-v- n..—. ‘ .I ' ‘3 s- ..,. u i. 4- .-A.‘- ‘ Q - -. F A . . - s.- i u._.. on 1. " .. ' V ‘\ fig... v”. « . ‘ "1 a ‘ 4‘.‘ U. P; ‘I‘ .“ v.. a " ' * 2 ‘. IQI.."- -.. ‘ a. a. I "i " u . ~ . a‘ .. ‘ 1“ .‘V‘ ‘, ‘n_'~ . “'u“ *_.. ~' 3“ .‘4' .‘ M '. ." .~ 'I.'\ I, ..‘~ ' 1 ‘. ":5“ 2:1 . y~ v ABSTRACT AN OPTIMUM LAND USE MODEL FOR A DELIMITED AREA CONTIGUOUS TO THE CROSS—FLORIDA BARGE CANAL by Edward A. Fernald Land use and land use change are significant subjects for geographic investigation because they involve the study cfl‘delimited space. The Cross-Florida Barge Canal;projecn;, a high-level lock canal, will traverse approximately 100 mules through central Florida from the St. Johns River tc> the Gulf of Mexico. This thesis recognizes that the additicni of such a structure to the landscape will precipitate changes; in the utilization of land contiguous to it, and that suchx alterations will be influenced by, and will affect, a conuqlex set of natural and cultural phenomena. The objective of the study was to develop an intel;hac_ tual model which would provide a means for creating a func»- tional Optimum land use model, or set of maps for the year' 1980, for an area within at least one mile of the canal banks or the shorelines of the reservoir pools. The study space encompasses nearly 150 square miles. Edward A. Fernald The study area is dominated by the Oklawaha and Withlacoochee River valleys and is characterized by poor sandy soils which are either inadequately or overly drained. Idmestone and phosphate are minerals that offer prospects for’ the future but have little present utility. Forests have, in.many cases, been indiscriminately cut in the past. Today, the effects of this action are seen in the poor quality and. non-productive character of much of the woodland. The main types of forests that do exist are pine flatwood on the drier sand and hardwood hammock and swamp forest on the wet lands. In the spring of 1966 approximately 3,913 persons livemi in the study area, the major concentrations being in Dunnellxni (p0pulation - 1,150) and Inglis (population — 200). Following forestry as the major land use, is unimproved pasture, resi- dential and some improved pasture. Thoroughbred horse farms and beef cattle ranches utilize the high quality grassland. Man's recognition of the natural amenities of the area and his use of the resource base has resulted in the development of an economy that is too heavily dependent upon retirement incomes, recreation, and highway—oriented tourist trade. Although these uses are desirable, the business Climate lacks a sound, diversified base which will provide steady employment for a young, educated (skilled), need- oriented pOpulation. 5' . u . - os— .-"u u-I ‘ -.- .Avnu ,..u--.‘,-¢ ,- .u~l nu. an. , A v . "I‘! . Pr - .4 i-.-‘, Ann‘- - Fr g..- . -.| V'- g.. d :1— (ll . ‘s. 'u. "1 ‘ a. 1 LJ. In Edward A. Fernald The most important geographic techniques employed were field investigation, interview and cartography. Aerial photographs were used in gathering data, base maps were pre— pared, and acetate overlays were employed to depict the inventory of cultural and physical features. The intellectual model was developed as follows: I.. Input: Recognition of problem of identifying Optimum land use following construction of the Cross-Florida Barge Canal A. Historical background B. Inventory and analysis of existing phenomena 1. Physical features 2. Cultural features II. Intervening variables A. Superimpose Cross-Florida Barge Canal on the area B. Affecters of future land use III. Output: Deliberations, decisions and construction of a functional, Optimum land use model Called the intellectual model to differentiate it from the input stage inventory model and the output stage functional model, this model is not mathematical or statistical in nature. It has the utility of forcing the researcher to focus his attention on all of the relevant data gathered and provides a guide to rational decision making which is a requisite to approaching Optimum land use. .- v I- n.‘ gifi‘ I; .4. uve .- _ . . | Q“. Q \gtn_, Int-Iv"- . 7.. r ‘- ‘~-l ‘3! . “"V~ "I '~=-...-‘- . v . . ‘ ""'\ A. \ .u... v. . . .. ". “.3. n ..l..._ . ’- Avg“: v. ".. .1 ' _ -‘JA, _ l' - _ a.._.~.‘ . .' .._. .,_ u.“ _s o1..‘-‘v ~__ . l " .Q ..~‘ g: : . r “ : .‘.“‘ug- ' I ‘ ‘F.“.. .‘~"‘ .v . n‘ c- .. I.. f ‘1 W. . I‘m. I— v."‘ ‘- .‘- 4'.- .‘ .‘.- “ ‘N I ' ~ \. .‘V.;. o. v ‘! . v.~ y‘:;~"s ‘.‘U :s n ‘u -‘H ‘.., a " n F'\. ..~ Edward A. Fernald Most of the region is in less than Optimum use owing to low taxes, little population pressure and, in some parts, poor access. Some areas of forests, showing excellent multi— ple use and management, some pasture land, and several small recreational sites are the best examples of present Optimum use. In almost all residential areas a lack of planning and zoning regulations hurt deveIOpment. This fault is character— istic of the entire study area. Wholistic planning, for the entire region or as a part of county wide deveIOpment, should be current and in effect. The existence of the Cross-Florida Barge Canal, as a variable in the growth of the study area, will cause rather immediate land use change at a rate and to a degree greater than is normal for that region. Residential, commercial, industrial and eSpecially recreational uses will increase in quantity and quality, and while the space given to agricul- ture will probably decrease, it will be more intensively worked. Due to the complexity of the factors that affect land use change, sound vertical and horizontal planning is a necessity. That is, there must be continuity in the past, present and future uses and harmony among those that exist at any one time. A trend toward Optimum land use, while accelerated will not result solely because of the Opening of the barge canal. Normal pOpulation and economic growth, a need for o ,~.-< .,'.,\—-. a ‘ ' ..4. ‘: .n-ob A >--u ’0‘5-4 - .— nun! ¢§.~I ~v< - ._ '2 -‘LJr c'uv. v.1»... -~-~ ~ps. .. ,_ _ ."-‘-.Ub I 'I- §,‘ _ _ . _ .. ~" '“C .nu r- A a y A i t P F. . .. " r 1 Qt] """A-A ‘~..' -\ W“!- A O ' .- v.-. '~-' -\ -" ~~-’.._ . \‘ ' u u-..,~- ' v w.‘ ‘ , -7 as 0“,“ c 1 Edward A. Fernald public recreation land, property reevaluation and the accompanying pressure to put land to work are other factors that affect the utilization of space. The intellectual model, which provided the frame of reference for constructing the functional maps is entirely adequate. It is limited only by the availability of data and the ability of the researcher to include all relevant material and accurately judge its import. It is successful in helping peOple establish and evaluate goals. This is desirable because too Often there is a tendency to claim excessive potential for available resources. The study pro— vides strength to the argument that in geography and the economics Of location one can discover an adequate theoretical foundation for regional develOpment and planning. !‘v n1 rgt‘ U4 3‘: \.. AN OPTIMUM LAND USE MODEL FOR A DELIMITED AREA CONTIGUOUS TO THE CROSS-FLORIDA BARGE CANAL By Edward AEMFernald A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Geography 1967 ’luc' up . U. - D l I A um.‘ U V. ,. A“A7v Va. 5-- v- H h A A“‘ \v" I“ Q G LN 113?, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This writer would like to express gratitude to his major professor, Dr. Paul C. Morrison, for his valuable advice and criticism which contributed greatly to the writing of this paper. Appreciation is also expressed to the U. S. Corps of Engineers, the Canal Authority of the State of Florida, and to the Secretary of State of the State of Florida for their interest and COOperation in making this research effort possible. Many interviewees are to be thanked for their patience and COOperation which was so necessary. Finally, the moral support and encouragement of the writer's family and the partial funding provided by the State of Florida is appre— ciatively acknowledged. ii - do... .. ”"- «— ’ - -.~'. -_ --_. . ‘ -. - ‘- -. .. Q.. ‘I ‘ “ ‘ \ “. . ‘Q s. k TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l The Study and Its Objectives Brief Description of the Study Area and Environs Hypothesis and Major Assumptions Justification for the Study The Model Procedure II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . 3A The Colonial Period The Territorial Period Statehood and the Oklawaha Valley The Ridge Section The Withlacoochee Valley Generalizations Regarding Land Ownership Cross-Florida Barge Canal History III. NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDY AREA . . . . 58 Landforms and Mineral Resources Ground and Surface Waters Characteristics of Soil Associations Vegetation Groups Fish and Wildlife Resources IV. MAN AND HIS WORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Population and Housing Recreation and Tourism Town, Village, and Hamlet Transportation Agricultural Land Use 111 "#0:." . unav I ‘I' O s I.’ . . TABLE OF CONTENTS—-Continued Chapter Page Forestry as a Land Use Taxes and Land Value The Need for Planning Conclusions V. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN DEVELOPING AN OPTIMUM LAND USE MAP. . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Leadership and Goals Physical Change Accessibility Population and Income Problems Of Relocation Recreation Facilities Industrial DeveIOpment Agriculture and Forestry VI. THE FUNCTIONAL MODEL. . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 General Guidelines Optimum Land Use in the Withlacoochee Valley Area Optimum Land Use in the Ridge Section Optimum Land Use in the Oklawaha Valley Area Linear Land Use Change Toward Optimum Land Use: A Summary VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . 239 Specific Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2A9 iv Table LIST OF TABLES Page Distribution of Soil Associations Cross-Florida Barge Canal Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . 7A . Land Use Distribution Cross-Florida Barge Canal Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Selected Population and Economic Data. . . . . 122 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Major Changes in Land Use Between the Inventory and Functional Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 d .w... LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Highways: Vicinity of PrOposed Cross-Florida Barge Canal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. General Profile of Cross-Florida Barge Canal . 5 3. Railroads: Vicinity of Cross-Florida Barge canal O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 6 A. Reservoir Pools and Inventory Maps Alignment-- Cross—Florida Barge Canal. . . . . . . . . . 7 5. Economic Regions of Florida. . . . . . . . . . 16 A-M Inventory Maps and Legend. . . . . . . . . . . 94-120 A3—M3 Functional Maps and Legend . . . . . . . . . .202-215 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Land use and land use change are significant subjects for geographic investigation because they involve the study of delimited space. Special attention is given to the areal distribution of all, or selected phenomena within that space, and, to be meaningful, to the inter- action of those phenomena. To man, the most important of the geographic phenomena, these studies are vital to his efforts to understand and develop his habitat. They are also essential to intelligent decision making about the future use of the land.‘ One of the basic generalizations of geography, that the significance of the environment is a function of the attitudes, objectives, and the technical skills of man,1 is applicable to, and supports the need for, land use study because its very logic recognizes both the fact of perpetual change and that man is responsible to apply his ingenuity to the development of his environment. Geography and geographers then, have a unique obligation 1Preston E. James, "Geography" in The§ocia1 Studies and the Social Sciences (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1962), p. 65. ‘A n 1“ IV He‘y : ‘lnykfl ‘p! n-‘tb UH ' ‘1 '1‘! fig F, . , 90‘0-‘p‘ “ u ';‘\‘;n G ‘uvd'.u ‘ O- .9 ‘ Iv VI- 1 .'; 5-.“ " .5 ,~-‘ 1 ‘qufi -‘r F p ”-5-.- P05 1. '01 I." "J 7 '1 f l H) N! 1 ("I 2 to help man gain an understanding of the land on which he lives through analyzing areas of defined importance and by aiding him to establish plans for their future develOpment. Since so little of the earth's surface has been sub- jected to land use studies, both the space and the phenomena to be investigated must be carefully identified. To mitigate the question of identification the author suggests that such a study might be based on a particular problem confronting man. This criterflnithen allows the geographer to serve both the practical need of society and, at the same time, to perfect the methodological aspects of the discipline. This is not to imply that the practical need must, of necessity, precede the development of methodology. The Study and Its Objective This particular study emanates from the decision of the United States Congress to provide necessary funds for the building of a high-level lock barge canal across the State of Florida under the auSpices of the Corps of Engineers (Fig. l). The canal project was authorized by Public Law 675, 77th Congress, dated 23 July, 19A2. Actual construction was not started at this time, however, due to a lack of funding. In 1962, Congress provided money for a re-evaluation of the project and construction was started in February, 196A. Completion time for the project is from seven to nine years. However, during the first two years of 'at ._’1p I PROJECT ; \x ,5‘\ "in lOCAT I ON ‘53» . fiim \ ( SUWANNEEIl COLU BIA / j -1 -J—_'— / GILCHRIST | [53 f ' i A —‘ ._ ‘ A ‘ r \ ' - ‘ . ’l ‘. \ V I i M . r-.I a ‘ ‘i “I l '1 ‘ m T JOHNS 7 ' - '1- . , ,_ ' ' . . I. ._4 '. ‘ RCJMAN LOCK A " ‘ k L- ,r 5‘ 3.1% d ' \O H- - , 20 ' ' l .| \, \ .- -. .—< ..-< L I '1‘ I ' ’ l f . I .\\F L A c .L ER ,1 INGLI" l \ I LOCKJ 65) \i. , \.\ .-) ‘\‘ . :wus 67% \ YAHKEETOWN ., .v \. , '9“ \1‘054'4,’ H. \ V O‘L U S I A ’ " j —/ \i‘rh/ I3 a ,1 Gulf ‘ J N I ‘ 1’ \ ’ __ — ‘ 7; t ,’ i“ , [NGLIS {>5 , DUNNELLON /\I—“‘ DAM V LOCK \ . FFD L-V L, V‘ ‘\, \ ’4. y F‘. , 1 1') j !// V1,"; 1 of "lL‘ / F' $5 M | NOLE \ . . L._i' ‘ 7 ['L ....... I HQRNANDO Mexico / / Li LGILiVIA=Yé Vicinity of PROPOSED CROSS- FLORIDA ’ BARGE CANAL | 7‘ 4 ......... L11», i a , :o 3—— ,7 HILLSBOROUG . ',3P~..‘f_\_-r'j bid a; . L_—_ l 20 30 M'LES “fl ‘____4,__ W 4 w-i-w- us- or. :- C. .2 a . ~.: . :v ..~.. 3. Z. «a p.. um .n‘ 2. .i. sv .fl ‘I I. :u t. .. a. .u a. 2. A. J.‘ a. \L .. A z. . ‘ .2 h. 2. . . ... .. .c .T ..~ ... .Q .2 14 work, construction progressed ahead of schedule so that completion, if funds are available, could be prior to 1971. The canal, when Opened will extend from the Gulf Of Mexico, one mile south of the mouth Of the Withlacoochee River, to the St. Johns River in southern Putnam County and will be approximately ninety-five miles long. This way was selected by the Corps of Engineers after considering twenty— eight separate routes ranging from Mid—Georgia to Lake Okeechobee. Reasons for the choice were: only shallow excavation is needed, its shortness, construction economy, and the presence of adequate water supply for lockages. The canal will have a minimum depth of twelve feet and a minimum bottom width of 150 feet. Five locks, three to the east and two to the west of the divide, will lift and lower vessels, between sea level at either end of the canal, and a maximum elevation of fifty-five feet in south Marion County (Fig. 2). Each lock will be eighty-four feet wide and 600 feet long in order to accommodate all existing and foreseeable sheltered— waterways' barge traffic. The project, as authorized, will also include two earth dams and the necessary canal crossings of roads (Fig. l) and railroads (Fig. 3). These structures, ten highway and three railroad bridges, will have a minimum fixed vertical clearance of sixty-five feet. The purpose of the dams is to create reservoirs to supply water to the higher parts of the canal. The pools (Fig. A) created by mwh<3 ozaomw 232:5! lllll 400a 235:2! 400a. IDS-x42lnl ..II ozmwm... No.52...— mmwwzfizm S mamoo E9; 4E mzxofi Fm 20mm mm.:2 whnb‘hw ON on O? on 00 Oh Ow _ _ u _ . u _ _ .0. OOOIVC'Q. 00‘ o .0. .§- 0." I'D . o. n. «3...... ......... u... ...l.n. .\.. o.....u. o... a a .00 Ingu coop-nonuudv cue-noo-nouon . “- o—.u..no-.-u~ ac. elm-lug ..2 .m...7.............. . ....:. c: . 1 3.92 35.95% 4 3... So 2...“... i BAOBV 133:] i 13A3'l V3 200... 2+1 mzzg pm I kgxt .witWS Km. . w: durum” \ WWW... a. [Roan-“No! nun. .......u....w:.a.. J Do “O. c I 0‘ u a «II VI QNJW ..:.. a.» a... z. u - I O I - I - ’ ‘qu . “on“ . onwnoa... .- “d.— mw .m. .. .. .\ .. $2.... . . 3 .N . ..lloI..IH4oo?..fln-.II.J-I I.- I ihH-II'hI-‘h I11 III-Il.uhu do“ 1...". Ju-uc IIaIlic- II“ II: no o-III. "Inn. vfioflotul- Income-00H”, III. III-II. I a Ho. .0 ”IIHd I II. “Hit.“ N n I In oHMInQOHII ou‘ .58: mod. . ......,...,.....................- .2.. NM v a. ..........H.af...u...... 8 szotb IIIII.IIII.O a «1M2.H.Mo.u.......2..... . .w No... )5... ...m......»...... .. .2 T» m ‘ IO on... ..IIIHI I I- .u .o .II—In..-ll.ucuo. o .333: as... If...,.s.w...wi../. .._. .. a I. .5... fiho'UH‘ Ont-II I tun-can a... I...‘.. I'Donnn-q DI.— .- on. any c .- .2... ......p.....m.. ...,.........,......H............ 3...... .V.............#. I on + noon.- o v....-- nanb- all-o one-’II c... as. o .m. “w... ...... , ....:.. ........w...... .H. ........./........... .. . $1.11!. all... .5... .u : we. ....... .O.~........:............. . , 3.... \ mofimnm 1,. . 62386 ..... ....”........H..M..n......”.....u. .. .. ..." ...« . goo. .. ozoz. .. x004 ZOJszzao 13A3'l V38 ID 5 + goo; goo. 5.2.3 $2.5m . $3.... 2.3 32 e. Ob \RN‘Q .46 1.33% F 9+ \v . r m- a..." ”r“ B A K E R Air 5U ANNEE COL MBIA—Wi— ,J . 7 ‘\ _)‘/UN|ON,../' AllnficL7 ( / °' ‘1 .n' g ‘3.” f] . \ .1 0—. y} j. c. E'GILCHRIST AUGUSTINE ‘ AINESVI LLE Atlantic ' O 0 ’ -_._J . ‘. .\ E. IV“; I r'—‘ T r' INOLE \ I I I ‘ L'—L_ ..... _\' RAIL ROADS Vicinity of PROPOSED CROSS- FLORIDA BARGE CANAL l0 0 IO 29 30 MALES I .1 L _ J A c; L :u\ 2 .‘n‘ -‘ rah" .. ._. .__-_‘ ’ Figure 3 . ~w.....2..»:. b3 .. 2.-.; . 222... .2... \1 . .2./:2 . v n 1‘2 mull .2 . FI‘L“. ‘(I I Wlx‘z >«th mst v 0.50....— mm...s. o. m w e N O N .223 .2.: 3.3...-«85 3...... 555m... _ of A 0.1“ «\- 1. V x o n H. W. (.. Pb fllu Ar \ V.N m“... S m .— E ._ a llllllllllll 4 -1- ..k... m w mjylwwqwfi. za.=m mammzézm .0 A... 0.. 9 $0\ w.\ 1.... m2. 5-21:--.th... ...... ...........H-m.n._.«_..,_ ..... J1---.mm_.<.s_---2 _ 350 .8 9.2.: ..Zm<<20_..< 922 >~.O...Zm>Z. maxoo 3:0 8.. no: 8 the dams will total approximately forty-two square miles and will create 182 miles of new inland waterfront.2 Expected primary benefits of the canal are based on the fact that it will be the final link in over 29,000 miles of protected inland waterways connecting twenty-nine states between Texas and New Jersey, including those of the Midwest. Giles L. Evans, Manager of the Canal Authority of the State of Florida, presented a statement to the Committees on Appropriations, 88th Congress, 2nd Session, in which he gave three themes which identify the national advantages of the cana1.3 These were: cheaper transportation for the move- ment of bulk cargoes; provision of an economic impetus to the economy of the southeast; and facilitation of the movement of space equipment and other strategic goods. Local Justification, in addition to sharing in the benefits mentioned above, can be classed as navigational and collateral. The navigational gains include freight transportation saving, use by commercial fishing boats, 2U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Economic Evaluation of the Cross-Florida Barge Canal Project (Jacksonville, Florida, MarchIB, 1962), p.03. 3Giles L. Evans, Jr., "Intracoastal Waterway, Cross-Florida Barge Canal" [concerning appropriations for fiscal year 1965]. (Jacksonville: Canal Authority of the State of Florida, April 27, 196“), pp. 3-5. (Mimeographed.) 