.’ 1‘.“Y\(~I Affif~ 5““ 1.5"} ? ars‘j'fi 4v}; - .- ‘61" 2k 1' wh'wvvus :J.\-Za¥ ‘ 3' .h; 3"“? '3. H: ' 1' ." . 4 ‘ arm: “um“. \ «1 “mm "* m ‘;‘“'.:s f -.: ”2.3: ~' \I \: “:¢1“.. l . ~\\rt $30 4‘3.“‘\¢ I n .6 W 5 S. .C‘ "I'- f' ‘ 5 ' “a“ E .' Q7: & .R‘S H‘ t" “" 'K 3' ' “ . ‘ ' . ‘ " Q. . . ~ - ‘\.'.:d.'.tl"\l‘ca ..8 ."ts ” I ‘\'."- \rthut 2-1 1139533 {12:- i’he Games of {3%. S mamm SHR'FE COL' ”E [’0' u ' :3 "Net r‘sicwmd .5. mm: X “’15 THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled "A Pedologic Study of the Shallow Bog- Diatomaceous Earths of the Klamath Area -- Oregon" presented by Howard J. Ferris has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Science degree in _5911_s_c_1ence a“ Major professor Date W115]. 0-169 A PEDOLOGIC STUDY OF THE SHALLOW BOG— DIATOMACEOUS EARTHS OF THE KLAMA TH AREA ""' OREGON BY HOWARD J. EERRIS A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Soil Science 1951 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. E. P. Whiteside for his guidance and assistance during the course of this investigation, and in the preparation of the manuscript. Acknowledgment is also due to Doctors Erickson, Lawton, Davis, and Harmer of the Soil Science Department, and to Dr. W. L. Powers, head of the Soil Science Depart—- ment of Oregon State College, for their assistance in various phases of the investigation. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . 1 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . 4 III. DESCRIPTION OF AREAS . . . . . . . 8 Description of the Lower Klamath Lake Area—Oregon . . . . . . . . . 8 Location and Extent . . . . . . 8 Geology—Relief—Drainage . . . . 11 History . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . l4 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Description of the Michigan Area— antcalm County . . . . . . . . 23 General Description . . . . . . 23 Edwards Muck . . . . . . . . 24 IV. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE . . . . . 29 Physical Analyses . . . . . . . . . 29 Chemical Analyses . . . . . . . . . 32 V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Surface Horizons Subsurface Horizons Soil and Land Use Problems of the Shallow Bog—Diatomaceous Earths VI. SUMMARY VII. LITERATURE CITED iv Page 34 34 40 47 52 58 LIST OF MAPS, PHOTOGRAPHS, AND TABLES Number Page Maps 1. Location map of the Lower Klamath Lake Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Photographs 1. The Lower Klamath Lake Area . . . . . 10 2. Potato field in the Lower Klamath area . . 16 3. Field of Hannchen Barley . . . . . . . l6 4. Beef cattle grazing in the Lower Klamath area..............l7 5. Profile of the Klamath shallow bog— diatomaceous earths showing the dark organic surface horizon underlaid by diatomaceous earth . . . . . '. . . . 21 6. Onion field-—-Edwards Muck . . . . . . 25 7. Profile of Edwards Muck showing organic horizon over marl . . . . . . . . . 26 Number 8. Photomicrograph of the silt fraction of diatomaceous earth showing several varieties of diatoms . . Tables 1. Soil Analyses . . . . . . . . II. Particle Size Distribution—Per Cent vi Page 46 35 36 INTRODUCTION Half Bog or shallow Bog soils may be defined as an intrazonal group of soils consisting of a peat or muck sur— face horizon, underlaid at varying depths by gray mineral material. The group has a rather wide distribution through— out the United States, being found in areas where poor drain— age conditions prevail. Decomposition of plant material under conditions of excessive moisture favors the accumu— lation of peat, which upon further deterioration, leads to the formation of muck. The material underlying the organic layer usually consists of mineral soil, varying in texture from sands to compact clays. In the Great Lakes region this horizon may consist of consolidated deposits composed largely of calcium carbonate, with mixtures of sand, silt, and clay. This cal— careous material, called marl, forms rather extensive de— posits in some parts of the region. From a pedOIOgicaI and agricultural standpoint, a much more uncommon type of subsurface material are the diatomaceous earths. These deposits occur rather extensively in some parts of the Pacific Northwest, and are the result of the deposition of diatoms, microsc0pic one—celled plants that flourish in some fresh water lakes. Upon dying, the diatom skeletons settle to the lake bottom, and together with mixtures of volcanic