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ABSTRACT

AN HISTORIC REVIEW AND ANALYSIS
OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PLANNING
IN A POLITICAL REGION

by James E. Farmer

It has only been recently that regional planning
agencies have been established to guide the physical de-
velopment of metropolitan regions» Each attempt by such
an agency to comprehensively plan for the functional and
spatial relationships of land use areas and transporta-
tion, utility and service systems has been essentially a
pioneering effort. The little experience gained has
seldom, if ever, been systematically recorded to aid
other regional planning efforts. Consequently, those
undertaking such efforts for the first time are forced
to rely mainly upon their own intelligence and knowledge.
This study examines in detail the preparation of the
first comprehensive plans for a specific region, in the
hope that this experience may help guide future regional
planning efforts in other regions.

The thesis first examines the physical, economic,
social, and political conditions in the region under
study, and outlines the history of the Regional Planning
Commission, in order to illuminate the setting in which
the regional planning project took place. It then

examines the attempts of the regional agency to prepare
a work program and schedule for the preparation of com-
prehensive regional land use, sewage disposal, and water
resource development plans. Finally, it discusses the
actual preparation of the plans, and highlights some of
the basic strengths and weaknesses of the total planning
effort.

The major conclusions of the study were as follows:

1)Until regional planning agencies have the power to
implement plans, it is essential that they be in a
position to favorably influence local officials
who have that power. By providing professional
planning assistance to local governmental units,
the regional agency can build support for the
total regional planning program.

2)Strong Commission guidance of staff operations is
important to sound planning for the total region,
as it acts as a brake on program alterations and
limited viewpoints.

3)Ihe amount of detail to be incorporated in a work

J/program and schedule depends upon the agency's
limitations of staff, money, time, and basic
inventoriesa

#)Plan maps, as opposed to mere statements of policy,
facilitate sound decisions by local officials who
have the power to implement plans.

5)Plans for land uses, sewerage and water systems,
and major thoroughfares should be interrelated,
thus simplifying many decisions that would be
difficult to make if the plans were done separately.

6)Sound regional planning must draw from many fields
of knowledge.

7)A general outline for a regional planning program
might include the following steps:

a.Collect general background information on the
physical, economic, social, and political
conditions in the region.

b.Prepare an outline for a planning program.

c.Enlist support for regional planning by pro-
viding local planning assistance and estab-
lishing contact with local, state, and federal
officials.

d.Collect detailed, up-to-date information on
all relevant existing conditions and project
demands for the future.

e.Prepare sketch plans to focus Commission
attention on issues and check adequacy of
assembled data.

f.Prepare a work program and schedule.

g.Prepare concurrently comprehensive land use,
sewage disposal, water resource develOpment,
and major thoroughfare plans.

h.Enlist support for the plans and initiate
measures to get action on plan proposals.

AN HISTORIC REVIEW AND ANALYSIS
OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PLANNING
IN A POLITICAL REGION

BY

James E. Farmer

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF URBAN PLANNING

Department of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture

1963

PREFACE

Originally, the scope of this thesis was to be
limited to an examination of the formation of a program
and schedule for the preparation of a region‘s land use,
water resource development and sewage disposal plans.
However, at the suggestion of several members of the
faculty of the Department of Urban Planning, the scope
was later broadened to include presentation of back-
ground information on the region under study and dis-
cussion of the actual preparation of the regional plans,
in the hope that this would make the study more valuable
to others who might be engaged in the preparation of
similar plans.

I would like to take this Opportunity to grate-»
fully acknowledge the assistance of Professor Joseph
M. Prochaska. His careful scrutiny of and comments on

the drafts were of immeasurable value.’

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREACEOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0...O...OOOOOOOOO'OOOOOOOO‘OOO

LIST OF TABLES...00.0.0.00000000000000000.00.00....
LIST OF FIGURESOOOOOOOOOOOOOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
INTRODUCTIONOOOOOGOOOOOOOIOOOOOO00.0.00000.0.0.0...
Chapter

I. Tim BACKGROUND FOR PLANIqINGOOOOOOQOOOOOOOO.

II. FORMING AND FITTING THE WORK PROGRAM
AND SCHEDULEOO-OOOO0.0000-OOO‘OOOOOOOO‘fiC'...

III. PREPARING TI'IE PIANSO-OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOvO«OOOOO
IV. OBSERVATIONS IN RETROSPECT.................

APPENDIXOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

111

Page
ii
iv

v

1

22

60

66

Table

2.

3.
‘+.

LIST OF TABLES

Underground water yield evaluation for
various 11868000000000.0000...00.00.0000...

watershed needs for sewage disposal.........
Selected soil characteristics...............

Criteria for industrial site selection......

iv

Page

50
52

55

Figure
l.

2.
3.

LIST OF FIGURES

Personnel changes and Commission orientation
Outline of program and schedule.............
Surface water storage criteria..............

Functional organization of land uses and
major Serv1ceSOO‘O~OO«OOOOOOOO...COCO-.0000...

Page
15
37
51

58

INTRODUCTION

Comprehensive planning for land and water uses,
transportation routes, and public facility and utility
systems for metrOpolitan regions is a relatively recent
undertaking in this country. It is only in the last
decade that most regional planning agencies have been
formed. Because of this recent origin, there are few
precedents to guide regional planning programs.

The purpose of this study is to provide a detailed
picture of the preparation of a region's first plans.
The procedure to be followed is to first examine the
physical, economic, social, and political environment in
which the planning program Operated. This provides a
basis for understanding why the specific planning pro-
cedure was selected. Next, the task of preparing the
regional land use, water resource deve10pment, and sewb
age disposal plans will be discussed. Finally, comments
will be made in the hope that the experience will aid
other regional planning efforts.

A study of this kind requires an intimate know-
ledge which can best be gained through actual partici- '
pation in a regional planning program in a reSponsible

position. Such a position in itself imposes a respon-

l

2
sibility which limits the critical nature of the study.
This study seeks to reduce this limitation by avoiding
specific identifications of persons and locations. The
resulting freedom of discussion should make the study
more valuable to others engaged in or studying similar

programs.

CHAPTER I
THE BACKGROUND FOR PLANNING

This chapter describes the major highlights of
l)the physical, economic, social and political condi-
tions in the region 2)the past regional planning efforts
and 3)the state of the planning operation at the time
the program and schedule for the preparation of the re-
gional plans were adopted in the fall of 1961, in order
to provide a basis for understanding why the particular

program and schedule were proposed and adopted.1

Regional Conditions

9 Re ional Settin
The region under study is located in the midwest-

ern United States and contains a land area of over 1300
square miles. It contains three counties with a popula-
tion of nearly 700,000 people and a central metrOpolitan

 

lThe data on the physical and economic conditions
in the region is based on physical inventory, population
and economic base reports prepared by the agency. The
information on social and political conditions is based
on personal observations and discussions with public
officials, public employees, and newspaper reporters.
The section on past planning efforts is based on dis-
cussions with members of the Planning Commission, past
and present staff members, and Planning Commission re-
cords.

3

a
core area of nearly H00,000 people.

Three other metrOpolitan areas are within 50
miles. The largest of these has a pOpulation of about
2,500,000 people and is exerting considerable suburban
development pressure along one edge of the region. This
development may merge with the development of the sub-
urbs of the region's core area in the next few decades.
The other two metrOpolitan areas are exerting no appre-

ciable effect on the region.

The Physical Conditions
The region is inland and contains the headwaters

of five major watershed areas. This, coupled with the
fact that the surface of the entire region has been
molded by glaciation into a rolling topography with pre-
dominantly impervious soils, has resulted in a current
preoccupation with the problems of obtaining an adequate
water supply and properly disposing of sewage wastes.
Many potential industries have avoided the region be-
cause of water and sewerage problems. The underground
water supply, with a few localized exceptions, is not
sufficient to support intensively develOped areas which
would be solely dependent upon wells. In many parts of
the region, the surface water supply is being used to
transport domestic and industrial sewage wastes and,
because of the consequent pollution, is not usable for

other purposes. Water can be piped from some distance

5
away, but the cost of doing this could hamper the re-

gion's further economic deve10pment.

Except in a few isolated areas, the soils of the
region are unsuitable for use as septic tank disposal
fields. Septic tank disposal fields fail frequently,
with the result that water-borne diseases such as hepa-

titis are becoming increasingly frequent health problems.

The Development Pattegg

With the exception of a few isolated much soil
areas where truck farming occurs, the soils are rated as
moderately productive for agriculture. Since the land
has only moderate value for farming and is highly taxed,
it costs comparatively little in the rural fringe of the
core area. After World war II, the cheap land, coupled
with good access by all-weather roads, inadequate rural
health, building, and zoning laws, and a good housing
market, invited exploitation by builders. Subdivisions,
individual homes, and industrial and commercial uses
scattered over the countryside. The farm land left
vacant soon became idle. Today there is more land left
unused in this scattered deve10pment pattern than is
occupied by all urban uses in the region.