9 transhipment of contractor's floating plants, and improve- ment of recreational boating. The collateral benefits include expanded outdoor recreation, waterfront land enhancement and facilitation of flood control. Military or defense benefits, while often used to support the need for the project, are not included in the cost-benefit studies. Economic studies made by the Corps of Engineers show that the ratio of benefits to cost would be 1.2 over fifty years of the life of the project and 1.6 over 100 years.” The presence of the canal will, of necessity, cause changes in the utilization of the land purchased for the project and of some of the area contiguous to it. These changes will be influenced by, and will in turn affect, a complex set of natural and cultural phenomena. It is desirable, in a democratic society, that the changes be the result of careful study and planning in order that the decisions made might provide for Optimum land use as measured by the well-being of the majority of the citizens involved.5 ”U. S. Corps of Engineers, Op. cit., p. 6. 5The phrase 'Optimum land use' is a relative one. However, when dealing with people and attempting to predict their actions arbitrary judgments must be made. This is often done in geographic literature. For example, decisions concerning "river develOpment," and "regional social and economic betterment".were made by geographers in studies for the Tennessee Valley Authority (Victor Roterus, "Meeting Regional Problems and Needs," Economic Geo ra h , XV run . n-H now-d -On'd ‘-‘ Ino‘v I n. D (I) ( -u. wy‘ Pg. s.. ' ‘1 'A 10 DevelOpment of an intellectual model which will provide a means for creating a functional Optimum land use model for a delimited area contiguous tO the Cross-Florida Barge Canal is the objective of this study.6 The study area includes all land within at least one mile of the canal center line or of the water limits of the pool areas.7 In all, it comprises approximately 350 square miles of surface. The alignment Of the maps covering the project space is shown on Figure H. Limits for the area were established as a result of discussions with Dr. John Lounsbury of Eastern Michigan University and Drs. Paul C. Morrison and Lawrence M. Sommers Of Michigan State University in the summer Of 196“. Lounsbury pointed out that his experience in land use investigation in the Ohio River Valley suggests that an understanding of the area within one mile of a linear water transportation route provides a satisfactory indication Of (July, 1939), p. 265. In Puerto Rico geographers prOposed "accurate and effective rural land planning" (C. F. Jones, The Rural Land Classification Program of Puerto Rico. Northwestern University Studies in Geography, NO. 1 [Chicago, Ill., 1952], p. 28). 6The intellectual model is a systematic ordering Of the steps or structure followed in predicting what optimum land use will be. The functional model, or plan, is the map, or series of maps, that depict the output or results of implementing the intellectual model and can be used for prediction. 7Permanently impounded water area created by flooding of low lying land due to maintenance of a constant water level in the canal. #flfl unit‘- ‘4‘ at. Q‘- a u c! n v 11 land use further away. The greatest change will tend to occur close to the waterway while the alterations that take place a mile away will differ little from those at addi- tional distances. Drs. James R. Anderson and Robert B. Marcus, geographers Of the University of Florida who are familiar with the study area, agree with this supposition. Brief Description of the Study Area and Environs The traverse of the Cross-Florida Barge Canal extends from a point on the Gulf Of Mexico in northwestern Citrus County, to one on the St. Johns River approximately six miles south of Palatka in Putnam County. Figures 1, 3, and 4 show the general location of the canal, its pool areas, and the major tranSportation facilities of central Florida. The canal crosses low coastal terraces on both its easterly and westerly limits, generally following the valleys of the Withlacoochee and Oklawaha Rivers (Fig. 1). Both rivers are of low gradient and rise in the Green Swamp area of central Florida. The Withlacoochee drains 2,200 square miles and flows generally northward ninety-six miles to Dunnellon, where it receives the discharge of Rainbow Springs, located 3.5 miles north of Dunnellon. From here it goes twenty-seven miles west to the Gulf of Mexico. The Oklawaha, on the other hand, flows northward and eastward to enter the St. Johns River. It is about eighty-seven 12 miles long, drains 2,300 square miles and receives the discharge of Silver Springs, which are located about four miles east Of Ocala.8 In south Marion County the canal crosses a longi- tudinal ridge, called the Central Highlands, that extends into the center of the peninsula. It traverses this ridge through a tOpographic saddle. Land elevations along the canal route range from sea level at the Gulf of Mexico to approximately ninety feet south Of Ocala. One nearby ridge reaches approximately 150 feet in the northwestern part of the Ocala National Forest, but in general the Oklawaha Valley has an elevation of less than fifty feet and lepes gradually to approximately five feet at its confluence with the St. Johns. At both ends Of the waterway a dry land cut is utilized to provide a more direct route to the Gulf and the St. Johns. . The route of the canal is underlain by Avon Park, Ocala, Suwannee and Hawthorn limestones which range from h,000 to 15,000 feet in depth. Associations of sandy soils predominate in the valleys, with some muck and marsh soils near the rivers and coastal salt water marsh soils on the Gulf. Drainage is important to much of the use of these soils and is a major characteristic in the associational descriptions discussed in Chapter Three. In general, the soils have very low fertility with the best being found in 8Robert 0. Vernon, "Trans-Florida Barge Canal" (Tallahassee: Florida Geological Survey, 1959), p. 1. (Mimeographed.) - Opp Honk ".'.i av! “A“l uva Q A I4 . . I- t J .3 4 a .2 a .. .. _.,. r. . .3... .3 a: p . s N 2. .d . ~ . . t.‘ J. .L .3. .r a - . ... 7e 13 the ridge section of southern Marion County. From the Withlacoochee to the Oklawaha the sands are generally well to overly drained and the natural vegetation is pine and oak. Ocala National Forest has as its western border a portion of the Oklawaha River (Fig. A). A part of this forest is included in the study area. The U. S. Forest Service reports that the forest includes one of, if not the largest, area of sand pine in the world. Hardwood associations exist in hammocks, high-level rock paved wet areas. In the entire study area the main agricultural land use is unimproved to semi-improved pasture, although there is some improved grassland devoted to intensive cattle and thoroughbred raising. Very little land is in crOps. Small acreages are in feed corn, citrus, watermelon and peaches. Approximately 4,600 acres are planted in pine. Annual rainfall is approximately fifty-three inches with about two—thirds Of that amount falling in the summer. November is usually the driest month when just under two inches of rain normally fall. The wet months Of July to September will vary from about six and one-half to just over eight inches Of precipitation. The average temperature for January, the coldest month, is 60°F. and for the warmest, July, it is 81° F. About seven and one—half degrees is the greatest temperature variation between any two consecutive months and on only four to six days fih- ,1- .“ OPP H Una .b LI. v ‘. u 51 ‘5 .0 ad)- 1.. at. Q ~o 1A annually will the thermometer record 32° or below. The average length of the frost-free period is over 300 days per year. There are approximately “,000 permanent residents in the study area with over one-quarter of these in Dunnellon, which had a population of 1,150 in 196“. Inglis, population 250, is the only other settlement of over 100' persons and is the only other incorporated town. Through discussion with various local leaders it is estimated that about one-half of all the people are over sixty years of age, and over eighty percent of the dwellings have a real value of less than $10,000 each. Approximately forty percent Of all dwellings are occupied on a seasonal or weekend basis. These characteristics point out the retirement and recrea- tional nature Of the study area. Nearby urban centers of Ocala and Palatka, with 13,595 and 11,028 residents respectively, experienced a pOpulation increase Of approximately fifty percent during the last two decades. Although this is a large percentage increase, it is less than half that for the state as a whole during the same period. Most Of the growth was due to an increase of residents from out of state. These towns, particularly Ocala, serve the basic wholesale needs of the area and are important because major land owners, developers and banking facilities are located there and they are the county seats for Marion and Putnam Counties. 15 Per capita income in the counties of the project area is just under $1,700 per year. The state average for 196“ was $2,273. The economy of these counties is basically agriculture, forestry and recreation, with some industry. The canal traverses the coastal and transition economic regions as identified on Figure 5. Levy and Citrus Counties produce field crOps, the most important being watermelon, and the latter county is the northern most coastal county that grows citrus fruit. Marion produces citrus, beef cattle and thoroughbreds for horse racing, while Putnam has potatoes as its main crop. Forest industries are important in all four counties with pine the most important wood. Recreation and retirement income is especially important in Levy, Citrus and to a lesser extent Marion. With the important exception of Silver Springs, and to some degree Rainbow Springs, the recreation industry is not highly organized and depends mainly on patronage Of peOple from within the area or from nearby counties. This activity is based on fresh and salt water fishing, hunting, and camping. The leading industries in the vicinity of the study area are canning, meat packing, extracting Of limerock, dolomite and clay, trailer fabrication and producing building supplies. The only industrial activities within the boundaries of the project are a dolomite quarry and a precision tool and die company. Mineral resources, which """. YTI I J I 7 I— “) lmrm 16 2 .'. I '0 e e' . 2 . .l: . . :i' . . J. ' '. e e; I .Jrlr..- L. . *{'-:-' ‘ P z I 51:“ . el e e e 1...-h. .] - ' . :.:.:\::: F Cross-Florida Barge Canal ECONOMIC REGIONS Coastal Region of Forest Industries, Monu- tacturlng, Commerce, Fishing, and Resorts. !EZ"_ North Florida Region of General and Spe- ;——~ elalized Forming Forest industries, and Mining. Transition Region of Truck, Fruit, and General Farming and Forest Industries. Central and South Florida Region of Tourism, intensive Specialized Crops, and Mining. Region of Cattle Ranching and “now“ Forest industries. M 2,1. ' Little-Developed Everglades Region. RESOURCE ANALYSIS CENTER DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY Figure 5 (n) ’ 1 (1) 'l’ 1 ., ‘bfivb‘h “A,~- Veda; A! ‘5- Ved u.‘ ,- A" ' d... ,i a ) ’5 fi" .- e Vs. 17 are present but not completely developed, are phosphate, dolomite, limestone, sand and clay. Hypothesis and Major Assumptions The hypothesis of this study purports that the Cross-Florida Barge Canal will have a measurable impact on the use of the land through which it traverses and that an intellectual model can be develOped which will provide the structure for a scientific collection and analysis of cultural and physical data about this land. These data will serve to develOp a functional model that will be a plan for Optimum use of land after the canal is in Opera- tion. Optimum land use is defined as that use which will most benefit the majority of citizens involved, as measured by such criteria as per capita income, land values, production of the land, orderly residential develOpment, job Opportunities, recreation Opportunities, and concern for conservation Of resources for this and future generations. Major supporting assumptions or generalizations upon which this study is based are: l. The addition Of a major phenomena or structure to an area will affect a complex set Of natural and cultural phenomena which will precipitate rather immediate land use change at a rate and to a degree greater than normal for that area. 2. Wholistic land use planning for a large area, where changes are designed in context, is to be 18 preferred to isolated decision making which has no consideration for an overall plan. The significance Of the physical environment is a function Of the attitudes, Objectives, and technical skills Of man. The function Of the geographer in developing an Optimum land use model is not that of dictating to the land owner, either public or private. Rather, it is to objectively present to both groups the single or multiple uses that are, in the eyes Of the geographer, compatible with the public interest. As far as possible, the consequences of the various choices should be presented. This also applies to suggested laws for governing land use. While Optimum land use may be defined as the use that is in the best interest Of the majority Of the citizens of our society, it is recognized that the legal use Of public lands is decided upon by formal leaders and the legal use of private lands is decided upon by the land owner unless condem- nation litigation is introduced. This study will provide guidelines for future land use, and through its influence on public Opinion and, in turn, on law making agencies, will regulate or at least guide both public and private decisions. l9 6. Because of the ongoing and complex nature of the process of land use change no specific date is set for the attainment Of Optimum land use. However, projections Of pOpulation growth and per capita income are provided through 1980 to provide a basis for predictive statements, in the belief that most, if not all, of the proposed changes will have been made by that time. Justification for the Study Investigation by the author has established the fact that no detailed studies, public or private, have been made concerning either past or present land use in the canal area. Nor has any work been done toward the develOp- ment of a land use model or plan for the future. Intensive interviewing Of public and private interests concerned with the building of the canal substantiates the need for an Optimum land use plan. While several government agencies and private businesses have investigated small areas for the location Of parks or industrial sites, no large scale wholistic planning has been done. Ordinary citizens, Officials from all levels of government, and business and professiOnal people have all agreed that an Optimum land use model would be of great practical value. Samples Of statements made in this connection are: L. C. Ringhaver, Chairman of the Board Of the Canal Authority, "A study Of this type is encouraged because neither state nor .4 A. I ,.‘ (J II) ..J Hw- any, -- Oct VH 20 federal funds for studying land use change has been provided in the project budget."9 William Kidd, or Moorhead Engi- neering Company, "We have made intensive studies Of several industrial sites but no one has made a study Of the entire canal area. It will be of value to both public and private interests."10 Glenn A. Bland, Realtor near Dunnellon, "This kind of study would be most beneficial to a sound development Of real estate in the canal area."11 The Honorable Tom Adams, Secretary Of State of the State Of Florida, by letter dated September 8, 1966, ". . . it was obvious that the State Of Florida can benefit greatly from your study. For us to ignore the value Of your work and the usefulness to which it can ultimately be put would be irresponsible." Similar Opinions have been voiced by other governmental Officials. On the theoretical level the develOpment Of an optimum land use model would be an addition to the field of knowledge in that it would provide needed study in the development of a more meaningful method for the collection and analysis of land use data. It would also furnish a method for the prediction of land use change, and in the gstatement by L. C. Ringhaver, Chairman to Board Of Directors, The Canal Authority of the State Of Florida, on August 15, 1966. 10Interview with William Kidd, President Of Morehead Engineering Company, Ocala, Florida, May 6, 1966. 11Interview with Glenn A. Bland, General Real Estate, Route 2, Dunnellon, Florida, May 5, 1966. a -. i e 4 i l nil .II {It 1.4 . .uuu sun I e T .‘a pza .. g L . . . ..I r. ”L. 2. 3. “A .u 2. v. .. Lu .._C A» h. HM“ Aw —u .u no . r C. u .. r.“ g u. as L a nu. 3‘ _ \.. 21 develOpment of the model, experimentation would be conducted on the problems of scale and levels Of generalizations in mapping land use, multiple use of land and establishing meaningful criteria for classifying both natural and cultural features. Both professional12 and United States Government13 publications have noted the need for such research. Correspondence with commercial barge companies, the American Waterways Operators, Inc., and the Corps of Engi— neers, verifies that in the past no land use studies or predictions Of land use change have been made prior to construction of any canal or similar waterway and that there is little literature directly germane to such en- deavors. Related literature in the field of business and economics investigates the movement of commodities and the provision Of services, and deals with their dollar values, but fails to formally consider land use and its change.1u This lack is likewise characteristic of the reports and 12James R. Anderson, "Towards More Effective Methods of Obtaining Land Use Data in Geographical Research," The Professional Geographer, Vol. 13 (November, 1961), p. 17. 13Urban Renewal Administration and Bureau of Public Roads, Standard Land Use Coding Manual (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, January, 1965), p. iii. 1“For example see: Joseph R. Cordaro, "The Economic Development of the Ohio River Valley Due to the Influence of Water Transportation" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Louisville, Kentucky, 1965); or Joseph R. Hartley, The Economic Effects of Ohio River Navigation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1959). 22 brochures Of private businesses, port authorities and others.15 Feasibility studies made for the Corps of Engineers, for example, omit formal study of the use of land16 and the Corps does "not formally pursue an investi- gation as to what occurs [to land use] after construction."17 The investigation will also provide a basis for the construction of generalizations regarding the factors that influence land use change along a linear transportation development. It will also provide an indication Of the economic impact of the canal on land contiguous to the study area and serve as a basis for future studies. The Model Theorizing about land use and land use change in the area contiguous to the Cross-Florida Barge Canal demands, first, a recognition that rational decision making can bring about, or at least approach, Optimum land use. Secondly, it demands a clear picture of the nature and scOpe Of physical and cultural changes that will result 15For example see: American Waterways Operators, Waterside Site Plant Locations and Expansions (Washington: American Waterways Operators, 196K); or, Humble Oil and Refining Company, Bayport (Houston: Humble Oil and Refining Company, February 15, 1965). (Brochure.) 16U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville. "Economic Evaluation of the Cross-Florida Barge Canal Project" by Arthur D. Little, Inc. (Jacksonville: 1962). 17Letter from Bruce A. Sossaman, Chief, Technical Liaison Office, New Orleans District, Corps of Engineers, July 29, 1966. .‘0 i.‘e re ”’3'- A... EHVIeV [Ir f). n. ('1‘ v. A. I '3 -A .F ~~¢:.