter them and package them raw, slice
them, make applesauce out of them, or package them as cider. Or perhaps
the processor applies a Special treatment for diabetics. Figuratively
speaking, there may be many diabetics in most any Extension audience
who need messages that are given Special treatment.

Messages are subject to the same kind of treatments as apples.
For example, suppose the following facts had been spelled out:

1. Cornpicker Operators (audience) living in southern Michigan
(geographic location) have had a series of tragic accidents
in the last year or two (reason enough for selecting the
following as a message to be transmitted): "The Human
Consequences of Careless Operation of Cornpickers."

2. This ready made interest group usually is watching (attention
factor) television (channel access) early in the evening
(time).

3. Though the county agents in this area do not have a regular
program on any of the commercial television stations, they
can get important messages such as this used if the messages
are prepared in a professional fashion, either by trained
television talent or a film or kinescope done by experienced
people.

Considering all these eXplicit facts, and the agent's inexperience

before cameras, the best package to use appears to be a lSeminute film

prepared by professionals. Now the question becomes this: What kind
of treatment is this particular message given for the maximum impact
to the specific audience?

Following are a few of the many possibilities with varying degrees

of potential success:

1. a qualified safety specialist giving an educational lecture
on cornpicker safety;

2. the same Specialist being interviewed by a county agent or
some other personality;

3. the Specialist or county agent leading a panel discussion with
a group of cornpicker operators who have never had any serious
accidents with the machine;

h. a panel discussion with a group of cornpicker amputees;

S. a bedside interview with a recent accident victim;

6. a series of stills or movies showing what can happen in a
real accident (use dummy to dramatize), or get actual
pictures of a real accident;

7. an interview with a doctor who has handled many such accident
cases along with a current patient;

8. an interview with a family recently widowed or orphaned by a
cornpicker accident.

The same can be done with other packages such as publications.

Next, it would be helpful to most persons in the audience to have

fflne numerous messages catalogued in one central location, and the

Clatalogue made available to anyone. In the opinion of the author, the

ho

absence of a useful catalogue is one of the major weaknesses of the
printed information program at Michigan State University. Observations
from other states have not revealed any better situation either. The
best information possible is not of much use to anyone if he is unable
to locate it when he wants it. One or two individual departments have
made some attempt at some identification system, usually primarily for
their own use, but the author is much more concerned about one for use
by anyone, and particularly for the entire institutional staff.

There are many other aspects to the responsibilities of this unit
such as communications training, both in the field and with the state
staff, but they are generally irrelevant here except as they might

improve the ability of the source persons to produce more useful and

meaningful messages.

The Distributors

The next major category is labeled THE DISTRIBUTORS which includes
county Extension offices, and direct and indirect communication channels.
'Without belaboring the point, suffice it to say that information Special-
ists and members of the planning team need to know something about the
communication abilities of each member of the field staff. Is he a
:reliable person to translate or transmit this message? Evidence already
Crited suggests that there are at least some who are not. What facilities
Choes he have for handling the distribution function for the various types
(Difnessages? What use does he or can he make of them? Does he know

Encout all the possible uses? To what channels does he have access?

147

Does he know how they should be used? Does he know how to use a

' bulletin, a mimeograph, a folder, to its fullest advantage? Is he just
handing publications out indiscriminately, or does he have them well
concealed in‘a box in the store room where not even he knows where they
are? It would be very useful and helpful to know the answers to these
and many other questions for every county in Michigan in order to be
prepared to do a thorough and purposeful job of planning for maximum)
efficiency.

What about the other half of this distribution team--the direct and
indirect communications channels? Who are they-~names, faces, person-
alities? A comprehensive listing of all the possible units is needed,
particularly the indirect, a project on which the author has already
made a simple start. What channels do they control or can they use?
What packages can they handle? For example, the Michigan Swine Growers
Association members may have access only to the mails to distribute
bulletins or folders, while the Michigan Milk Producers Association may
have access through larger funds, to radio, television, or other mass
media, but this must be known.

It would be helpful to know the gGOgraphic location of these various
distributors as well as their location with respect to the various
inpecialized audiences. Their coverage maps must also be clearly known.

Jtnd the designer of an effective program would want to know the relia-
TDility of each channel in terms of both transmitting and/or translating

éxny'particular message, particularly the transmission of printed matter.

h8

The Audience

The last major category is the customer, more frequently called
the AUDIENCE. Who is he with respect to various demographic and other
relevant characteristics? Who is he with respect to his interests,
needs, and what is his present understanding of the subject matter?
Where is he living geographically, and to which communications channels
does he have access? Does he have a preference for a particular kind of
package? Does he want a 6h~page bulletin with comprehensive treatment
of the subject, or does he want a concise treatment of the Specific
problem with which he is immediately concerned? How many people are
there in each type of audience in the state, 100 or 10,000 or 100,000?
Wbuld the marginal cost of inventorying and classifying them as a means
of improving the efficiency of the effort be equal to, less than, or
more than the marginal value product of doing it? Should Extension
forget about trying to'identify Specialized audiences and rely largely
on mass media--everything for everybody? Or does mass media imply the
shotgun approach?

Finally, once the answers to all these and many more relevant
questions have been determined for each of the major segments, someone
Lhas to analyze them, then integrate them into a working prOgram for the
(Sollege of Agriculture.

One more element, however, must be added to the schematic diagram

12) make the land grant college communication process more complete.
Inlet element is added in Figure h. Academic and professional communi-

Clators generally identify this new element as "Feedback." In the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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simplest of language and with respect to this particular kind of com-
munication process, it is nothing more nor less than an organized,
systematic pattern of pipelines through which messages can travel from
the customer back to the distributor, the processor and/or the source.
Feedback generally also implies the E32 of messages so received.

Feedback is the system which assures that if (A) is to utilize his
experience in influencing (B), he must have information about any changes
in the condition of (B) attributable to his communications. (C), as (B's)‘
agent, is equally concerned with effects on (B) if he is to help (A) do
a more effective job of communications with (B), at least so suggest
‘Westley and Maclean.13 In the case of the communications model presented
in this paper, (A) might be construed to be the source unit, (0) the
middleman such as the processing and distribution units, and (B) the
audience.

14

Houle states that "the education of adults is concerned not so
:much with the process of reading as with its effect."

Schramm15 says that when two individuals engage.in a personal
conversation, one is constantly communicating to the other, but in
Ireturn, the communicator is also receiving direct feedback messages from
liis audience in the form of a nod of the head, a hand gesture, a frown,

13Westley and Maclean Jr., 22, 923,, p. 36.

14
Cyril O. Houle, "The Use of Print in Adult Educational Agencies,"
fiua.Adult Reading, (Chicago: The National Society For The Study of
Education, 1956), p. 157.

15
Schramm, pp, cit., p. 13.

51

a smile, a look out the window or at the clock hanging on the wall.
He also says that the destination of mass communications (such as the
type engaged in by many land grant colleges are individuals--reading
the newspaper or other types of publications, listening to the radio,
or viewing television. This receiving situation is much different than
face-to-face communications discussed above. For one thing, there is
very little direct feedback from the receivers to the source. The kind
of feedback that comes to a mass communication organization is an
inferential expression-~receivers stop buying the paper, or no longer
watch the television show. Only in rare and usually planned instances
do such organizations have an opportunity to see how successful their
messages are. "An experienced communicator is attentive to feedback,
and constantly modifies his messages in the light of what he observes
about or hears from his audience.16

It is fairly evident that such questions as these must be answered
in the feedback mechanism: Did the whole message, or any part of it
reach the intended audience? What effect did this message have on those
whom it reaches? Did it meet their needs? was it used, or did it get
destroyed? Does the audience have a real need for other types of
Inessages which they are not getting? Was the proper channel or were
'the proper combination of channels used? Are there communication
Cflnannels which are willing and able to disseminate any of our messages

'Eflaich are not being used? Could the message be understood by the

g

16
Ibid., p. 9.

51

a smile, a look out the window or at the clock hanging on the wall.
He also says that the destination of mass communications (suCh as the
type engaged in by many land grant colleges are individuals-~reading
the newSpaper or other types of publications, listening to the radio,
or viewing television. This receiving situation is much different than
face-to-face communications discussed above. For one thing, there is
very little direct feedback from the receivers to the source. The kind
of feedback that comes to a mass communication organization is an
inferential expression-~receivers stop buying the paper, or no longer
watch the television Show. Only in rare and usually planned instances
do such organizations have an opportunity to see how successful their
messages are. "An experienced communicator is attentive to feedback,
and constantly modifies his messages in the light of what he observes
about or hears from his audience.16

It is fairly evident that such questions as these must be answered
in the feedback mechanism: Did the whole message, or any part of it
reach the intended audience? What effect did this message have on those
whom it reaches? Did it meet their needs? was it used, or did it get
destroyed? Does the audience have a real need for other types of
messages which they are not getting? Was the proper channel or were
the proper combination of channels used? Are there communication

channels which are willing and able to disseminate any of our messages

which are not being used? Could the message be understood by the

 

16
Ibid., p. 9.

S2

audience? If not, why not? What proportion of the potential audience
even knowsthat messages are available from land grant colleges? If the
audience is not getting information from the land grant institution,
where is it getting information? Are there other outside groups that
could do both a more efficient and effective job of communicating our
ideas?