Public facilities, particularly sanitary sewer and
water systems, are urgently needed. The cost of pro-
viding needed services and facilities is bringing local
governmental units to the verge of bankruptcy. The

6
public finance dilemma is growing: public services must
be provided, but the cost of providing them to such a
scattered pattern is prohibitively expensive. Many
community leaders are attempting to attract business and
industry as a panacea. It is politically unpopular to
point out that such uses require more public service
expenditures at the same time they provide more tax
money.

As the metrOpolitan core has grown in complexity,
investors have frequently failed to understand where
they could best locate. This has resulted in an unco-
ordinated arrangement of land uses and in business

failures.

The Economic Base

The most important segment of the economy is manu-
facturing. Forty-seven percent of the labor force is
employed in manufacturing. Of this forty-seven percent,
nearly one-half is employed in one major type of indus-
try. This industry is quite sensitive to economic
fluctuations. Area manufacturing has been diversifying
in recent decades and is expected to further diversify,
though high labor costs are eXpected to act as a deter-
rent to many industries.

The region's geographic location (aided by new
transportation routes) has attracted many motor freight

companies in recent years. This industry and related

7

wholesale trade activities are expected to grow in im-
portance in the near future.

Only two percent of the labor force and approxi-
mately forty percent of the land area are devoted to
agriculture. Business, professional, educational, and
governmental services occur in prOportions not unusual

for an area of this size.

The Social and Political Situation

Industrial dominance of the economy has resulted
in a well-defined class structure, with disprOportionate
emphasis on both the upper and lower classes. While
both labor and management, as groups, profess an inter-
est in improving public facilities and services, indi-
vidual voting tendencies indicate personal Opposition to
capital improvements. Local elected officials have of
course acted, or failed to act, accordingly. Low levels
of state assistance for education, welfare, and so on,
have contributed to heavy property tax burdens for the
maintenance of existing facilities and services.

A deteriorating central city, coupled with the
presence of a large minority group, has contributed to
the scattered development pattern of the fringe areas
and its accompanying problems.

County elected officials wield considerable polit-
ical power. The County Engineer is elected.

8
Past Regional Planning History

Forming the Regional Planning Commission

In 1956, a private non-profit corporation inter-
ested in industrial promotion established a committee to
investigate the need for a regional planning agency.
This committee recommended that another committee be
formed to draw up recommendations which would lead to
the establishment of a Regional Planning Commission.
This was done, and recommendations were made on the area
the agency would serve, the immediate work program, pro-
posed budget, sources of income, and personnel needed.
After an intensive "selling job," the Commission was
established in 1957, serving a three-county region. It
was composed of all the major county elected officials,
and representatives from all member incorporated areas
and the townships. Later, representatives from business,
industry, and education were added, raising the number

of Commission members to nearly eighty.

Earl Histor
The Commission held its first meeting in February,

1957. Two months later, a professional planner was
hired as director. In the next three months, two addi-
tional professional planners were hired and work was
started on a program of studies which were basic to the
preparation of regional plans.

Since the regional planning agency was primarily

9

an advisory body, actual decisions regarding various
areas of concern to the planners were made by various
boards and county and local Officials. Reportedly

there was much resentment on the part of these decision-
making organs of the agency's concern with their tradi-
tional spheres of influence. Particular difficulty was
apparently encountered with one County Engineer.

Agency Operations were financed by county contri-
butions of ten cents per person and contributions of
five cents per person for participating communities.

The result was that the central county was paying over
three times as much as the other two counties combined,
while at the same time supporting its own county plan-
ning commission. Officials questioned whether they
could afford to participate in the regional planning
effort.

Controversies also arose concerning the orienta-
tion of the agency and the work which should be under-
taken first. The staff stressed the need to prepare
regional comprehensive plans. At the same time, several
local communities were clamoring to have the agency con-
tract to prepare local comprehensive plans. This was
perhaps the result of overly vigorous promotional
efforts by the industrial promotion agency which origi-
nated the Regional Planning Commission. In addition,
there was considerable pressure to study existing prob-

lems rather than to prepare long range plans.

10
The director of the industrial promotion agency,
fearing that the Commission was not going to survive,
prepared an eight—point work program. This program was
first presented to officials of the central county and
then to the Commission and the staff. The program
recommended that the Commission
l)survey water needs
2)survey sewer needs
a)inventory existing plans
)restore Program Committee
5)get federal funds
6)temporarily postpone financing amendments
7)continue present method of financing
8)hire an engineer.
The Commission directed the staff to carry out this pro-
gram.
In 1958, newspaper stories undermined public con-
fidence in the staff. Staff morale declined, and all

three professionals resigned in the fall of that year.

The Struggle for Survival
A young lawyer who worked for the industrial pro-

motion corporation became the second director of the
agency in 1959. The new director was politically
oriented and public relations conscious. A new staff
completed studies which were already under way and,
aided by a federal grant,2 embarked on further basic
research and inventory studies.

Emphasis was placed on providing limited planning

 

2Section 701 or the National Housing Act of 195%
provides grants for regional planning studies.

ll
assistance to local governmental units. This assistance
was primarily on zoning matters, with subdivision prob-
lems and other planning concerns less frequently re-
quested.

Since federal planning grants have become avail-
able to communities in the region, the agency has acted
as planning consultant to fifteen communities, ranging
in size from a few thousand to 50,000 people. This
program has been extremely successful and merits a few
comments here. In each case, community leaders have
been very actively involved in the effort. This has
resulted in plans and implementing measures (zoning
ordinances, subdivision regulations, and other adminis-
trative recommendations) that have been accepted as
community laws and policies. Since the contract work is
done by a governmental unit, the community is assured of
the availability of continuous professional advice on
its plans and implementing measures. This program has
generated a great deal of local support for regional
planning efforts. In brief, it can be simply stated
that eventually the change in emphasis from regional
planning studies to the provision of local planning
assistance led to increased support for regional plan-

ning activities.

12
The Existin Situation: 1

The Role and Status of the Commissigg

By 1961 the Commission was well established as an
advisory agency. In this role it depended upon adequate
communication of its recommendations to local govern-
mental units and upon the willingness of local units to
adopt and carry out those recommendations. As today,
the only legal powers the Commission had consisted of ma
mandatory referral of township zoning changes, except
that when plans had been adopted by the county commis-
sioners, no public improvement or utility could be
located except in conformance with those plans unless
the three county commissioners voted unanimously to
amend them. This role necessitated a political sensi-
tivity and a continual effort to enhance the status of

the Commission and the staff.

Staff Organization
The staff was divided into three divisions: re-

gional studies, research, and local assistance. The
organization of personnel was not rigid, however, and
personnel in one division had specific assignments in
other divisions to take advantage of professional skills
and interests, to even work load, and to provide a more

diversified experience.

13

Tooling Up Studies
In the process of making inventories and studying

the region‘s social and economic situation and the
probable future conditions, seventeen major reports were
issued. These studies, listed in chronological order,
were:

Physical Geography-~an analysis of the principal
geographic considerations and soils, and their
implications.

Population Projections-~p0pulation analysis and
projections for 1975.

Water and Sewer Facilities-an inventory of exist-
ing water and sewer facilities, their capaci-
ties, and projected needs for 1975.

Manufacturing Complex-~a broad look at manufacturing
in the region.

Major Highways-an inventory of major highway pro-
posals prepared by the various local, state,
and federal agencies.

Ipdustrial Reguirements-—results of a questionnaire
on existing manufacturing plants and sites,

with plans for future expansion.

Schools--an inventory of existing facilities and
identification of facilities needed by 1980.

Recreation and Open Spaces-an inventory of major
existing facilities and identification of the

needs for 1980.

Shopping Habits-~a study to determine trading areas
and consumer buying habits to aid prediction
and planning of needed facilities.

Population and Labor Force-~projections of area
population for 1970, 1980, and 2000 with em-
phasis on the portion that will make up the
labor force.

Existing Land Use-~an inventory of existing land
use, history, discussion, and a 20 year com-
parison.

1%

Trades and Services--an examination of wholesale
retail and service trades in relation to their
role in the region's economy and their future
effect on the economy.

Major Industries--a depth study of the area's most
important industries and their anticipated
deve10pment as it affects the area.

The Economy-~a comprehensive report summarizing the
findings of previous reports and making recom-

mendations to strengthen the economic base of
the region.

Land with Industrial Potential-~an inventory of
sites with a possible industrial potential and

their selected characteristics.

Public Utilities-~Tpansmigsion Lines--an inventory

of the major power line locations.

Major Thoroughfare Plan
The rapid rate of highway building resulting from

the federal interstate defense highway program made the
preparation of a preliminary plan to guide pending high-
way location decisions a necessity. A.p1an showing very
general recommendations for the location of expressways
and major highways was prepared, based on the informa-
tion collected and the best thinking of the staff, and
state, county, and local engineers and planners. The,
plan was well accepted, and was formally adopted by the
county commissioners of each county and nearly every

city and village.

A Change in Emphasis

The second director was encouraged by personal

Opportunities and Commission pressures to resign in

15
early 1961, after the completion of the basic inventory
studies. The planner in charge of community assistance
became the third director. The Commission applied for
a second federal grant-~for land use and utility plans
--increasing the emphasis on the regional planning pro-
gram. Figure 1 illustrates the personnel changes in

relationship to the orientation of the agency.

