AIR—FUEL RATIO AND SPARK-ADVANCE REQUIREMENTS OF SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES By Burton Aloit Fierstine A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Mechanical Engineering 19Sh THESLS AC KNONLEDG ETJENTS The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to Dr. L. L. Otto for his invaluable contributions to this in- vestigation. The author also wishes to express his appreciation to Reo Mbtors, Inc. for their contribution of data taken from an experimental, multi-cylinder engine. 331266 VITA The author was born at Memphis, Michigan on April 22, 1929. At the age of five he moved with his parents to Flint, hichigan. Elementary and college preparatory education was taken in Flint schools. The author was graduated from Flint Northern High School in l9h7. Advanced schooling was taken at Flint Junior College, General Motors Institute, and Michigan State College. The author received his Bachelor of Science degree from Michigan State College in 1953. The author is a member of Phi Lambda Tau, local engineering honorarx,and Pi Tau Sigma, national mechanical engineering honorary. AIRpFUEL RATIO AND SPARK-ADVANCE REQUIREMENTS OF SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES By Burton Aloit Fierstine AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Mechanical Engineering 19Sh Approved Burton A. Fierstine AIRnFUEL RATIO AND SPARKgADVANCE REQUIREMENTS OF SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES Among the first prdblems encountered in the experimental develop- ment of a spark-ignition engine is the attainment of a proper airqfuel ratio and correct spark—advance for all conditions under which the engine is expected to operate. There is no purely theoretical method for predicting these values of airqfuel ratio and spark-advance for a given engine and a given set of operating conditions. Hence, these values must be determined experimentally. This investigation was con- ducted on a single-cylinder research type engine and on a pilot model multi-cylinder V-8 type engine intended for use in the trucking industry. In the case of the single-cylinder engine air-fuel ratios and spark- advance requirements were determined for as many conditions of relative load and engine speed as was necessary to define the complete engine re- quirements. The multi-cylinder engine was investigated from the stand— point of its future use in the trucking industry. Hence, air-fuel ratios and spark-advance requirements for the V—8 engine were determined only on a basis of relative load and maximum power output at various engine speeds. The results of this investigation have led to a series of curves 'which depict the air-fuel ratios and spark-advance requirements nec- essary for proper functioning of the test engines. It may be concluded from these results that the engines would operate and produce a power output over a range of air-fuel ratios and Burton A. Fierstine spark-advances. However, there is one spark-advance for each air-fuel ratio and engine speed which produces a maximum power output from the test engine. This is the optimum-power spark-advance for each condition of load, air-fuel ratio and engine speed. There are two air-fuel ratios 'which may be considered most important from the standpoint of engine operation, the one at which the engine produces a maximum power output, and the one at which the engine operates at a maximum fuel economy for the power developed. The maximum-power air-fuel ratios and the maximum—economy air-fuel ratios were determined by investigating the effect of a change in mixture ratio on the power output of the engine. To isolate this effect it was necessary to hold constant the engine speed, intake air flow, tempera- ture, and to maintain optimum spark-advance for each mixture ratio. The maximum-power airqfuel ratio occurs at the point of maximum power output of the engine, while the maximum-economy air-fuel ratio occurs when the rate of decline of the power output per unit of mixture-ratio, as the mixture-ratio is made more lean, equals the rate of decrease of the fuel-flow per unit of mixture-ratio. Lowering the relative load level of engine operation resulted in decreasing the power output; however, the numerical value of the maximum-power air-fuel ratio remained almost unchanged. Lowering the relative engine load required a richer mixture for maximum-economy operation, until at idle conditions the maximum- economy and maximum-power mixture ratios became the same. The effect of variations in air-fuel ratios and spark-advance upon power output is nearly the same for all spark-ignition engines. Although operational ranges and actual numerical values will vary from Burton A. Fierstine engine to engine the results of this investigation can be said to de- fine a general trend which will apply to the average spark-ignition engine. TABLE OF I. OBJECT . . . . II. INTRODUCTION . . . III. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. Single-Cylinder Engine. Multi—Cylinder Engine . IV. CONCLUSIONS . . . APPENDIX . . . . Experimental Data . Single—Cylinder Engine Multi-Cylinder Engine Graphs. . . . Single-Cylinder Engine Multi-Cylinder Engine Description of Equipment Engines. . . Dynamometers . Air-Flow Meters. Fuel-Flew Meters BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . CONTENTS 19 21 23 2h 29 A6 115 116 116 120 123 TABLES TAB LEE AND ORA PHS Single-Cylinder Engine I. II. III. IV. V. Determination of OSA from Beam Load . . . Air—Fuel Ratio and Spark-Advance Data at 2hOO RPM Air—Fuel Ratio and Spark-Advance Data at 1800 RPM . Air-Fuel Ratio and Spark-Advance Data at 1200 RPM Air-Fuel Ratio and Spark-Advance Data at 600 RPM Multi-Cylinder Engine VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. . IX. XXI. XXII. Determination of Full-Load Best-Power Spark-Advance Full-Load Operation at 800, 1200, 1600 RPM. . Full-Load Operation at 1800, 2000, 2200 RPM . Full-Load Operation at 2h00,.2800, 3000 RPM . Full-Load Operation at 3200, 3h00, 3500 RPM . Three—quarter Load Operation at 800,1200,1600 RPM Three-quarter Load Operation at 1800,2000,2200 RPM. Three-quarter Load Operation at 2h00,2800,3000 RPM. Three-quarter Load Operation at 3200,3h00,3500 RPM. One—half Load Operation at 800, 1200, 1600 RPM. One-half Load Operation at 1800, 2000, 2200 RPM One—half Load Operation at 2hoo, 2800, 3000 RPM One-half Load Operation at 3200, 3h00, 3500 RPM One-quarter Load Operation at‘BOO, 1200, 1600 RPM One-quarter Load Operation at 1800, 2000, 2200 RPM One-quarter Load Operation at 2h00, 2800, 3000 RPM. One—quarter Load Operation at 3200, 31100, 3500 RPM. 2h 25 26 27 28 3o 31 32 33 3h 35 36 37 38 39 to h1 h2 h3 AS GRAPES Single-Cylinder Engine 1. 19. FuelpFlow versus Beam Load 2&00 RPM . Fuel-Flow versus Beam Load 1800 RPR . Fuel-Flow versus Beam Load 1200 RPM . Fuel-Flow versus Beam Load 600 RPE. . Mixture Ratio Mixture Ratio Mixture Ratio Mixture Ratio Aithlow Rate Mixture Ratio Mixture Ratio Mixture Ratio Mixture Ratio Relative Load versus versus versus versus versus versus versus versus versus versus Beam Load 21100 RPM Beam Load 1800 RPM Beam Load 1200 RPM Beam Load 600 RPM. Mixture Ratio. . BSFC 21.00 RPM. . BSF‘C 1800 RPM. . BSFC 1200 RPM. . BSFC 600 RPM . . 05A 0 o o 0 Engine RPM versus OSA . . . . Mixture Ratio versus Spark-Advance.2h00 RPM Mixture Ratio versus Spark-Advance 1800 RPM Mixture Ratio versus Spark-Advance 1200 RPM Mixture Ratio versus Spark-Advance 600 RPM. 20. Determination of USA at 2h00 RPM . Multi-Cylindsr Engine 1. 2: 3.‘ h. Spark-Advance versus RPM . . . . Full-Load Operation 800 RPM . . . Full-Load Operation 1200 RPM . . . Full-Load Operation 1600 RPR . . . A6 L? LB h? 50 51 52 53 Sh 55 56 57 58 S9 60 61 62 63 6h 65 67 68 69 Full—Load Full—Load Full-Load Full-Load Full-Load Full-Load Full-Load Full—Load Full—Load Operation Operation Operation Operation Operation Operation 1830 RPR 2000 RPM 2233 RPM Zhoo mm 2800 RPM 3000 RPM Operation 3200 RPM Operation BROO RPM Operation 3500 RPM Three-Quarter Load Operation Three-Quarter Load Three-Quarter Load Three-Quarter Load Three-Quarter Load Threedzuarter Load Three—Quarter Load Three-Quarter Load Three-Quarter Load Threedluarter Load Three-Quarter Load Three-Quarter Load One-Half Load One-Ralf Load Operation Operation Operation Operation Operation Operation Operation Operation Operation Operation Operation 830 RHJ 12 03 1600 1800 2000 220:) 2hoo 2800 3030 3203 Bhoo 3903 Operation BOO RPM Operation 1203 RPM One-Ralf Load Operation 1600 RPK One-Half Load Operation 1803 RPE One-Ralf Load Operation 2000 RPM KPH 7o 71 72 73 7h 75 76 77 7B 79 80 81 82 83 8h 85 87 88 89 9O 91 92 93 9h 95 DESCRIPI‘ION CF EQUIPMENT 1. N 0 U1 3’ U C 31. 32. 33. 31. 3s. 36. 37. 38. 39. no. 111. 112.. h}. hh. us. 1.6. L7. L8. L9. One-Half One-Ralf One-Half One-Ralf One-Half One-Half One-Half Load Load Load Load Load Load Load Operation 2200 RP V M . Operation 2h00 RPM . Operation 2800 RPS . Operation 3000 RPM . Operation 3200 RPM . Operation 3h00 RPM . Operation 3500 RPM . One-Quarter Load Operation 800 RPM. One-Quarter One—Quarter One-Quarter One-Quarter One—Quarter One—Quarter One-Quarter Load Operation Load Operation Load Operation Load Operation Load Operation Load Operation 1200 1600 1800 2000 2200 Load Operation ZROO 2800 One-Quarter Load Operation 3000 One-Quarter One-Quarter Load Operation 3200 Load Operation BLOO One—Quarter Load Operation 3500 RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM Single-Cylinder Engine Air-Surge Tank. Single-Cylinder Air-Flow Manometer Cox AireFlow Meter . Single-Cylinder Engine Fuel-Flow Meter Sketch. Single-Cylinder Engine Fuel-Flow Meter Photograph. 