‘ (\ ‘Qj I'u‘ \‘q ‘ ‘\ 23 from the completion of the project so that data might be organized in such a manner, and on a scale, that it would enable the decision makers, individual or collective, to arrive at rational choices. To meet these demands this study will construct an intellectual model which will provide a functional model to serve as an aid in rational decision making. The intellectual model has the utility of forcing the researcher to focus his attention on all the relevant ‘phenomena gathered. It also serves as a guide in selecting the most significant data and, as the technique Of mapping is utilized, in identifying relationships. As the philoso- pher Karl Deutsch noted, We are using models, willingly or not, whenever we are trying to think systematically about anything at all. The results of our thinking in each case will depend upon what elements we put into our model, what rules and structure we imposed on those elements, and upon what actual use we made of the ensemb§e of possibilities which this particular model Offered.l A model may be defined or explained as, a plan, a design, or something intended to serve as a pattern of a thing to be made. It may also be defined as a simplified representation of some complex real phenomenon. In agree- ment with these ideas, Deutsch provides a more definitive statement when he says a model is,' 18Karl Deutsch, "On Communications Models in the Social Sciences," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. XVI (Fall, 1952), pp- 356-357. 24 A structure of symbols and Operating rules which is supposed to match a set of relevant points in an existing structure or process. Models of this kind are indis- pensable for the understanding Of more complex processes. The only alternative to their use would be an attempt to "grasp directly" the structure or process to be understood; that is to say, to match it completely point for point. This is manifestly impossible. We use maps and anatomical atlases precisely because we cannot carry complete countries or complete human bodies in our heads. Each model implies a theory asserting a structural correspondence between the model and certain aspects of the thing supposed to be modeled. It also implies judgments of relevance; it suggests that the particular aSpects to which it corresponds are in fact the important aspects of the thing for purposes Of the model makers or users. Furthermore, a model, if it is Operational, implies predictions which can be verified by physical tests.l While not a geographer, Deutsch's ideas of a model are in harmony with chorological study. His structure to be studied could be any defined space. He refers to scale, he negates the complete understanding of the total space, he espouses systematic delimitation and description, and identifies the concept of interaction. His reference to the map indicates that the map itself is a model and that its inclusion into a larger intellectual model is acceptable. Finally, and important to this study, is the point that the Operational validity of the model is based on its ability to make verifiable predictions. The intellectual model to be used to identify Opti- mum land use, after the addition of the barge canal to the study area, is given below. 19Ib1d . pp. 357-358. -e .‘ .xu #7? .Q‘ . A. A lull u ..< v . «U 3: s o ‘ a «Q r.. 1v .. a :l .. . n . at RC a u .2 TC «xv An‘ ax» We .‘ L a L. a.‘ n e 2% no . a l ‘ FL: «\V “A .J .c .Ia . . .1 .W I 0‘ \ t d p .. ~ A. u u -n‘ I ‘ AN» \ fix.» 5 L. on .. T. h. «H up a» -R L T. .8‘ DH. ere .. e 25 I. Input: Recognition of problem Of identifying optimum land use following construction Of the Cross-Florida Barge Canal A. Historical background B. Inventory and analysis Of existing phenomena 1. Physical features 2. Cultural features II. Intervening variables A. Superimpose Cross-Florida Barge Canal on the map B. Affecters Of future land use III. Output: Deliberations, decisions and construction Of a functional, optimum land use model. Although most Of the geographic literature dis- cussing models deals with those Of a mathematical or statistical nature, the type presented here has been suc- cessfully used by geographers in land use studies Of both large and small regions.. Courtney applied it to predicting land use in low latitude humid regions.2O Keller uses a similar model or procedure for ascertaining the develop- mental potential Of an area by taking an inventory of selected resources.21 That other social sciences also 20Dale E. Courtney, "Problems Associated with Pre- dicting Land Use in Low Latitude Humid Regions: A Case Study Of the San Sebastian-Rincan Area, Puerto Rico" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle, 1959). 21F. L. Keller, "Resource Inventory: A Basic Step in Economic Development,"-Economic Geography, Vol. 29 (January, 1953), p. 39. n’Dr‘J‘ ,- v-5.eV-fi‘ D «Ls A» ~p: “u .‘ W t: .r .‘ see-) ee~r~ VIVA . A v.‘-ne ~— ~ ‘9 . xF-e-r “is” I A h I .' .F‘A: 9C,“- n¢i ' v s“ 26 make use of this type model is discussed by Deutsch22 and illustrated, for example, by the work of the political scientist Pak.23 H Harvey, in a Review Article in the Annals Of the Association of American Geographers, suggests continued experimentation with model types, employing stochastic processes, aimed at the perfection of dynamic spatial models which will be useful to geographers. This writer feels that the problem Harvey recognizes in- volving an "evolutionary change through time" is adequately met through a discussion of the history Of land use and the heavy emphasis on future change. Urban planners indicate the same feelings, for example, Schlager points out the expense and difficulty of obtaining information, and the fact that "design standards for regional land use plan are not yet available."25 Lowry states that, "The model builder . . . is to a large extent thrown back on his intuitive perceptions and his 22Deutsch, Op. cit. 23Byung K. Pak, The Cuban Problem In the Organization of American States: A Model fer Collective Decision Making (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1965). 2“David W. Harvey, "Theoretical Concepts and the Analysis of Agricultural Land Use Patterns in Geography," Annals of the Association of_American Ggggraphers, Vol. (19657. P. 361. 25Kenneth J. Schlager, "A Land Use Plan Design Model," Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. 30 (1965), pp. 109-110. N bpnvy“! '.‘J\‘= QM -\~ nub 5V .4. a . an a: 2 a an‘ w E Q H \J“ V a “'0'... :‘“.'V¢~ 5A», H‘J find "‘Le vb uh,‘ ‘\ u “I :r 27 sense of style."26 Lowry encourages that land use models be built and tested because it is better than doing nothing and wringing our hands, it is educational and organizes thought.27 This study does not make use of a regional model as such, for several reasons. First, the study is linear and although the area is relatively homogeneous the major characteristic common to every part of the area is the fact that a canal will traverse it and, therefore, change land use. This delimitation of the study area constitutes the basis for calling it a region. Secondly, within the area major differences in land use are based on the physiography, i.e., the Withlacoochee Valley, the ridge section' and the Oklawaha Valley. Each of these sections may be considered regions or subregions based on physical criteria. Finally,and theoretically most important, a regional model is used to provide output regionalizations and that is not an Objective of this study. Procedure Multiple geographic techniques, including field and library research, interview, correspondence, and cartography were used, following the definition of this 261. S. Lowry, "A Short Course in Model Design, " Journal Of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. 31 (1965 5). p. 160. 27Ihid., p. l6u. 1 I: Ire aiH J .i .1 u ”k Au :2 no :4 a 0 Ab win :1. U. I . u. . n It sun .. .I v. J t« 2 . “inventiaus . . v . 3 .3 a .3 v.1 .. . E do O. 3 S u .. .3. a» 4 u .1. r ”a r: .1. .1. r” n. T: ...u O. n. . e. n. e a .1 . a a: A C a v by .‘ FA 2.. J . r... . O nu a: D. a. «.4 2x o u w... 3‘s . I“ no . ml Fe. F. 9;. . A o v... as .eu H . ..l u ._ t u a . . . u 1 no... 28 study. The general procedures are discussed in the following paragraphs. A scale Of two inches to the mile was decided upon for the inventory mapping. This was selected because it would permit land use generalization at approximately one quarter mile, be large enough to allow for the location Of existing buildings and other cultural features and provide maps that could be reduced to one inch to the mile for final presentation. The decision about scale was based on discussions with Professors John F. Lounsbury, Paul C. Morrison and Laurence M. Sommers.28 In field interviews, engineers, planners and county and state officials have concurred with this scale decision. As a basis for recording the model input, thirteen different base maps were constructed, using Florida State Road Department maps,29 United States Geologic Topographic sheets,30 28Interviews were held in August Of 1964 in East Lansing, Michigan. 2gcounty Road Maps of Levy, Citrus, Marion and Putnam Counties, Florida. Published by the Florida State Road Department, 1963, at a scale Of one-half inch to the mile. 3OTOpographic Sheets - U.S. Geological Survey Quadrangles, Yankeetown 1955 7 1/2' Series Yankeetown SE 1954 - 7 1/2' Series Dunnellon 1954 7 1/2' Series Dunnellon SE 1954 7 1/2' Series Ocala 1892 15' Series Kenka 1949 7 1/2' Series Rodman 1949 7 1/2' Series Palatka 1912 15' Series A.“ ‘ee ~ vii Vet 50‘ A: «\U 3. .s 29 United States Department of Agriculture aerial photography,31 United States Forest Service Map,32 and field maps con- structed by the author in the spring Of 1966 as sources. Through the use Of a Saltzman enlarging projector base maps were constructed from which several COpies were made and used both to record data on and as the basis for the final inventory models. The primary method for collecting data for the inventory maps was field research. Observation and inter— views were used, the information obtained being noted both on field maps and on aerial photographs. The data accumulated are presented by cartographic methods on two maps, a base map which shows major kinds of land use, types of crops and natural vegetation, and one on a film overlay which identifies soil associations, dwellings, business buildings and other cultural phenomena. This presentation provides an ideal means of locating phenomena Of a particular type or showing relationships. The use Of the same type cartographic patterns and symbols is also suitable for the functional model or map which will predict Optimum land use. 31U. S., Department Of Agriculture, Agriculture Stabilization and Conservation Service aerial photography. Putnam County, Florida. Index sheets, Nos. 1, 3, 4, 1965- Marion County, Florida. Index sheets, Nos. 1, 3, 4, 5, 1955- Levy County, Florida. Index sheets, Nos. 7, 8, 1965. 32U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, "Ocala National Forest," a map (Washington, 1965). «‘9 .1 UN“ H v“ I I e a I a: QC .. . :1. a .v a: n o P 1 «id I... afln «Av e— tlv t‘l‘ a‘u Ali aq h a i: .‘U a: at» I be a» .v A. V k V H v . IV a: a H 0 e A .4 QC as but it N.‘ azv a .- n~ u n a... six» u.— . s J 30 Cartographic representation of the data collected was guided by the relative homogeniety within the study area and by the scales of both the field maps, l:3l,680, and the final product,l:63,360. Symbols needed to be large enough to be identified yet not so large that the area they covered was too out Of proportion. Standard cartographic screens and patterns, used in many geographic studies, for example,the Tennessee Valley Authority33 and the Rural Land Classification Program of Puerto Rico,3u were used to represent land use and natural vegetation associations. Professional assistance was obtained in setting criteria or parameters for establishing boundaries Of soil and vegetation associations. Specialists were also asked to review the analyses of this writer in regard to the interpretation of peculiar data and when the position of another person or firm was stated. After the inventory maps were complete four days were spent in the field re- checking the information shown. Compiling the history of land use, checking points of analysis, and obtaining help in identification of 33C. C. Crossman, "Determining the Purchase Boundaries and the Use of Reservoir Properties," Economic Geography, Vol. 15 (July, 1939), p. 263. 3”J. F. Lounsbury, "Types and Patterns of Rural Settlements in Puerto Rico," The Rural Land Classification Program Of Puerto Rico, Northwestern University Studies in Geography, NO. 1 (Chicago, Ill., 1952), p. 237. 31 intervening variables was accomplished by interviews and a search of the literature on those subjects. Much of the information came from government publications, newspapers, and public and private records. The public records were largely from offices such as the County Agricultural Agent, the Soil Conservation Service, the Canal Authority Of the State of Florida and the tax assessor. Among private businessmen, real estate dealers in particular contributed information for the study and evidenced a high interest in the results. Study Of the literature of political science and urban planning, as well as that of geography was significant in the develOpment of the intellectual model. The most important of these sources are found earlier in this chapter as footnotes 18 through 27.‘ They were eSpecially helpful in providing examples of what can be accomplished with models and by identifying both the problems and potential associ- ated with their use. Establishment Of the intervening variables and the output portions of the model was dependent primarily upon ‘ interviewing persons in key positions in government, business, transportation, and those related to land ownership or its transfer. Secondarily, a search of literature describing industrial development on existing waterways, and discussions of factors influencing land use change were helpful. (I! (I! (I) I..- il‘J J I l I" . a ‘ ‘1‘- ‘e 32 Important to the functional model, and its explana- tion, was the careful consideration Of all Of the factors concerning any particular land use as Optimum. When one use is cited as Optimum, or when several uses are noted as equally desirable, the decision was made by the author, but substantiating statements and considerations upon which the decision was based are indicated. Maps and tables are included where deemed Of use in presenting the data necessary to an understanding Of the study and the conclusions which were reached. Dates on the maps are vital to their future use for studies in historical geography. Although discussed in relation to the study, the city of Palatka is left out of the study area for two reasons: 1. The Cross—Florida Barge Canal, as a canal, ends where it reaches the St. Johns River, approximately six miles south Of Palatka; and, 2. The proposed completion of the St. Johns—Indian River canal, which will follow the St. Johns south to Lake George (Map 3) and east to the coast, will add an important and uncontrolled variable to the study of land use at Palatka. Land on the St. Johns River is included arbitrarily to complete Map 13, but it also provides a study of a transition area. The following chapter provides historical background on land use and the canal project. This information is vital to an effort to understand present land use and to 33 predict future change and, in this way, it provides the foundation for both the intellectual and the ensuing functional models. Chapters Three and Four present an inventory and analysis of the physical and cultural features of the study area. Essentially they state what is there and tell why. The intervening variables, the canal and those factors that will affect land use after the waterway is complete, are discussed in Chapter Five and that is followed by the explanation of the optimum land use model in Chapter Six and the conclusions arrived at as a result Of the study in Chapter Seven. a. 4. no .. a. a. .f. 2 p” w‘ .1 .1“ hi uni hb CHAPTER II HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Timucua Indians inhabited the study area prior to the settlement of Caucasians in the 1820's. Abundant fish and game were available in the valleys of both the Oklawaha and the Withlacoochee Rivers, and the climate and soils were con- ducive to growing corn, beans, potatoes, greens, peas, to- bacco and watermelon. In general, the indigenous peoples grew many of the same crops that are found in the area today. Wood, stone, shell, clay and bone were the main natural resources used in the technology Of the Indians. They settled near the rivers and used them as both a source Of water and as the best route of transportation. The Colonial Period In 1539, Hernando DeSoto probably crossed the Withlacoochee and possibly saw the Oklawaha as he and his men marched northward from Tampa Bay in search of fame and. gold. Some accounts state that DeSoto met with the head of all of the Timucuas at a village on the banks of what is today called Silver Springs. Jean Ribaut, the French explorer, discovered the St. John's River in 1562 and subsequently established a 34 35 French Huguenot colony near its mouth. French mapping and scouting expeditions were probably the first Europeans to explore and use the Oklawaha. Both the French and the Spanish, who dislodged the Huguenots from Florida, made contact with the Indians and traded with them in order to obtain food.1 In the two and a half centuries Of Spanish presence in Florida,their only achievement was to establish a chain of mission outposts across its northern part. This was done in order to gain converts, supply food for the forts, and to provide a bulwark against the English to the north. In so doing, EurOpean diseases were introduced, for which the Timucuas had develOped no resistance. This, plus an unsuccessful uprising against the Spanish in 1656, reduced the Indian pOpulation so drastically that those who were able migrated westward or southward, while others were carried as slaves into the Carolinas.2 By 1750 the study area was inhabited by the Seminole Indians who had moved into Florida from Georgia and Alabama. The Seminoles, meaning "Wild Ones," established an agricultural-pastoral economy which was being practiced when the white man came to settle in the late 1700's.3 The Seminoles grew the same crops as the earlier Timucuas 10. W. Tebeau and R. L. Carson, Florida from Indian Trail to Space Agg, Vol. 1 (Delray Beach, Fla.: The Southern Publishing Company, 1965), P. 324. 2Ihid., p. 325. 31bid., p. 337. sand-\— is V‘“ tn “~- ". a Ca n: .1 Hi .ru .: ax; E» ‘a v iv; QR 36 -but they also planted orange groves and herded cattle, horses, hogs, and kept flocks of turkeys." The Territorial Period Florida became a territory upon its acquisition from Spain by John Quincy Adams, the United States Secre- tary Of State, in 1818. Andrew Jackson was appointed the first territorial governor and, in speaking of his com- mission, President Monroe wrote in part: "I have full con- fidence that your appointment will be immediately and most beneficially felt. Smugglers and slave traders will hide their heads; pirates will disappear, and Seminoles will cease tO give trouble."5 It was the Seminole problem, which develOped into the Seminole Wars of 1835-42, that brought the white soldier into the study area. Around 1835 Ft. McCoy was built five miles to the west of Eureka, and Ft. King was established three miles east of Ocala. The function of the forts was to furnish a garrison to patrol the Oklawaha River and the Indian cultivations in that area. As the Indians went on the warpath they moved their villages further south, but came back at irregular intervals to obtain food from the volunteer regrowth of the fields. During the war years several small battles and ambushes took place in the valleys Of both the Oklawaha and the Withlacoochee Rivers. The latter became especially “Ibid., p. 338. 5Ihid., p. 113. Ll) I :r rr-na . (r 37 important as a transportation route, as troops patrolled the trails from settled northern Florida and the Gulf ports, to the southern outposts such as Tampa, Fort Braden, and Fort Myers. One Of the first commanders of the Florida militia, General Richard Call, was relieved of his command because, due to the lack of technical help, he could not meet the challenge of the central Florida wilderness. In regard to Call's problem, Tebeau and Carson write, he had not been able to plan and execute an effective campaign. In this respect, he was but the first Of a long series of commanders defeated by the problem of moving and supplying men in the Florida wilderness. His successor was to suffer some humiliating setbacks (p. 155). A General Scott, it is reported, "made an impres- sive list of obstacles to account for his failure. . . ." Most important were insufficient means of transportation, short supply of hard bread and bacon for marchers, and the hot climate which he associated with bad water and sickness of trOOps. Inadequate roads and bridges and scarcity of grazing and forage for horses also slowed Operations. He felt the need Of an auxiliary Indian force and the lack Of guides or information about the country in which he was to Operate. General Jessup took over from Call and with 4,000 men under his command campaigned along the Oklawaha and the Withlacoochee through the winter of 1836-37, and then turned to treating with the Indians to induce them to migrate. On March 6, 1837, a considerable number Of the Seminoles agreed to depart if the govern- ment would buy their cattle, hogs, ang ponies and allow them tO take their Negroes with them. 6Ibid., p. 155. V’ ‘."