ash, sand, silt, and clay, form deposits of considerable thickness. With increased land reclamation, some of these de— posits have been, or are being drained, and locally they are assuming agricultural significance. A notable example is the Klamath area of southeastern Oregon, where extensive areas have been brought into cultivation. From a pedologic standpoint little is known of the characteristics of this material. Pure diatom deposits have been utilized commercially for many years, but little infor— mation has been published on the agricultural utility of these deposits. In order to make a study of the physical and chem- ical prOperties of these soils, the writer collected soil sam- ples from the Lower Klamath Lake area for laboratory anal— ysis to assist in correlating soil survey work done in the field. To bring out the soil characteristics more clearly, it was felt, for the purpose of this study, that a comparison with a Michigan type, deve10ped under similar environmental conditions, might be helpful. For this purpose Edwards Muck was chosen. The marl subsoil of the Edwards closely approximates the diatomaceous earth in mode of origin. It is hOped that the following study of some of the physical and chemical prOperties of the diatomaceous earths, may prove helpful in planning the agricultural development of areas where similar deposits occur. REVIEW OF LITERATURE In 1905 W. H. Heileman'(10), of the University of California, conducted a preliminary soil investigation of the proposed Klamath Irrigation Project, in which he made an examination of the Lower Klamath Lake area. Heileman divided the area into two major soil divisions—the so—called chalk lands, composed of diatomaceous earth, which repre- sented the submerged portion of the lake, and the tule or peat lands surrounding the inundated area. In describing the region he wrote: The area submerged by Lower Klamath Lake covers about 30,000 acres. The soil as it lies in the bottom is covered generally from 6 inches to 5 feet with loose lake ooze or slime, under which appears the more compact white siliceous soil. . . . The swamp or tule area represents about 50,000 acres and surrounds the water area proper. The tule area is generally cov- ered with water to about 3 feet. Below the water level the tule roots have formed a stratum often 3 feet thick. Below the root stratum the soil appears as a fine grained black residue. Below the black soil there appears the typical white or chalky siliceous soil. Heileman concluded that the tule lands were superior agri— culturally to the "chalk" lands. a “a .1 n--. I‘m 5 Sweet and McBeth (26) in 1908 conducted a soil sur— vey of the Klamath Irrigation Project in which they covered the Lower Klamath region in a reconnaissance manner. In 1923 C. F. Shaw (25) of the University of Cali— fornia spent several days investigating the agricultural poten- tialities of the Lake, being concerned primarily with the area lying in California. Lapham, Powers, and Shaw (15) in 1925 made a tour of the area covering both the Oregon and California portion of the Lake. At that time they noted: The soil is decidedly unusual in character. It is a diatomaceous earth, formed as a gelatinous sludge in the waters of the lake, concentrated and exposed by the drying of the lake bed. Powers (19) in an Oregon Agricultural Station bulle— tin mentioned the peat lands of the Klamath marshes, stating that the substratum from 5 inches to 10 feet down is col— loidal, diatomaceous, siliceous muck. Although literature on the agricultural develoPment and land use of the diatomaceous deposits is quite scarce, a great many publications relative to the study of diatoms, and to the commercial uses of the pure deposits have been published. Mann (1?) gives an excellent account of diatom sunny-”.9 L'A— ” 6 formation, description, and characteristics. He states that the diatoms belong to the Bacillariae group of flowerless aquatic plants known as the Algae. Although they are prac— tically universal in existence, the most elegant and largest forms belong to the trOpics. Conger (4) points out that there are 10,000 different kinds of diatoms, all single celled plants. He states that in size few are larger than one millimeter, and most frequently they are less than one—tenth that size. He also points out some of the commercial uses of relatively pure diatom de— posits, such as absorbents, filters, testing and determining the perfection of microscopic lenses, etc. Moore (18) gives an excellent report on the geological aspects of diatom deposits in Eastern Oregon as they relate to the non—metallic mineral resources of the region. Numerous publications deal with the formation and use of organic soils in Michigan. Harmer (8, 9) has been par- ticularly outstanding in conducting research relative to soil fertility and cr0p problems associated with muck soils in general, and more specifically with alkaline organic soils. 