 

Date Staff and Commission Actions ,' Orientation

 

Regional Local

 

1957 Commission Formed
First Director Appointed
General program prepared
Local plans wanted
1958 Financing problems arise
County wants sewer and water study
Industrial agency prepares program
Staff Resigns
1959 Second Director Appointed
Political support sought
Local plans started

1960 Population studies made
Economic base studies made
Physical inventories started
Second Director Resigns
1961 Third Director Appointed
Local contracts increase
Thoroughfare plan started
Regional Planner Hired
1962 Land use and utility plans started

 

 

 

1963 Regional plans finished

 

 

Figure l.--Personnel changes and Commission orientation

The Regional Planning Program
Duripg tpe First Six Months

During the first few months of work on the grant

to prepare the regional land use and utility plans, the

16
planner in charge of the regional planning operation
resigned. Apparently he had differences of opinion with
the third director, and he was perhaps troubled by the
orientation of the agency. The background studies were

completed and it was an appropriate time to leave.

The Consultant's Program

Meanwhile, a planning consultant retained by the
Commission prepared a report for the staff on the
Regional Land Use Plan. This report was designed to

l)point out preparatory aspects which should be con-
sidered by the staff prior to involvement in
technical operations

2)specify the scope and sequence of the technical
procedures

3)set forth how the staff studies should be reviewed
and disseminated.

Since this report did much to influence the planning
program, some detailed attention is warranted.
The first section of the report discussed how the
Land Use Plan would be applied and what major elements
should be incorporated in it. The plan was said to
function as
l)an informational device
a.furnishing data
b.serving as a guide to trends
c.reflecting policies
d.stimulating the public
2)an action device
a.indicating community goals

b.providing a lever to coordinate development
c.underlying a program of implementation

1?
d.serving as a guide to the future land use
pattern
e.correcting deficiencies in the existing
pattern.

Next it was pointed out that the Land Use Plan
should

l)identify and shape the forces acting on the area

2)be coordinated with other plans the agency con-
templated

3)be a design that requires implementation

%)be designed to utilize emerging governmental
programs.

The report stated that residential areas, employ-
ment centers, transportation media, and open spaces were
the major land uses which should be treated. The first
part of the report concluded with a discussion of the
determinants of the land use plan. The determinants of
the most suitable use for land were listed as:

l)location and interrelations of land use areas
2)quantities of land for various uses
3)physica1 features.
Density and service requirements were also discussed as
determinants of land development.

The second part of the report outlined a procedure
for formulating the Land Use Plan. This procedure is
outlined below:

A.Establishment of Goals
1)Area~wide Objectives
2)Social and Economic Goals
3)Physical Planning Objectives

B.Survey of Land Potential
1)Natural Features

2)Transportation and Access
3)Community Services and Facilities

18
C.Determination of Land Quantities

l)For New Population and Economic Activity
2)For Relocated POpulation and Economic Activity
3)For Renewal

D.Drafting Land Use and Density Patterns

l)Land Needed by Use and Priority
2)An Interrelated System of Uses
a)A Transportation Network

)A Pattern of Community Facilities

E.Formulation of the Sketch Plan

l)Alternative Plans (30 or more years in the
future)
2)Statement Describing
a.Principal Proposals
b.Regulatory Tools Available
c.Governmental Programs Required

F.Formulation of the Long Range Plan and Short
Range Action Program

l)Statutory Measures Needed
2)Administrative Organization and Procedures
a)Fiscal Programs Needed
)Civic-Governmental Relationships Needed
5)Inter-Governmental Machinery Needed.
The third part of the report contained a table to

guide the scheduling of staff activities.

The Dipgctop’s Program

Apparently the consultant's program did not com-
pletely satisfy the director, because just four months
later he prOposed another land use plan program to the
Commission. This program consisted of four parts:

A.Identification of Goals and Major Policy Decisions

B.Cataloguing of Necessary Information

C.Study of Major Land Use Plan Elements and coordi-
nation of Local Plans

D.Land Use Plan Coordination.

The only significant detail of Part A worth

19
mentioning here was the suggestion that a Land Use Plan
Policy Committee be formed. Part B proposed the mapping
of

soils, areas of ten percent slopes, water bodies
and flood plains, existing and projected popula-
tion, natural resources, woodlands, land with in-
dustrial potential, and existing principal cul-
tural facilities and institutions of higher learn-
ing.

Part C simply listed the Major Land Use Plan Elements

as.follows:

l)Translation of projected population into densities
and land use requirements
2)Industrial areas
)Commercial areas
)Regional cultural facilities and institutions of
higher learning
5)Regional open spaces
a.Inventory of agencies concerned with open
spaces
b.1dentification of Open space usage
c.Identification of potential Open space areas.

Part D was described simply as coordination of the ele-
ments identified in Part C and publication of a regional

land use plan in easily readable map form.

Comments on the PrOposed Programs

Since neither of these proposed programs was

 

adOpted by the Commission, a detailed comparison of
them is not warranted. However, since both programs
greatly influenced the program which was eventually
adopted, several significant points should be noted.

Both programs essentially ignore the utility plans
which the grant included. It is especially significant
that over one-half of the grant (355,000 out of $100,000)

20

was allocated to the utility plans. At this time it was
still not decided what these plans would include. It is
pure speculation why this was the case. Perhaps the
county engineers were sensitive about the subject. Or
perhaps the director, who had only superficial knowledge
of utility planning, considered it only a technical
problem for the staff engineer. The engineer had been
given one month to prepare a preliminary sewage disposal
plan for the region after the planner in charge had
resigned. No water supply of land use plans were avail-

able to aid in this task.

Pro ect Pro ress

During the first six months, the engineer was the
only member of the regional planning Operation. He was
unable to communicate adequately with the director and
soon began to aid the community assistance Operation by
working on subdivision prOposals, zoning petitions, and
similar projects. To his credit, some basic mapping
work delimiting drainage areas and existing utility
systems was completed.

The director apparently felt during this period
that it was best to postpone further activities until
the new project planner was hired. Consequently little
work was done on the land use plan.

During this period, one-fifth of the money was

spent and one-fourth of the time passed. The project

21
balance sheet at the end of the first six months read:
Amount Budgeted Amount Spent % Spent
Land Use Plan $u5,000 $13,000 29%
Utility Plan $55,000 s5,h00 10%.

The apparent discrepancy between the amount of
work completed and the amount of money spent can be
attributed to

l)the inventory of agencies concerned with open
spaces, which had little bearing on the land use

2)£h:ncharging of salaries for staff members in
other divisions to regional planning accounts.

The agency had the reputation of being local plan-
ning oriented at this time. A great deal of effort was
made to get contracts to do local planning for commun-
ities and to "keep consultants out." This led to "cut
rate" planning programs for local communities and the
subsidizing of the local work with other monies. The
rationale for doing this was to pave the way for accept-
ance of the agency and of regional planning. Conse-
quently, the attitude of the staff toward the regional
planning Operation appeared to be mixed. Staff members
had a certain amount of apprehension concerning the way
the regional plans would affect their local planning
recommendations. Would the uses prOposed in the local
plans appear illogical when viewed from the regional
point of view: Would the local plans fit into the re-
gional pattern? At the same time, the majority of the
staff believed that regional planning was vitally

necessary.

CHAPTER II

FORMING AND FITTING THE WORK PROGRAM
AND SCHEDULE

A mere.presentation of the work program and sched-
ule which were drafted to guide the preparation of the
regional land use and utility plans would be of rela-
tively little value to guide future efforts. A basic
understanding of the factors which influenced the pro-
gram's emphasis is needed. This chapter discusses the
limitations on the program and the assessment of the re-
gion's most pressing planning needs. This provides a
basis for understanding the underlying philosophy of the

specific program and schedule which were adopted.

Program Limitationg
Any environmental planning program is carried on
within an institutional framework which places many
limitations on the content, scope, and depth of the
program. To be able to fully evaluate the situation
under study, the reader should be aware of the limita-
tions placed on this project by the particular frame-

work within which it was carried on.

22

23
Contract Limitations

Since the program was partly financed by the pro-
visions of Section 701 of the Housing Act of 195%,
approval by the Housing and Home Finance Agency Of work
completed was necessary. The contract for the project
specified the maximum amount of money the Federal gov-
ernment would contribute. Since the Commission‘s budget
was strained to provide the local share, very definite
financial limitations were placed on the project.

The contract time of two years also placed a lim-
itation on the project. Normally the time limitation
would not create any problem as the work could be pro-
grammed over the full contract period; however, person-
nel problems delayed the starting of this project a full
six months. This.one-quarter reduction in the amount of
time available for completion of the project compounded
scheduling and programming problems to an unfortunate

degree.

Social and Political Limitations

As in most other areas in this country, there was
a serious lack of general public concern and support for
planning efforts. Regional planning efforts were watch-
ed with suspicion by many local officials who.did not
want to relinquish any of their powers to people outside
their political boundaries. Developers and real estate

interests, too, were wary that planning might limit

2%
their speculative activities.

There was continual friction between the planning
staff of the central city and the director of the re-
gional planning agency. This friction stemmed in part
from a lack of confidence in the abilities of the city
planners, and in part from the desire of each agency to
plan for the entire area. There was, however, rapport
between the regional planning director and most other
community officials in the region.