-’D Aesvy JH‘A ¢.Io a. 3. 2. i . A o n. ma. .1 v- 5. .. . 3 u .. C n. .3 a. .... p” a” .L .e r. .3 so .3. at "I. and w“ a .L A,» 5.. a a ‘ Q .4; Q 38 Following a complex set Of events a few Seminoles did migrate Ito Oklahoma, but most escaped and remained to continue the intermittant war until they were pushed into the Florida Everglades. After the Seminole Wars, permanent settlers came into the study area from Georgia and the Carolinas. They occupied land along the Oklawaha on bluffs overlooking the river and on the Old Indian clearings. These pioneers, like the Seminoles, developed an agricultural-pastoral economy which later served as a base for limited trade, with timber, tobacco and furs going up the river and basic consumer goods coming down into the area.7 Statehood and the Oklawaha Valley Homesteading laws and Statehood for Florida, in 1845, encouraged permanent settlers to organize and develOp the territory from Silver Springs to Orange Springs (Fig. 4). It was this area that afforded the best land, as far as soil and drainage were concerned, for the develOpment Of farm- steads. The relative location near the Oklawaha was also important because water transport was used almost exclusively. Ease of transport on the Oklawaha was facilitated in the late 1840's as expeditions and clearing parties Of local men removed the major Obstructions and snags from the river between Silver Springs and the St. Johns. 7Interview with Gene Gallant, Staff writer for the Ocala Star-Banner, and local historian, June 8, 1966. This interview provided much of the historical information on the Oklawaha River Valley and the ridge section. 39 Approximately ten years later, as new settlers began to pOpulate the area, Col. Hubbard L. Hart, an enter- prising Yankee from Vermont, started a large cattle and citrus farm north Of Silver Springs. Hart assessed the future of the region and contracted with the State of Florida to again remove Obstructions to make the Oklawaha navigable for commercial shipping. He was paid $4,500 and in three years the river, which varies from about seventy to nearly 200 feet wide, was clear of all obstruction. Later, in 1860, the Colonel founded the Hart line, a company Opera- ting boats which hauled both passengers and goods from Silver Springs to Jacksonville.8 The first crafts used were small, steam driven side- wheelers, but they proved too unwieldy and awkward for such a meandering river, so they were abandoned. Hart then had the first of many more-suitable riverboats built. They were sternwheelers, the largest of which was approximately eighty- six feet by thirty-three feet, and quickly became the back- bone Of the Oklawaha as a trade route. Shipping Of passengers and products on the river reached a peak shortly after the Civil War. Later, near the turn of the century this traffic began to dwindle rapidly and it disappeared during the late 1920's. Prior to 1845 surface transportation went east from Sharpe's-Ferry (Fig. 4) following an old Indian trail to the 8Ocala Star Banner (Florida), May 8, 1966, p. 6-J. 40 "coast. This trail tied into a north—south road in Volusia County, but it was used primarily as a route to get salt from the ocean. The fact that an Official road north from Silver Springs was not cut until 1855, attests to the impor- tance Of the Oklawaha to the area. Following the Civil War, to about 1920, the economy of the area generally prospered. It was based primarily on timber and secondarily on agricultural goods. Rafts Of pine and cypress logs sometimes clogged the river for an entire day, as miles Of logs were floated to mills which were located near the prOposed Rodman Dam (Fig. 4). These rafts, made by lashing about fifteen logs together, were steered by great log sweeps and often hindered other traffic from either moving along or across the river. Around 1890 a railroad line also Operated from Silver Springs north to Rodman to service the timber interests. This was a spur to the Florida Railroad Company which had laid track south to Ocala in 1882 and on to Tampa by 1890. Grahamville (Fig. 4), founded soon after the Seminole War, flourished as a river port with the handling of mis- cellaneous freight and lumber stores its main activity. From the 1870's through the 1920's the exports were barrels of spirits, resin, barrels Of turpentine, lumber, hides, citrus and tobacco. Household items, other manufactured goods and tourists came into the area. During this same period Eureka (Fig. 4) and Rodman were also thriving communities. Although it is impossible to give a; .4.“ F. r; ~a: L» “a a. .ab 41 »an exact population figure for either town, both were proba- bly over 1,000. Estimates go as high as 2,000 for Eureka and up to 3,000 for Rodman. The problem of setting an exact census figure depends upon how Negroes were counted, as well as the lack of defined settlement boundaries. In 1910, Eureka boasted a hotel, two general stores, a post office, and a couple Of barrooms. By 1966 it consisted Of two fishing camps, a bar, a general store and an estimated population Of 150. In 1920 the saw mill settlement of Rodman had over 200 registered voters for county elections. Its business section was made up of two general stores, two restaurants, a hotel and a movie house. Two churches had also been built, but by 1960 the only building Of any kind left standing was a large two—story house on Highway F 310 (Map L2). Most Of the Old Rodman buildings were destroyed by woods fires. Today, the community exists only as an historical relic, and the term applies to a general area within about two miles west of the intersection Of Highway F 310 and F 19 shown on Map L. Only the one home, occupied by a farmer, remains as a reminder of bygone days and just three other houses have been built in the area in the last forty years (Map L2). Exploitation Of the pinelands was the practice through the 1930's. Timbermen would "cut bare" and move on. Little Of the Rodman area has been reseeded or planted and the natural growth at present is very Sparse, poor quality pine flatwoods. 42 Formerly, persons who owned or leased this land would burn the grass and low shrub each winter in order to get a renewed growth of wiregrass in the spring and summer on which they pastured range cattle. This practice has been stOpped by the Florida Forest Service since about 1960. The burning would usually kill the young pines and generally was a very wasteful practice as it also destroyed the undergrowth needed to support wild game. The land south and east of the Oklawaha River is almost entirely in the Ocala National Forest. Private holdings form, in general, a narrow strip on the banks of the stream. The national government purchased the Forest acreage in 1910 because, due to poor conservation practices, the woods had little economic value. Today the area has experienced a nearly complete natural regrowth due to Forest Service supervision. Around 1920 the Florida highway system was improved to the extent that the Oklawaha lost its function as an important transportation route. Better roads also Opened up South Florida and most of the farmers left the area because they had access to better lands further south. This, followed by the tapering off unlumbering activity, led to a decline in the economy of the Oklawaha Basin. From that time to the present the area has depended almost on- tirely on recreation land use for its economic base. The automobile has helped the area develop as a hunting, fishing and camping region. 43 HOpe Of revitalization of the Oklawaha area east Of Orange Springs was kindled in 1929 when the Florida Power Corporation and the Florida Power and Light Corporation pur— chased several thousand acres of land on the lower river for the purpose of jointly building a hydroelectric power plant. These plans, however, did not materialize for at least two reasons. Because of the depression, the economy did not recover as had been expected and in later years the river valley did not lend itself to being a site for the more efficient type dams that had by then been develOped.9 The Ridge Section In the ridge section Of the study area the unin— corporated town of Santos was the first settlement. It was established by a group Of peOple who had left Florida at the beginning Of the Civil War and later returned. They did not want to participate, or take sides, in the War so they went to Brazil. In Brazil they lived in Santos; therefore, on their return to Florida, about 1890, they settled south of Ocala and named the settlement after their Brazilian haven (Fig. 4 and Map E). The ridge area was settled on a subsistance agri- culture basis and some Of the men also worked in the timber industry. They grew the same vegetables that were grown in the Oklawaha area and they kept farm animals. 9Interview, G. W. Dowsett, Manager, Property Tax Department, Florida Power Corporation, St. Petersburg, Florida, October 21, 1966. 44 Around the time of World War I the Santos area developed a dairying industry which lasted until just after World War II, when it was moved into more suitable land in western Marion County. In the last twenty years the Santos area, which is now largely Negro, has been a non-farm rural area. The people Often have garden patches, but their living comes from work in or near Ocala. West of Santos, the land has developed as county and state roads were constructed in the late 1800's. From subsistance agriculture, surface not forested has been moved into extensive pasturage and cattle production. The hard- wood forests are not of sufficient quality to be exploited commercially. Since 1960, three thoroughbred horse farms have been established. The Withlacoochee Valley The Withlacoochee Valley had few settlers until after the Civil War when roads were cut through from Ocala to the Gulf and from the Tampa Bay area to the Capital in Tallahassee. The earliest homestead in this area, according to United States Land Office records, was established January 1, 1878. Dunnellon (Fig. 4) was founded about 1884 as an agri- cultural center for farmers who grew cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, and raised cattle. An important influence in the location of the town was the site of a ferry landing on the Withlacoochee River. Today Dunnellon, discussed more fully in Chapter Four, is a slowly growing town with an economy P: p: .h U a. G... 2.. 2. .. . .n u on. "A- \ ‘v is. a :\ is ‘. 5° u. § Fa Ad‘ .Q 4 s wk £- v‘, 5% x a F“ 45 based primarily on recreation and highway-oriented tourist trade, and supplemented by some agricultural and forestry activity. The discovery Of hard-rock phosphate on Blue Run near Dunnellon in 1889, had a great impact on land use and land values in the area. Ownership Of land, which was in small holdings of less than 100 acres prior to the phosphate discovery, soon came into the hands of various phosphate interests and Speculators who amassed holdings up to the 90,000 acres owned by the Dunnellon Phosphate Company. Land valued at $2.00 per acre in 1888 was sold at $250 per acre in 1890. The mineral content of some Of this land ran as high as eighty percent phosphate lime.10 Within one year Of the discovery, up to 1500 tons of phosphate a week were being loaded for EurOpe. The product was transported via Ocala to the port at Fernandina, twenty miles north of Jacksonville, by railroad. Track laid by the Dunnellon Phosphate Company connected with a line coming near Dunnellon which had been built from Ocala to Homosassa in 1888. By 1898 the railroad had been extended west to a new port at Inglis (Fig. 3) where a phosphate dryer plant was also constructed. These activities gave birth to the towns of Inglis and Yankeetown, the latter a village just north Of the study area on the Withlacoochee River (see Fig. 3 and Map A). 10Ocala Star Banner, May 8, 1966, p. 4. ‘7‘ ‘b.e. .' ’e D'AI‘“ $VM. b:" “a. ""‘eai ..: :12“ ‘J‘ *y“ ii ‘ 46 Under a War Department permit, issued to Camp Phosphate Company in 1904, a dam was constructed on the Withlacoochee River about three miles east Of the center Of Inglis (Fig. 4). The dam was a hydroelectric power structure which had a lock for phosphate barges. Then, as now, the dam maintained a water level normally ranging from twenty- four to twenty-seven feet. The natural elevation Of the river at the dam was about seven feet. Approximately 3,500 acres were inundated, forming Lake Rousseau (Map B), with the phosphate company making compensation to any person or corporation whose lands were "taken, overflowed or otherwise damaged by the construction, maintenance and Operation of the said works in accordance with the laws of the State Of Florida." NO dwellings were flooded as the land was in its natural state, mostly swamp forest with some pine flatwoods. Phosphate was mined both north and south of Dunnellon and shipped to Port Inglis by either rail or barge on the Withlacoochee River. In 1914, Inglis had a population of about 200 persons and the basis of the economy was the transhipment Of phosphate and Operation of a chemical plant which produced various acids. Iron sulphate was imported from Europe and sulpher from Louisiana. World War I and the development of phOSphate mining in the Polk County area 100 miles southeast of Dunnellon caused a curtailment Of the phosphate production in the lithle “Arab MIMI 47 Withlacoochee Valley. By 1926 the port had deteriorated, the railroad no longer operated, and the chemical plant had closed its doors. One bright spot in the economic picture in 1926 was the construction, by the Florida Power and Light Company, of a power plant to service the central Gulf coast area. Port Inglis was a satisfactory site due to the availability of river water for the evaporators and the port facilities for importing Oil for power. In 1966 this plant is being phased out of Operation due to the construction Of a new plant about five miles south Of the present site. After the demise Of the phosphate industry the Withlacoochee Valley was used primarily by the farmer and the timberman. Large scale use of the area for residences and recreation was thwarted because of the ownership Of large tracts by persons or companies that would not sell. According to the Town Clerk of Dunnellon,11 there was only one fishing camp and about six farms between Dunnellon and Inglis in 1935. The southern bank of Lake Rousseau was Opened up to summer cottages after World War II. Then, in the early 1950's retirees began moving into the area, and by 1960, some seventy to eighty percent Of the eighty to One hundred dwellings were occupied year around. lllnterview with David R. Dickenson, City Clerk of Dunnellon, Florida, June 9, 1966. rage}. no V. in. re .“AYIB: 'r .. . v ”a! rw v..".. I .0 s0 ‘3- " ...e l: L A ten 3 t chyw'l‘! {, ‘. 5°‘o ""y SL1“ I :PQA I .c “as I ”A"!!! "Wish. *v tn I“ «VJ [IS H “act. 48 Highway U. S. 19 (Fla. 55), was designed as a federal road and improved in 1938-39. That action has had a positive influence on Inglis. The town, since that time, has slowly develOped an economy based on recreation, retirement living, and highway oriented businesses. Seasonal cottages, most Of which were constructed after 1955, are popular along the banks Of the Withlacoochee. Several hundred acres of citrus groves were planted north Of Lake Rousseau in the 1930's and early 1940's. The groves were profitable until a hard freeze in 1957 destroyed them. The following year the growers moved to land south of the lake where the winter temperatures range from five to ten degrees warmer due to the tempering influence of the water on the northern winds. In 1966 the Withlacoochee Valley was an area with a slowly increasing population and a stable economy based on highway trade, tourism, recreation, retirement living, with some support from timber, farming, and phosphate interests. Generalizations Regarding Land Ownership Historically, land ownership in the entire canal area has been characterized by holdings of over 500 acres. Acquisition of large blocks of Indian land began in the mid- 1800's in the Oklawaha area, while about 1890 many extensive tracts near the Withlacoochee were purchased from the State. The primary reason for Obtaining land was timber cutting, in the former case, and phosphate mining in the latter one. .t 7.33.333 be 33?? CC ‘na H‘V View 5‘. . .‘r‘ éuU.‘ ”A” : A“ VVVAsuE} 51° .‘Ina ‘- Us “at, L, VIA“ ag"; .n “H fiat: \v‘ "n (1,5- "Que r‘a' 49 Homesteading Of smaller tracts, less than 100 acres, was a more common practice in the ridge section than it was in the river valleys. Following the end Of the general land boom Of the early 1920's, Florida's economy faced near collapse in the winter of 1927. The general industrial prosperity of the Coolidge years was not shared by the agricultural south and depressed conditions, which almost completely deflated land values, continued through the thirties. In the mid-thirties, because of hard times and the low value of land, thousands Of tax delinquent acres in the study area reverted to state ownership. Such land was unused for about five years until the Murphy Act was passed in 1939. This Florida law provided for the sale of the tax delinquent lands to get them back on the tax rolls. These were purchased for the price of the unpaid taxes and, in general, became parts Of large holdings. In the mid-1950's numerous large tracts throughout the study area were broken up and sold either as homesites for retirement living or as recreational sites. These uses are particularly characteristic of land contiguous to the two rivers in the study area. Increased incomes, especially for retired peOple, better access roads, more automobiles, and an increased interest in outdoor recreation, are condi- tions that have caused the greater demand for recreation land. This market raised the value of the land to the cint t} W 312d ii " an: 5852.011 I" #- anu‘ gt ACPVSS D‘ :4." ‘ a “V. o ' 50 point that the holders of both homesteads and large acreages found it economically beneficial to sell. Cross-Florida Barge Canal History It is alleged that the Spaniards, while in pos- session of the territory that is now the State Of Florida, conducted several surveys to locate the most desirable route for a cross-Florida ship canal. It is a fact that the United States government has been interested in the project since Andrew Jackson was Territorial Governor in 1820. A survey of the peninsula south of the St. Mary's River was ordered by an Act of Congress in 1826 to deter- mine a feasible route for such a canal.12 Inadequate financing prohibited a complete survey Of the peninsula at that time, but finally a tentative route was projected across the state through the St. Mary's River Valley in 1878, and in 1880 a canal plan for this route was reported to Congress. A lack of funds precluded final authorization, but further investigation suggested at least four other possible routes.l3 From 1880 to 1909 there appears to have been no concerted effort made to obtain a commercial waterway across the state. This was doubtless due to several causes, but principally to the great expansion of 12G. A. Youngberg, The Gulf-Atlantic Ship Canal Across Florida, The Florida Engineering Society Bulletin, NO 6 (August 1935), p 2 13Sinc1air Chiles, A Florida Cross-State Ship Canal (1928). A pamphlet reprinted by the Canal Authority of the State of Florida. 