This is only a small sample of the kinds of relevant questions
that need answering before many statements regarding the efficiency and
effectiveness of any land grant college message or communication process
can be much more than the product of Speculation, intuition, impression,
or subjective preferences. Other than what now appears to be a hap-
hazard, unorganized feedback, primarily through subject matter specialists,
there is little intentional feedback being measured or used.

Creating such a feedback route and system for making some of these
crucial measurements might be an invitation to some embarrassing results.
On the other hand, though the communications system seems to have no
well organized plan, research may demonstrate that the product of a
loosely and informally organized system differs little from that which
wwuld be realized under an organized system, perhaps even better. At any
:rate, no statement could be justified without such knowledge which could
Ice obtained with a welldused feedback channel.

Figure 5 is simply a composite of several of the numerous important

:items covered in Figures 1 to h.

53

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Efficiency and the Communication Process

Certainly one of the principle results of a carefully designed and
well used feedback mechanism (discussed in the last section) should be
the accumulation of new information that results in increasing the
efficiency of the communication process. The author suggests that this
information can be collected in a number of ways by various people:

(1) Information specialists might get it by keeping in close personal
contact with (a) the field Extension staff through office visits or
district conferences; (b) the various managers of both direct and indirect
_ communication channels, and (c) a representative sample of farm operators
involved with the major agricultural commodities in the state. They
might also collect information by mail questionnaire to Specific groups.
A number of other feasible possibilities also exist. (2) The county
staff could serve well as the middlemen in this feedback mechanism
between the ultimate consumer of the information and the producer of the
information. (3) The state staff, by being in close touch with current
conditions over the state could be of considerable help in developing

the prOper balance in the public information program. (h).Administrators
at all levels travel over the state frequently and are in contact with
many peeple often enough to be in a position to serve well as a sounding
board for the prOgram. In the opinion of the author, success in this
endeavor will result only with the efforts of all these mentioned and
others, plus the enthusiastic interest of some able person to Spearhead

the fact finding process. Efficiency,—if it is to be meaningful, has

55

to be something more than turning out so many bulletins, fact sheets,
or mimeographs at so many cents per copy.

Figure 6 is a diagram which illustrates a number of relevant points
concerning the efficiency of the process with respect to two types of
printed messages: (1) Y1 which represents fact sheets prepared for
incorporation in a carefully indexed agricultural reference manual for
Extension staff members (to be discussed in the next chapter); and
(2) Y2 which represents units of mimeographed material now being prepared
and distributed exclusively by individual departmental staff members
without regard to any interdepartmentally oriented index system.

Line FTSAG is one of a series of iso cost lines or production
Opportunity lines which represents all the possible combinations of Y1
and Y2 that can be produced for a given cost such as $50,000.‘ If the
entire $50,000 were allocated to the production of mimeOgraphs, an
amount 0G along the horizontal axis could be produced. Likewise, if the
'total available resources were allocated to the production of fact
sheets, an amount OF‘could be produced. It is well to note, however,
‘that OI and not 0G is the maximum of Y2 that can be produced when.part
(If the resources are diverted to the production of Y1. For example,,
:assume that part of the costs were represented by the salaries of two
eeditors whose sole job it is to edit mimeograph copy; Due, however, to
'the fact that subject matter staff members, who, because of a dis-
tinterest in writing or an inability to write well, can not produce

enough c0py to keep the editors usefully occupied editorially; hence

 

 

)6
A u K v
N
J _--—_ 0‘ Scale Line
F \
E“ ‘V‘ S
K3 \ Indifference Line
Kg ‘ L ‘
K \ wt Ieo Cost Line
5 A
K. _ '4
L4 l
I
L X
\ M Ls . l i,
0 06 I Y2

Figure 6:--An ieo cost contour map for the production
of two pm<h1cte. Superimposed on thie are
several consumer indifference curves to
locate the optimum combination of the two
products to produce for a given coat.

57

they are partially unemployed. Subsequently, they decide to use this
extra time to prepare cOpy for use in printed fact sheets from the
facts they can get by interviewing subject matter people. In the process
of personal contacts with these peOple, however, the editors are able

to make a number of helpful suggestions to these subject matter persons
(personal contact often proves to be a rather effective technique in
communications training) which results in increasing their ability to
prepare clearer c0py for mimeographs with less effort. In this situ-
ation, allocating some resources to the second product increases the
production of both with no change in total costs. This is true up to

a point A on line FTSAG. Beyond that point, some of Y2 must be sacri-
ficed to get more of Y1. The area from G to A is known as an area of
product complementarity. From point A on the iso cost curve up to

point T is an area where the two products are in a competitive relation-
ship for the same resources. Beyond point T, the production of Y1 de-
creases as increasing amounts of resources are diverted away from
producing Y2 and devoted to the production of Y1. For example, suppose
that beyond point T. toward the-Yl axis, authors were spending consider-
able time phoning the editor trying to find out why their copy hadn't
been delivered yesterday, or to locate some lost galley or page proofs.
The time wasted in this process might have been used rather productively
for the preparation of copy for departmental mimeographs. By the time
all the resources are devoted to the production of the printed fact
sheets the system is producing FJ fewer fact sheets and JT fewer mimeo-

graphs than were being produced at point T on the iso cost curve.

Since this particular case deals with products that are not sold
on any market, some additional lines which indicate the consumers'
preference or utility for the products must be superimposed on Figure 6.
Line KL is such a line and is called an "indifference" curve. This says
that at any point along this line the customers will experience equal
amounts of satisfaction or utility with varying quantities of Y1 and Y2.
The customer is actually indifferent as to which quantity of each he
can get as long as he stays on the line. The problem now is one of
determining at which point along the iso cost line can the customer
derive the most satisfaction. Any line lying below line KL and between
there and the origion 0 indicates a lower level of satisfaction to the
customer. Similarly, any line lying above line KL indicates greater
satisfaction, an area which is unattainable because it lies above the
maximum possibilities or iso cost line. No production is possible beyond
the given cost area bounded by OFGO.

The pOint at which an indifference line is just tangent to the iso
cost curve is the point of Optimum satisfaction for a given cost. For
a given cost of $50,000 the customer can obtain OD units of Y2 and 0E
units of Y1 and be on highest attainable indifference curve. This then
is the amount of fact sheets and mimeographs which will satiSfy the
audience to the highest degree pessible for this amount of money which
he, as a taxpayer, is willing to surrender to a public agency for the
purpose of transmitting information in these two types of packages.

Although this discussion has centered around only two possible

products, the model is capable of handling more than two.

59

Through persistent and careful use of the feedback mechanism discussed
both in Figure 5 and in the early part of this chapter, the author would
hope to approach some kind of reliable estimate of the point of tangency
for the various types of information being produced for agriculture at
Michigan State University. Those responsible for guiding the information
program for adult education need to know whether this curve is tangent
at points A, S, anqu, on the FTSAG iso cost curve before they can give
any sound assurance of doing a creditable job. More will be said in
Chapter V about the problems encountered in establishing the location

of this point of tangency and of the utility curve itself for this
project.

The objective, however, would be much broader than establishing the
precise point on iso cost curve FTSAG. The ideal would probably be to
establish a whole series of curves for a variety of possible cost situ-
ations. These would serve as guides to the program in cases of change
in the budget temperament of legislators, or in cases of changes in the
images of land grant college administrators with reSpect to the efficiency
and effectiveness pattern of the various packages for each particular
purpose. Such information might even cOunteract or abet an aggressive
information specialist who was intensely pursuing some pet project or
idea.

.A hypothetical set of utility curves has been constructed in
Figure 6 starting with line Kl'L1 and descending through line K7L7. If

the points of tangency of the utility and iso cost curves are connected,

60

line MN results. This is known as a "scale" line. It helps to locate
the prOper combination of the two products to produce over a fairly‘
wide range of cost situations. If this, or even a close approximation
of this kind of picture could be established, the administrators would
have a much more reliable basis for making decisions in information
work than they now possess.