The largest newspaper in the region supported the
regional planning operation and gave the agency good
publicity. This gave the agency a good reputation and
immeasurably aided the regional planning efforts.

The fact that part of the region was affected by
development pressures from an adjacent metrOpolitan area
placed obvious limitations on the program. This area
had no general land use plan with which the plans
could be coordinated. This void introduced doubts con-

cerning the prOper development of the area mentioned.

Inventory Limitations

The inventory studies were deficient in several
major respects, although in general they were quite
good. First, they did not effectively point out the
major regional needs. Specifically, suburban sprawl was
not pinpointed as a key problem, nor was the problem of

uncoordinated land use arrangements sufficiently

25
discussed.

The inventory studies were also deficient in sev-
eral technical respects. First, the physical geography
study soils map was inadequate even though the text of
the study was good. More money should have been a110-
cated to permit a decent generalized soils map to be
completed. Second, no usable information on underground
water was collected. This had to be done before water
resource development plans could even be intelligently
discussed. Finally, no information was collected on
surface water reservoir sites. Sewage disposal plans
as well as water resource development plans could not be
prepared without this information. In addition, the
land use information was nearly three years old and had
not been kept current. This proved particularly trou-

blesome at the design stages.

Commission Guidance and Staff Problems

The abnormal size Of the Commission (80 members)
necessitated work by committees. The director advised
these committees and consequently had a free hand in
operating the agency. The officers of the Commission,
being effective business executives, believed in dele-
gating responsibility. The absence of firm guidance by
the Commission made it easy to change the program at
will. Consequently, projects were frequently altered or

interrupted. This hampered the completion of the total

26
project and seriously damaged staff morale.

The size of the staff also limited the project.
After one-half of the contract time had expired, the
staff was limited to the planner in charge and the engi-
neer, plus two part-time draftsmen. A great deal of
difficulty was experienced in hiring planners to work on
the project. Finally, two geographers with planning
knowledge and a part-time graduate student in geography
were hired. They greatly aided the project, particu-
larly in regard to the utility plans.

Although the staff included six trained urban
planners, none had much knowledge of resource planning
at the outset. This problem was overcome by working
closely with health officials, civil engineers, geogra-
phers, geologists, hydrologists, spil scientists, and
other skilled professionals. The staff did have ade-
quate knowledge of environmental design planning to pre-
pare the regional land use phans. The staff engineer
specialized in highway planning and had to learn more
about planning sewerage systems and water collection

systems as the project progressed.

The Region‘s Planning Needs

This section is not intended to serve as a detail-
ed examination of the region's planning needs. Its
purpose is rather to set forth the regional planning

needs which the planner in charge felt to be most in~

27
important at the outset of the program.

First and foremost, it was felt that there was a
need to discourage, and hopefully curb, urban sprawl.
Cursory study revealed that the displacement of agri-
cultural activities caused by skyrocketing tax rates,
damaged crops, land speculation, sewer and water system
assessments, and vanishing market centers, was a serious
problem. This problem was obviously of concern to all
communities but also one which no local governmental
unit could alleviate by itself. It was a problem for
the older central cities as well as the suburban areas,
for it would be extremely difficult to renew the older
cities as long as cheap land was readily available in
the suburbs.

Another major need was the provision of urban ser-
vices tO urban land use areas. Too frequently, builders
in sprawl areas operated under laws established to
regulate rural areas which did not require services now
needed. ,

Coordination of land use areas, transportation
facilities, sanitary and storm sewer and water systems,
and other services between local governmental units was
also needed. Local governments were simply not cooper-
ating with each other. Mutually beneficial c00perative
efforts had to be promoted. Regional plans were badly
needed to provide a framework for local planning efforts.

Another area of concern was the proper development

28
and conservation of the region‘s resources. There was
an obvious need to preserve good industrial and water
reservoir sites. There was also a need to preserve Open

land for recreation, wildlife, and agricultural uses.

The Underlying Philosophy
The philOSOphy of planning programs is more often

implicit than explicit. Since there is no formal,
commonly accepted philosophical approach to regional
planning, a great deal of thought was given to the pre-
paration of the work program. The work of many regional
and county planning agencies was reviewed. Most of this
work applied city planning techniques and concepts to
regional planning problems.-

In view of the present status of regional planning,
it soon became apparent that the Objective should be to
produce plans of optimum usefulness. Thus a pragmatic
philosophy--finding out which of many alternative poli-
cies would bring about the largest amount of real
improvement in the region's environment, social condi-
tions, and economy--was evolved.

It was felt that, to be useful, the plans had to
serve as aids to the decision-makers. It was also felt
that the local officials who held the power to implement
the plans would not support the agency's recommendations
merely because they were professional opinions. Thus,

all proposals would have to be based on concrete facts

29
and supported by specific reasons. For example, local
officials had to be told that the shale bedrock in a
particular area would not yield an adequate water supply
to support intensive development, and shown the exorbi-
tant cost of developing other supplies. Again, the
inability of mahoning soils to absorb septic tank efflu-
ent on one-half acre lots had to be pointed out and re—
lated to the costs of providing central sanitary sewer

systems to scattered residential uses.

Fo t e WOrk P 0 am

The Need for a Work Program

A work program gives a step by step outline of
work to be accomplished. Progress is checked against it
and it keeps the project moving forward toward estab-
lished goals. A properly used work program also reduces
the tendency for the planner to become sidetracked and
bogged down by items which are not absolutely essential
to the total program. Briefly, then, the value of es-
tablishing a work program is that it necessitates a com-
prehensive examination of the work involved and the
preparation of a statement showing the relative values
of parts of the project. It also establishes the order
of work to be completed. If a time schedule and finan-
cial schedule are also prepared, the program can keep
familiarity or concern with a Specific part of the pro-

ject from warping judgement concerning the value of that

30
part to the total project.

The director insisted on a formal detailed outline
of the program and a firm schedule for the completion of
the plans in order to secure Commission approval of the
program and to facilitate administration of the project.
A planner preparing such a program is somewhat like an
explorer who draws a map of unexplored wilderness and
then attempts to explore that wilderness by following

the trails drawn on the map.

Basic Decisiong

Upon starting work, the planner in charge was
given one month to prepare a program and schedule for
the preparation of the regional plans. Several days
were devoted to gaining familiarity with the Operation
and the area, learning about other area agencies, read-
ing Commission reports, and studying the limited number
of regional plans in the agency library. The utility
plans were given much consideration during this period
since nothing had been done about them previously.

The planner and engineer who were preparing the
program believed that there was an excellent opportunity
to present truly comprehensive plans for the region's
future deve10pment, in the sense that they would cover
all major land uses, sewerage and water resource deve1-
0pment systems, and major thoroughfares for an entire

region.

31

Obviously, plans to be prepared on an $80,000
budget for an area of 1300 square miles and a projected
pOpulation of 1,100,000 for 1980 would have to be of a
general nature. Such plans could only be concerned with
land uses and service systems of "regional significance,"
though this concept later proved impossible of precise
definition.

The planner in charge recognized that it would be
necessary to avoid conflicts with the established local
assistance Operation, and first considered structuring
the regional plans to avoid conflicts by having the re-
gional plans serve as long range guides and the local
plans as short range guides. The short range local
plans could then serve as a basis for zoning plans,
capital improvement programs, and other implementation
measures which would be of immediate value to local
officials. However, the local assistance Operation had
already started preparing "ultimate" plans for local
communities. By comparing populating estimates with the
population holding capacities of the prepared local
plans, it was discovered that this "ultimate" was #0 to
'80 years away. :It was then decided that there was an
opportunity to guide the growth of the region over a
time span and an Opportunity to avoid conflicts by de-
signing, or staging, the plans to show development
approximately 20 and #0 years in the future. To permit
utilization of projected population and projected land

32
needs information, it was decided to stage the plans for
the years 1980 and 2000.

Neither the planner nor the engineer were very
concerned with communication with the public, but the
director felt strongly that "every community should
agree" on the plan before it was published. Consequent-
ly, the work program.was revised so that newsletters and
reports would be released frequently throughout the

project.

Program Organization

The program was organized into five phases. The

 

purpose of Phase One was to identify purposes and lim-
itations of the plans as a basis for major policy de-
cisions. Phase Two involved the delineation of natural
and man-made features and social and economic forces
which determine land use and the provision of sewerage
and water supply systems. Phase Three consisted of the
design of the land use and utility plans. Phase Four
involved the preparation of a summary booklet to pre-
sent the plans to the public. Phase Five was a program
evaluation and recommendation for action based on the
knowledge gained in the preparation of the plans. An
outline of the program follows.
Phase One: Regional Planning Framework

Purpose: to acquaint leaders and public with pur-

poses Of the regional land use and utility

plans, the existing situation, influencing
forces, policy decisions, and goals of the plans.

33
Land Use Planning Framework

1)Regional Planning Needs and Purposes--a
newsletter pointing out the growing complex-
ity of the region as a background for dis-
cussing planning needs.

2)Regiona1 Forces and Problems-a newsletter
focusing attention on growth pressures and
major problems.