51 railroad building throughout the country during this period, and the unrestrained rate cutting and rebating so freely indulged in by the railroads in the effort to Obtain the bulk of the caflrying trade by destroying their waterway competitors.l Rivers and Harbors Acts in 1909, 1927, 1930, and 1932, each directed surveys to be made in regard to a trans-Florida canal. The 1932 Act stated that surveys should be made ". . . to determine the feasibility, cost and economic advisability of, and the best location for a' ship canal between the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Of Mexico."15 The Army Engineer's report stated that twenty- eight possible routes had been explored and the one using the Oklawaha and Withlacoochee Valleys was most desirable. In 1933 the Florida Legislature created the Florida Ship Canal Authority and adOpted a memorial to President Roosevelt urging that construction Of a sea level ship canal be authorized. The Canal Authority assumed the task Of Obtaining the land needed for the right of way which was to be paid for by the counties in what is known as the Canal District.16 “Important Opposition was felt at this time. The railroads fought the canal as federally supported competi- tion. More important, many peOple in south Florida, plus 1":hid., p. 2. 15Robert 0. Vernon, "Trans-Florida Barge Canal" (Tallahassee: Florida Geological Survey, 1959), p. 1. (Mimeographed.) 16R. N. Dosh, Ocala Star-Banner (Florida), May 8, 1966, p. 1-E. the Unit hrgrae . “nanny l Barr, 0 “9“ Val Want *thv on “ere n1 CO‘nt: 52 the United States and Florida Geological Surveys, were Opposed to a sea-level canal on the grounds that there was a possibility of damage to groundwater supplies. This chance was due to the proposed thirty to thirty-five foot depth of the sea-level canal. The Florida Survey, however, went on record as approving a lock-type canal.l7 In spite of this Opposition, the President authorized construction Of a sea-level canal in 1935. Five million dollars Of WPA funds were allocated to such activities as clearing Of vegetation, building housing and shops, exca- vation in the summit area and laying bridge foundations. Camp Roosevelt, a site for administration and worker housing, was established, 13,000,000 yards of dirt were dug in Putnam and Marion Counties, and bridge foundations were built near Santos. The citizens of the affected counties voted a $1,500,000 bond issue to purchase canal right-Of-way, and the land needed for immediate construction was obtained. Eighteen thousand acres were purchased at that time at a cost of from $1.50 to $7.00 per acre. This represented approximately twenty percent Of the total amount required for the project. Title to some 6,000 Of the 18,000 acres acquired was taken through condemnation proceedings and held in the name of the United States government. The rest was purchased directly by the Ship Canal Authority. ¥ 17Vernon, Op.cit., p. 4. 53 Although the Authority paid for all 18,000 acres, one-third Of these remained in the possession of the Corps of Engineers until 1960, when they were transferred to the Authority. At the time of purchase, all of the land acquired in Putnam County was swamp or cut-over woodland, some of which was being used for range cattle.18 In Marion County, however, most Of that procured was timberland which had not been overcut. Although some lumbering had been done there, according to R. N. Dosh, Chairman of the Authority at that time, only a small portion of the land was in pasture and almost none in crOps.19 President Roosevelt placed the construction Of the canal under the direction Of the War Department but a request for twelve million dollars was defeated on the grounds that the ship canal would jeOpardize the ground water table of Florida. Again construction of the Cross- Florida Barge Canal became dormant. It was an authorized and partially completed river and harbor project, awaiting an apprOpriation. Since their acquisition in 1935-36, the 18,000 acres have been administered by the Canal Authority and the Corps 18Interview with Mr. Lewis E. Tinney, Tax Assessor Of Putnam County, June 6, 1966. Mr. Tinney was the appraisor for the Canal Authority in the purchase. None Of the land in Putnam had to be condemned. 19Interview with Mr. R. N. Dosh, Editor-Emeritus Of the Ocala Star-Banner and former chairman of the Canal Authority of the State Of Florida, June 8, 1966. farmers a en‘s-AHO n:yu duo‘s“! n... .t agar ac. ! bu .- “1‘8 18.15 ‘3‘ {W's-Ant- ‘ll Auir‘v. U “VIA," A“ + ”I... V; L flung“, Win-Nae 0 ..VV‘\- e‘§ 0 Cf usem:~'-h~fl 6" h-d “*Q~a. “:t‘ H, "‘"l u. Any-n7”; s Vvily‘uue: L a few aCI‘ the fores 54 Of Engineers. These agencies have leased the lands to farmers and timbermen since 1936. Most of the acreage, about ninety percent, is leased every year. Grazing is the major activity on this land, although timber and agricul- ture leases are also available. Timber leases are second in importance, although the cutover characteristics of much Of the holdings today precludes greater use for this purpose. NO reforestation has been practiced, so very little Of the land has been cut over twice even though available for lease for the last thirty years. In the past, turpentine leases were made, but none have been concluded in the last several years.20 In Marion County, west of Santos, there have been a few acres put into improved pasture, especially where the forests were cleared by the work crews before funds ran out in late 1936. No private use has ever been made of those areas where the digging was begun. One excavated area in Putnam County was used during World War II as a practice bombing target. Leases for these lands have been based on the pre- vailing land values in the county and the purpose for which the land is to be used. Only buildings used tO facilitate the grazing, lumbering, or whatever, may be built and the lease calls for government inspection of the land every ‘1 20Interview with V. R. Feorene, right-of—way clerk of the Canal Authority of the State of Florida, June 5, 1966. n U. 1 | 1:] ‘L. "d.“ as». «V ‘L‘ ‘I 1.1 55 six months. In the case Of timber cutting or turpentining, the terms and conditions of each lease are separately written according to the specific character Of the land in question. In 1943 the plan for a lock-type canal was identified as a defense measure, but no money was appropriated for con- 21 ending struction. Finally, after several more evaluations in 1962, money was appropriated and construction was begun in 1964. _Even so, the project was not without Opposition. Politically, the late Representative Clarence Cannon, Chairman Of the House Appropriations Committee, was opposed to it. He had omitted it from the public works bill. Robert Sikes, Head of the Florida House delegation, introduced an amendment to the bill which included some- thing for Oregon, Texas, Washington, Illinois, and the Cross-Florida Barge Canal. The bill passed, and implying pork-barrel legislation, Cannon said, "No bigger bunch of pirates ever sailed the Spanish Main. All the money that Captain Kidd and Long John Silver stole is infinitesimal compared to this raid on the federal treasury." Other resistance has been based on the following points: lack of adequate economic justification; dangers Of saltwater intrusion or damage to Florida's ground water 21For example see, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Economic Restudy Of Cross-Florida Barge Canal (Jacksonville, Florida, January 10, 1958). Also, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Economic Evaluation of Cross—Florida Barge Canal Projgct (Jacksonville, Florida, March 13, 1962). 56 supply; and damage to wilderness, fishing, and the wildlife regime of the Oklawaha River Valley. Each of the arguments has been weighed by the authorities and the decision is that the canal is a feasible project. Each will also receive attention in the following chapters of this paper. An appropriation of one million dollars was approved by Congress in December, 1963, to begin construction of the canal. In February, 196“, excavation contracts were let for a six mile stretch southwest of Palatka, from the St. Johns River to the St. Johns lock site, and from the lock to the Oklawaha River; also for a bridge on State Road 19. By the summer of 1966 contracts had been let on four of the locks and both of the dams in the project. On these contracts, totaling nearly 20 million dollars, the costs were averaging 11.6 percent lower than the Corps of Engineer estimates.22 The $160,000,000 undertaking was granted additional funds in 1964, and in 1966 it was considered to be one of the fastest-moving federal projects in the country. Therefore, after many years of study and restudy the Cross-Florida Barge Canal has received an apprOpriation for construction and is becoming a reality. It is noted by proponents that there is no precedent for Congress abandoning a public works endeavor once such funds have been approved.23 22Ocala Star-Banner, May 8, 1966, p. l-E. 23Ibid., p. 2—E. attest t: 57 Completing the Cross-Florida Barge Canal will attest to man's ability to plan his actions and to modify the physical environment. However, if he fails to under- stand the affect the structure will have on land use change, and if he does not prepare for it,his design is incomplete and his action is less than desirable. To plan for man's changing use of the land after the project is finished, it is vital that he understand past utilization as a basis for prediction, and that an analysis be made of the physical and cultural phenomena that will be involved in such change. Chapter Three will inventory the physical features of the study area as they were in the spring of 1966. Shins knowle Elan f use, t i“put A1 and CHAPTER III NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDY AREA Description and analysis of the natural character- istics as they relate to present use of the land in the study area are the objectives of this chapter. In concert with the discussion of the cultural features in Chapter Four and Maps A-M,this section comprises the inventory data in the intellectual model. An understanding of the areal distribution of phenomena on the land, and of the relation- ships between and among those phenomena is important. This knowledge is crucial as it provides a basis for a rational plan for future land use. Complimentary to the historical background of land use, this inventory step is an essential portion of the input Stage of the intellectual model. The inventory maps, Al and A2 through M1 and M2, utilizing the opaque map and overlay, provide an excellent means of locating phenomena, and by using each pair as one map, i.e. Map A, relation- ships can be identified. Also desirable is the fact that the inventory maps are the same scale as those illustrating the functional model (Chapter Five) which predicts optimum land use as output of the intellectual model. 58 the pool phensmenz he read unit are ful west 1 ad t ENE 1 Connti (Tall; 59 Symbols representing the canal, locks, dams, and the pool areas are also shown on the inventory maps. These phenomena are indicated to provide a frame of reference for the reader, to enable him to gain an understanding of the land as it is before excavation is begun and before reservoirs are full. Landforms and Mineral Resources Physiographically the study area traverses, from west to east, the Gulf Coastal Plains, the Central Highlands and the Atlantic Coastal Plains regions of peninsular Florida. From the west, the canal route crosses Pleistocene marine terraces of the Coastal Plains characterized by sur- face sands, clays and some swamp or bog areas, into the Withlacoochee Valley. This valley is entrenched into lime- stone bedrock. The river, west of the Ocala uplift and east of Dunnellon, has cut a steep walled channel through the limestone. This is characteristic downstream to Lake Rousseau and then to the coast. Only a thin veneer of highly organic mud, fine quartz sand and fresh water marls has been deposited along its banks.1 Land elevationsrange from sea level at the coast to about sixty feet at Dunnellon. In Marion County, the terraced coastal sand ridges give way to the Central Highlands composed of materials of 1Robert 0. Vernon, "Geology of Citrus and Levy Counties, Florida," Florida Geological Bulletin, No. 33 (Tallahassee: Florida Geological Survey, 1951), p. 29. Eocene region compli that, graph is a: Minor elev: I. J‘. ‘ c 60 Eocene and younger ages. This is a complex physiographic region. It has karst topography which has developed on'a complicated fault system and is overlain by elastic sands that, in some areas, are several hundred feet thick. The canal route crosses the highlands in a topo- graphic saddle resulting from fault activity. This action is also responsible for the route of the Oklawaha River. Minor faulting still occurs in central Florida.2 Ground elevations vary from about sixty feet on either side of the ridge to 100 feet above sea level southeast of Ocala. Geology of the Oklawaha basin, like that of the entire study area, is characteristic of the peninsula as a whole in that there is underlying limestone at varying, but generally shallow, depths. Rather deep sands with some clay of the late Tertiary and Quaternary Periods predominate in the basin east of Ocala whereas the phosphatic sand and sandstone of the middle Miocene Hawthorn Formation occur near Orange Springs. Late Pleistocene marine sands occupy the area near the St. Johns River.3 Limestone outcrops are common throughout the study area. These are primarily of Eocene and Miocene ages; the 2Interview with William F. Tanner, Professor of Gegéogy, Florida State University, Tallahassee, November 12, 19 . 3Department of Water Resources, Review Report of Oklawaha River Basin, A report prepared by Gee and Jenson, Consulting Engineers, Inc. (Tallahassee, Florida: Dept. of Water Resources, 1961), p. 2. beds gen present commonpl to the lireroc 5' man 5‘ pcssik rock ' n O ueol . '11: 05' ‘AJ‘S s< ”Soon 61 beds generally dip to the east. Well developed karst is present throughout much of this area, with sinkholes being commonplace. Karst features will continue to appear, due to the development and collapse of solution channels in the limerock formations, as long as Florida's surface is higher than sea level. Mineral resources in the study area that have possible commercial value are: limestone, dolomite, hard rock phosphate, soft rock phosphate, clay, and sand. The general location of the deposits is just west of Santos and from the Dunnellon area to the Gulf coast. The specific locations of present and past mining activity are shown on the inventory maps B, C, and E. Limestone occurs at or near the earth's surface in much of the study area. For the most part, the limestone is of a very high grade; in many instances, the calcium carbonate content reaches 99.9 percent.” But even though the rock is of a high quality, there is no mining of lime- stone in the study area. This fact is due to the existence of highly developed mining operations about thirty miles south of the canal route in Sumter County, twelve miles south in Citrus County, and in an area about five miles west of Ocala where six quarries now operate. ”W. D. Reves, "Mineral Resources Adjacent to the Proposed Trans-Florida Barge Canal" (Tallahassee: Florida Geological Survey, November 6, 1960), p. l. (Mimeographed.) This source was used for information relating to mineral resources in the study area. the pri cement The twc obtain mined i 62 Although there are many possible uses of limestone, the primary ones are: as a base for road construction, in cement and lime manufacturing, and as a soil conditioner. The two abandoned rock quarries shown on Map E were used to obtain rock for county road construction. Of the limestone mined in the state today, Florida consumes the entire supply. Dolomite, or magnesium limestone, is found in both Citrus and Levy Counties about five miles from the Gulf coast. Studies have not been made to determine either the extent or the composition of the supply, according to the Florida Geological Survey.5 Local, private studies have indi- cated a commercial supply, however, as shown in the operation of two dolomite quarries in the area. One is at Lebanon Station, thirteen miles north of the study area. The other is located at the western end of Lake Rousseau (Map B). Spot checks by the Florida Geological Survey in a study of the magnesium resources of the state indicated that some samples of dolomite in this area had a magnesium car- bonate content of AN.82 percent.6 The average content is slightly lower. Production amounts and values are not available due to the small number of operations involved. Major uses of dolomite are as agricultural limestone and fertilizer filler. The mineral, consumed mostly in 5Interview with R. 0. Vernon, Director of the Florida Geological Survey, Tallahassee, November 18, 1966. 6Reves, op. cit., p. 9. Floril the st 63 Florida, helps control soil acidity and adds nutrients to the soil. Other uses, all of which are within the state, are in glass manufacture and as flux for claiming magnesium from sea water. A zone just over ten miles wide running north and south and centering on Dunnellon in the study area contains hard and soft rock phosphate. Soft rock mines are located north of Dunnellon,as shown on Map C, and both hard and soft rock mining is carried on south of the city. The higher-valuehard rock has been nearly exhausted from the area south of Dunnellon over the past years,but in the pro- cess much of the silt, soft clays, and some hard rock ore were left as debris. These sump areas are being reworked today. Some of the hard rock ore may exceed eighty percent bone phosphate of lime.7 Combined hard and soft rock phosphate production in the area, while important locally, has amounted to no more than two percent of the total output in Florida.8 This region is only an extension of one of the world's largest phosphate deposits which is centered in Hillsborough and Polk Counties. The 196" U. S. Bureau of Mines Preprint on the Mineral Industry of Florida indicated, however, that prospecting in the Dunnellon area had located a twenty-one year supply of phosphate raw material. 71b1d., p. 11. 81bid. 6A Principal uses of phosphate are in the manufacture of superphosphate or triple phosphate for fertilizer and in stock and poultry feed. Marketing of the product is world- wide. Most of the mineral mined is taken, by rail, to the industrial and shipping operations complex in the Tampa Bay area. The Oklawaha River Valley is a potential resource area for phosphatic sands and clays, limestone and fuller's earth, according to the Florida Geological Survey's "Mineral Resources and Industries of Florida" map dated 1956. Sand and gravel pits and two kaolin mines exist in Putnam County within twelve miles northeast of Orange Springs, but there are no pits or mines inside the study area. Kaolin is the most valuable clay mined in close proximity to the canal. It is of high quality, having 38.7 percent aluminum oxide, A5.9 percent silicon dioxide, 1A.l6 percent ignition loss, and 1.23 percent trace oxides.9 White firing kaolins from Putnam County are of high quality for use in the ceramics industry. Brick manufacturing is a local use for other clays. Quartz sand, for the local building industry and for the Anchor Hocking Glass Manufacturing Company in Jackson- ville, is the most important sand product. Surveys are being conducted by private concerns in relation to the value of heavy mineral sands in southwest Putnam County. 