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 lot 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 OBJf'DT The object of this investigation is to determine the effect of variations in engine speed, relative load, and intended use on the air-fuel ratios and spark-advance requirements of spark- ignition engines . INTRODUCTION The investigation on which this paper is based is the effect of variations in engine speed, relative load, and intended use on the air-fuel ratio and spark-advance requirements of spark-ignition engines. This investigation was carried out on two engines;one of which was a single—cylinder, variable compression ratio, research type engine, the other being a multi-cylinder, V-8 type engine intended for use in the trucking industry. The method of solution adopted for this investigation involved the measurement of air—fuel ratios and spark-advance angles over a range of constant engine speeds, constant air flows, and at different con- ditions of relative load. In the case of the single—cylinder engine airqfuel ratios and spark-advance requirements were taken at four selected engine speeds, 600, 1200, 1800 and 2h00 RPM, and under conditions of approximately full load, three-quarter load, one-half load, and one-quarter load. These conditions of relative load were determined from the engine intake-air flow. At each engine speed and constant air flow the fuel flow to the engine was varied through such a range as to give a airb fuel ratio variation from approximately 8:1 on the "rich" side to 2021 on the "lean” side. A "rich" mixture is defined as one which contains more fuel than the chemically-correct mixture ratio and a "lean" mixture one which contains less fuel than the chemically-correct mixture. At each increment of fuel.flor the engine spark-advance was varied to give maximum power output for the airbfuel ratio under con- 10. sideration. At each increment of fuel flow the dynamometer beam load ‘was recorded. The results from this investigation will show the effect of varia- tion of engine speed and relative load on the airafuel ratios and spark- advance requirements of the engine over the operational range used. This will then give a criterion from which can.be determined the maximum-power airefuel ratio and the maximum-economy air—fuel ratio as 'well as the spark-advance necessary to produce the maximum power output at these conditions. The data obtained from the multi-cylinder V-8 engine differs from the data taken.from the single-cylinder engine in that it is less com- plete in many respects. As was stated, the purpose of the investigation of the single-cylinder engine was to determine the complete airmfuel ratios and spark-advances necessary to define the optimum spark-advance and the maximum—power and maximum-economy mixture ratios over a range of engine speeds and relative loads. However, the multi-cylinder engine 'was developed with a special purpose operation in view, that is, use in the trucking industry. This then defines certain conditions under'which the engine will be most liable to operate. These conditions are maxi- mum-power at various relative loads, with maximum-power at full load the most important. Hence, the investigation of the necessary air—fuel ratios and spark-advances were carried out only far enough to determine maximum-power output. The design operating range of the multi-cylinder engine was from 800 to 3500 RPM. Air-fuel ratios and spark—advance determinations were made at increments of engine speed throughout this range. Since the 11. most important operating condition is full-load, spark-advance re- quirements were determined only for this condition, using the fuel flow which gave the maximum-power output at the various increments of engine speed. Air-fuel ratio measurements were made throughout the engine speed range at full-load, three—quarter load, one-half load, and one-quarter load. Relative load was based on the engine torque output and was obtained by multiplying the above fractions by the full- 1oad torque output of the engine. however, the airqfuel ratio was varied only far enough to determine when the point of maximum power output had been reached. Hence, at full-load the power output of the engine would be the maximum obtainable by variation of the airbfuel ratio and spark-advance. At conditions of partial load the power out- put of the engine would be something less than the maximum obtainable since the spark-advance is not correct for conditions of partial load. The results of this investigation should portray the airefuel ratio requirements for maximum power output under varying conditions of load and speed, and the spark-advance requirements for full-load operation at various engine speeds. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ' ~-“Single—Cylinder Engine The effect of air-fuel ratio on the power output of the engine at different relative loads has been portrayed in a series of curves of mixture ratio and fuel-flow versus dynamometer beam load, for a range of constant engine speeds. Each curve is drawn for a constant relative load, determinedson a basis of air-flow rate, and for conditions of maximum-power 0r optimum spark-advance. These curves take the general shape of a dec 1! see in beam load on either side of a maximum point, falling off rapidly as the air-fuel ratio becomes leaner than the point of maximum beam load and falling off less rapidly as the air-fuel ratio becomes richer than the point of maximum beam load. This may be ex- plained by the fact that rich mixtures contain an excess of fuel. This excess of fuel displaces a little air, slightly decreasing the amount of oxygen available for combustion. This dilution of the mixture causes a slower combustion of the mixture and absorbs some of the combustion heat, causing a slight but noticeable decrease in the beam load and hence the power output of the engine. The mixtures leaner than the air- fuel ratio which produces a maximum beam load are diluted with an excess of air. This excess air slows the combustion rate and absorbs some of the heat of combustion and decreases the Btu per pound of air which can be produced by combustion. The combination of these effects causes a rapid drop in beam load as the air-fuel ratio grows progressively leaner. 