3)Significant Trends and Assumptions-~a state-
ment identifying premises used for decision
making.

H)Planning Determinants-~a newsletter identi-
fying factors influencing the location of
land uses and transportation routes.

5)Basic Alternatives-~a newsletter suggestingg
various arrangements for the location and
spatial relationship of land uses, with dis-
cussion of social and economic implications.

6)Goals--a newsletter containing the tentative
goals recommended by the Land Use Plan Policy
Committee.

Utilities Planning Framework

l)Highlights of the Sewer and water Situation
--a newsletter updating data and providing a
background for understanding sewer and water
problems. '

Phase Two: Regional Planning Determinants

Purpose: to identify natural and man-made features
and social and economic forces which largely
determine the use of land and the provision of
sewerage and water supply systems.

Land Use Determinants
1)Natural Determinants

a.Water (ground, surface, and flood plains)
b.Topogrqphy

c.Soils

d.Vegetation

e.Other natural resources

f.Climate

g.Geography.

3H

2)Man-Made Determinants-~existing deve10pment
and transportation and service systems.

3)Social and Economic Determinants--social
desires and economic capabilities.

H)Public Interest as a Determinant.
Utility Determinants
l)Natural Determinants

a.TOpography

b.Soils

c.Surface drainage areas
d.Climate

e.Geography.

2)Man—Made Determinantsp-development patterns,
transportation routes, and existing facilities.

3)Economic Determinants-~capital and operating
costs.

Phase Three: Land Use and Utility Plan Design

Purpose: to design plans for the location of major
land use areas, transportation routes, water
supply and sewage disposal systems for the years
1980 and 2000.

Land Use Plans

l)Land Use Potential Study-oanalyzing the poten-
tial of land for various uses

a.Industrial
b.Recreational
O.Residential
d.Agricultural.3

2)Land Use Demands
a.Projected pOpulation and economic growth

b.Land use trends
c.Land use needs (by community).

 

300mmercial uses were not included at this point
because they are subservient to other uses and are more
dependent upon demand than specific land characteristics.

35

3)Equating Potentials and Demands into Realistic
Plans

a.Balancing demand for land and water for
various uses with natural resource poten-
tials.

b.Resolving conflicting demands for uses of
the same land.

c.Deve10ping an orderly, efficient, and
functional regional land use pattern
through the use of planning principles
and design standards.

Utility Plans

1)A presentation of the water resource devel-
opment and sewage disposal plans.

Phase Four: Plan Summary
Purpose: to present the plans to the general public.
Phase Five: Program Evaluation and Recommendations
Purpose: to suggest courses of action to
1)Keep plans current
2)Detail specific areas
3)Effectuate plans through
a.Governmental action--fiscal, zoning, sub-
division, and public health policies
b.Private action-~financing and building
decisions.

The program was presented to the Plans and program
Committee of the Commission for its recommendations. A
representative of the largest county felt that the pro-
gram was weak in one very important aspect--it was not
suzgiciently oriented to alleviation of existing prob-
lems. The planner in charge stressed that he felt that

the planning program's greatest value would be in pre-

venting future problems, but he agreed with the

36
objection. The committee agreed to recommend that the
Commission approve the prOgram with the understanding
that their comments be considered by the staff, and that
the prOgram represented staff goals rather than a firm
committment to complete all the items listed. The

Commission approved the program.

Scheduling the Program

The program was scheduled in detail over the
eighteen months left in the contract period. To be more
accurate, the program was scheduled to be completed in
fifteen months. This was done to allow l)for unexpected
problems which might arise 2)time to get the plans and
reports printed, and 3)completion of the plans during
the Commission President's term of office as a gesture
of appreciation for his work.

The schedule was prepared as directed by the plan-
ning director, even though the planner in charge of the
project protested that l)he had not had time to become
familiar with all the information which was available or
to explore the problem of getting further needed infor—
mation 2)there was not an adequate staff to complete the
program, and 3)the hiring of new staff would take an
undetermined length of time.

Figure 2 shows the outline of the program.and the
schedule that the Plans and Program Committee and the

Commission approved.

37

 

 

Program Outline Work Schedule
1962
NDJFMAMJJASONDJFM.
Phase I: Regional Planning
Framework
Land Use Planning Framework I” A
Utilities Planning Framework E 1

Phase II: Regional Planning
Determinants

- %
{5‘51

Land Use Determinants

 

 

 

 

Utility Determinants ET 3
Phase III: Regional Land Use and
Utilities Plans
Land Use Plans A- 1
Utility Plans 2 A
Phase IV: Regional Land Use and
Utilities Plans Summary 5 w A
Phase V: Program Evaluation and
Resulting Recommendations E V

 

Figure 2.--Outline of program and schedule

The Program_and:§ghedule in Retrospect

Prior to describing how the regional land use,
sewage disposal and water resource deve10pment plans
were prepared, some comments on the program are warrant-
ed to assist others in preparing similar administrative
aids in the future.

First, the reader may have recognized one basic
fallacy in the entire approach. This is that the pro-
gram and schedule should have been completed prior to

the beginning of the program. Working out a program and

9.x

A} r‘

38
schedule prior to contracting for the project would have
permitted much more realistic estimates of the time and
money necessary to complete the project. Moreover, even
a rough project outline and a clear statement of the
purpose and scope of the project should have indicated
that additional information was needed before the pro-
ject COuld be undertaken. But more important yet, the
preparation of a program and schedule would have indi-
cated the necessity to contact and consult with other
peOple in the area concerned with water supply, conser-
vation, sewage disposal, and land use planning. The
failure to establish a close working relationship with
these people prior to contracting for the work hindered
the progress of the project.

Theoretically, it might seem advisable to have
worked on the major thoroughfare plan in conjunction
with the land use, sewage disposal and water deve10pment
plans. In actuality, however, it worked extremely well
to have the preliminary thoroughfare plan already comp
pleted. There were two reasons for this. First, the
thoroughfare plan was very general in regard to new
facilities. This permitted a considerable amount of
flexibility in working out land use and service areas in
conjunction with the plans. Second, it presented an
excellent Opportunity to get across the basic difference
between community plans and plans for a building or

sewer project: Community plans must be subjected to

39

periodic revision so that they always represent the best
of current thinking.

The schedule, as it turned out, was overly ambi-
tious. The three month margin was not sufficient to
absorb actual problems encountered.

The program was too detailed, especially in regard
to the presentation of reports. It would have been
better to let the reports come out of the work on the
plans rather than having the plans appear to stem from
the reports. The program was fortunately not precisely
followed. Had it been, the plans would have been de-
ficient in several respects. Scheduling in excessive
detail should be avoided, though it is difficult to say
what degree of detail is excessive.

The program did recognize the close interrelation-
ship between land use, sanitary sewage disposal, and
water resource deve10pment planning, and the arrange-
ment of the program was to later greatly facilitate
the preparation of the plans.

CHAPTER III
PREPARING THE PLANS

This chapter describes in detail the preparation
of the regional land use, sewage disposal and water re-
source development plans. A.mere diary of the events
leading to the completion of the plans would be the
simplest method of presenting this information. However,
a diary seldom presents a coherent picture of events
which occur over an extended period of time, because the
reader is required to shift from subject to subject.
Historians learned long ago that shifting of subjects
makes description of events impossibly confusing. This
section, then, discusses events as subjects. It should
be realized that such a procedure of necessity blurs the
chronological perspective, but this is preferable to
blurring the subject matter. Particular attention is
given to the major technical, administrative, and polit-
ical problems encountered in the process of preparing

the plans.

Initial Problems and Prospects

The adoption of a work program and schedule was

not a panacea for the troubles which had plagued the

no

hl‘

regional land use and utility planning project from its
inception. Concurrently with the beginning of Phase
One, an intensified effort was made to correct inade-
quacies and inaccuracies in the basic information.

Questionnaires seeking to pinpoint the problems of
each community were sent out as suggested by the Commis-
sioners. While the information obtained from the ques-
tionnaires was not complete, it did provide a valuable

insight into many specific problems.”

Newsletters

The writing of newsletters was to begin immediate-
ly. Some of the material, however, was too technical to
be presented in that form. In addition, some of the
staff members were having literary difficulties. At the
same time, the director became concerned that the news-
letters did not have a wide enough circulation. He
began to feel that people could be reached more effect-
ively through the press.

During the first month after the work program was
prepared, effort was made to get evidence of work com-
pleted on maps and charts, so that additional Federal
funds could be released for the project. Emphasis was
placed on preparing a very preliminary open spaces
sketch plan, shopping and cultural centers plans, and

maps depicting the growth of developed areas and :ei

 

$See the Appendix for questionnaire.

42
political units, flood plains, and other miscellaneous
information. Consequently the preparation of the news-
letters was further delayed.

When the federal inspector came, he mentioned that
newsletters did not qualify as a project expense. This,
in addition to the limited circulation of the newslett
ters, caused them to be dropped from.the project. The
information prepared for the newsletters was, however,
very useful in formulating and further defining the
course of the project.