9Ibid., p. 17. most c clays firms COTTTEI state study i amount 65 Whereas most of the sand is being marketed in Florida, most of the kaolin is shipped out of the state. Sands and clays in this area are presently being surveyed by private firms to test their content for the purpose of identifying commercial minerals. Each of these minerals has great reserves in the state and each has the potential for development in the study area. Limestone has the only estimate given as to the amount of the reserves. The counties adjacent to the canal route and to the St. Johns River (Fig. 3) contain nearly 1.5 trillion tons of rock. This resource has less than fifteen feet of overburden and could be mined from a depth of less than forty feet.10 Reves, noted in footnotes above, asserts that in these counties dolomite and phosphate reserves are "great," clays are "quite extensive," and sand reserves are "voluminous." Open pit mining is the type used in obtaining each of these minerals,although the specific methods differ. On occasion, limestone is mined below the artesian water level, and some clays and sands can be obtained from rivers and lakes. As a result of this open type of mining’large scars have been left in the earth after mining operations have ceased. In several counties, Manatee and Sarasota, for example, laws have recently been passed which will greatly 101bid., p. 5. anelio mining before plans lose a to faci portati rear tn Lake R01 taken b1 the rat: amount . the St. 3 fi. “Te-”a r. EXCIUSis 66 ameliorate this problem in the future. In these counties, mining Operators must present plans for land reclamation before an operation is started and they must complete these plans within a specified period after operations cease or lose a preposted bond to the county. Map 0 shows railroad spur lines that have been built to facilitate the movement of phosphate. Use of rail trans- portation is characteristic of most of the mining operations near the study area. The dolomite quarry at the west end of Lake Rousseau (Map B) is an exception. From it the stone is taken by truck approximately five miles south to a plant on the railroad at Citronelle. In Putnam County, a small amount of the sand and clay products have been trucked to the St. John's River to be transhipped to northeastern markets. Intra Florida movements of these materials are almost exclusively made by truck. Ground and Surface Waters Ground and surface water is found in abundant supply in the study area. The Floridan aquifer, however, provides much of the water used in this part of the state from source rocks of Eocene to middle Miocene epochs. Ocala, Dunnellon, and Palatka get their municipal supplies from wells that are about 600 feet deep. Dunnellon, with the only municipal water system in the study area, pumps approximately A0,000 gallons per day to meet its needs. Industrial and major agrlc about produ from Mn.) 511$ avail 67 agricultural supplies mostly come from shallower wells about 100-150 feet deep. Small domestic wells generally produce from a depth of fifty to one hundred feet. Over one billion gallons of water per day flow from Rainbow and Silver Springs without being used by man. This lack of use is because good quality ground water is available, at a reasonable cost, by digging wells. An exception to this general availability of potable ground water is along U. S. Highway 19 south of Inglis. One reason for the lack of develOpment there is the high iron and sulfur content of the water. The best water is from wells which are six to seven feet deep, and even this must be conditioned before utilization. A brief history of the use of the Oklawaha and Withlacoochee Rivers has been provided in Chapter Two. To gain a more complete understanding of these two rivers, attention must be given to water control problems associated with each. In both cases the more severe flooding and drought conditions are found in the upper reaches of the rivers rather than in the study area. A review report on the Oklawaha River Basin, prepared for the Department of Water Resources, states that the portion of the Oklawaha below Silver Springs experiences less severe problems due to periodic flooding and drought than does the upper reaches and head- water lakes.11 Several factors explain this point. The 11Department of Water Resources, op. cit., p. 13. 68 population density is higher above Silver Springs Run and agricultural and residential land use is more develOped. In addition, extremely high and low water is detrimental to fishing and the latter impedes navigation. Below Silver Springs Run the steady flow of artesian water, approximately 650 million gallons per day, drains down a winding, woods-bordered, channel and continually undercuts the banks. This steady source of water mitigates the drought possibilities, but the undercutting often causes trees to fall and passage is blocked. In this reach the walls of the waterway are higher and more precipitous than above the run, which lessens the problem of the flood periods. Because of the large size of the Oklawaha basin, a period of continuously heavy rainfall creates a surplus of water in the lakes, swamps, and marshes of the upper portion of the valley. Consequently, as the run-off reaches the main channel, flood conditions occur. To some extent the periods of flood and drought are ameliorated by the small flood control structure on the Oklawaha at Moss Bluff about ten miles south of Silver Springs Run. Short periods of high water in the winter are characteristic of the whole valley in most years. From the Oklawaha River Basin report a general assessment can be made of the damages incurred in the lower basin area during the flood of 1960.12 In March, 1960, a 121bid., pp. 20-25. stat abcv acre 69 stationary front lay across north—central Florida and the 2,130 square mile drainage basin received about ten inches of rain in four days. Flooding resulted from the discharge of the excessive accumulation of water. Major losses were: 1. improved pasture, in the Heather Island area (Map F), where the existing drainage system was overtaxed and nearly 1,000 acres of grass were inundated at an estimated damage of twenty-five dollars per acre; 2. slash pine, at various locations along the river, where the trees were in water for a period of over three months; 3. the development at Silver Springs which reported damages of 50,000 dollars to landscaping, docks, and sea walls. The timber losses noted above were estimated at an average of thirty dollars per acre. Additional problems, due to high water on the lower Oklawaha, include damage to wild game habitat, poor fishing, flooded woods roads, interrupted ferry service, and septic tank malfunction. Cabins built close to the river often flood, especially in the area just south of the Orange Ferry (Map K). Reasons for flooding are the same in the Withla- coochee basin as in the Oklawaha and the rivers flood at the same time due to their common climate and the close proximity of their sources in the Green Swamp. The study of the Withlacoochee flood of 1960 indicates that the 70 damages were similar to those in the Oklawaha basin.13 Due to the greater use of Lake Rousseau and the lower Withla- coochee for residential develOpment)there was a greater amount of damage to residential structures, landscaping, paved roads, and septic tank sewerage systems. Correspond- ingly, there was less damage to agricultural and forest lands. The Inglis dam, which is now maintained by the Southwest Florida Water Management District, is an adequate structure for the regulation of water flow in most years, but it is totally inadequate as a flood control structure following a period of excessive rainfall such as happened in 1960. In March of that year, which was preceded by three abnormally wet years, there was an average of over 12 inches of rainfall in the 2200 square mile drainage area in a five-day period. As a result the constricted channel at and below the dam could not handle the torrent of water seeking sea level. The river level exceeded the twelve- fifteen feet maximum below the dam and Inglis and Yankeetown suffered considerable residential and road damage. The water level in Lake Rousseau is maintained between twenty-five to twenty-seven feet under normal 13Department of Water Resources, Preliminary_Report on Flood Control Problems-Withlacoochee River, Florida, A report prepared by Maurice H. ConneIl and Associates, Inc. (Tallahassee, Florida: Department of Water Resources, March, 1961), pp. 12-18. cond to p per brou the l 71 conditions. In spite of a disclaimer clause in the deeds to property on Lake Rousseau, both the Florida Power Cor- poration and the State of Florida have had liability suits brought against them due to flood damage. This problem has been given as a factor in the transfer of dam ownership to the state from the power company.1u The Corps of Engineers has studied the upper Oklawaha (south of Silver Springs Run) and the Withlacoochee River Basins as a part of the Four River Basins Project in central Florida. The purpose of the project is to review the overall flood protection and water-control problems in these rivers and the Hillsborough and the Peace Rivers. This report indicates that a minor flood such as the one in 1959, has an estimated frequency of occurrence of once in ten years, while the severe type, like the 1960 flood, has one of once in twenty-five years.15 Characteristics of Soil Associations Soil conditions in the study area are relatively complex. This is true even though over 90 percent of the soils are sandy in texture. Complexities arise due to the varied conditions of drainage, base materials and depth of ll'Interview with Donald Feaster, Engineer of Operations, Southwest Florida Water Management District, Brooksville, Florida, August 22, 1966. 15Corps of Engineers, Four River Basins, Florida, Multiple-Purpose Project (Jacksonville: U. S.Army Engineer District, September 28, 1965), p. 7. 72 the sand. Generalized soil association maps are the only ones available for the four counties crossed by the canal route. A modern survey is in progress in Marion County to up-date the one made by the federal government in 189“. According to the Soil Conservation Service, however, no detailed studies are contemplated in the near future for Levy, Citrus, and Putnam Counties.16 Based on data available and interviews with various soil conservation agents and the county agents of Putnam and Marion Counties, the decision was made to identify the soils in this investigation by soil associations. These broad-area generalizations usually cover several thousand acres and often include several quite different kinds of soil that appear in juxtaposition in a small area. However, the use of soil associations assures a satisfactory degree of reliability at the scale of mapping used in this study. The discussion that follows designates the various characteristics of the soil associations noted on the inventory maps and indicates their relation to vegetation and land use. Numbers ascribed to the associations, and used to identify them on the inventory maps, are those used by the Soil Conservation Service. A quantitative measure of the distribution of soil associations and land use by map region is shown on Table l and 2.) These 15Interview with D. P. Powell, Soil Specialist for Interpretation, Soil Conservation Service, Gainesville, Florida, May 3, 1966. 73 tables may be useful as the sections on soils and vegetation are read. Soil Association 1 is typified by undulating sand hills with occasional isolated lakes. The dominant soils are light colored, excessively drained, acid sands usually over twelve feet deep. The horizons are coarse textured, usually more than thirty inches thick,and rest on stratified sandy clay substrata. Slopes are predominantly gentle, but often become precipitous close to lakes and sink holes.17 These soils make up a large part of those in the Ocala National Forest. Their distribution in the canal area is indicated on Maps D, E and H-L. Sand pine, scrub and turkey oak, palmetto and rose- mary make up the natural vegetation on these sands. Some hardwoods such as laurel oak, black gum and bay are found on these soils in a band (or ecotone) about twenty feet wide bordering the fresh water swamp $0113.18 This phenomena is due to frequent high water periods and occurs primarily in areas shown on Maps H-K. 17Soil descriptions given here are taken from inter- views in the Soil Conservation Service offices in Gainesville and Ocala, Florida, in the spring and summer of 1966, and from the "General Soils Maps" of Putnam County, October, 1959, Marion County, August, 1956, Citrus County, October, 1959, and Levy County, Octoben,l959. Also used were loose leaf descriptions of each soil association provided by the 80%; Conservation Service, Gainesville, Florida, October 2“, 19 . 18Interview with Paul Bielling, Marion County Farm Forester, Ocala, Florida, June 15, 1966. 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OCALA NAIIONAL FORESY baa—=1 x50 AJA3O JAHOHAM Y8!!O‘ 120 120 CHAPTER IV MAN AND HIS WORKS Although the natural characteristics of the land were discussed first, and the important relation between the land and man is acknowledged, it must be realized that man is the most important of the phenomena on the land. Man is independent of his environment to the extent that he can modify it. A human's ability to think allows him to plan and evaluate his use of the space in which he lives. The proper application of this talent can lead to wise land use, whereas a lack of it can culminate in the desecration of the land. This chapter, in concert with the inventory maps, helps to further explain the present use of the land inventoried by analyzing the cultural features of that space. Population and Housing Permanent inhabitants in the study area number approximately 3,913 (Table 3). 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MAPM3 216 Recognizing the evident lack of planning for com- mercial develOpment in past years, the functional maps identify certain areas for this use because the design will provide order to the landscape, will afford more convenient commercial activity, and will allow better regulation Of the resultant traffic. Also, Special zones for persons who want to purchase small lots for modest dwellings, including cottages, cabins and trailers, or campsites are designated. Occupancy here would probably be temporary, such as during weekends or vacations, but zoning needs to be established tO keep out blight conditions. NO special differentiation or planning is identified in regard either to the density Of residential development or tO the building codes needed to control new construction. That type of designing would necessarily be done at a different scale from the one used in this study, and it would more naturally be the responsi- bility of the urban planner.l Zoning and building codes must be developed in line with the criteria discussed in Chapter Five. Commercial develOpment in respect tO location, size, and kind of stores should reflect the type of area it serves. Most needed in the study area will be small shOpping centers to provide convenience goods and personal services for the resident, the traveler, and the temporary visitor such as 1Interview with Edward McClure, Head Of the Urban Planning Department Of the Florida State University, Tallahassee, March 10, 1967. 217 the sportsman. A neighborhood center having approximately ten shOps, including a large grocery and a drugstore, would require one-thousand families in its trade area.2 The loca- tions at the crossroads south Of Lake Rousseau (Map B3) and west Of Eureka POOl (Map F3) are suggested as the only ones that will meet this criterion. Recreation sites along the canal will be Of several types. While specific characteristics will be discussed later with the individual maps, several general statements can be made at this time. For each develOpment a responsible body or governmental level is identified as a funding source for site improvement in cooperation with the Corps Of Engineers. The primany agency, of course, is the Corps itself which will promote the various areas as a part of the waterway project. The larger parks will include playgrounds, beaches, camping and picnic areas, hiking and nature trails, boating facilities and designated places for water skiing. Those locations at the locks and dams will include parking and overlook spaces for automobiles and sightseeing tours. The scenic parkway and the wildlife reserves will be discussed with the map on which they appear. A commercial outdoor- oriented enterprise is the marina. Each of these firms should provide launching and beaching accommodations, and the necessities for boating and fishing, repair and storage 2Mary McLean (ed.), Local Planning Administration (Chicago: The International City Manager's Association, 1959), P- 135. 218 services, and possibly a restaurant and motel. The other special land uses will be discussed in relation tO their specific location, and any important deviation from the above generalizations will be noted in the paragraphs that follow. Optimum Land Use in the Withlacoochee Valley Area Iap A3 is characterized by the port and industrial sites at the Gulf terminus Of the waterway. As indicated in Chapter Five, this is the primary area identified by repre- sentatives Of barge companies for creation Of a port. The design shown on this map provides for loading and unloading Spaces on both sides of the canal entrance. A major marshalling yard for waiting vessels or for large tow make—up is located in the northwest part Of the installation. The configura- tion of the facilities takes advantage Of the natural shape of the coastline. Use is made of the rock and fill dirt dredged from the water. Protection is provided by Offshore islands. Because Of the cost involved in the construction of the port, public ownership by Citrus County is recommended. The facility will also need utility and access services, Of which the provision of fresh water would cause a problem. The county could build and lease warehouse and Office space to interested cOmpanies and rent to users space and equipment for general loading requirements. Although highway access is good, the section north of the canal will not have rail connections unless either the Withlacoochee on the north 4 219 or the canal on the south are bridged and a spur line laid. Otherwise, the Operation that requires rail tranSportation must locate on the south side of the harbor. Industrial zoning is shown between the port and a line just east of Highway U.S. 19. This area can accommodate the various types Of industry described in Chapter Five, and is large enough to allow for on-site mining Of magnesium dolomite if the chemical company that owns much Of this acreage so desires. Both north and south of the canal the orientation must be toward the central access road and to the water or U.S. 19 rather than to the canal. The reason for this restriction is the bank fishing area that has been established by the Corps of Engineers. No breaks will be permitted through this recreation development. Because Of the thin lens of fresh ground water in this area, this writer suggests that a water system be developed by Citrus County. Selective pumping of several wells that penetrate the artesian aquifer inland Of the ten- foot level of the piezometric surface3 could provide a great amount Of potable water. The exact location of this ten-foot contour is not known, but it is somewhere west of U.S. 19. Recreation is provided at the public beach; fishing is possible in both the Withlacoochee River and the canal and around the Offshore islands. The marina north Of the 3An imaginary surface which coincides with the static level of ground water in an aquifer. 220 public beach will be develOped by Levy County and leased to a major Oil company.“ The town Of Inglis should benefit from industrial development, from continued growth Of retirement and tourist trade, and from an increase in highway-oriented trade. The new connecting road between the industrial area and Highway H88, and the shopping center on that road (Map B3) will tend to unite this northwest corner of Citrus County. Map B3 exemplifies expected local trends in pOpulation, recreation, forestry and agriculture. As the population increases, residential uses will continue to occupy and fill in the land on the lake and around the citrus groves. Even- tually, as in south Florida, the groves, tOO, will be sub- divided for residential development. South of Highway #88 the areas laid out for housing before 1966 will show increased growth. Recreation will serve tO draw both tourists and Floridians to the area. Sightseeing, boating, fishing, camping, and picnic facilities will be highly develOped in the Corps and state parks. The bridge over the dam will pro- vide access to the area previously designated as a wildlife management area. Opening two areas on the north bank of the lake to cabins and campsites could serve to meet the demands of weekend and holiday vacationers who like the outdoors. “Interview with Buren Brice, Chairman of the Levy County Port Authority, Bronson, Florida, March 2, 1967. 