13. The position of these curves is effected by relative load because the air-flow to the engine is "throttled" to attain the various load conditions. Hence, at maximum load the engine produces more power than it does at any other load. At three-quarter load it produces more power than it does at one-half load, and etc., resulting in a family of curves Vhich are displaced vertically from one another with the maximum load being the uppermost and the least load the lowest. It should be noted that the air—fuel ratio Ihich produces the maximum beam load for each condition of relative load is practically constant. This is explained by the fact that the conditions which cause the curve to fall off on each side of the maximum beam load point change very little as the rel- ative load changes. The plot of beam load as a function of the fuel-flow has provided an easy method of determining the points of maximum-power output and of maximum economy of operation for the test engine. The maxilmm-power output fuel-flow rate being the one which produces the maximum possible power output from the engine under the conditions at which it is opera- ting, and the maximum-economy fuel—flow rate being the one which produces the greatest power output for the fuel consumed. Deviously, the maximum- ”enemy is obtained by drawing a line tangent to the curve of fuel-flow versus beam load and passing through the origin. This may be proven in the follosing manner. 114. General curve of beam to: I: load as a function of 3' / fuel flow. 5 / O m / Fuel Flow #/ hour In order for conditions of maximum-economy to be met the ratio of Beam Load Fuel-Flow hate must be a maximum. This ratio is the slepe of the tangent to any point on the curve. Hence, for maximum-economy the slope of the tangent must be a maximum. This then determines the max-— mum-economy fuel-flow rate and hence, the maximum—economy air-fuel mixture ratio. In most instances of engine operation there is little reason for operating the engine on an air-fuel ratio which is leaner than the maximum-economy mixture ratio or richer than the maximum-power mixture ratio. Hence, a plot of these variables as a function of air—fuel ratio and intake air-flow has been given which shows the various maximum-power and maximum-economy mixture ratios for different engine speeds and rel- ative loads. At the idling points the maximum-power and maximum-economy mixture ratios are the same and thus represent the intersection of the two airnfuel ratio loci curves for each constant speed. Since at higher speeds the engine's losses are greater more mixture is used to idle the engine, hence, the idle points for the various speeds do not coincide . 15. Probably the best criterion of engine operating economy is the amount of fuel used by the engine to produce a unit of power output. The unit of power output for most engines is the horsepowerbhour. Hence, this criterion becomes the pound of fuel consumed per brake horsepower—hour. This quantity is called the "Brake Specific Fuel Consumption" and is abbreviated BSFC. A decrease in BSFC would in- dicate an increase in the economy of operation. Rich mixture ratios have higher values of BSFC because portions of the fuel are unburned and pass out the engine exhaust. Very lean mixture ratios, while giving a smaller.fuel consumption, also result in less power output of the engine thereby increasing the BSFC. The curves of BSFC as a function of air-fuel ratio at constant engine speed, constant relative load and optimum spark-advance bear this out. It can be proven that the minimum point of each BSFC versus mixture ratio curve is the point of maximum- _economy operation. If, for any given increment of airqfuel mixture ratio, the decrease in fuel flow is enough greater than the drop in the power output of the engine to cause a decrease in the ratio pounds of fuel per brake horsepowerbhour, the BSFC decreases and the economy of operation increases. Since the power drops more and more rapidly as the mixture ratio becomes leaner an increment of mixture ratio is soon reached at which there is little or no change in the BSFC. For mixture ratio increments more lean than this the power output decreases more rapidly than the.fuequlow and the BSFC increases. Therefore that mdxture ratio which produces the lowest value of BSFC is the maximum- economy mixture ratio for that engine speed and load. Mid.