It was decided that the complications with the
newsletters could not be allowed to delay other phases
of the project. The information that was ready to be
released would be reorganized into a report. Wbrk on
this report would have to be done during slack periods
on other projects. Finally, a graduate student in plan-
ning, who was hired for the summer, was assigned to work
on this report. The report was considerably expanded
to provide the Commission and other public officials
with a basic understanding of the past, present, and
future development of the region, the basic problems of
this deve10pment, and the alternative patterns which

were possible for future development.

Goals

The establishment of goals was intended to involve
citizens and public officials in the planning process by

43

getting their concurrence on the general objectives
which guide the planners.. It was hOped that after gen-
eral concurrence on the goals was obtained, there would
be greater understanding and acceptance of the proposed
plan.

Before the planner in charge started to work, a
Land USe Plan Policy Committee had been created. The
committee was composed of the planning director from the
central city, the planning director from the central
county, a planning director from another city, and three
citizen members. This arrangement was specifically de-
signed by the regional planning director to enlist the
support of the two local planning directors who had been
extremely critical of the Regional Planning Commission.
However, it was later feared that these two members
might adversely influence the rest of the committee to
Oppose staff proposals. Consequently, the committee
never met. This, or course, left no group to serve as a
sounding board for the establishment of goals. The
absence of established goals did not, however, hinder

the project when the design stage was reached.

A S ecific Problem: Urban aw g

The prospects for the planning program were not
all bleak at this time. The problem of suburban sprawl
was being discussed quite effectively. It was soon

found that to discuss suburban sprawl merely in terms of

nu

vanishing, never-to-be-regained Open space was insuffi-
cient. But when suburban sprawl was discussed in terms
of the costs of providing services, the consequences
suddenly became quite clear to audiences. Since the
widespread use of septic tanks facilitated suburban
sprawl, the consequences of their use on small lots was
stressed. The newspaper editorialized against their use.

A map portraying the region's developed areas in
1875, 1906, 1939: and 1959 was prepared, utilizing old
county atlases, United States Geological Survey maps,
and aerial photographs. This map illustrated the order-
ly development of the region prior to the widespread use
of the automobile, and was extremely helpful in dis-
cussions of suburban sprawl problems.

Another map, portraying the growth of the number
of incorporated areas set up to provide governmental
services to the developed areas, was prepared. This
map was very helpful in explaining and stressing the

need for inter-community cOOperation.

The Search for a Factual Basis for Planning

Soil Information,

The search for information on soils, underground
water resources, and river and stream flow was fruitless
during the first few months. It began to appear that
there would be no basis whatsoever for water supply

plans and that the sewage disposal plans would not be

#5
able to take into consideration the effluent-receiving
capabilities of the receiving streams and rivers. Much
attention was focused on getting this needed information.

Contacts were made with Soil Conservation Service
and Agricultural Extension Service personnel. These
people were very helpful in explaining the land use
implications of various soils and the inadequacies and
inaccuracies of the existing generalized soil maps.

On a visit to the state capitol to collect infor-
mation and establish contacts, a staff member made an
enquiry about erosion problem areas to alsoil scientist
of the State Division of Lands and 80113.. The soil sci-
entist agreed to prepare a generalized soil map of the
region. This soil map furnished a good basis for making
decisions in sufficient detail concerning the suitabil-

ity of soil for various land uses.

water Information

The primary purpose of this same trip was to
ascertain what information the state water resource
agency had that would aid in the preparation of the
water resource development and sewage disposal plans.
The state agency had information on the expected water
yields from wells for large parts of the region. This
information was based on well logs that drillers were
required to submit to the state. The test that the well

drillers were required to make of a new well showed the

46
yield in gallons per minute. These tests were not in-
dicative of the sustained yield that could be drawn from
the wells over a long period of time. The state agency
agreed to supply information on the rest of the region
as soon as it could be mapped.

Since the region contained headwaters for many
small streams there was little good information avail-
able on the quantity of stream flow, even though such
information was of critical importance for water supply
and sewage effluent dilution planning purposes. The
state water resource agency agreed to supply all the in-
formation they had available and to use estimating tech-
niques to fill in the gaps in the information.

During this same period, all the potential water
reservoir sites in the region were identified on United
States Geological Survey tOpographic maps. The previous
inventory studies of sewer and water facilities were
also brought up to date.

Knowing where potential reservoir sites were
located was extremely helpful, but before any prelimi-
nary water resource deve10pment plan proposals could be
made, the sustained yield_of the reservoir sites (or how
much water could be obtained for the dryest year in the
design period) had to be calculated. This was an ex-
tremely complicated task and was beyond the engineer's
ability to accomplish. One geographer had some know-

ledge of the procedures involved and was sent to the

47
state capitol for a week to calculate the necessary in-
formation with the help of the hydrologist of the state
water resource agency. The sustained yield of the res-
ervoir sites was of critical importance to permit econ-
omic evaluations of the advantages of developing alter-
native water supply sources.

Once all this information was Obtained, the pros-
pects for preparing comprehensive plans for land uses,
sewage disposal and water supply facilities were con-
siderably brighter. The information was worth many
times the amount of time and effort expended in its
acquisition, and it made many late planning decisions

relatively simple.

Phase Two:. Qaterminants Reporp
The objectives of Phase Two had to be somewhat

altered because of the alterations in Phase One and
personnel limitations. The land use and utility sec-
tions were combined in the interest of economy, because
much of the information applied to both problems. Sepa-
rate reports would have meant needless duplication of
maps. Social and economic determinants were not given
as much attention as physical determinants. The purpose
of the report was expanded, and it was designed to serve
as an aid to land developers as well as a basis for

Commission evaluation of the regional plans.

ng
The Search for Design Criteria

During the first six months after the preparation
of the work program, a clearer philosophy of approach to
the design of the regional plans began to evolve. When
the program was prepared, it was strongly felt that the
land use, water resource and sewage disposal plans
should be closely coordinated. But it was obvious that
everything could not be done at once, so one plan had to

be undertaken at a time.

Water Resource DeveIOpment Plannihg Criteria

It soon became apparent that the key to urban de-
velopment in the region was water. If an ample quantity
of water was available at the right time and place, for
a reasonable cost, urban deve10pment could occur. With-
out water, residential development would soon be stifled.
‘Without water, fire insurance rates would limit indus-
trial deve10pment. Because of the critical importance
of water, the water resource development plan was under-
taken first.

Before the water plan could be developed, criteria
to enable evaluation of the alternative sources of sup-
ply needed to be developed. The selection of one system
as the proposal would primarily depend upon economic
factors and the adequacy of the supply. Although under-
ground and surface water supplies are directly related,

it was decided that each should be studied separately

49
first. The following general principles to guide eval-
uation were developed:

1)Underground supplies are less expensive than sur-
face supplies where the quality and quantity of
the underground supply are adequate.

2)Underground supplies generally are not adequate
for central supply systems in areas where well
yields are less than 100 gallons per minute.

3)Underground supplies are generally not adequate
for communities larger than 100,000 to 200,000
people.

H)Underground well yields of less than ten gallons
per minute generally will not support a population
density much greater than one family per five
acres.

5)Surface supplies are generally not economically
feasible for communities of less than 5,000 people.

The staff engineer and the geographers, with the
assistance of the geologist and hydrologist of the state
water resource agency, were able to further refine cri-
teria for the adequacy of the underground water yield
areas for specific uses. The information they developed
could not be precisely proven, but it did represent the
best of their collective expert Opinions. Table 1 pre-
sents these criteria.

Evaluating the potential of surface water systems
was more complex. Each watershed had to be examined
separately to enable an economic evaluation of potential
reservoir sites. The multipurpose benefits of each res-
erVoir site for water supply, flood control, low flow
augmentation, and recreation purposes were considered,

but no attempt was made to assign dollar values to the

50

Table l.--Underground water yield evaluation for various
. uses

The values listed are for guidance only. Actual design
and use should be based on test results at site locations.

 

Potential Private Individual Wells Public Central.

 

 

 

 

Yield water Systems3
(in gallons Rurall Industrial Use2
er minute)Residential Use
Probably
5-10 adequate for l Inadequate \Inadequate
lots 5 acres or
larger”
Probably
5-25 adequate for lhlnadequate: Inadequate
to 5 acre lots
Probably Adequate for May be adequate
25-100 adequate fog small shOps for very small
1 acre lots which use systems

little water (village)
Adequate for
100-500 Adequate fop Adequate for small size

1 acre lots some industriessystems

 

 

 

dequate for
500-1000 Adequate fog Adequate for edium size
1 acre lots post industrie systems

 

 

 

 

 

lResidential areas with lot areas less than one acre
need central water systems. Individual wells are not
recommended.

2Most industries need public central water systems to
secure reasonable fire insurance rates.

3The supply or quantity of water for central water sys-
tems cannot be determined on the basis of potential yield.
More detailed aquifer tests must be undertaken to deter-
mine the adequacy of the source for each particular re-
quirement. The information on the map can aid in deter-
Eining where to make detailed tests.

Other factors must be considered such as: soils, sur-
rounding land uses, existing services and facilities,
and past development growth patterns. The number of
wells, their distribution, and the rate of withdrawal
are interdependent. Even with large lots, the supply
can be exhausted by a large well concentration. The
percent of land developed should be kept to a minimum.
In cases where central system is based on other than
underground supplies the deve10pment of smaller lots
would be more economical.

latter three.