7 J. F. Davis (6, 7) has done considerable work with reference to cr0p varieties and cr0pping practices on muck soils. Veatch (30) has carried on numerous studies with reference to classifying organic soils in Michigan. C. A. Davis' book on Peat (5) describes the origin, uses, and dis— tribution of this type of deposit in Michigan. Most of the County Soil Survey publications concerned with Michigan soils deal in part with muck and marl soils. Bergquist, Mussellman and Millar (2) have made a study of the geological formation and agricultural uses of marl deposits. They suggest three possible methods of formation—by chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate, and accumulation by animal and plant remains containing calcium. Lane (14) has conducted geOIOgical investigations relative to marl deposits in Michigan. Turk (27) describes an apparatus for testing the purity of marls as an aid in determining the agricultural value of deposits. DESCRIPTION OF AREAS Description of the Lower Klamath Lake Area—Oregon Location and Extent The Lower Klamath Lake area is a basin comprising some 76,000 acres, located in Klamath County, Oregon, and Siskiyou County, California (see location map). Klamath Falls, in Oregon, is the nearest city, and lies 7 miles north of the upper portion of the basin. This study was carried out principally in that part of Lower Klamath Lake known as Area K, which comprises about 6,000 acres of government owned land adjoining the Oregon—California border. While soil characteristics vary locally in parts of the lake bottom, Area K may be consid— ered as typical of the soils that are under agricultural de— ve10pment at the present time. RIOE RI! ' \ a 1 , TH mus ’r 'l‘_\lu [3‘ WA ‘0: ”all, "3".“th -' 'a- a x ” ,l'vt‘ I,,, ; r I ’h, liltfi I47N F!.|Vl Fl.|EL Fl.| EL FlEBEL N Luminary LAKE ,‘ L AREA K ”ALI N IILII l LOCALITY MAP ‘. I \, _, em - 1”, (’1 HI .5," 1607!", I," ‘ ll” - x l”, . / E. RSERAE ""nn _‘\l||,“. \xilllg,h \ ‘\\\\\ ’> "'.'l\‘ \‘l' C\ VITII‘IF ludlil? (aruvlrvro JIIIH \ | h L \ ‘\ I._. s \\ ——J \u r \ I, ,ll/ls 5m” tum“ ' ‘ "4‘ [think EiEIIS INITIDRUNL IIUIIJIIEJIT ill. 1. Location map of the Lower Klamath Area (red line) and Area K (cross hatched) l. The Lower Klamath Lake Area (looking south) 10 ll Geology——Reli~ef——Drainage The Klamath district is located in the western part of the basin ranges of Southeastern Oregon, and is character— ized t0pographically by a series of valleys and ranges of fault origin. The general altitude of the valleys is between 4,000 and 4,500 feet, and of the mountains between 6,000 and 8,000 feet. Faulting in the region has been comparatively recent, and the scarps of the mountains are fresh and well defined (18). The greater part of the region is occupied by lava flows of several ages which form the higher areas. The rocks of the district are all of Tertiary and Quaternary age. They are of volcanic origin, and consist largely of basalts. The valleys and low areas consist of sedimentary material washed in from the surrounding hills and of diatomaceous deposits. History Prior to deve10pment, the Lower Klamath Lake area consisted of a large fresh water lake, with nmnerous small islands scattered throughout. The water surface included about 30,000 acres, lying for the most part in California. 12 The water area was surrounded by marsh lands covered with tules, cattails, and other aquatic plants, and totaled about 50,000 acres. The primary source of water for Lower Klamath Lake was the overflow from the Klamath River during periods of high water. During flood periods water entered the lake through a natural slough called the Klamath Straits. During low water periods in the river, the Straits carried consider— able water northward from the lake back into the Klamath River. In 1906 the Southern Pacific railroad constructed a high fill across the northern part of the basin. Gates were installed where the fill crossed the Klamath Straits, permit— ting the regulation of water flow from the river into the lake. Construction of an irrigation and power dam on Upper Kla— math Lake, the water source of the Klamath River, also served as a check. By 1922 the lake was greatly reduced in size. Water was again provided for the area in 1942 when pumping plant D was constructed. This provided a steady flow for irrigation purposes. 