This completes the discussion on the various inputs, essential seg-
ments of the model, some of the various weaknesses in the current system,
the various possible ways in which messages may be produced, the kind
of feedback mechanism that is needed, and the efficiency of the process
with reSpect to two different packages of printed material. The next
and most essential part of this thesis will concern a prOposed solution
to the problem of too much volume of unorganized material emanating
from the Source Unit and going into the county agricultural agent's

office.

CHAPTER IV

THE SOLUTION AND THE PEOPLE IT INVOLVES

The portable filing cabinet for the proposed packages will be a
rugged, 5-ring notebook binder into which any 8g-x ll sheet of paper
might be fit. The Sponsor, which in this case is the COOperative
Extension Service of Michigan State University will be well identified
with large gold letters stamped on the cover in an attractive design.
There is no question in the mind of the author that this book can prove
to be a genuinely useful trademark which can add much to the public
relations of the Cooperative Extension Service. It will be called the

Agricultural Handbook.
What the Agricultural Handbook Is and How to Use It

The following c0py is an introductory page for the benefit of any-
one who possesses the book:

"This agricultural handbook is designed to provide you with a
practical, systematically organized reference manual for filing much
useful agricultural information being published by the various depart-
ments at Michigan State Universiti.

"The table of contents on the next page (of the handbook) is
divided into 20 fairly well defined sections. t even more important

than this, the key subject matter title of every page in the handbook

6l

62

is incorporated in several places in the thoroughly alphabetized,
cross-referenced index located in the first section of the book. This
will permit you to locate quickly the exact subject matter that is
available. A sub-section of the index that you will also find helpful
is an up-to-date alphabetized index of all other printed, subject matter
publications that are not designed for the book but are in standard
bulletin or folder format. '

"Each of the major sections in the book will eventually contain
four basic types of information. Each type will be printed on an indi-
vidual sheet marked with some distinguiShing feature to facilitate rapid
identification and filing. Each sheet will be well identified with the
subject matter title, the author(s)' name(s), and their department(s).

l. Short-term information (with l-l2 months value such as current

 

price outlook, annual income tax changes, or emergency infor-
mation (e.g., unexpected disease outbreaks, weather or insect
damage). (On a colored sheet)

2. New research information, most of which is now being mimeo-
graphed, which county agricultural agents should know about
(progress reports on research projects). (On a colored sheet)

3. Permanent Reference information, most of which is now being
mimeographed, but some of which is being published as h x 9
folders. These will be printed on white pages with some kind
of distinctive masthead, many of which will be available for

general distribution to the public.

63

h. Abstracts from highly technical papers currently being mimeo-
graphed for Speeches, meetings, and clinics. (On a colored
sheet)

"The first 10 pages of each section will be reserved for the first
two classes of information to facilitate rapid location and easy removal
when revised.

"This handbook is a constantly growing reference manual with new
pages being added periodically, and old pages being revised whenever
needed. The pages are numbered according to the table of contents. In
the upper right-hand corner of each page you will find the page number
plus the general file number being adapted for county agricultural
agents.

"One more bit of helpful information--FILE PROHPTLY--DO NOT WAIT!

YOu will have a much more useful book if you keep it up to date."

Table of Contents

The section headings conform to master county file system now

EEEEEE
I-C
1-h99
500-999
1ooo-1h99
1500-1999
2000-2h99
2500-2999
3000-3099
3100-3399
3hOO-3h99
3500-3999
hooo-hh99
hSOO-h599
héoo-h699
h700-Sl99
5200~5299
5390-5799
5800-6999
oooo-oh99
6500-6999
7000-

being adopted by many Michigan agents.

Section

INDEX

Agricultural Economics
Agricultural Engineering
Animal Husbandry

Dainy

Diseases and Parasites
Farm Crops

Fisheries and Wildlife
Forestry

Forest Products
Horticulture
Insects-Insecticides
Land and water Resources DeveIOpment
Landscape Architecture and Urban Development
Poultny

Sociology

Soils

Tourist and Resort
weeds
Other-Miscellaneous
Abstracts

65

The range of the page numbers per section is set at what would
now appear to be practical limits in the foreseeable future. As
visualized now, the book could hold between 300 and 500 Sheets, depend-
ing on the exact size of the ring, and the weight of the paper that is
used for printing. Any pages in excess of this that any agent would
want to keep would probably go in at least one of two places; in another
book, or in the office file. If they go into another book, chances are
good that ten plus or minus two or three of the major sections will go
into each book. If they go into the file, pages could be placed in at
least two places. They could be filed according to the master file
mentioned earlier along with all other types of information that an
agent might collect. Secondly, and what is probably more likely, a
section in one file drawer will be reserved for the extra pages to be
filed in numerical order according to page number. If filed in this
manner, one could easily use the alphabetized index in the front of the
book for locating material in the file.

The author speculates that very little of the material will be
filed anyplace except the initial book until it begins to fill up.

Each agent's book up to this point will be similar to every other
agent's book. However, when this point is reached, agents then must
becOme selective and retire the least used material to the file or the
wastebasket.l It is pOssible that an agent might attempt to keep in
the book those pages that are timely for the season, adding and remov-

ing pages as the season demands.

66

The Alphabetized Index

In the opinion of the author, this index is the key to the useful-
ness of this book. If this job is not handled with care, the book will
not and cannot be used to its fullest capacity. To demonstrate the
technique used, some sample titles of current mimeographed material have
been itemized below and then alphabetized. The object is to select key
words whether these keywords are in the title or not. If the title is
not complete or is not descriptive or accurate, other key words might
be added. The words in parentheses are such key words added in the

alphabetized index.

Titles Used in the Sample Index Below

1. Common Insect Pests and Their Control.

 

2. How Far Can You Go Into peep. (Credit, Borrowing)
3. Investing in a.§il9 (Dairy)

)4. Does _Tj_.l_ingPay?

5. Where Michigan Farmers Get 2£e§i2_(Money, Borrowing)
6. CanIAffordaflfllkLaLk? .

7. Retailigngrepackaged Meats

Small Sample Index

"1’

RH

Borrowing,
How Far Can I Go Into Debt, 1119

Where Michigan Farmers Get Credit, 3l2

IO

[U

F3 l53 Ihid IFU

IH

F” Ipq IS4

I3

"3 "3

PU

67

Bulk Milk Tanks, Can I Afford One? 619
Control, Common Insect Pests and Their, 3131
Credit

How Far Can You GO Into Debt, 1119

Where Michigan Farmers Get Credit, 312
Dairy, Inbesting In a Silo, 6313

Debt, How Far Can You GO, 1119

Insect Pests and Their Control, 3131

Investing in a Silo, 6313

Meat, Retailing Prepackaged, 1931
Milk, Can I Afford Bulk Tanks, 619

Money, Where DO Michigan Farmers Get Credit, 312

Pests, Common Insects and Their Control, 3131

Prepackaged Meats, Retailing, 1931

68

[PU

Retailing Prepackaged Meats, 1931

|U3

Silo, Investing in One, 6313

[0-3

Tiling, Does It Pay, h321

D4 |>4 IE: r< F:

IN

This index will have to be revised whenever it needs it, perhaps
with every 15 to 25 new pages added. The author would speculate too that
users of the book will be trying to add material from commercial sources
and from other land grant institutions, and that they will be attempting
to fill in their own page numbers. AS yet, he can see no way to in-
corporate it for their benefit except to leave-plenty of Space between
individual entries in the index for write-in material.

Examples of Good and Poor Presentation
of Educational Material

There are several rather specific types of material that will be
satisfactory for this agricultural handbook: (l) tabular, both numeri-
cal and narrative types with several variations; (2) straight narrative
(3) recipe--combination narrative and numerical non-tabular; (h) problem

and answer: (5) any of these combined with a wide range of illustrations,

such as halftones, line illustrations, or combinations. The next few

69

pages will present concise samples to illustrate the various types, and
the good and bad features about each.

The straight narrative needs very little explanation except to say
that it often is the poorest manner in which to present ideas.
Frequently, it is very wasteful in terms of Space and time for the
reader, and particularly so if one gets very much of the following kind
of gobbledygook in copy: "Militant consumer elements in the population
are continuing to stress the basic and fundamental necessity of an
overall stabilization of the domestic price structure at a lower level
than they are at the present time." So far as the lay reader is con-
cerned, all this fuzzy-thinking economist really said was: "Consumers
keep saying that prices must go dOwn and stay down." Less dignified--
perhaps. More clearly expressed--no doubt about it. Basically, what
one has to do when attempting to communicate with the printed word is
to express ideas as clearly and simply as possible and the words will -
take care of themselves. It is when writers attempt presumptuously to
express themselves instead of ideas that they encounter difficulty with
readers. ‘A good writer once told this author: "Don't attempt to write
in a complex, academic style in an attempt to impress anyone until you
have had enough experience to do it well. By that time, if you are
like most peOple, you will have overcome the desire to 'show off‘ in
writing."