“ ‘ 16. It can be seen from the curves of BSFC versus mixture—ratio that the relative load at which the engine is operating has a decided effect on the point of maximum—economy. This may be explained by the fact that part of the energy developed by the fuel must be used to overcome the engine's internal losses. The remaining fuel produces the useful power output of the engine. These internal losses may be divided into friction losses, which vary mainly with the engine speed, and pumping losses which vary mainly as a function of the relative load level. Previous investiga- tions have shown that the friction losses increase with the engine speed while the pumping losses increase as the relative load decreases. Thus the BSFC is less, resulting in greater fuel economy at low engine speeds and increases as the engine speed increases, while at constant engine speed the higher relative load levels produce the lowest BSFC and the lower relative loads produce higher values of BSFC. This results in a famin of curves of Bfic versus mixture ratio at constant engine speed and optimum spark-advance which are displaced vertically from one another with the highest relative load having the lowest value of BSFC and the lowest relative load having the highest BSFC. As in the case of the curves of maximum-economy and maximum-power mixture ratios plotted as a function of mixture ratio and air-flow the mixture ratio at which maximum-econonw occurs decreases or becomes closer to the maximum-power mixture-ratio as the relative load decreases at constant engine speed. This occurs because of a dilution of the air- fuel mixture ratio by an inactive constituent which does not enter into the combustion process. This constituent is clearance gases which are left over from the previous combustion of the air-fuel mixture. These 17. gases remain in the clearance volume between the top of the piston and the combustion chamber walls. Since this clearance volume is constant the amount of clearance gas remaining in the cylinder is essentially constant. Since the quantity of induced mixture varies and the clear- ance gas remains constant then the dilution effect of the clearance gas will vary. Thus, at low relative loads the relative clearance gas dilution is higher than at high relative loads. Hence, as the relative load decreases the airnfuel mixture ratio at maximum-economy will be- come richer and richer, and finally reach the maximum-power mixture ratio at idle or zero relative load. Analysis of results in the determination of values for the spark- advance which produces the maximum—power output shows the effect of relative load, mixture ratio, and engine speed on its values, keeping the engine temperature constant. These three variables are inter- related; a change in one variable affecting the others and affecting the optimum spark—advance, abbreviated 06A. Hence, it was necessary in determining the effect of one of the three variables on USA to hoLd the other two constant. The curves of OSA as a function of relative load (in terms of air— flowhpounds per cycle) at maximum-power and the various engine speeds shows the effect of the relative purity of the mixture ratio, the. relative purity being a function of the dilution effect of excess fuel, excess air, and clearance gases. These curves show that as the relative load decreases the optimum spark-advance increases, and that the optimum spark-advance increases at constant relative load as the engine speed is raised. The increase in USA at constant speed and decreasing relative 18. load is caused by the dilution effect of the clearance gases which de- crease the flammability of the mixture. Engine speed increases OSA because the combustion of the air-fuel mixture must be started earlier if it is to go to completion shortly after the piston reaches its top— dead-center position and spread the energy release process evenly on either side of this piston-position. This is portrayed by both the plot of 05A versus relative load for maximum-power output at the various engine speeds and by the plot of 08A versus engine speed for the various relative loads at maximmn-power mixture ratio. The effect of air-fuel mixture ratio on the optimum spark-advance at the various constant engine speeds, and different relative loads is mainly a function of the relative purity of the mixture. A lean mixture is diluted with an excess of air which does not enter into the combustion but does separate the active portions of the mixture and absorbs heat from the reaction. Both of these actions decrease the rate of combustion, one by presenting an actual barrier of inert distance which impedes the progress of combustion and the other by absorbing heat from the com- bustion process. Hence, increasing the leanness of the mixture intensi- fies these effects and increases 06A. A rich mixture is diluted with excess fuel and produces the same effect although to a lesser degree. The fuel vapor in the chemically-correct air-fuel mixture occupies only about 2% of the total mixture volume. Since the range