13 At the present time the water surface of the lake is stabilized at about 27,000 acres, lying entirely in California, and serving as a waterfowl refuge. Most of the remainder of the basin is being used agriculturally. A large part has been planted to small grains, while the remainder is utilized as grazing land. The majority of the lands are in private ownership, although the federal government has rather ex— tensive holdings. The greater part of the government owned land is leased to private individuals for farming or grazing purposes. Climate The climate of the Klamath Basin is semi—arid, with an average annual rainfall of about ten inches. This falls principally during the spring and fall although some rainfall can be expected during every month of the year. Snowfall accounts for a part of the annual precipitation. Extremes in temperature are rare, although a maximum of 105 degrees Fahrenheit has been reached at Klamath Falls, and a mini- mum of —27 degrees Fahrenheit at the Tule Lake station. The average monthly temperature for January at Klamath 14 Falls for the past six years has been 29 degrees Fahrenheit, with 68 degrees Fahrenheit for the month of July. The av- erage growing season is 131 days, with the average date of the last killing frost in spring being May 18, and the first killing frost in fall occurring about September 26. Agriculture With the limited amount of rainfall obtained in the Klamath Basin, an irrigated system of, agriculture is neces— sary to maintain maximum cr0p yields. However, dry farm— ing is practiced on the higher lands which are not suitable for irrigation, or which do not have a water supply at the present time. In the “Lower Klamath Lake region the system of ir— rigation used involves flooding the area during the winter and early spring. Water is brought in from the Klamath River through the middle canal, and is allowed to inundate the land. After percolating through the soils, it is picked up by the Klamath Straits drainage system and returned to the Klamath River. Excess surface water is pumped off the land into the drains. 15 As soon as the land is dry enough in the spring, it is plowed, harrowed, and seeded. The main crOps have been Hannchen barley (a malting variety), oats, and rye. No further irrigations are employed during the growing sea-— son. Recently a few growers in the Klamath Drainage Dis- trict, located on the Oregon side of the basin, have planted potatoes and alsike clover, in addition to the grains. These two cr0ps are irrigated during the growing season. Below are given comparative yields of cr0ps grown on the lands in Area K of Lower Klamath Lake, on the min- eral soils of the Klamath Irrigation project, and Tule Lake lands, a similar lake bottom in California which has been under development for some time. Average yield in bushels per acre-—-1940 to 1949 CroE Area K Mineral Soils Tule Lake Barley 51 45 67 Rye 30 26 35 Oats 48 50 61 Potatoes grown on a few farms of the Klamath Drain— age District in Lower Klamath Lake have averaged about 350 bushels per acre. This is slightly lower than yields on the mineral soils, and much lower than Tule Lake yields. l6 2. Potato field in the Lower Klamath area (furrow method of irrigation) 3. Field of Hannchen Barley (Lower Klamath area) 17 Beef cattle grazing in the Lower Klamath area. Legume- grass pasture consists of alsike clover, strawberry clo- ver, alfalfa, orchard grass, smooth brome, alta fescue, and meadow foxtail. 