The other extreme in idea presentation is with standardized symbols
in numerical tabular form. .As with most forms of expression, there are

several pitfalls in this technique that are often evident in the type

of material that is now bypassing the processing services of the

Information Unit--materia1 that probably will be in the handbook.

Table l is an example of a good tabular numerical expression--

clear, neat, orderly, and complete.

concisely labeled.

The columns are clearly and

The range on both the columns and the stubs is

wide which permits a broad coverage of the subject in a minimum of

Space.

TABLE l.-2Average amount of feed required per day and per dozen eggs

by 100 hens of different weights and egg production
(Two-ounce eggs are assumed)*

70

 

 

 

 

Feed fOr ‘Feed for Feed for Feed for Feed for
hdpound 5-pound 6dpound 7-pound 8-pound
hens hens hens hens ' hens
Eggs per Per Per Per Per Per
100 hens Per dozen Per dozen Per dozen. Per dozen Per dozen
per day day eggs day, eggs day eggs day eggs day_ eggs
1b. 1b. lb. lb. lb. 1b. 1b. “I'lb. lb. D5}
0 15.6 .... 17.8 .... 20.0 .... 22.2 .... 2h.h ....
10 17.0 20.5 19.2 23.2 2l.h 25.7 23.6 28.h 25.8 31.0
20 ~ 18.5 11.1 20.7 12.h 22.9 13.7 25.0 15.0 27.2 16.h
30 19.9 8.0 22.1 8.8 2h.3 9.7 26.5 10.6 28.7 11.5
hO 21.3 6.h 23.5 7.1 25.7 7.7 27.9 8.h 30.1 9.0
50 22.8 5.5 25.0 6.0 27.1 6.5 29.3 7.0 31.5 7.6
60 2h.2 h.8 26.h 5.3 28.6 5.7 30.8 6.2 33.0 6.6
70 25.6 h.h 27.8 h.8 30.0 5.1 32.2 5.5 3h.h 5.9
80 27.0 h.l 29.2 h.u 31.h h.7 33.6 5.0 35.8 5.h
90 28.5 3.8 30.7 h.1 32.9 h.u 35.0 b.7 37.2 5.0
100 29.9 3.6 32.1 3.9 3h.3 h.l 36:5 h.h 38.7 h.6

 

*
Illinois Agricultural Handbook, Extension Service in Agriculture and Home
Economics, University of Illinois, Urbana, 19h9, p. 338.

A very small percentage of any group of readers other than those

highly familiar with the subject matter would be able to guess what the

information in Table 2 means.
percentage of what?

clearly.

71

The title certainly does not describe "what"

In other words, this table is completely worthless if one

doesn't have the key, and the key could easily have been provided in

the table title or in a narrative example immediately following the

table.

The numerals are in percentage form, but

TABLE 2.-4Percentage of feed fed to each class of livestock to minimize

income variability.

Farm Bureau Farm Management Service,

 

 

 

 

 

 

1953-52*
Beef Feeder Native Feeder H0gs ' Poultry
cow cattle sheep sheep

herds bought raised bought
Dairy 0% 2h% 0% 7% 1h% 25%
cow
herds 100% 76% 100% 93% 86% 75%
Beef 90% 12% 19% 63% 53%
cow
herds 10% 88% 81% 37% h7%
Feeder % 0% h9% h3%
cattle
bought 91% 100% .51% 57%
Native 29% 69% 59%
sheep
raised 71% 31% h1%
Feeder 100% 79%
sheep
bought 0% 21%
HOgs 62%
.x. —_

"Livestock Income Variability,"

19Sh.

Illinois Farm Economics, No. 220, May,

University of Illinois, Urbana.

72

Another rather common type way of expressing ideas concisely
especially for such subjects as plant and animal diseases, listings of
various kinds of plants with associated bits of information is found
in Table 3. It is an excerpt from a much longer table.

The "recipe" combination narrative and numerical non-tabular is

illustrated below.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CONTROLLING SHEEP TICKS AND LICE

"....Sheep ticks are blood sucking insects which interfere
with the thrift of the flock, increase food requirements, and re-
duce the value of the wool clip.l7 After the flock is shorn, the
ticks transfer their blood sucking activities to the lambs and
seriously retard their growth.

"....Both ticks and lice can be controlled by dipping or
spraying. Treat all animals in the flock.

Materials to use in dipping:

ARSENICAL MATERIALS-éFollow manufacturer's directions.

ROTENONE--%-pound of 5% - OR - six tenths of a pound of h%

Rotenone powder to 100 gallons of water.

DDT or METHOXYCHLOR--h pounds of 50% - OR - 2g-pounds of 75%

wettable powder to 100 gallons of water.

LIND WE--&-pound of 25% wettable powder to 100 gallons water.

COAL TAR DIPS--are not generally recommended.

17
Michigan State University mimeOgraph from Animal Husbandry Dept.

73

 

 

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nenpmong mnonpxm nH oeom mo mpfioneom mappeo me>eoq nnepmez mo mooflmaaflm .mv manenooem
.nofipenno .mopnnfls .mopepm
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eEoowesmemm awn“ . mo pnmamz m.HeEHne mo noose mmoeHQ pm: one menmnes .Aenwpfipee nflno
unpeonn_panoaMMflm pnoonom H peope wnflpem one mappeo mnopm one mebeoq onHHexHe no pHem loamwnav mwehwsohnd
omnfinmwn meannemo oonomflom. wnflnomwom owneo
poommo Bananas one mnnooo hanonnoo haaenmn pen»
eaaesms.weaeomeon pace maeeaee ocean no apnea zoneaoon ezeqn

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Ill

 

 

 

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*mpneam msonomaom Henaonflann.m mqm<y

7h

Spra'E' n g :

Careful, complete coverage is necessary. Power Sprayers

are...."

County agricultural agents get a great deal of this kind of subject

matter material expressed in this fashion, particularly from entomolo-

gists, weed control experts, and others using chemical materials. It is

an excellent combination of letter and numerical symbols.

A fourth general type of material that will likely prove to be very

useful for county agricultural agents using this book can be classified

as the problem-answer kind of expression:

1.8

18

HOW TO CALIBRATE A SPRAYER
Set 2 stakes 333 feet apart.
Fill tank with water and run sprayer to check that all
nozzles are functioning properly; close boom value.
Refill tank completely.
Set tractor in motion at least 15 feet back of stake with
throttle in marked position and boom valve closed.
Open boom valve as tractor passes first stake.
Drive in a straight line without changing throttle
position.
Shut off boom valve as tractor passes second stake.

Carefully measure amount needed to refill tank.

From an anonymous commercial source.

Multiply gallons used by 132 and divide by width sprayed in
feet. This will give you the number of gallons per acre.

Gals. used x 132

width sprayed in feet a gallons used per acre

Example: Say you have a 12-foot boom and it took 8 gallons
to refill the tank:

8 x 132

12 88.0 gallons per acre.

If you keep the throttle in the same position and the bypass
valve is not changed, the rate of application will remain the same,
provided all the equipment is functioning prOperly. If the test
shows the rate of application is higher than you want, use a lower
pressure on the system, or drive slower. If it is still too high,
get smaller nozzle Openings. Do just the Opposite if you are

trying to increase the rate of application."

All the examples used thus far except Table 2 have been what the
author considers rather successful techniques for combining various types
of symbols to communicate ideas clearly in the most economical manner
possible. There are innumerable other combinations which anyone with a
bit of imagination and experience can readily visualize and use. However,
peeple who are writing, even in land grant colleges, do not always have
this imagination or ability to communicate to others. Sometimes an
author is too concise; sometimes he is too busy trying to impress others

such as a colleague in another state, with scarcely a serious thought

given to the intended audience. Editors too frequently find authors
coming to their desks with a private gem approved by anyone who should
approve it. But when the editor asks him what audience he was writing
for, the idea of considering an audience appears to be a completely
new and irrelevant thought, and an impertinent question by someone
whose job it is to process the message into the proper form and not
concern himself with purposes and policies.

At any rate, the following is a typical example of at least three
or four ways an idea was or could be presented. The problem is one that
has been of increasing concern to farmers who are interested in drying
corn. So the Specialist at one institution who revered conciseness
provided the answer for how much weight was lost when drying corn from

any moisture content down to any other moisture content in the following

manner:

HOW TO CALCULATE MOISTURE LOSSES WHEN DRYING CORN

"In order to find the quantity of corn left after drying from
any percentage to any other percentage, divide the percentage of
dry matter in corn at the beginning of storage (100 minus original
percentage of moisture) by the percentage of dry matter remaining
at end of storage, and multiply by 1,000."19
And that was the end of the answer, just as simple as that. To the

specialist who prepared this, it was peobably a very clearly, concisely

written answer to a critical problem. How could it be done any more

19
From a.University of Illinois mimeograph, otherwise anonymous.

77

simply? Maybe it could not, but simplicity is not the only or even the
most important criterion by which to measure the value of a message.
Most county agricultural agents, though they probably could figure this
out, would not be likely to do so. It would be much easier for them to
go to some manufacturer or dealer in grain drying equipment and get the
answer, and that is what many of them are doing regularly.