51

Figure 3 shows a chart constructed to

permit the staff to make a general evaluation of how

much storage was feasible on a particular watershed.

Sustained
Yield
Obtained
from
Flow
Regulation
in
Million
Gallons-
per

Day

120
110
100
90
80
70
6O
5O
#0
30
20
10
0

Economic Feasibility
of DevelOping Surface
Water Storage Facilities

Not Feasible

 

 

I Doubtful

 

 

/ Feasible

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

O 10 20 3O #0 5O 60 70

Possible Storage
in Billion Gallons

(Points represent storage and yield from reservoir sites.
Cost and the amount of storage are usually directly re-

lated.)

Figure 3.--Surface water storage criteria

Sewage Disposal Planning Criteria

It was decided that, as a policy, areas prOposed

for urban and suburban land uses should also have central

52

sanitary sewerage and water supply systems. It was de-
termined from cost studies and discussions with devel-
Opers that it was not feasible to provide sanitary
sewers to lots larger than one-half acre for average
cost housing and one acre for high cost housing.a

It was also established, with the aid of the state
health department, that, to keep health and odor prob—
lems to a tolerable level, there should be 2000 acres of
watershed plus 10 acres per 1000 gallons per day of
effluent above a small sewage disposal plant (aerobic)
to provide sufficient watershed for runoff to adequately
dilute the effluent from the plant. Assuming one-half
acre lots and #00 gallons of sewage per family per day,
this rule of thumb works out as illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2.--Watershed needs for sewage disposal

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘NUmber Area used watershed areah waterShed area
of homes for homes ;I;needed per home
200 100 acres 2,080 acres 10. acres
2,000 1,000 acres 2,800 acres 1.% acres
_g0.000 t;0,000 acres 10,000 acres, .5 acres

This standard, and the rough tOpography, indicated
that many areas would have to rely upon individual sew»
age disposal systems which utilize leaching fields. It
was decided that wastes from individual systems, as a
policy, should be disposed of on the owner's prOperty
because of the difficulty of controlling the degree of
treatment. The effectiveness of leaching fields depends

53
upon the ease with which water can be absorbed by the
soil. With clay soils so predominant in the region, the
density of development in areas dependent upon individ-
ual disposal systems became a critical consideration.
The staff engineer and the geographers, with the aid of
charts prepared by soil scientists, prepared a chart
which listed the suitability of soils for septic tanks,
bearing foundations, and agricultural uses. Table 3

shows this chart.

Land Use Plannihg Criteria
This section sets forth the general criteria used
to guide the preparation of the regional land use plans.
The criteria have been (somewhat artificially) divided
into four categories:
l)Future projections of the demand for land
2)Suitability of the physical characteristics of
land for major industry, Open spaces, and residen-
tial areas
3)Criteria for the functional organization of land
uses and transportation and utility facilities and
other services
M)Design considerations.
The Demand for Land.-—The total amount of land expected
to be developed by the years 1980 and 2000 was calcu-
lated utilizing population projections for each local
political unit. These calculations were not considered

as precise since they were based on pOpulation projec-

tions and the existing densities of development. These

5i...

\

Table 3.--Se1ected soil characteristics

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I A ‘ 3r“ — “Bead-filial” Hormel Depth
Suitability for Foundation. to Spa
31099 {or I¢I
3‘?“ Tulle Subooil Subetretum Sibetretum Bedrock 5
poor to elr to
0-6 i good fair very good 2' - 3' 10+! deep
poor to {air to {air lo
242% good fair very good 2' - 3' 104' good
poor to fair to fair to
045$ ielr fair very good 2' - 3' 10“ deep good
poor to poor to
0-2 1. very poor fair 6' 10+' deep good
poor to poor to fair to
0-6 1. good {air very good 8' - 6" l0+' deep good
0-6 1. m: m:- ielr 2' -2.5' 10" deep (at:
poor to fair lo
242% fair telr ielr 2' -2.5' 10+' deep good
645% i’elr poor {air 2‘ lO+' deep good
12-25% poor poor {air 2' MW deep good
very poor poor to ® poor to
0-6 1. very poor to poor (air 3' - d' 10+' deep hir
very poor poor to fair to :
2-121. very poor to poor (air 2.5'- 3' 10'" deep good I
. J
yvvl w
645% very poor poor i'elr 2.5' 10+' deep good
poor to
12-2515 very poor poor fair 2.5‘ 10+' deep good
i
4
very good I,
2-127. poor fair to excellent 3.5' 2. 5' fair ,
poor to poor to 2.5'-10+' (air to
645% poor {air excellent 3.5' deep good
poor to
0-6 $ poor poor lair 3.3' 10+' deep good
poor to fair lo
342% poor poor {air 3' -3.5' 104" deep good
poor to {air lo
242% fair poor ielr 2' - 3'. 10+I deep good
poor to {air to
0-2 i very poor poor good 0 10" deep 1°09
very poor very poor poor to
0-2 1. very poor to poor to poor 3.5'- 5' 10+' deep good
good to
0-2 1. very poor 6) poor 4' - l’ 104“ deep excellent
poor to good to
04 i very poor poor good 1' - 0' loe' deep excellent
very poor very poor variable variable excellent
very poor
very poor to poor variable ® excellent

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

55
calculations were considerably modified when the design
stage was reached and topographic conditions, ease of
access, and the feasibility of water supply and sewage
disposal systems were taken into consideration.
Land Suitability.--Since the location of all major land
uses is partially dependent upon the suitability Of the
land for specific uses, criteria were established to
reflect this relationship.

This task was considerably facilitated by the sur-
vey of industrial land use requirements done earlier by
the Commission. This survey asked industries to rate
their land and service needs by order of importance.

Table A shows the results of this portion of the survey.

Table H.-—Criteria for industrial site selection

Which of the following considerations in selecting
a site are important to you? Please rate 1, 2, 3, etc.

 

 

Factor Rating
lst 2nd 3rd Other,

Adequate water supply 33 ii 3
Stable tax base 36 ll 30
Area zoned exclusively for industry 32 16 17 33
On major highway 30. ll 15 16
Existing sewer system 15 38 EN 38
Large tract available 17 ll 18 9
Rail siding 15 la 17 11
Natural drainage 5 l7 7
Sub-soil conditions 3 3 7 2
Other 11 ll 5

 

Criteria for metropolitan recreation facilities
were established with the assistance of the metropolitan
park board staff. These were

l)Slope characteristics-~rugged tOpography with some

56
isolated usable open spaces.

2)Vegetation--heavy woods of interesting and educa-
tional vegetation.

3)Soil characteristics--soils poorly suited for in-
tensive land uses.

h)Water bodies--flood control, flow augmentation and
secondary water supply reservoir, lakes and streams.

5)Distance to population--varies with size and
function of the facility.

6)Access to major highways-~convenient access to the
users.

7)Historical significance-~old homesteads, canals,
and other historical features.

8)Site size--lOO to 300 acres minimum.

It was also necessary to select criteria for Open
spaces other than metrOpolitan park facilities. It was
decided that flood plains, swamps, unstable soil areas,
areas of very rugged topography, heavily wooded areas,
and the better agricultural land would have character-
istics suitable for open spaces.

Residential areas were divided into two classes:
urban residential areas and rural residential areas. It
was decided that urban residential areas should have
slopes of less than twenty percent and the provision of
central sewerage and water systems should be feasible.
Rural residential areas (areas dependent upon individual
wells and sewage disposal facilities) should have under-
ground water supplies and suitable soils for drainage.
Land suitable for urban residential uses was also con-

sidered suitable for major commercial uses. No land

57
suitability criteria were established for major insti-

tutions, airports, or other such uses.

Functional Organization.--It was decided that, as far as
it was possible, land uses which would need costly major
public facilities and services for the movement of
people, goods, supplies, and wastes (highways, water,
sewer, and power lines) would be located to minimize
both the capital outlay and Operating costs for such
facilities and services. Figure A illustrates the ap-
plication of this criterion.

Plannihg Design Criteria.--It is difficult to set up
general design criteria to guide the design of land use
plans because most frequently the specific circumstances
determine the best design solution. Only two fairly
traditional design solutions to the problem of con-
flicting use areas were established at the outset. The
first, the buffer area, was to be used primarily by
placing industrial areas adjacent to open areas such as
swamps, woods, flood plains, and poor soil areas. The
second solution, the transitional area, would place a
moderately intensive use between a very intensive use
and a less intensive use.

During the formative stages of the project, much
consideration was given to the deve10pment of alterna-
tive patterns for the region‘s future development. The
patterns given detailed consideration were

l)Contained growth--urban and suburban deve10pment

 

58

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

Water Plant

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sewage Disposal

6 end_ Plant
«-Vwater LIEe '

--Sewer Line
—- Road Improvement

 

 

 

 

 

 

One of three alternative industrial sites is to be chosen.
Public Costs

Site e Sewer Road Total
"1"“ $13, 00 $312600 3577660 31117500
B 3 9,000 s 9,000 s 6,000 $ 2k,000
0 $15,000 $25,000 $57,000 e 92,000
Figure h.-Functional organization of land uses and major
services

limited to areas served by central water and sewe-
erage systems, major highways, and other services.