18 Formerly little commercial fertilizer was used on the soils of Lower Klamath Lake. Within the past few years, however, increased amounts are being utilized, especially on privately owned lands. Application rates of 200 to 600 pounds per acre of 16—20—0 are used on grain, while 400 to 600 pounds of 10-16—8 are used on potatoes. Within the past year the use of anhydrous ammonia, injected into the soil, has become p0pular. Rates vary from 50 pounds per acre on grain to 100 pounds per acre being used on potatoes. Soils The soils of the Lower Klamath area in Oregon have been given the type name of Klamath Peat. However, dis- tinct variations in the organic content of the surface horizon occurs. The majority of the soils under cultivation have more the appearance of Mucks. The surface horizons are organic in nature, having been formed through the decay of tules, cattails, and other aquatic plants. In depth the organic horizon varies, extend- ing up to ten feet where tule growth was very pronounced, to a few inches in areas where the lake surface recently 19 existed. The deposits are very black in color, and in places where cultivation has not been extensive, are peaty in character, containing much plant fiber. Where cultiva— tion has been carried on extensively, the surface material has been mixed With underlying diatomaceous earth, and has taken on the characteristics of a muck. In the latter case the soil is very black and smooth when wet, but upon dry- ing takes on a dark grayish cast. The underlying material consists largely of diatoma— ceous earth. During earlier periods in the lake's develop— ment, conditions were favorable for the growth of vast quan— tities of diatoms, microsc0pic one celled plants. These organisms extract silica from the water and deposit it in the membranes of their cell walls to form porous, box—like encasements or shells that protect and support the enclosed living cell. Upon dying the diatom skeletons settled to the lake bottom, and together with varying amounts of volcanic ash, clay, silt and sand, formed deposits of considerable thickness. In age the deposits range from Middle Miocene to recent, with deposition still taking place in the water area of the wildlife refuge. 20 The appearance of the diatomaceous earths varies, greatly with changing moisture conditions. When wet they take on a dark brownish gray color, which upon drying, changes to a light gray. Numerous reddish brown spots are conspicuous throughout, representing decayed organic material. Many small plant roots and fresh water shells (GastrOpods) are found in this horizon. Structure is both blocky. and platy in character. Large blocks can readily be broken from the profile. How- ever, the arrangement of the material in the blocks is platy. Thin segments of the soil can readily be split off from the blocks. In texture the soil is very smooth and silty to the feel, having a sort of rubbery, cheesy consistency. When dry it forms lumps of tough horny character, with numer— ous wide vertical cracks. Repeated wetting and drying does not appear to materially change these characteristics. The soil is very light in weight. When dry, pieces thrown into the water float until saturated, at which time they sink to the bottom. Zl 5. Profile of the Klamath shallow bog—diatomaceous earths showing the dark organic surface horizon underlaid by diatomaceous earth 22 The pr0portion of diatomaceous earth decreases rap— idly as the surface soil is approached, where it becomes a minor part of the peat or muck. Where cultivation has been practiced, there exists in most cases sufficient quan— tities to turn the soil a dark grayish color when dry. Upon wetting it reverts to a decidedly black color. A typical profile consists of a few inches to several feet of black, smooth, well decomposed organic material mixed with diatomaceous earth, and containing numerous plant roots. Underlying the organic layer lies the light colored diatomaceous horizon. The depth of this strata varies. In many locations it continues well below the depth of the drainage ditches in the area (6 to 10 feet). In other areas a grayish brown clean sand is encountered at depths of 30 to 48 inches. As the rim of the basin is approached, mixtures of mineral soil are found in the surface horizon, consisting of alluvial material washed in from the surrounding basaltic hills . 23 Description of the Michigan Area—Montcalm County General De scription Montcalm County is in the eastern lake section of the Central Lowland physiographic province of the United States. The land surface consists of level to rolling glacial plains intersPersed with swampy depressions. The average elevation is about 800 feet above sea level. The climate of the area is somewhat insular in char— acter due to the proximity of the Great Lakes. The out— standing climatic features are the moderately cold winters, and mild, pleasant summers. Periods of extremely hot or cold weather are of short duration. Precipitation is uni— formly distributed throughout the year, with sufficient rain— fall occurring during the growing seasonto insure the sat- isfactory growth of most crops. The precipitation normally amounts to about 30 inches annually. High humidity pre— vails throughout the year. The average frost free period covers approximately 144 days, with the average date of the last killing frost in spring occurring about May 12, and the first killing frost in fall about October 3. 