of variation 01' the air-fuel ratio is small even the richest mixtures which can be “ad successfully in the engine will not vary greatly from this value. Hence, there is one mixture ratio for each relative load and engine speed which will be subjected to the least amount of the dilution effect and 19. therefore will require the least amount of spark advance. As was previously discussed, the effects of the relative purity of the mixture will cause a change in USA; with OSA increasing as the relative load is lowered at constant engine Speed. Liulti-Cy linder Engine The results obtained for the multi—cylinder engine must be ap- proached from a slightly different angle than was used for the single- cylinder engine. However, the basic reasoning of the effect of relative load, engine speed, dilution effect, etc. will be the same for the multi- cylinder engine as it was for the single-cylinder engine. Optimum spark-advance was determined for only full load conditions at the various engine speeds. Hence, this spark-advance is not optimum for any other conditions of load. Examination of the curve obtained shows an increase in spark—advance as the engine speed increases as did the spark-advance as a function of engine speed for the single-cylinder engine. At full—load conditions the curves of BSFC and observed engine torque as a function of fuel-flow are shown. This shows the maximmn- power output of the engine and the BSFC at this power output. These Curves represent a small segment of the curves which were plotted for the single—cylinder engine and in effect determine the point of maximum Power output of the engine at the various engine speeds and express the 1‘116]. consumption in terms of this power output. Three-quarter, one-half and one-quarter load determinations were made at the appropriate constant torque output for those loads. This 20. being the case, it was necessary to vary the throttle opening slightly to maintain the constant torque output for each engine speed. This enables the fuel consumption necessary for maximum power output to be deter-ind on the basis of intake vacuum. Previous investigations have shown that intake vacuum is an inverse function of relative load. Hence, at low relative load the intake vacuum will be higher than at high rel- ative load. Therefore the plotted values of intake vacuum versus BSFC and the fuel flow will determine the point of lowest relative load nee- essary to maintain a constant output from the engine and show what can be expected in fuequlows at the points of lowest relative load. This may seem to be an odd way to accomplish the determination cfrair- fuel ratios and spark-advances in terms of the investigation which was conducted on the single-cylinder engine. However, it must be remembered that this engine is intended for use under conditions‘which will call for maximnn-power output almost continuously, with very little operation at conditions which might dictate the use of a maximum—economy mixture. For this reason the mixture ratio and spark-advance must be maintained at their maximum-power values at all times. C ON C LUS I ONS It may be concluded from the results of this investigation that both airbfuel ratio and spark-advance play a very important part in the determination of the maximum—power output and the economy of opera- tion of a spark-ignition engine. It wasshown that for each engine speed and constant relative load there is only one air—fuel ratio which supplies maximum-power output and one value of spark—advance Which is correct or optimum for that airnfuel ratio. It was also shown that for each constant engine speed and constant relative load there is one point at which the engine is delivering a maximum amount of power for the fuel used. This maximum-economy point is a function of a value known as the Brake Specific Fuel Consumption. It was proven that the lower the‘value of the BSFC, the greater the economy of operation. The level of relative load operation has probably the greatest single effect on the variations of air-fuel mixture ratio and on the spark—advance necessary.for maximum power output. At the different constant engine speeds the relative load level shifts the various curves of beam load, spark-advance, and BSFC in a vertical direction, with full- load providing the greatest power output, and with decreasing values of load providing less power output. Increasing values of relative load cause a decrease in optimum spark-advance and a decrease in the BSFC, ‘with the lowest values of load giving the highest values of 08A and BSFC. The speed of engine operation also has a very decided effect on the power produced by the engine and on the values of BSFC and USA. In 22. general the slower the speed of engine operation the less was the value of 06A, BSFC, and engine power output. From the results of the investigation conducted on the multi- cylinder engine it may be concluded that with the exception of spark- advance the airbfuel ratio has been varied to determine only the points of maximum-power output at the various engine speeds and