2)Dependent communities--communities dependent upon
_the central city for employment.

3)Independent communities--self-sustained cities

u n
l . . .. v
. n.. V. ’ , lvu' l. .. u . n ‘

5 I.
o t .
Jl'..e¢.‘\. Ill Il.-te.t"e. .3.er..l\l
.ftflle- ..V.§.fv' Vill‘i

 

:41?"

.f'

I ‘ "‘efl-e‘w VJK a." M'
m ' “‘4" '63 June. a- “‘0‘...- .- fl - . '24
.. - I .. -

@-

'wé

59
with balanced employment and residential functions.

H)Radial corridor-~the central city with communities
spreading outward in a star-like pattern.

5)Linear communities--ribbon-like communities
stretching along transportation facilities.

6)Interchange communities-~communities located at
freeway interchanges.

7)Vertical city-communities with tall buildings to
preserve open areas and reduce transportation
costs.

8)Green belts-open spaces around communities to
limit growth, promote community identity and pro-
vide amenities.

9)Green wedges-~pie-shaped Open spaces radiating
outward from urban areas.

lO)Green ribbons-open Spaces following stream beds,
flood plains, steep slopes, and other physical
features throughout the region.

Each of these patterns was evaluated by the staff
to determine the applicability and value of the concept
to the future economic and social needs of the region.
The practicality of each solution was also evaluated.
In the final analysis it became very apparent that no
single one of these rather ideal solutions could be ap-
plied to the entire region with a reasonably satisfac-
tory result. Depending upon the particular circum-
stances, a green belt community, a linear community, or
any of the other patterns mentioned might be the best
solution. The concepts would have to be applied as the
particular circumstances warranted in eafih case if the

region was to develop in the most prosperous and livable

manne r e

CHAPTER IV
OBSERVATIONS IN RETROSPECT

This chapter summarizes some of the procedural
findings resulting from the regional planning program
under study, in the hope that they may prove helpful to
others. It is only because guidelines are so urgently
needed that this is done in spite of the knowledge that
only time and unbiased appraisal can really provide the
prOper perspective and objectivity to soundly assess
these efforts. It must be remembered that planning as
a governmental activity is carried on within a particu-
lar social, economic, and political environment. Obvi-
ously this environment can vary widely, so that some
observations made here may not be applicable to other

situations.

Ihplementing Plans

The large number of autonomous local political
units presents the greatest problem for effective re-
gional planning. :Each local governmental unit has di-
rect control over the effectuation or implementation of
land use plans. Since highway, water supply, and sewage

disposal plans are dependent upon land use plans, local

60

61
governments indirectly control the implementation of all
other plans as well.

As long as a regional planning agency must depend
upon local governmental units to implement plans and
policies, the success of the agency is largely dependent
upon the ability of the agency to influence local deci-
sion makers. This can best be done if the regional
agency serves a dual role by l)preparing regional plans
and 2)preparing local plans and providing other local
assistance. At present, nearly one-third of the local
governmental units have either contracted or have con-
tracts pending with the Commission for comprehensive
planning programs. This has paved the way for regional

planning.

Commission Guidance

A large Commission may be a weak Commission, be-
cause the various aspects of concern must be relegated
to separate committees for consideration. In a large
Commission, personal opinions and passions are diluted,
but so is personal dedication to improvement. When a
large Commission is combined with a successful community
assistance program, staff members may succumb to pres-
sures from local Officials to make decisions unfavorable
to the development of the total region.

It is recommended that strong Commission guidance

of staff Operations be fostered, and that planners

62
involved in regional projects make every effort to en-
list the cooperation of staff members involved in local

projects.

Ppogramming and Scheduling
The amount of detail which should be incorporated

 

in a work program and schedule depends upon the particu-
lar circumstances in which the planning agency finds
itself. If there is an ample, well-trained staff and
complete, up-te-date background information, a detailed
program and schedule may greatly facilitate the carrying
out of a regional planning project. Otherwise, a pro-
gram which outlines major work items and a schedule
which sets general goals for completion of the major

work items are adequate.

Plans vs. Policies

There has been a recent trend in planning toward
statements of policies as a replacement for plan maps.
At the outset of the program, this approach was consid-
ered and rejected.

When a community assumes the power to regulate the
use Of land, it at the same time incurs the obligation
to determine the best use of that land. Decisions con—
cerning new land uses, highways, water and sewer systems,
annexations, and so on were being made every day. Plan
maps represent the application of policies to Specific

situations. This is a job for the professional planner,

63
who is trained to resolve conflicts of policy which may
arise. The availability of plan maps makes it much
easier for local officials to determine, defend, and

implement measures leading to prOper development.

Functiona;,0rganization
The value of relating land use and utility plans

needs to be emphasized. By working on land use, sewage
disposal, water resource deve10pment, and major thorough-
fare plans at the same time, marginal decisions can be
simplified. For example, the decision whether an urban
or rural residential density would be a better proposal
for a certain area was easily made when the problems of
providing central sanitary sewerage and water supply
systems were considered.

For ages, plans have been prepared for isolated
aspects of the community, but it is only recently that
man has attempted to plan for the entire functioning of

the future community.

Professional Skills
Planning as a general field must draw from and

synthesize the knowledge of many disciplines. In the
case under study, knowledge of the following disciplines
was absolutely essential:

l)Physical Geography

2)Economic Geography

a)Engineering

)Geology
5)Soil Science

6h
6)Economics
7)Marketing
8)Statistics
9)Law
lO)Sociology
ll)Political Science.
Obviously, the success of any effort which draws
upon such a diverse range of skills and knowledge de-
pends upon teamwork and the recognition by each member

of the team of the contributions of other members.

Conclusion
Since the body of the thesis discussed alternately
what had been, what might have been, and what should
have been, perhaps it would be well to conclude with a
general outline of a model program suggested by the case
under study. Conditions permitting, other regional
planning agencies might consider taking the following
steps:
l)Collect general background information on the
physical, economic, social, and political condi-
tions in the region.
2)Prepare an outline for a planning program.
3)Enlist support for regional planning by
a.providing local planning assistance
b.establishing contact with local, state, and
federal officials.
%)Collect detailed, up-to-date information on all
relevant existing conditions and project demands
for the future.

5)Prepare sketch plans to focus Commission attention
on issues and check adequacy of assembled data.

6)Prepare a work program and schedule.

65

7)Prepare concurrently comprehensive land use, sew-
age disposal, water resource deve10pment, and
major thoroughfare plans.

8)Enlist support for the plans and initiate measures
to get action on plan proposals.

APPENDIX

The following questionnaire was sent to officials
of local governmental units to aid the Commission in
determining the specific problems that local officials
felt to be important.

CHECK LIST OF POSSIBLE PROBLEMS

Please consider each of the problems listed below
as it applies to your community area and rank in the
space provided at the right according to the following
order:

l.prime importance and urgency
2.secondary importance and urgency
3.minor importance and urgency.

If the problem does not apply to your area, please
place a check after the heading. We would greatly
appreciate your additional comments and any problems not
liStede»

At the same time, please circle Specific problem;
areas on the map where possible (preceding page) and
identify the problem by the appropriate number (for
example use lb to designate an area where there is water
polluted by residential wastes).

l.Polluted water (both ground and surface) re-
sulting from

a.agricultural wastes and fertilizers

b.residential wastes

c.industrial and commercial wastes.

2.Polluted air (particularly industrial smoke
and odors blowing on residential areas).

66

67

3.Scattered built up areas which are very expen-
sive to provide with necessary health and safety
facilities and services--

a.public water supply needed
b.sanitary sewers needed
c.storm water drainage facilities needed.

4.Disposal of wastes--

a.dumps needed

b.sanitary land fill needed
c.existing dump problem area
d.sxisting land fill problem area.

5.Buildings are located in flood plains.
6.Swamps need draining.
7.Traffic hazards--—

a.street pattern not separating local traffic
from traffic gOing through the community

b.1ntensive commercial, industrial and resi-
dential uses along major roads resulting in
many turning movements which decrease
road‘s traffic capacity and create a hazard.

8.Streets are congested.

9.Commercial and industrial uses near homes are
making areas undesirable as living places.

10.W0rking areas are too far away from living
areas.

ll.ShOpping areas are unrelated to the residen-
tial areas they serve.

12.Schools and other public buildings are incon-
veniently and dangerously located.

l3.Mixing of industrial, commercial and residen-
tial uses is causing early deterioration of
areas.

1%.Residential land uses hamper deve10pment of
industrial areas.

l5.Wasteful use of limited natural resources--

a.water
b.prime farm land and vegetation

68
c.0pen land.

l6.Rapid pOpulation and area growth makes finan-
cing of needed public facilities and services
difficult.

17.Cooperation among local communities needs to
be improved.

l8.Zoning needs to be coordinated in adjacent
communities.

l9.Public understanding of problems needs to be
improved.

20.The state should give local communities more
power to solve their problems.

21.Prime areas for recreation uses and historic
sites are not being preserved.

22.Utilities should be located in corridors to
avoid creating strips of unusable land be-
tween lines.