24 The dominant system of farming is of the general type, with corn, oats, wheat, and hay being the principal cr0ps grown. Production of special crOps, such as fruits, truck crops, etc., is carried out on some farms. Livestock of good quality is raised on most farms. Edwards Muck Edwards Muck includes relatively thin deposits of muck over gray marl. The variations in the series are chiefly in the depth to marl. The series has a rather wide distribution, occurring in the glaciated areas of the Lake States from New York to Minnesota. Topography consists of flat bogs of old lake beds or upland depressions with very poor external drainage. Under natural conditions the soil is almost permanently saturated. However, where outlets are available drainage is relatively easily accomplished. The natural vegetation includes a sequence of marsh grasses, reeds, and sedges, with relatively recent encroach- ment of elm, black ash, soft maple, hemlock, and white pine . Onion fie ld—Edwards Muck 25 7. Profile of marl 26 Edwards Muck showing organic horizon over 27 Where the areas are drained and fertilized medium to high yields of hay, corn, soybeans, and truck crops are raised. This is especially true where the marl lies below a depth of 18 to 24 inches. Average cr0p yields per acre are as follows: corn—60—90 bu.; alfalfa—4-6 tons; pota— toes—500—700 bu.; sugar beets—IZ—ZO tons; onions—700— 1000 bu.; barley—30—60 bu.; rye—20—25 bu.; wheat—20—35 bu. A large proportion of the soil is in blue grass pasture. A typical profile description of Edwards Muck con— sists of: 0—6"—-——Brownish—black or black friable, granular, loamy muck, with a very small percentage of mineral material. Some woody plant remains are present. 6—20"——Very dark brown to brownish—black coarse, granular muck, consisting of decomposed plant remains, with woody material visible. 20”—Gray soft marl, often shelly. May contain an accumulation of clay. This horizon extends to depths of 5 to 10 feet or more. 28 (The site where the soil samples were collected dif— fered slightly from the above description in that the depth to marl was 12 inches.) The underlying marl is formed, in many respects, similar to the diatomaceous deposits (2). However, instead of originating entirely from plant skeletons like the diato— maceous earths, it may have three modes of origin. It may be formed by the chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate from highly lime charged waters. Accumulation may occur as the result of many of the lower forms of animal life which inhabit lime impregnated waters. Upon dying their bodies, containing calcium, are deposited in the lake or swamp bottom. A third and more common method, accord— ing to some investigators (14), is through plant accumulation. Such plants as the Chara, which grow only in lime charged waters, extract large quantities of calcium from the water. When the plants die their remains are deposited on the floor of fresh water areas, leading to the formation of marl beds. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A field study of the shallow Bog—diatomaceous soils was initiated by the writer during the fall and spring of 1947-48, while conducting a land classification survey of the Lower Klamath area, in Oregon. Subsequent studies and the collection of representative samples for analysis was under- taken intermittently during the summer of 1950. Profile samples were sent to the Oregon Experiment Station at Cor— vallis for chemical analysis. Some of the results of the analysis appear in this paper. Duplicate samples were brought to East Lansing for further laboratory and greenhouse studies. The samples of Edwards Muck were collected during the fall of 1950 at the Beard farm, located in Section 8, Township 11 North, Range 5 West, of Montcalm County, Michigan. Physical Analyses Permeability or percolation rates were determined on undisturbed samples. With the Klamath soils, large blocks of