This Specialist could easily have improved this message by just
adding a paragraph or two uSing an example to illustrate how to compute
the answer. For example:

'If you want to compute the loss of weight in 1000 bushels of

corn being dried from 28% moisture to 15.5%, use the following

formula:

100% minus 28%_= total dgy matter in corngout of field

100%7minus l§:§%—; total dry matter after drying x 1000

= were .00.

= 8137 x 1000

= 852 bushels out of the original thousand harvested.

In other words the operator lost lh8 bushels by drying a thousand
bushels down to No. 1 grade. Now it is relatively easy for him to
calculate the profitably of doing so, because he probably will know how
much it cost him to dry it, how much he could get for the corn at both
the 28% and the 15.5% level.

However, has this simple explanation even done the job for either

the county agricultural agent or for the farmer? The author says no!

78

The specialist could do much more. Except for whatever merit there
might be "going through the learning experience" of computing these
values, it is a waste of the manpower resources of the Michigan Coopera-
tive Extension Service if more than one agent has to make these compue
tations for himself, when one specialist could calculate the full range
in much less time. Then it could be used by anyone who was interested.
In the author's opinion, the job of presenting the idea has not been
done until one combines (l) the concise paragraph at the beginning of.
this particular section of the paper; (2) the problem-answer example given
next; with (3) the following table (table h) for converting to 15.5%
basis.

This table makes it easy to see at a glance what pound or percent
losses would be involved in such an operation. But what if it did not
pay to dry corn down to 15.5%, or what if the operator did not want to,
but he wanted to know how much weight he would have left if he dried to
18% instead? Does this table tell him? Not directly. It could be
calculated by dividing the index figure for the 18% by the index figure
for 28. Again, in the Opinion of the author, few agents would discover
this unless told, and if told, few would likely go through the mathee
matical manipulation to do it, particularly if there was an easier way

to get it.

79

TABLE h.--Approximate ratios for converting quantities of corn at
various moisture levels to 15.5 percent moisture basis.*

W

'\

 

Percent Ear Shelled Soy-

Moisture Corn Corn beans
35 .709 .770 .756
30 .775 .829 .81h
28 .803 .852 .837
26 .832 .876 .860
2h .861 .900 .882
22 .893 .92h .906
20 .925 .987 .930
19 .9h5 .959 .9h1
18 .960 .970 .952
17 .975 .902 .965
16 .99h .998 .977
15.5 1.000 1.000 .983
15.0 1.007 1.006 .989
1h 1.025 1.018 1.000
13 1.037 1.029 1.012
12 1.051 1.0hl 1.02u
10 1.080 1.06h 1.0h5

 

Example: 100 pounds of 20 percent moisture ear corn will dry down to
92.5 pounds of 15.5 percent moisture corn.

 

*Eoonomic and Marketing Information, Purdue University, West Lafayette
Indiana, August 25:71953}

 

The final step that is necessary, in the opinion of the author, is
to make the full table available to anyone who is interested as is done
in Table 5.

The combination of the narrative paragraph on pages 76 and 77, the
problem answer section on page 77, the partial table on this page, with
the full table on the following page completes the requirement for

communicating a simple idea clearly and in the most useful form.

80

TABLE 5.--Shrinkage in shelled corn dried naturally to Specified moisture
contents (1,000 bushels when cribbed).*

 

 

 

 

 

Moisture in Amount Of corn remaining_when moisture is reduced to

corn when 19 18 . 17 16— 15.5 15 1H7 13 12

(nipped _pct. ppt.,*pct. pct. _pct. pct. pct. pct. #pct.
Pct. bu. bu. bu. bu. w—Fbu. bu. bu. '—bu. Ed.
28 889 878 867 857 852 8h? 837 828 818
26 91h 902 892 881 876 871 860 851 8h1
2h 938 927 916 905 900 89h 88h 87h » 86h
23 951 939 928 917 911 906 895 885 875
22 963 951 9&0 929 92b 918 907 897 886
21 975 963 952 9&0 935 929 919 908 898
20 988 976 96h 952 9h1 9&1 930 920 .909
19 1,000 988 976 96h 959 953 982 931 920
17.5 99h 982 976 971 959 9h8 938

 

 

*Illinois Agricultural Handbogk, Extension Service in Agriculture and

Home Economics, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, 19h9, p. 17.
From here one might logically attempt to construct a series of tables
concerning the economic aSpects of performing such operations including
costs of drying, alternative gross returns from corn sold at different
moisture contents in a particular market at a particular time. At least
this might be one way to get at the maximum profit point in this
operation.

This kind of material could also probably be improved by presenting
certain ideas graphically in combination with the methods already
demonstrated. The point in educational material is to maximize the
quantity of useful and clearly expressed ideas with the use of the
minimum quantity of symbols. But, as clearly illustrated in this

example, conciseness is not to be revered for its own sake.

81

These examples demonstrate that numbers of pages, words, and
tables are important. There are no clear-cut rules Of thumb that work
every time for idea expression in printed form. Each idea presents a
different problem for the communicator. The point is that the author
Should select and choose among the many techniques that are available
for expressing ideas. Because many authors find it easier not to do so
when preparing material outside the official printed publication series,
such material frequently falls short of its maximum potential. In other
words, the marginal value product of the author's inputs are likely
lower than necessary. And this author is fairly sure that the marginal
cost of many messages is far higher than necessari. That fact is fairly
evident when commercial concerns can sell land grant college staff

members their own products.
The Mailing List for the Agricultural Handbook

Initially, the book is being designed primarily for the county
agricultural agents as a means of solving a crucial information problem.
Each employee of the Michigan State University COOperative Extension
Service will be provided with a book, including the home demonstrations
agents if they choose. In the opinion of the author, however, if this
book is develOped to its fullest potential, there will be a very broad
'demand from many other professional persons in the field of agriculture;
vocational agriculture teachers, other state agency peOple such as the

Soil Conservation Service, the ASC people, commercial agricultural

82

people, bankers, and many more. If this demand develops, no doubt some
modifications in the proposed book are going to have to be made. There
are certain types of information such as the research prOgress reports
that probably will have to be confined to a special in-the-family

audience.
The Method of Mechanical Distribution

The sheets for this book will likely be mailed out periodically,
perhaps with some Specified regularity such as monthly or semi-monthly
if there are enough of them (enough would likely be h to 6 to stay within
specific mail regulations). However, whenever any of the emergency
material discussed earlier has to be sent immediately, such would cer-
tainly be done promptly.

Present plans call for the regular bulletin office to handle the
mechanics of mailing. Special, well-identified envelopes will likely
be developed for mailing so that the field staff will recognize the
material before it is Opened and not place it in the stack that is
usually ultimately destined for a wastebasket.

If the project progresses to the point of having either the entire
book or some part of the book available to anyone outside the Extension
family, some additional provisions will have to be made.

Also, if, as the author suspects will happen, some and perhaps many
of the sheets will be useful for general public distribution, probably
they will be handled in bulk as all other publications are now handled.

For, in effect, these pages simply become another type of Official

83

publication and certainly need no special treatment.
Method of Keeping the Book Up-to-Date

Only limited observations and speculation are used as a basis on
which to make any statement concerning likely developments. If an
agent's secretary keeps the book complete, the agent may very well soon
discover that he does not know what is in the book. If he keeps the
book, it would appear to be a poor use of his time to handle such a
routine matter. Perhaps what the secretary can do is simply to give the
agent a list of the titles of the new pages added. Another possibility
is to have the agent examine the pages and then have the secretary do
the filing. Each county office will probably have to work out its own

preferred system.
The Tie-in with the Master Filing System for the Counties

This too was discussed earlier and needs little repeating here
except to reiterate that, in the author's opinion, there is no plausible
reason why any COOperative Extension Service should have any more systems
of indexing material than are absolutely necessary. In most cases this
can be cut to one or two. .The effort to combine, or at least to tie
the master filing system to the pages for this reference manual is, the
author hOpes, only the first step in a series of future steps designed

to simplify and make the whole system more useable and efficient.