221 Zoning will be important here to serve as a bulwark against the possibilities of dumps, abandoned automobiles, shacks, and other undesirable items. Studies Of the fish habitat and the nature Of the bottom of the lake will determine where spoil will be placed. Little dredging will be needed in much of the lake reach and most of the small amount Of Spoil will be placed on the bottom. Some Of this material will be used, however, to build up existing islands which can be planted in pine. Care must be taken not to eliminate all Of the swamp forest areas. Under management the second growth forests north of Lake Rousseau can be maintained as continuously productive woods and can support turkey, deer, and small game for the hunter. To a limited extent, this sports use can be made of the pine flatwoods south Of the lake, but the denser human occupancy will tend to restrict activities other than forestry. Planted pine is encouraged on most lands that are now devoted to unimproved pasture, watermelon, and peaches. Pulpwood production is the long-term goal, but if population growth is greater than expected, the trees will make the acreage more valuable as residential land. Isolated commercial develOpment such as a general store and fish camps will continue to exist on the north shore, and the Citrus County area will be sufficiently populated to support a neighborhood shOpping center. The location indicated is desirable because it is central, not 222 only to the residential areas in the study area, but to Citronell, three miles directly south. Another commercial change is the elimination of the dolomite pit west of the dam. This activity will be moved by 1975 and, by leveling the overburden and the creation Of ponds as needed, the land can be reclaimed for residential use. Paved roads around the lake, in residential areas, across the dam, and to the marina will stimulate growth. As mentioned previously, zoning and building codes will be important to a healthy development Of this land, but also desirable is a publicity program which will advertise the assets of the region. - An example of a.1and use that would be detrimental would be the develOpment Of a phosphate loading facility on the north shore Of Lake Rousseau. Dust in the air and phosphate in the water would have an adverse effect on both recreational and residential land use, and such an Operation would not be desirable from the transportation viewpoint because it would involve bringing empty barges through the Inglis lock to the loading site. Map C3 presents a reasonable location for the tran- shipment Of goods. The convergence Of railroad, highway, and canal routes will support the develOpment of two small port facilities and industrial parks, one each in Marion and Citrus Counties. Advantage can be taken of natural features in both cases, yet in each there is a problem to overcome. 223 In Marion County the docks and commercial area will have tO be built where a sand ridge that reaches over fifty feet in elevation now exists. The port facility on Blue Run is a good location and will not require extensive earth moving, but the construction Of an industrial complex will. Also, it will be necessary to install a Spur rail line because the incline to the main railroad bridge must start nearly a mile north Of the canal to meet the minimum clearance requirement of sixty-five feet above the waterway. In Citrus County the principal problem in port and industrial park develOpment will be the filling in Of swamp forest areas. An advantage Of this site is that the barge basins can utilize Old phosphate pits that are in excess of twelve feet deep and are located in the Withlacoochee River just south of the canal. Major transportation route changes can be seen on Map C3 when compared with Map Cl. NO particular problems are present in this connection, although the bridges to provide a sixty-five foot clearance are costly. The old automobile span southwest Of Dunnellon must be maintained to provide access to the residents on the island that will be created between the canal and the river in that area. Access will also have to be provided for the peOple who live south Of the waterway east of Dunnellon (Map C2). This writer suggests that instead of the prOposed new county road one- half mile south of the canal from Highway 200 (Map D3) to U.S. Al, the Corps of Engineers should build a scenic drive 22H on the canal right-Of-way, which would extend from Dunnellon to Highway 301 south of Ocala (Map E3). This road could go under the railroad bridge and cross the Withlacoochee over the Old Seaboard Railroad overpass right—of-way as shown on Map C3. An additional means of access to the general area would be gained by reopening the Dunnellon airport. The major traffic would be private tourist flights, however, rather than commercial or executive craft as some suppose. Little change is recommended in forestry and agri- cultural land use. Some Of the present extensively farmed pasture land should be planted in pine, although more inten- sive development as grazing land is also reasonable. Residential use will extend primarily to the north Of Dunnellon and toward Lake Rousseau. In the north it is desirable to reclaim the phosphate lands, by leveling over- burden and the creation of ponds, for attractive housing development. This has been done successfully elsewhere, for example in Polk County. A possible alternative for housing would be the area just southwest Of the lock, east Of the new railroad overpass. The land shown as pine flat- wood and improved pasture could provide homesites if the new road is placed as indicated on the map and advised above. A major problem could arise because of the relocation Of approximately fifty Negro families whose situation was discussed in Chapter Five. This writer suggests that a federal housing project (Map C3) be built in sufficient time to allow 225 for an orderly move. This settlement in the designated loca- tion would improve the living conditions of these citizens, would provide a residential site near their original homes and would furnish quarters which they could afford. Optimum Land Use in the Ridge Section Less intensive use Of land is characteristic Of Map D3. The upland pine and oak vegetation on the very sandy dry soils could best be used by develOping a wildlife sanctuary in conjunction with the county park on Ross Marsh. The Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission would be responsible for this project. The Canal Authority presently owns land to a point one-half mile back from the canal centerline, and by trading some acreage and purchasing the rest, this wildlife area could add to the outdoor recreation potential of the study region.5 A special factor would be the lack of hunting in the reserve because Of its relatively small size and because of the need for animal protection around the marsh. Engineering studies should be made to establish the feasibility Of placing a low level dam parallel to each side Of the canal to maintain the normal water level in the bog. At present the floor of the wet area is approximately fifty feet above sea level. If the average level of the surface 5Interview with H. E. Wallace, Assistant Director, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, Tallanassee, February 28, 1967. 226 of the waterway is lower than that height, and it is sure to be, the karst feature will be drained. TO explore this problem the procedure then, would be to check to see whether the organic layer on the floor Of the marsh, the limestone supporting it, and the local water table would hold the present quantity of water if impounding structures were installed. Additional changes contemplated in land use on Map D3 include some more planted pine and a small service space for travel, tourist, and recreation needs. All agri- cultural use of this area Should disappear, although some Of the woodland will serve as limited acreage residence sites. The extension Of the scenic drive from Dunnellon to Highway U.S. 301 follows along the canal and through the wildlife sanctuary. The Corps of Engineer's Scenic Parkway dominates Map E3. This use was designated by the Corps as desirable rather than an alternate one Of reselling the land to the public for residential, agricultural, or industrial use. Three factors influenced this decision. First, the Engineers desire reasonable control over the land use in the Summit Pool reach. Secondly, they could complete a program that would keep the area in public use and fit it into the overall recreation development. Finally, the elevation at this point is between thirty to fifty feet above the level of the canal surface, and the federal agency would be most able to 227 utilize the overburden to create a scenic parkway of nature trails, overlooks, bridle paths, and picnic areas.6 NO commercial traffic or business enterprise will be allowed in the parkway. It is an interesting fact that the intersection of Interstate 75 and the canal will not produce a major land use change. This is explained by the relative location Of the Interstate away from utilities, other means of transportation, and from the urban area. For travelers leaving the Interstate to visit the parkway a small commercial area will develOp. POpulation pressure will create a demand for the residential areas noted and may, in time, impinge on the pastures for thoroughbreds shown on the good soils Of this area. The Fishburn Cemetery has been relocated about One- half mile south Of its original Site. The land in the northeast corner of the study space will develop highway and service oriented business and an industrial park which is primarily on Map F3. Indicated land use change in the area between the railroads on Map F3 is from residential and agricultural to industrial. This modification is an extension Of the present zoning plans of Marion County as well as an influence of the 6Interview with Ard L. Eulenfeld, Project Planner, Corps Of Engineers, Jacksonville, December 22, 1966. 228 barge canal.7 All of the factors needed by industry are present at this location. Because of the problems related to maintaining a minimum water level in the Summit Pool, the harbor slips will necessarily have to be small. The larger port area behind the docking space north of the waterway indicates public warehousing and storage units. AS in each industrial complex noted in the study, not all Of the plants will be oriented toward the canal. In fact, most Of them may not be, particularly at this Site. Additional highway and rail access can be develOped within the park as needed. Highway and service oriented businesses will develOp on U.S. 301, and a neighborhood shopping center will be build on Highway “6“ to meet the needs Of the residential growth both toward Ocala and along the Eureka Pool. These same people will be served by the county park on the canal. Also to be noted is the relocation of the Capulet cemetery from the canal right-Of-way. Optimum Land Usein the Oklawaha Valley Area The large private housing area on the Eureka Pool will tend to be a highly developed and advertised retirement haven with the possible creation of parks and a small beach. The special character Of this pool is important. Its average 7Interview with John Hastings, Marion County Planner, Ocala, January 12, 1967. 229 depth could well be less than three feet, and on occasions the water's edge may recede one-hundred feet or more in relatively level areas. A minimum level, not as yet deter- mined, will be maintained by regulating the outflow at the Eureka Dam. A major use of this water feature will be fishing. There may be hunting on the privately owned north and east banks. A possible health problem to the new residents could be the existence Of encephalitis-carrying mosquitoes. The cattle Operation that has existed here before flooding could be moved to leased land across Highway N64. Map G3 represents an extension Of the present multi- use character Of the land without change in the cover Of natural vegetation in much of the area. It shows an expan- siOn or intensification of previous activities,such as the residential and commercial uses north Of Highway “0 east Of the river, and an addition Of the canal and park facilities. The residential section on the south border is an extension Of the retirement development shown on Map F3. The Cross- Florida Barge Canal Headquarters building is shown at the , location Of the Silver Springs lock. COOperation among the private land owners, the forest services, the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, and the Corps of Engineers is vital to Optimum use of this area. Coordination will eliminate needless duplication Of activities, will provide the best location for camping and 230 sites for water sports, and will regulate hunting effectively. Timber production and more fire protection will continue to be an integral part Of the activities here. Access to the land on the east side Of the lock will not be adequate without the addition of the bridge shown on the map. This structure is necessary especially to forestry and recreational uses. The road leading to it from Highway #0 should be paved. The enlarging of Silver Run might be capitalized upon by Silver Springs Incorporated by the addition of some attractions along the banks that fit into the natural setting. These sites then could be serviced by a conveyance such as a type Of sky-ride or monorail. Except for these possibili- ties, the Silver Springs enterprise will be unaffected by the canal. Land use change On the Eureka and Rodman Pools, on Map H3 through L3, points out the accelerating effect the canal project will have on the area. The present major uses--recreation, retirement and non-permanent residential, privately owned forests, and general land improvement in the Ocala National Forest-~will be more intensively develOped. The major reasons for the various trends are: the additional water surface and waterfront prOperty, the promotion Of better access, pOpulation growth, and a coordinated development pro- gram largely backed by federal funds. U. S. Forest Service recreation sites for camping, hiking, picnicing, and nature study will be built with 231 running water, restroom, and cooking facilities. The dirt roads and the relatively isolated locations Of some Of these Spots reflect the Open, back-tO-nature, non—commercial character Of this program. It will be necessary for the Youth Camp to move its waterfront develOpment, but the cost of relocation will be borne by the Canal Authority, and the conservation work will not suffer (Map H3). This report retains the lake names and the Oklawaha designation and pre- dicts that they will not disappear. Private cabins and campsite locations indicated on Map I3 will provide a small lot for the weekend vacationer, or for the visitor wanting to stay for a longer period. Some persons might wish to make this area a permanent residence, but usually the stay will be temporary. The hamlet of Eureka should show some growth as a housing area for wild- life Officers, retired persons and personnel who work at the lock and dam or in the marina. National Forest regulations will prohibit residential land use from developing on the east bank Of the reservoir on this map. Maps J3 and K3 show a continuation Of the same utili- zation pattern. It is significant that this is entirely compatible with previous uses and that it fits into the recreation program Of the navigation project. On each map several spoil iSlands have been drawn in to denote the probability that a few such islands will be created. The Corps, as indicated in Chapter Five, will plant these features 232 in natural vegetation. Two other uses for Spoil will be to improve shorelines and to build beaches at the recreation Sites. The marina on Map K3 should be a large enterprise that would include boat and motor repair and sales, services for the sports needs of the area, a restaurant, and motel. It is possible that the facility might be closer to the park across the inlet, but the location shown is better in regard to water access, and there is an excellent view both up and down river. The Orange Ferry Operation permit will be leased from the Corps of Engineers. Private ownership of the land at the east end Of the ferry will prohibit the development Of a public park at that point. Planted pine land will make Optimum use of the sandy soils located along the north shore, east of the marina and to the east Of Rodman Dam (Maps K3 and L3). It is important to note that the small trees would be planted in an existing but very poor quality pine flatwood. It is between Orange Springs and the St. Johns River that the land has been severely overcut, and a well-managed reforestation program has not been implemented. The present limited use for sheep and cattle grazing will expand only slightly, remaining essentially unchanged. Large, well-developed recreation areas by the Corps Of Engineers and the wildlife management area dominate Map L3. A good publicity program will bring many peOple to the canal 233 area. The St. Johns Lock, the Rodman Dam, and these facili— ties for outdoor activities would be the first stOps on the canal for the visitors coming from northeast Florida. The commercial activity at the junction of Highways 19 and 310, though, being primarily highway-oriented, could contain a motel-hunting lodge complex. The Sweetwater Creek Wildlife Management Area would grow and protect a good habitat for fowl and small game. Hunting and fishing conditions would be excellent in this area. Map M3 is characterized by the St. Johns River and its relatively unchanged banks Of swamp forest vegetation. The completion of the canal will necessitate that the lock and the adjoining park and fishing banks be develOped by the Corps Of Engineers. Optimum land use will call for planted pine on the cutover lands and an enlargement of the pastured area on Highway 19. The marina is merely an expan- sion of the fishing camp that is presently located there, and its growth will be due to a normal pOpulation increase rather than to the existence of the waterway project. Industrial, residential, and other more intensive uses of the land will not develop at this end of the canal, partly because of the lack of major highway and railroad access and of utility services. One or more of these factors hurt both the canal and the St. Johns develOpment potential. More significant, the proximity to Palatka where these and other criteria can be better met, plus the cost of preparing 23A swamp forest land for heavy use, and the modest market area, are factors that will tend to influence business and industry to locate to the north between Palatka and Jacksonville. The advent of the St. Johns-Indian River Canal, however, would probably provide impetus for the construction Of a small marshalling yard at the juncture of the barge canal and the St. Johns River. Linear Land Use Changes A linear measurement Of the major land uses on both sides Of the waterway before construction Of the waterway, as compared to a similar assessment Of the suggested uses described in this chapter, provides an idea Of the most significant changes in the utilization Of the space (Table 5). The use as natural forest loses the largest amount Of frontage, about seventy-five miles in all. The figures given in Table 5 were gained by gauging, according to the categories provided, the linear mileage on both banks Of the dry land cuts and the shoreline before and after completion Of the reservoirs. Of the natural vegetation areas the swamp forest lost the most frontage because it occupied the areas Of lowest elevation. Some of this land and other locations in natural forest will not disappear actually, but were placed in a different category because of a change in the major emphasis Of the utilization of space. For example, the land on Map D3 will stay in upland pine and oak, yet the major Objective 235 TABLE 5 MAJOR CHANGES IN LAND USE BETWEEN THE INVENTORY AND FUNCTIONAL MAP Linear Miles Net Miles Major Land Use Before After Canal Canal Gain LOSS Swamp Forest 71.5 l“.2 -- 57.3 Unimproved Pasture 18.1 -- -- 18.1 Pine Flatwood 29.“ 21.5 —- 7.9 Upland Pine and Oak 21.0 l“.7 -- 6.3 Hardwood Hammock 7.“ 2.9 -- “.5 Cottage and Campsite 0 27. 27.