the profile were excavated and shaped to fit into 30 plastic percolation cylinders. The space between the soil and cylinder wall was filled with Bentonite to prevent seep- age. A cover was clamped on the top of the cylinder and water from a constant head tank was introduced through a hose connection in the cylinder cover (3). Permeability on the Edwards soils was determined by using samples obtained with a core sampler (28). An empty cylinder of identical size to the core sample was fastened to the top of the sam— ple with a wide rubber band. The percolation rate was measured by adding a known volume of water and determin— ing the time interval necessary for the water to pass through the sample (28). With the latter method the samples were allowed to come to saturation before measurements were taken. Infiltration and permeability rates on the Klamath samples were started on unsaturated samples, and were car— ried on for a period of several days. Results of both meth— ods were recorded in inches per hour. Volume weights were obtained on the Edwards soils by oven drying the core samples (22). Since a core sampler was not available at the Oregon office, micro-volurne weights were determined on the Klamath samples, using the paraffin 31 clod method (22). Similar determinations were also made on the Edwards soils as a check on the accuracy of the method in comparison to the core samples. Specific gravity was obtained by using the pycnom— eter (29). Moisture equivalent was determined by the centrifuge method (31). Wilting point was obtained by growing sunflower plants in the greenhouse in pots containing profile samples (31). After the plants had attained two sets of leaves, they were transferred to the laboratory and allowed to reach a stage of permanent wilting. This was checked by placing the wilted plant in a moist bell jar to determine if recovery was possible. After permanent wilting had occurred, the soil in the pot was mixed and samples were oven dried to determine the wilting percentage. Mechanical analyses were carried out by the pipette method (12). Sodium hexametaphosphate was used as the dispersing agent, and a constant temperature bath was em— ployed in the procedure. 32 Microsc0pic study of the silt fraction of the diatoma- ceous horizon was accomplished by using a petrographic microsc0pe (13). Refractive index of the diatoms found in the silt fraction of the diatomaceous earth was obtained by mounting a portion of the separate on a glass slide, irnmers— ing it in oil of a known refractive index, and observing under the microsc0pe. Photo-micrographs of the above'silt frac— tion were also taken. Measurements of the dominant types of diatoms were made microscopically. Chemical Analyses pH values were obtained by using the Beckrnan pH meter (21). The Solu—Bridge was used for conductivity measure—- ments (16). Organic matter on the Klamath samples and on the marl horizon of the Edwards soils was determined by the wet combustion method (23). Although inorganic carbon was not determined, it was felt that the wet combustion method would give a fairly close approximation of the organic con— tent of the calcareous marl. Values for the highly organic 33 surface of the Edwards muck was obtained by the dry com— bustion method (23). Total nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl meth— od (20). Base exchange capacity was obtained by the neutral ammonium acetate method (24). RESULTS AND DISCUSS ION In order to bring out more clearly a comparison of the physical and chemical prOperties of the Klamath and Edwards soils, the following discussion has been divided into two parts. The first part is devoted to a comparison of the organic surface horizons of the two series. The sec- ond portion is concerned with the underlying diatomaceous and marl horizons. Reference should be made to Tables I and II on the following pages. Surface Horizons Field study and laboratory analysis of the surface horizons of the two series revealed, for the most part, a similarity of characteristics. In observing the Klamath or the Edwards soils in the field, one of the first things noted is the dark colored surface horizon, due to the high content of organic matter. This is noted especially in the Edwards soils, where a com— paratively high organic percentage was obtained. The surface 35 m N. mm mg: mod NH; w.>v wm.~ wvlom fig. 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