8h

Presentation to the Staff

Current plans call for no staff member, either state or field,
particularly field, to get the book until at least 75 pages have been
prepared and processed. At that time, departmental, regional, district,
sub-district, or county staff meetings will be held for the purpoSe of
explaining the book to every Extension employee. This will provide an
opportunity to ask and answer questions. Probably a number of pages
will be given to each person in the class for practice in filing in
the book, just for experience. The entire project will be demonstrated,
which includes the purpose, the mechanics of mailing, and all other

phases of importance.
The Contributors and Their Role

It is the responsibility of the subject matter person, whether he
is a Specialist or researcher, to be the authority in the subject, in
effect 3233 is said. If he is doing his job well, he also ought to have
a rather thorough and up-to-date knowledge of what subject matter is
'needed in the field. And if the material is needed, it is his responsi-
bility to get it prepared. The author has heard numerous administrators
in Several institutions report that some Specialists much prefer to
"ride than write."

During a meeting in which the author participated recently, a good
county agricultural agent complained that he needed a certain kind of

subject matter very badly. The Specialist authority who could prepare

85

it was sitting across the table. Here is a very concise summary of this
conversation:

Agent: "I've wanted a bulletin, or folder, or some kind of hand-.

out sheet for 2 years on....Why can't I get it?" 9

Specialist: "Although I know that I could reach many more people than
I do with such a.publication, I just have so many agents
calling for meetings that I can't find time to write it.
Besides that, you know that I can't say no when an agent
calls in and asks for me to come out, even if he only
winds up with 10 people at the meeting. How would it
sound if I said no and told him that I was writing a
bulletin?"

The agent agreed that he would be disappointed if the specialist
said no to him. This was the end of a useful conversation and the
beginning of a public acknowledgment of perennial but common stalemate
about the chore of writing. Why couldn't he say no? He says no every
year without fail to permit a week or two for deer hunting, and two
weeks for annual leave without being burdened with an overwhelming sense
of guilt. His argument just doesn't ring true. If he doesn't like writ-
ing, it would be helpful for him to say SO.

What is the responsibility of the information Specialist? As already
stated, one of his important jobs is to get the mechanical processing
job done prOperly. But, as also stated earlier, his reSponsibility is

much greater. He has an obligation to the reader to know what the reader

86

wants and when the reader needs it, what he can understand, what package
and treatment is needed, and where he is located geographically. Then
it is the editor's responsibility to help the specialist to express his
ideas in this form and get them to the reader as efficiently as possible.
An Open route for the feedback messages is highly essential if the
information Specialist is going to make any substantial contribution to
improving the current situation.

In the author's Opinion, the key to the value of this book will
depend on the quality of the material going into it, not only the Specific
subject matter, but the manner in which the ideas are expressed, the
facility with which the material can be used. But it is going to take
the COOperation of the administrators, the information Specialists, and

the departmental subject matter specialists. It has to be a team effort.
The Advantages of the System

There is a relatively long list of advantages for this proposal
which will be discussed rather briefly, particularly Since some of these
advantages have either already been discussed or alluded to in various
places throughout the paper.

a. It is a fairly carefully thought-out plan for systematizing and
organizing a type of information that has not been organized
before, namely material that is now appearing in numerous
departmental mimeographs, a wide variety of newsletters, sub-

ject matter from other sources. This is probably, by most

8?

odds, the outstanding advantage of this book in terms of
increasing the efficiency of the use of published material.

The single Sheet, 8fi-x 11 format is one of the eaSiestto

file in a manila folder in standard file cabinets compared

to a h x 9 folder, some of which likely will be transformed

to this format when they are revised. It is also very easy

to store in quantity lots in cabinets, and it is easy to
display on bulletin boards. Also, if one wants to mail it

out, it is a relatively easy matter to fold them for No. 10
envelopes.

It has the advantage of putting a limit on the amount of Space
that can be used for idea expression as compared to mimeographed
material where it is usually much easier to add another page or
two than to rewrite and prune the COpy. This pruning process,
if done objectively by an experienced person usually results
in more copy clarity.

The masthead feature now'prOposed for the permanent sheets is
expected to serve as a trademark for this type Of publication
and for the institution. From past experience in other states,
the author has seen this kind or trademark establish itself in
6 months, while bulletins or folders that have been prepared
for years still do not have any such feature because each has
a different cover, while a masthead is the same for every

subject.

e.

88

One of the advantageous aspects to this format, when printed,

is the tremendous space-saving feature of printing compared to
mimeographing. Because most mimeographed material is double-
spaced and seldom backed, there is an immediate ratio of h
pages to 1. Then add in the feature of more characters per
unit of linel Space and the ratio increases to a range of
between five and six to one. If tabular matter is involved,

it is not uncommon for this ratio to jump to 10 to 15 pages to
one. It is very obvious that this is a significant advantage

in terms of sheer volume when it comes to trying to pack the
maximum number of facts into one book. Of course more print-
ing is much heater and more legible than even the best of
mimeographing. Editing usually also results in some reduction
of copy.

This proposed container may very well serve as a portable filing
cabinet for some, perhaps many agents. Several are now carrying
homemade notebooks with them, and the author has no reason to
believe that more wouldn't if the information was worth carry-
ing. With the wide range of increasingly complex subject matter
now needed.by an agent, he becomes less and less able to have

it at his immediate command from memory, and more and more he
needs a convenient ready reference.

By combining it with the master county agent file system, the
system begins to take on the values attributed to a single

system of indexing, which can be a real asset to any

89

recipient of such a volume as county agricultural agents now
get.

For those specialists who somehow or other just cannot get
around to writing a bulletin, as the one discussed earlier,
this provides an opportunity to prepare one part of the broad
subject at a time. Almost before he realizes it, he can com-
plete a comprehensive coverage of the subject, except that it
is now in several individual segments that can be easily
grouped for the individual who wants all the information on
the subject. This feature may stimulate delinquent specialists
to write

It is an economical manner in which to reproduce information.
If one considers all.the costs of mimeOgraphing, and that
includes all the hidden costs such as secretarial time for
cutting stencils, duplicating the material, assembling, stapl-
ing, mailing, etc., mimeographing is not inexpensive. For
example, below is a table comparing the costs of mimeographing

and printing an identical amount and type of information:

TABLE 6.--Comparative costs of printing versus mimeographing.*

Number Of Cgpies

 

 

500 1,000 2,000 *‘"' 5,000
Mimeo costs $28.00 37.00 56.50 113.00
Printed costs u9.00 52.50 59.00 78.00

 

*Ceiculated at a 5:1 ratio.

90

If one were able to measure the comparative use of this material
between the two and compute the marginal cost per translated idea, the
author Speculates that mimeographed material would be the most expensive
in every category in the above table.

And, although printing costs have so many variables, on the basis
of experience, the author is fairly certain that, for example, if the
decision were made at the time of revision to print Extension Bulletin
335 (a hB page, 6 x 9 entitled "Swine Production in Michigan") in the
form of a series. of individual fact sheets instead of the 6 x 9 bulletin
form, the total cost would be reduced.' Several costs are incurred in
bulletin form that would not occur in the 8fi-x ll format: the cover and
the art work for the cover of the present bulletin cost slightly in
excess of $100; there are approximately five pages wasted in this bulle-
tin--front cover, inside front cover, two pages of contents which would
not be necessary in the individual sheet form, and the inside back
cover; the cost ($387) of binding-~folding, stitching and trimming could
be avoided. If this many copies of each sheet (25,000) were printed,
however, there would be some folding and punching charges, but much less
than the $°87. Also, it is quite possible that one could find it
unnecessary to print 25,000 copies of each segment of the book. Perhaps
10,000 would be enough of certain areas of subject matter. In addition
to this kind of saving, there could be a big saving in county offices,
assuming that many people in the audience have a particular problem

they are trying to solve when they ask for the printed material on hogs.