engine output power. Optimum spark-advance was determined for only full-load operation over the speed range. It was shown from the investigation of the single- cylinder engine that this spark-advance will not be optimum for other conditions of-relative load. In general it may be concluded that air fuel ratio and spark-advance requirements have been completely determined for the single-cylinder engine over the range of engine speeds and relative loads investigated. For the multi—cylinder engine the limited range of expected operating conditions indicated that the only conditions of interest would be the maximumypower mixture ratio, and the Optimum spark advance which would accompany it at full-load. It should be pointed out that the results of this investigation apply specifically to the engines tested. However, the resulting curves which are shown can be taken as indicating a general trend for most spark-ignition engines, even though the actual numerical values will vary from engine to engine. 23. A PPEND IX I Tables Single-Cylinder Engine multi-Cylinder Engine II Graphs Single-Cylinder Engine multi-Cylinder Engine III Description of Equipment SINGLE-CYLDIDER ENGINE DATA SHEET TABLE I The Determination of 05A from Beam Load Conditions: Constant engine speed Constant mixture ratio Constant temperature Full load operation 21.. Engine Speed - 2h00 RP“ Bf; us 1h.9 15.0 m9 us mo 13$; W 50° 53' 56° 60° 63° Air-Fuel Ratio and Sparkquvance Data at 21100 RPM TABLE II 311013-01me ENGINE DATA SHEET S '6 0 - ag 3g 35 ggg . 32 532 5.2. ° o 18E 53E 5?“ 5.15 g8 35, sag E3 53 Egg 5% 3193 age 21100 111.2 511' 6 .81 1.230 70 8.113 823 " 15 .0 52 ° 7 .20 0 .910 .000973 '10 6 .55 1.0.] " 11.3 52° 6:86 0,775 3 10 5.32 11.24 ° 113.0 51° 6.21 0.119 :3 10 1.02 15;. s 11.1: 58° 5.117 04.1511 *1 70 11.12 17.0 " 9.3 65' 11.116 0.810 70 3.61 19.11 22100 11.5 56° 5.52 8 60 71416 8.5 ° 12,2 511° - 5,86 0,9119 .00083h 60 5.56 10.13 - 11.0 51° 5.56 0.061 3 00 1.80 124.5 - :10.5 56° 5.01 0.836 g 60 1.21 1113 - at 62° 11.011 0.867 m 60 3.116 17.3 ' 6.2 69' 2.98 1.103 60 3.08 19.5 J 21100 9:2 57' 11.112 1.287 50 5.68 8.8 ' 9.8 56’ 11.70 0.9911 .000695 50 11.67 10.1 ' 9,5 56" 11.56 0.925 8 50 11.22 11.9 . 8 ,6 57' 11,13 0 .909 i 50 3 .75 13 .3 ~ 6.7 62° 3 .22 0 .925 > 50 2 .98 16 .8 " 5.1 70° 2.15 1.070 50 2.62 19.1 g 2100 5.3 60° 2.51 1,770 g 10 1.1.9 8:9 - 6.1 59' 2 .93 1.278 .000556 110 3.711 10.7 " 5,9 60° 2.83 1.160 3 110 3.28 12.2 ' 5 .3 62° 2 .511 1.130 S 110 2 .87 13 .9 v 11.3 65° 2.06 1.220 110 2 .51 15 .9 - 3.2 73° 1.51 1.1162 1.0 2.21 18.1 __; TABLE III Slums—01112102111 111-1011113 0.1m. sneer 2111-81101 Ratio. and Spark-Advance Data at 1800 RPM 26. a .. 8 ‘8 3 a 8 3g. 33 582° 835 2 .32 822:- 812 522 882. gm: gs. 3'32. 883% 8 SW 552% 3.18.3: gag @593 m :1: c: A :3 a. «a 1800 18 .3 50° 6 .59 1 .0118 58 .0 6 .90 8 .11 n 19 .3 118° 6 .95 0 .765 '8 .001072 58 .0 5 .32 10.9 n 18.8 118’ 6.76 0.697 .3 58.0 11.71 1243 ~ 17.11 119' 6.26 0.6119 53 58.0 11.06 11.3 n 11.9 53° 5.36 0.639 I“ 58.0 3.112 16.9 °° 11 .9 59' 11 .28 0.696 58 .0 2 .98 19 .6 1800 111 .5 511' 5 .22 1 .120 1 118 .5 5 .85 8 .2 n 15 .5 52 ° 258 0.798 E .000899 118 .5 h .115 10 .9 u 11 .9 52° 5.36 0 .710 :3 18.5 3 .97 12 .2 n 13.1: 53' 11.83 0.700 § 118.5 3 .38 1M1 n 11.1 58° 11.00 0.700 T___n_,_ 118.5 2.80 11.3 " 8 .5 63' 3 .06 0.788 118 .5 2,3,1 20.1 1800 10 .8 56° 3 .89 1 .180. 39 .0 h .59 8 .5 '° 11 .5 55 ° 11 .111 0 .872 .000723 39 .0 3 .61 10 .8 n 10 .9 55 ° 3 .92 0 .821 33> 39 .0 3 .22 12 .1 a 10.1 56° 3 .63 0.791 g 39.0 2 .87 13 .6 n 8 .2 60° 2 .95 0 .8011 39 .0 2 .37 16 .5 °‘ 6.1 68° 2.19 0.900 39.0 1.97 1.9.8 1800 6.7 59° 2.12 1.380 29.5 3.32 8.9 " 7 .3 58' 2 .63 1.0110 .0005116 29 .5 2 .73 104.8 ° 7.2 58° 2.59 0.962 3 29.5 2.19 11.9 " 6.7 59' 2.111 0.925 S 29.5 2.23 13.2 " 5.6 66° 2.02 0.925 29.5 1.82 16.2 °° 11.2 75° 1.51 1.080 29.5 1.63 18.1 TABLE IV SIMLE—CYLINDm ENGINE DATA SHEET Air-Fuel Ratio and Spark-Advance Data at 1200 RPM 27. '8 ‘8 o '3 a: o ,3 5 g H is 33 288 88 2f 33 832 932 353 3 '29- 998 1°21 1°; 9°12 35° flamm— . 1200 20.1 11° 1.90 0.910 - 10.0 1.60 8.7 n 21.0 10° 5 .01 0.715 .00111 10 .0 3 .60 11 .1 n 20.7 11° 1.97 0.635 E 1&0 3.16 12.6 8 19 .1 11' 1 .59 0.578 a 10.0 2 .65 15 .1 a 16.9 17° 1.06 0.572 0.. 10.0 2.32 17.2 " 11.8 51° 3.55 0.597 10.0 2.12 18.9 1200 16.3 17° 3.91 0.926 g 33.0 3.62 9.1 n 16.7 16° 1.01 0.710 .000918 33.0 2.97 11.1 ° 16 .5 16° 3 .96 0 .681 E 33 .o 2.71 12 .2 ° 41.5.; _19° 3 .65 0 .608 g 33 .0 2.22 11 .9 ' 13.1 53' 3.11 0.605 33.0 1.90 17 .1 s 11.1 58° 2.73 0.627 33.0 1.71 19.3 1200 10.9 53 ’ 2 .62 1 .150 26 .5 3 .01 8 .8 n 11.1 51° 2 .71 0 .870 .000736 26 .5 2 .38 11 .1 .. 11.0 51° 2 .61 0.800 g 26 .5 2 .11 12.5 n 10.2 53 ’ 2 .15 0.755 g 26 .5 1.85 11 .3 n 4.1 56- 2.18 0.718 26.5 1.63 16.3 n 1.1 62' 31411 0.825 26.5 1.11 18.8 1200 7.3 57° 1.75 1.270 - 19.5 2.22 8.8 .. 7 .6 55° 1.82 0.966 .000512 19 .5 1 .76 11 .1 '° 7 .2 55° 1 .73 0.873 3 19 .5 1.51 12 .9 n 6.1 58° 1.16 0.877 S 19.5 1.28 15.2 " 5.2 63' 1.25 0.928 19.5 1.16 16.8 " 1 .2 70° 1 .01 1 .010 19 .5 1 .05 18 .6 TABLE V SINGLE-CYLINDER ENGINE DATA SHEET Air-Fuel Ratio and Spark-Advance Data at 600 RPM 28. S 0 8 3 S '8' 6 91. 