“ -— Recreation Sites 0 22 7 22.7 -- Planted Pine 0 l3 2 13.2 -- Scenic Parkway 0 l3 0 13.0 —- Industrial 0 11.2 11.2 -- Residential 15.0 20.5 5.5 -- Wildlife Sanctuary 0 5.3 5.3 -- Dry Sand Scrub “.8 9.3 “.5 -- Ports 0 “.“ “.“ -- for that space will be to serve as a wildlife sanctuary. The other major loss, that in unimproved pasture, is caused by the need to make better economic use Of that acreage as explained earlier in this chapter. Major gains are in land uses that are new in the immediate canal area. As seen in Table 5, seven of the nine categories are different from before, and they substantiate the notation that growth on the waterway will be largely recreational, residential and industrial (including port facilities). Other changes, such as for marinas or in coastal marsh, were less than two miles and were not included 236 in the table. Improved pasture, which did change in certain locations, balanced with equal gain and loss, a linear distance of 7.2 miles. Since the pool areas did not exist prior to flooding behind the dams, there is nO way to compare the land use on the shoreline before flooding. Most Of the land inundated was swamp forest, as noted on the inventory maps, the major exception being the improved pasture on Map F. This topic was discussed in Chapter Five. After completion of the project the vegetation or land use on the banks Of the reservoirs will be pine flatwood, nineteen miles; wildlife management area, 11.6 miles; residential, 7.6 miles; sand pine, 7.2 miles; swamp forest, 6.9 miles; and recreation sites, 6.5 miles. Several other types Of utilization can be noted on Maps F3-L3. Toward Optimum Land Use: A Summary A trend toward optimum land use, while speeded up, will not result solely because of the Opening of the barge canal. Normal pOpulation and economic growth, a need for public recreation land, property reevaluation and the accompanying pressure tO put land to work are other factors that affect the utilization of Space. Nevertheless, as the posture shown on the functional maps is achieved, as peOple move in, and as industry and other commercial development takes place, more service and construction jobs will be pro- vided which will raise the per capita income and provide a 237 broader base for the economy. These paychecks will repre- sent more money per capita because the positions require more skills, and the greater amount of full-time employment will lessen the insecurity Of the laborer's present situation. Although the new publicly owned lands in the study area will be taken Off the tax rolls, the increase in value Of the rest Of the land will be substantial, enough to more than Off-set the cost Of needed utilities and services the growth will demand. As industry grows and trees are out, these increased activities will also contribute to the county tax funds. The Corps of Engineers' Economic Evaluation states that, "Net land enhancement from provision Of new waterfront is estimated on a front-foot basis at thirty dollars for reservoir upland, twenty dollars for reservoir low ground or swamp, and ten dollars for canal frontage."8 These esti- mates are averages and their value is questionable except as they serve to point out a general agreement that the price Of property will increase. Before land use such as that presented on the func- tional maps can be achieved, man, i.e., landowners, govern- ment Officials, bankers, and others, must be willing to plan. They must be able to set rational objectives and must study to find the best means of reaching them. They must appropriate time and money toward the attainment Of common 8U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Economic Evaluation of Cross-Florida Barge Canal Project (Jacksonville: U. S. Army Engineer District) 238 goals. The representative Of the Corps Of Engineers, the State Legislator, the County Commissioner, the man from the Chamber Of Commerce, the businessman, and the landowner must each do his part, but each must start by recognizing the cardinal principle that Optimum utilization of space does not just happen: it must be paid for by cOOperation, plan- ning, concern for the public interest, work, and money. In Chapter Seven, the conclusions and recommenda- tions that have grown out Of this study will be presented. These comments will consider the validity Of the problem, the intellectual model, the procedures used, and the Significance of the investigation. CHAPTER VII CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Geography as a discipline has much to contribute to the study of land use and land use change. The Spatial approach, the use of maps as a tOOl for analysis and com— munication, and the provision Of a structure for investi- gating many physical and cultural phenomena in one area, are all geographical aids man can utilize in his pursuit Of Optimum use of his habitat. This study underscores the fact that the construc— tion of the Cross-Florida Barge Canal will affect a complex set of natural and cultural phenomena, and that immediate land use change will result along much of the waterway's length. Besides the alterations caused by the actual building of the project, other modifications, such as the develOpment Of port facilities, recreation sites, and indus- trial areas are inevitable. Some changes, such as greater residential construction, more intense utilization Of natural forest, and an increase in planted pine, are greatly affected by other factors besides the waterway project, i.e., the natural growth of the population and economy in central Florida, or by the tax re-evaluation programs that are in effect in each 239 2“0 county which it traverses. But even where the different use Of land is not caused by the presence Of the canal, the structure will tend to encourage develOpment at a rate and to a degree that is not normal for that area. It is important that the fact Of land use change be recognized SO that adequate study and planning can be done to provide a guide for the whole study area rather than to allow isolated, irrational change which leads to incompatible situations, duplication Of activity, and waste. Those agencies responsible for the various types Of planning on a larger, more detailed scale will be able to utilize this study as a pattern for the purpose of orientation. Lawmakers, business and professional men, county and state Officials, and private landowners will all have special uses for the information and ideas it provides. Optimum land use, as defined in Chapter One, is functional. It can be used to identify both the general needs and Opportunities that will characterize the study area. Although it is impossible to predict an exact amount of increase in the per capita income, land values, production of the land, orderly residential develOpment, employment, recreational Opportunities, and concern for conservation Of resources for this and future generations, each has been shown as expanding in its benefits to the public interest. This gain is identified or can be measured in several ways in the study--by using the maps, by extrapolation, and by logical argument. —-‘ 2“l The Operational intellectual model, which provided the frame of reference for constructing the functional maps is entirely adequate. It is limited only by the availability Of data and the ability of the researcher to include all relevant material and accurately judge its import. The importance of recognizing the existence of a land use problem is not as obvious as it might seem. The person who has doubts, however, needs only to lOOk about him to see the many examples of a lack Of planning, and read the newspapers to note the legal and economic problems that arise therefrom. Man must be made aware of the problem Of designing land use, and help should be provided toward adequately defining it. This paper meets those needs in regard to the study area. The input correctly calls for a survey of the history Of land use in the study area and an analysis Of the physi- cal and cultural characteristics of the Space. These prove valuable and provide a basis for the promotion Of heavy recreational utilization of the land close to the canal. History Shows that this focus is a logical extension of past economic activity and land use. The Cross-Florida Barge Canal project provides a means for planning and federal money for intensive develOpment. The historical background also gives an explanation for the retirement and tourist character of the project space. The analysis of the physical and cultural environ- ment proves essential to constructing the functional maps. 2“2 For example, it explains the elimination Of agriculture from the Lake Rousseau area, it furnishes the information necessary to judge the feasibility Of constructing port facilities, and it supplies the basis on which to build a case for the present need for zoning legislation. To the input section the inventory maps and the overlay method Of presentation were invaluable. The methods of investigation discussed in Chapter One were successful. Field Observation and careful consideration of personal interviews were vital to gathering and interpreting data and to deciding on Optimum land uses. The identification Of the intervening variables was dependent upon many factors. A careful examination of the requirements Of the physical structure Of the navigation project was necessary as was an understanding Of the fact that the Corps Of Engineers will Operate and manage the canal project and must approve Of all shoreline development. Planning and economic geography concepts regarding gross land use, utility and other service needs of various activities, and plant and port location requirements were important to this phase of the study and are necessarily recommended to persons who will use this study as an aid to specific plan- ning. These ideas and criteria then must be specially fitted to the site and situation factors Of any given land use. An important variable which must be controlled when multiple uses, such as those presented here, are to be 2“3 successful, is pollution. The possible sources of water contamination are: domestic and industrial sewage; oil or other discharge from boats; refuse dumping by citizens, especially in areas of heavy recreational uses; and misuse Of agricultural chemicals applied tO adjoining lands. These, however, apply only to water. Effective control Of dust, smoke, and excessive noise is also necessary to develOp Optimum utilization of land along the canal. Interviews in the study area identified relatively little conflict Of Objectives in regard to Optimum land use. The most important controversies are: a possible competi- tion for port and industrial sites among the counties on the canal route; the desire to establish a phosphate landing terminal on the north bank Of Lake Rousseau in an area that can best be developed for recreation; general lack Of interest in the welfare Of the persons located immediately south Of Dunnellon who must leave their homes; the futile plan tO use the land designated as scenic parkway south Of Ocala for industrial develOpment; and some Opposition to county wide zoning regulations.' This writer, whose suggestions are made in Chapter Six, believes that under the present organizational structure the citizens and the Officials Of the counties involved can study these conflicts and make rational decisions. From the output phase of the model, the functional maps, it can be concluded that intensive development Of every small area relative to jobs, income, or material production, 2““ is not necessary to the Optimum develOpment Of the whole study Space or of the four counties in the project. As models, they show the benefits Of wholistic planning, which in turn helps man identify land use generalizations, such as the existence of commercial develOpment at points near bridges over the canal, or the location Of recreation sites and marinas for public usage, or the need for additional access roads. The maps may also be applied toward educating the public about the need for planning for Optimum land use. Moreover, they may help peOple understand the goal Of con- servation as not only the protection of natural resources but also as their proper development and utilization toward meeting the needs Of people. Finally, the functional diagrams should predict Optimum land employment five to ten years after the canal is complete. In no case is there a sug- gestion made which will cause economic loss to the private landholder. In several cases, however, private land will have to be purchased by a governmental body in order to prO- vide a practice that might otherwise be impossible. In such instances the purchase price should be set in the same manner as is customary for land bought for navigation right-Of-way. The model is successful in helping peOple establish and evaluate goals. This is desirable because tOO Often peOple tend to claim excessive potential for available re- sources. It serves as a guide to identify the steps in land 2“5 use development, and it points out the need for multi- dimensional planning. Land uses, to be optimal, must be both vertically and horizontally compatible; that is, they must have continuity in time and be in harmony with neigh- boring utilization. Specific Recommendations As an outgrowth of this investigation, the writer has several special recommendations to make in regard to both the study itself and the implementation of the func- tional model. They are: l. The Optimum land use model presented here should be tested in 1970, 1975, and 1980, to determine the validity of the predictions made in the output section. If deviations are noted, care should be taken to identify the causes, whether they are the fault of the procedure used or of the existence of an unforeseen variable. 2. The structure of the intellectual model does not require that it be used only on land contiguous to transportation routes. Other studies using this method should be made to predict land use change (1) near where other types Of new transportation routes may be constructed and, (2) where other groupings of variables are involved. 3. The structure of the model does not determine the scale at which it should be used. Other similar 2“6 studies should be made to test its applicability both at larger and smaller scales. The Legislature of the State Of Florida should enact legislation which will grant cities and counties in Florida the following powers: (a) to establish local planning commissions, (b) to prepare community development plans, and (c) to adopt zoning ordinances, subdivision standards, and construction codes. This could also be achieved through a new Constitution which would establish home rule. The Legislature of the State of Florida should review existing anti-pollution statutes in order to provide effective legislation regarding the control Of the pollutants Of water and air (as well as ex- cessive noise). Where the laws are adequate, the enforcing agencies must be provided with staff, money, and authorityto uphold them. The Corps Of Engineers, in cOOperation with the State Board Of Health Should conduct studies at the appro- priate time to enable them tO develop an adequate mosquito control program in the area Of the barge canal. The Legislature Of the State of Florida should provide legislation which will enable the Canal Authority of the State Of Florida to purchase land for the non-navigation purposes Of recreation use 10. ll. 2“? outside of the Corps of Engineers' Recreation Master Plan. These areas would be for the Wildlife Sanctuary and the Management Area. The Corps Of Engineers should extend their proposed scenic drive westward to Dunnellon as shown on the functional maps. All of the public and private agencies interested in the use of land on the Cross-Florida Barge Canal, Should consider the necessity for cOOperation if Optimum land use is to be attained. This should include setting compatible goals and working, where possible, together toward those objectives. An edu- cational program on land use, a recreation and industrial publicity campaign, and the develOpment Of east-west tourist traffic flow, are only a few Of the suggestions that will be more quickly and economically gained through common efforts. A committee must be set up to solve the housing problem which will confront the persons who live immediately south of Dunnellon. These people should be represented in the discussion concerning their relocation Opportunities. This writer recommends the consideration Of this study as a valid model Of Optimum land use after construction of the Cross-Florida Barge Canal, and as a report based on the use Of scientific methods for the best interest of Florida's citizens. 2“8 Finally, with the completion of this investigation, the writer feels that strength is provided to the implica- tion made by Friedmann when he said that perhaps it is in the geography and the economics Of location that one can discover an adequate theoretical foundation for regional development and planning.1 This study can be used as a model for land use development not only in the study area) but as a guide to the development Of other regions. lJohn Friedmann, "Regional Planning as a Field Of Study," in Regional Development and Planning (Cambridge, Mass,: TheCM.I.TZ Press, 196“), p. 62. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books and Pamphlets The American Waterways Operators, Inc. Big Load Afloat. Washington, D. C.: By the Corporation, 1250 Connecticut Ave., 1956. . Waterside Site Plant Locations and Expansions 1965. Washington: 1250 Connecticut Ave., March, I966. (Pamphlet.) Barlowe, Raleigh. Land Resource Economics. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958. Black, J. D., Westcott, G. W., et al. Rural Planning Of One County. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959. Branch, M. C. Planning Aspects and Applications. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966. Chiles, Sinclair. A Florida Cross-State Ship Canal (1928).A pamphlet reprinted by the Canal Authority of the State Of Florida, Jacksonville. (Pamphlet.) Clawson, Marion. Man and Land in the United States. Lincoln: University Of Nebraska Press, 196“. Florida Development Commission. Population Of Florida. Tallahassee, 1965. (Pamphlet.) Friedmann, John, and Alonso, William (eds.). Regional Development and Planning. Cambridge: ‘The Massachusetts Institute Of Technology Press, 196“. Graham, Edward H. Natural Principles of Land Use. New York: Oxford University Press, 19““. Hartley, Joseph R. The Economic Effects Of Ohio River Navigation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1959. Hauser, P. M., and Schnore, L. F. (eds.). The Study Of Urbanization. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1965. 2“9 250 Humble Oil and Refining Company. Land DevelOpment Division. Bayport. Revised. Houston: By the Company, February 15, 1965. (Pamphlet.) Isard, Walter, and Cumberland, J. H. Regional Economic Planning. Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and DevelOpment, 1961. Jones, C. F. The Rural Land Classification Program Of Puerto Rico, Northwestern University Studies in Geography NO. 1. Chicago: Northwestern University, 1952. McLean, Mary (ed.). Local Planning Administration. Chicago: The International City Manager's Association, 1959. Ottoson, H. W. (ed.). Land Use Policy and Problems in the United States. Lincoln: University Of Nebraska Press, 1963. Tebeau, C. W., and Carson, R. L. Florida from Indian Trail tO Space Age. Vol. 1. Delray Beach: Southern Publishing Company, 1965. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Land Use and Its Patterns in the United States, Agriculture Handbook NO. 133, by F. J. Marschner. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1959. Urban Renewal Administration and Bureau of Public Roads. Standard Land Use Codinnganual. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1965. Vernon, Robert 0. Geology Of Citrus and Levy Counties, Florida, Florida Geological Bulletin No. 33. Tallahassee: Florida Geological Survey, 1951. White, William A. Some Geomorphic Features Of Central Peninsular Florida, Florida Geological Bulletin No. “1. Tallahassee: Florida Geological Survey, 1958. Whitney, M. The Soils Of Florida. Washington: U. S. Department Of Agriculture Bulletin NO. 13, 1898. Youngberg, G. A. 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