Instead of giving the customer a bulletin that costs in excess of 85
per copy, he county agricultural agent could hand him an individual
sheet that cost a cent or slightly more per copy. If the individual
wanted the whole story on "Swine Production in Michigan," the agent
could hand him the whole series. Also, there are very few bulletins
in which all the COpy needs revising simultaneously. If the subject
were covered in segments, each could be revised when necessary.
j. In addition to the dollar savings in printing charges, there
would be a considerable saving in the use of an information
Specialist's time. He wouldn't need to make trips to the

artist to get a cover designed. His layout time would be

91

reduced because he could go from machine to pages and eliminate

the galley proof and pastedup stages. He would very likely

standardize more than he now has with type faces for the body
copy, the diSplay and subheads, and tables. He would probably

have to Spend less time helping the author organize his ideas

into a lOgical whole, except at the outset of the whole

series. And he would probably have to Spend considerably less

time begging and pleading for certain manuscripts to be pre-
pared, because the authors would find it easier to write a

series of short manuscripts than a long, comprehensive one.

k. The last, but by no means the least of the advantages is that

of increased flexibility of the whole package compared to that

of mimeographs, bulletins, folders. One can do anything with

92

the Bfi-x ll format that he can do with either the 6 x 9 or

the h x 9, or any other format, plus a whole series more

possibilities such as: store them in file drawers conveniently;

punch them and place them in a notebook binder (which cannot be

done very successfully with any other format). I

his is enough on the advantages of the various phases of the agri-

cultural handbook project. It is relatively easy to visualize why it
has great appeal to county agricultural agents, at least to the ten or
more Michigan agents who have had the opportunity to inspect and discuss

this project.
The Disadvantages of the System

The author is so completely convinced that this solution is an
improvement over the present situation that he finds it difficult to
list any important disadvantages, particularly if the objective is to
solve the problem and not to please individuals. No doubt some
Specialists will not be happy to have more of their material going
through administrative and editorial inspection, and this could be
classified as a disadvantage from their vantage point. Processing this
material through commercial printers will naturally take longer than
processing it on the office mimeograph, and this will be classified by
some as a disadvantage. None of these, however, could be classified
as disadvantages of any consequence by an editor who is interested in

maximizing the efficiency of the process.

THE PROGRESS AND SOME OF THE PROBLEHS TO DATE

The problem which prompted the creation of this solution was disé
cussed rather completely in Chapter II. Since this proposal was first
offered, nearly 150 staff members, both field and state, have had a 3-
to S-hour Opportunity to discuss these two alternatives rather thoroughly
with the appropriate Extension administrators and the author. In the
opinion of the author, after hearing much stimulating and interesting
discussion, and after examining the cost data in Table 6, the indif-
ference curve which would fairly and accurately represent the utility
of these two alternatives for the Extension staff is indicated by the
curve UlVl in Figure 7. Currently many Specialists in the Cooperative
-xtension Service are operating as though the indifference curve were
located well down the iso cost curve near the horizontal axis, which in
fact it may be. If the UlV1 to U3V3 pattern of indifference lines is
fairly accurate, however, then the operation according to a pattern of
WK is highly inefficient. Consumers are at a much lower level of
satisfaction on U3V5 than they would be at UlVI. It should be pointed
out that, by definition, an.iso cost curve represents equal costs any
place on the line. If legislators thought the public was deriving a

U3V3 amount of satisfaction from the expenditure of FCAG costs when

93

 

 

 

 

UI
VI
Y|¢
’ C
V2
F ”2\
V3
U3 w
\ A
.X
0 o - V;

Figure 7:--A consumer indifference map with an
iso cost curve superimposed.

\0
U1

they could be getting a U1V1 amount for the same tax dollar, chances
are good that some changes might be suggested.

Presumably one of the purposes of Operating democratically and
offering this prOposal to the many staff members for their careful
inspection was to locate such a utility line which could be used as a
guide in the administrative decision making process. The majority of
the exposure of staff members to the prOposal occurred during a period
of several months ranging from 18 to 2h months prior to this writing.
This process, in effect, was one form of the feedback mechanism in
operation. At numberous times during the past two years it appeared to
the author that the administrative decision making team was about to
acknowledge that the UlV1 curve was, in fact, the most accurate indif-
ference curve, only to slide back down the iso cost curve to the
approximate location of curve EX.

It was not until rather recently, however, and after nearly two
years of consideration during which time the author rather vigorously
pointed out and repeated the list of the advantages just discussed that
some optimum quantity of observations and analyses appeared to have
been attained which permitted a decision to proceed with the project.
Soon after this decisinn, however, two more questions arose: (1) Should
these fact sheets be printed in large enough quantities so the county
Extension agents could distribute them to the general public if the
demand arose, or should the distribution of these sheets be confined to

the Extension family for reference only. (2) Since some of the material

would be very similar to that now found in the h x 9 folder series of

the institution, should the folders, at the time of revision, be eon-
verted to the 8%-x ll format of the fact sheet?

Rather suddenly a cloud of uncertainty once again settled over the
project, which may reveal an E; pggtg anxiety situation that is nothing
more than a continuation of an ggigptg_uncertainty situation projected
through the act of decision. At any rate, it now appears that the part
of the project, if not the entire project, is about to retreat from '
Johnson and Haver's20 "risk situation" to their "learning situation."
These authors describe five knowledge situations which managers use to
handle changes and imperfect knowledge;_two basic causes for the necessity
of making decisions: inactive, learning, forced action, risk, and
certainty. The "risk situation" is a knowledge situation where a manager
does not see all the probable results or consequences of a contemplated.
.action perfectly, but nevertheless has enough information (acquired
through learning and experience) to decide whether or not to act, and to
be willing to accept the reSponsibility for the choice. The "learning
situation" is one in which a person's knowledge is not complete enough
for him to be willing to take a contemplated action, but in which he
values improvements in his knowledge more than the cost of making such
'improvements. Johnson and Haver21 also classify the management process

into five functions: "observation, analysis, decision making, action,

20
Glenn L. Johnson, and Cecil B. Haver, Decision Making Principles

in Farm Management, (Lexington, {entucky: Kentucky'Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Bulletin 593, 1953), p. 12.

21
Ibid., p. 8.

97

and responsibility bearing," usually conducted in about that sequence.

If the author had been aware of the possibility of this prolonged
period of learning, which, in essence, appears to be a circular route
between observations and analysis, he might have been able to reduce it
substantially; Also, if he had been more acutely aware of the impli-
cations of some of the observations made by several rather emminent
authors to be quoted immediately, he might have been able to predict
more quickly and perhaps prevent what now appears to be a rather rapid
regression from a risk situation to the relative safety of the learning
situation. Perhaps the following two or three brief statements will
shed some light on the problem of why this regression occurred.

22

Boulding notes that: "The further we diverge from regular or
habitual behavior the less certain we are of the consequences. The larger
the negative value that we give to uncertainty or to vagueness in our
value orientation, the more likely we are to select the familiar and the
known: the more likely we are, therefore, to do today what we did
yesterday...unless there are good reasons for doing otherwise....
Secondly, the good reasons which are necessary if we do not do today
what we did yesterday derive mainly from dissatisfaction with what we
did or with what happened to us yesterday....At some point the misery
in the contemplation of habitual behavior overcomes the uncertainty in-
volved in contemplating any other kind of behavior and we make a

reorganization."

 

22
Kenneth E. Boulding, The Image (Ann Arbor, Michigan: The
University of Michigan Press, 1950 , p. 86.

98

23
Chester I. Barnard says that "the making of decisions, as every-

one knows from personal experience, is a burdensome task. ff-setting
the exhiliration that may result from a correct and successful decision
and the relief that follows the termination of a struggle to determine
issues is the depression that comes from the failure or error of decisions,
and the frustration which ensues from uncertainty."

F. H. Knight24 writing in 1921 made the following obéervations:
"A rather interesting misconception in regard to the public official
should be pointed out. It is common and natural to assume that a hired
manager, dealing with resources which belong to others will be less
careful in their use than an owner. This view shows little insight into
human nature and does not square with observed facts. The real trouble .
with bureaucracies is not that they are rash, but the opposite....they
universally Show a tendency to 'play safe' and become hepelessly con-
servative. The great danger to be feared...is not a reckless dissipation
of the social resources so much as the arrest of progress and the vege-
tation of life."

It would appear to the author that the economic evidence presented
in Table 6 along with the inspiring vote of confidence of subject matter
and field staff that was sensed in the periods of exposure to the project

which includes the two recent questions should have placed the Extension

23 7
Chester I. Barnard, The Function of the Executive, (Cambridge,
Massachusetts: The Harvard University Press, 1950), p. 189.

24 »
F. H. Knight, Risk,_Uncertainty3 and Profit, (New York: Ioughton-
Mifflin Co., 1921), p. 361.

99

administration decision makers in a position to make an affirmative
decision. This, in essence, was a trial run for the feedback mechanism
discussed in Figure 5. One of the important aspects of the feedback
concept, however, is that the information so collected be used, not just
accumulated. The author rather suspects that a persistent quest for a.
situation of perfect knowledge may be a futile one. Such a state occurs
so infrequently that it appears to be a mirage that succeeds in arousing
curiosity and stifling action for long periods of time. In the opinion
of the author, enough evidence has already been accumulated to proceed
boldly and, in effect, locate the indifference curve of the Extension
staff at or in the vicinity of point C on the iso cost curve in Figure 7
and act accordingly. The point of diminishing returns of collecting
additional evaluations has long since been bypassed for both the project
and the two questions that arose after the decision.

Finally the author suSpects that part of the conflict just described
is the result of substantial difference of Opinion regarding the optimum
amount of information and the degree of accuracy needed on which to base
a decision. It is not impossible, however, that this situation may also
be a conflict between the enthusiasm of younger men (sometimes inter-
preted as a reckless desire for change devoid of sound thinking) and the
wisdom of older men (sometimes interpreted as blind or apathetic con-
servatism devoid of imagination). It seems that it should somehow be
possible to weld this combination into a team that operates wisely with

dispatch and enthusiasm.

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY

The following relevant points summarize the various areas of this

project:

1.

County agricultural agents in many states are confronted by a
common problem--that of being recipients of a large volume of
printed material coming from many different sources: commercial
groups of producers, processors, manufacturers, distributors,
communicators; general farm organizations; other governmental
agencies, both state and federal; and from several different
sources at the local land grant college such as researchers,
Extension Specialists, administrators, graduate students, various
kinds of committees wanting help or "grass roots" advice or
approval.

FeW'land grant college administrators have clearly rec0gnized
and faced up to these field problems much less made any per-
ceptible progress in trying to solve.them, even with respect

to the material that is produced by their own staff members.
There are several basic reasons for this lack of progress at
Michigan State University:

(a) Few people at the state level have taken the time or the

interest to examine in detail just what is being mailed

lOO

h.

101:

out by staff members, nor have they exercised enough
imagination to solve it. Few problems ever get attention
in a large and busy institution unless they are first
recognized by leaders as serious problems. The author
speculates that since these problems are not immediate
problems of consequence to anyone of the state staff,
very few get concerned.
With the gradual increase in the number of subject matter
Specialists and with the gradual diversification of subject
matter covered, all of which gets funnelled to each agent in
the state whether there are 80 or 800, the author suggests
that the problem will continue to get more critical rather
than less, perhaps even with the development of this project.
County Extension agents have been.unable or unwilling to com-
plain collectively about their problem, and their individual
complaints have been relatively inaudible. Thus, a substantial
number have continued to tolerate a situation of disorganized or
unorganized volume and are turning in increasing numbers to
other more satisfactory sources for information.
The specialists and the administrator in the Information Unit
of this land grant college communication process cannot make
much of a contribution to this or any other solution unless
they create an opportunity to get into the field and open up
the routes that permit feedback messages to help guide the

total effort. Much of the future progress in the total

102

information program will depend on the type of feedback
messages and the use to which they will be put.

If the total information program is ever to be successful, and
the author means measurably successful, the specialists in the
information unit must become something more than processors of
messages. If this is all that is needed, land grant colleges
do not need college graduates for information Specialists.

Less well formally educated vocationally trained specialists in
the printing, radio, television, visual aid, news trade would
do equally well and perhaps better.

The solution to this or any other problem of any consequence in
the world of information will need the interested and willing
assistance from at least three segments of the institution: the
administration, the subject matter departments, and the infor-
mation specialists. Any one of them, by intention, accident or
default can be a roadblock to any effort to design and operate
an efficient communications system.

None of these three units can.make their maximum contribution
until they have a relatively common c0nceptual framework of this
process and what it is trying to accomplish. And, in terms of
printed material, the dominant goal has to be something more
than personal aggrandizement, either prestige-wise, position-

wise, or salary-wise.

10.

103

If the Cooperative Extension Service of Michigan State Univer-
sity is serious about developing a more efficient program of
distribution of printed messages, someone in the service must
learn more about the various channels throughout the state,
and then find out the best way to COOperate with them. The
author is certain that only the surface has been scratched in

this area.

11. At present, there are many possible roadblocks to getting ideas

transmitted from source to audience, but few know what or where
they are, or even if they exist. Hence, none can say with any

certainty that the process is either efficient or inefficient.

12. A comprehensive classification of the potential audiences for

13.

these printed messages should be developed. It is hard to say
with any degree of conviction that a good job is being done
with this or that unless the audience is known well, who they
are, where they are, what their interests are, and how to

reach them.

The proposed solution which, at the time of this writing is in
the process of being developed at Michigan State University,

is only one phase of what the author expects to be a long series
of critical evaluations of the whole information program capped
with some positive action. This particular solution for one
serious problem is evidence that it can be done if time and

talent are allocated to a recognized problem, and if every

10h

effort is made to avoid permitting the fear of making a

mistake to dominate the decision making process.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Axinn, George. Mail survey conducted by Axinn, administrative
assistant to the Director of the Michigan State University Co-
operative Extension Service, October, 1955.

Barnard, Chester I. The Function of the Executive. Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts: The Harvard University Press, 1950, p. 189.

 

Boulding, Kenneth E. The Ima e. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University
of Michigan Press, 1956, p. 86.

Colley, Charles H. "The Significance of Communicatian," in the
Reader in Public Opinion and Communication. Edited by Bernard
Berelson and Morris Janowitz. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1953.

Houle, Cyril O. "The Use of Print in Adult Educational Agencies,"
in Adult Reading. Chicago: The National Society For The Study
of Education, 1956, pp. 151-157.

 

Hovland, Carl I. "Social Communication," in the Reader in Public
Opinion and Communication. Edited by Bernard Berelson and
Morris Janowitz. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1953, pp. 181-189.

Hurley, Candace. "we Took a Look at Our Jobs," ACE. Vol. 39, No. 1,
February, 1957, p. 5.

Hyman, Herbert H., and Sheatsley, Paul B. "Some Reasons Why Information
Campaigns Fail," in Public Opinion and PrOpaganda. Edited by Katz,
Cartwright, Eldersfeld, and Lee. New York: The Dryden Press,
195h3 pp- 523-5300

Illinois, University of. Anonymous mimeograph.
Johnson, Glenn.L., and Haver, Cecil B. Decision Making Pringiples in

Farm Management. Lexington, Kentucky: The Kentucky'Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin 593, 1953, pp. l-hh.

 

Knight, F. H. Risk, Uncertainty, and.Profit. New York: Houghton-
I’fifflm 00., 1921, p. 361..

Lasswell, Harold D. "The Structure and Function of Communication in
Society," in The Communication of Ideas. Edited by Lyman Bryson.
New York: Harper and Brothers, l9u8, pp. 79-93.

 

105

Michigan State University. Himeograph from Animal Husbandry Department.

Phenix, Philip H. "A Philosophic View of Communication," in Communi-
cation and the Communication Arts. Edited by Francis Shoemaker.
Reprinted from the Teachers College Record, Vol. 5?, No. 2 Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1955, pp. 80-85.

Schramm, Wilbur. The Process and Effects of Hess Communications.
Urbana, Ill.: The University of Illinois Press, 195M.

 

Shannon, Claude E., and weaver, warren. The Mathematical Theogy of
Communication. Urbana, Ill.: The University of Illinois Press,

19E9.

 

 

Westley, Bruce H., and Maclean, S. Jr. "A Conceptual Model For Communi-
cations Research," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 3h, No. 1. Iowa City,
Iowa: Association for Education in Journalism, Winter, 1957,
pp- 31-38.

APPEII‘IDIX A

107

TABLE I.--Titles of publications received by Michigan county agricultural

Extension agents from Extension specialists and Experiment
Station researchers during October, 1955.

 

 

Take Aim

Director's News Letter

News Releases for Papers and Radio
Dairy News Letters

Management Views for County Agents
Michigan Farm Economics

Homemakers Radio News
Entomology'Notes

MSU Magazine

Poultry News

Horticulture News Letter
Agricultural Economics News Letter
Home Economics News Letter

h-H News Letter

Michigan Extension News

Pathology Notes

Larzelere's Market Letter
Quarterly Bulletin

Spray News Letter

Marketing and Consumer Information
Duane Nelson‘s Tips on Photography
Poultry Market Tips

ABA Views

Agricultural Tip Sheets

Fly—Free Date

State h-H Show Letters
Agricultural Engineering

 

____._l__
~-I—u———-—

Food Market Topics

MABC News Letter

h-H Foundation News Letter

Flood Flashes

Television For You

Making Radio work For You

MSPIA News Letter

Poultry and Egg Situation

Consumer Panel Reports

Agricultural Economics Market
Reports and Outlook

The Wholesale Meat Report

News and Views

Ram Day and Beef Day Material

District Elimination Summaries

IFYE Letter

Animal Husbandry

The New Michigan Marketing Program

Michigan Cattle Feeders Newsletter

Agricultural Finance Clinic Pregram

Poultry Improvement News

Crop Reporting

Homemakers Information Extension
and Research

Town -Country

~h-different marketing releases

from h different people

 

Alfie ‘9’: “‘3: .'
Koala-:1 be but?

 

Demco-293

filiflflllflilil’ilfl‘m”

1117:?!

Mil/MW!

1m: mg!!! m mi I

8
2
5
2
6
5
0
3

0

12