33 198 89:9, 2 a. 5g 92 522 5°23 2°” g2 “2° gag 8° 3 .2 =32 g a 23538 600 19.6 29° 2.35 0.970 19.0 2.28 8.3 I 20.3 28° 2.11 0.711 .001055 19.0 1.71 10.9 I 23.0 29 ° 2 .10 0 .608 3 19 .0 1.16 13 .0 I 19.1 33° 2.29 0.559 ,3 19.0 1.28 11.8 I 17.2 38° 2.06 9.551 '" 19.0 1.11 16.7 I 11.1 12° 1.73 0.613 19 .0 1.06 17.9 600 15.9 37° 1.91 1.005 15.5 1.92 8.1 I 16.5 36° 1.98 0.723 .000862 15.5 1.13 10.8 .. 1.6.2 37° 1.91 0.630 3 15.5 1.22 12 .6 I 11.9 12° 1.79 0.570 S 15.5 1.02 15.2 I 12.7 18° 1.52 0.592 15 .5 0.90 17.2 " 10.5 52‘ 1.26 0.675 15.5 0.85 18 .3 600 12 .0 13 ’ 1 .11 0.993 12 .0 1 .13 8 .1 I 12 .2 12° 1.19 0.773 E .000667 12 .0 1.15 10 .8 I 11.9 11° 1 .13 0 .671 .3 12 .0 0.96 12 .5 I 9.9 52 ° 1 .19 0.633.. S 12.0 0 .75 16 .0 I 8.5 55° 1.02 0.696 12 .0 0.71 16 .9 " 7 .7 60° 0 .92 5 o .711 12 .0 0 .66 18 .2 600 7.3 19' 0.876 1.255 _ 9.0 1.10 8.2 " 7.7 18° 0.925 0.898 '8 .000100 9.0 0.83 10.9 I 1.1; 19 ° (1852 0 .775 .3 9.0 0.66 13 .6 I 5 .3 58° 0 .635 0.850 S 9.0 0 .SIL 16 .7 I 3-8 61° 0.156 1.098 9.0 0.50 18.0 I 2 .8 66 ° 0 .336 1 .160 9 .0 0 .19 18 .1 TABLE VI MULTI—CYLL‘IDER ENGINE DATA SHEET Determination of Full Load Beat-Power 29. Spark-Advance Conditions: Maximum power mixture ratio Constant temperature Full load operation Engine speed constant at each RPM Engine Observed Spark Observed Spark Observed Spark Speed Torque Advance Torque Advance Torque Advance 800 287.0 17° 288.0 16° 287.0 13.0° 1200 309.0 22‘ 310.0 21' 309.0 18.0° 1600 315 .0 25 .S’ 316 .0 21' 315 .0 22 .0‘ 1800 319 .0 27 .5 ' 320 .0 26° 319 .0 23 .0° 2000 322.5 29.0‘ 323.5 27' 322.5 25.0’ 2200 321.5 31.0° 325.5 29° 321.5 25.0° 2100 321.0 32.0' 325.0 30' 321.0 26.0' 2800 315.0 33.0' 316.0 31' 315.0 27.0‘ 3000 309.5 35.0' 310.5 32’ 309.5 27.0‘ 3200 30110 36.0' 3025.0 33° 301.0 28.0° 3100 292.0 36 .0° 293 .0 33° 292 .0 28 .0° .3500 288.0 36.0‘ 289.0 33° 288.0 21.5' TAB LE VI I 30. MULTI-CELDIDER 11101105 0.11:. 571.117 2011 Load Operation .3 0. 05 a. 5. .56 73335 b 8“" gang 92° .5: 0 H25 58‘9 <5 1. 800 277.5 12.2 16° 0.511 23.0 1.7 17.0.1 302 0 800 281.5 12.8 16° 0.560 21.0 1.7 1.7.0.2 302 0 800 281.0 13.3 16° 0.57? 25.0 1.1 W.O.T 332.0 800 282.5 13.1 16° 0.601 261) 1.7 77.0.1. 302 0 800 281.5 12.8 16° 0.630 27.0 1.7 17.0.1. 302.0 ' 800 283.0 12.2 16° 0.618 28 1.7 1.0.7 302 0 1200 303 .5 69 .1 21° 0.519 36 .0 3 .7 W.o .1. 173 .0 1200 301.5 69 .6 21° 0.516 38 .0 3 .7 w .0.T . 173.0 1200 305 .5 69 .8 21° 0.573 10.0 3 .7 w .O.T . 173 .0 1200 305 .5 69 .8 21° 0.587 11.0 3 .7 W .0.T . 173.0 1200 301 .0 69 .5 21° 0 .619 13 .0 3.7 W .0.T. 173.0 1200. 302 .0 69 .2 21° 0.650 15 .0 3.7 W,O .T . 173.0 1600 311 .0 91 .7 21° 0.528 50.0 7.0 W .0.7 . .652 .0 1600 313.5 95.5 21' 0.515 52.0 7.0 W.O.T 652.0 1600 311.5 95 .8 21° 0.561 51.0 7 .0 w .0.1' 652 .0 1600 311.5 95 .8 21° 0.585 56 .0 7 .0 11.0.1 652 .0 1600 313 .5 95 .5 21° 0.608 58 .0 7 .0 W 07 652.0 1600 311 .0 95 .0 21° 0 .631 60 7 .0 w .0 .T . 652 72012'7111 31. wnmchmm001210120102510fl Full Load Operation 5°22 ”82.. §.§ .52B 0 53.5 520.. 25.25” 5.5 555 525 .25 555 5 .52 525. 25.5 .52 88H 620:5 mg. a: H Hbg 540cm 5: H 1800 311.0 107.8 26° 0.502 51.0 8.6 5.0.1. 723 0 1800 315.5 108.1 26° 0.517 56.0 8.6 w.o.T. 723.0 1800 316.5 108.5 26° 0.535 58.0 8.6 1.0.7. 723.0 1800 317.5 108.9 26° 0.551 60.0 8.6 1.0.1. 723.0 1800 316.5 103.5 26° 0.572 62.0 8.6 5.0.7. 723.0 1800 315.5 108.1 26° 0.591 61.0 8.6 5.0.7. 723.0 2000 311.0 119.7 27° 0.501 60.0 10,5 1,0,1, 806,0 2000 317.0 120.8 27° 0.511 62.0 10.5 W.0.T. 806.0 2000 318.0 121.1 27° (1523 61.0 10.5 8:0.7. 806.0 2000 319.0 121.5 27° 0.513 66.0 10.5 w,0.T. 806.0 2000 319.0 121.5 27' 0.560 68.0 10.5 5.0.7. 806.0 2000 318.5 121.3 27° 0.576 70.0 10.5 5.0.7 806.0 2000 318.0 121.1 27° 0.595 72.0 10.5 5.0.1. 813.0 2200 320.5 131.3 29° 0.536 72.0 12.0 5.0.7. 891.0 2200 322.0 135.0 29° 0.518 71.0 12.0 W.O.T. 791.0 2200 322.0 135.0 29° 0.561 76.0 12.0 5.0.? 791.0 2200 321.5 131.8 29° 0.579 78.0 12.0 5.0.7. 891.0 2200 321.0 131.8 29° 0.595 80.0 12.0 w.0.T. 891.0 2200 319.5 131.1 29° 0.611 82.0 12.0 1.0.7. 891.0 TABLE IX MULTI—CYLINDER ENGINE DATA SHEET Full Load Operation 32. 55 55.. 5.2: .5. 5.5 555. 2 5 5 5 2°55 55:; 552 55:0 5255 52°. 5'32. 522 :3 :2 m 5 55 E82 .590 2100 319 .5 116 .0 30° 0.520 76 .0 11.1 w .O.T . 978 .0 2100 320.0 116.2 30° 0.533 78.0 11.1 17.0.1. 978.0 2100 321.5 117.0 30' o .515 80 .0 11 .1 w .0 .‘r . 978.0 2100 321.5 117.0 30° 0.558 82.0 11.1 W.0.T. 978.0 2100 321 s 117.0 30° 0.571 81.0 11.1 5.0.0. 978.0 2100 321:0 116.8 30° 0.586 86.0 11.1 11.0.1. 978.0 2800 310.5 165.6 31° 0.513 85.0 16.3 17.0.7. 1122.0 2800 312.5 166.8 31° 0.528 88.0 16.3 17.0.1. 1122.0 2800 312 .0 166 .2 31° 0.517 91 .0 16 .3 w .0 .T 1122 .0 2800 311.5 166.1 31‘ 0.565 91.0 1623‘ W.O.T. 1122.3 2800 311.0 166.0 31‘ 0.585 97.0 16.3 71.0.7. 1122 0 2800 310.0 165.8 31° 0.603 100.0 16.3 71.0.7. 1122:0 3000 311.5 171.0 32° 0.517 90 .0 19 .8 w .0.1 . 1181 .0 3000 306.0 171.9 32° 0.532 93.0 19.8 17.0.1. 1181.0 3000 305 .5 171.1 32 ° 0 .550 96 .0 19 .8 w 01' . 1181.0 3000 305.0 171.2 32° 0.568 99.0 19.8 17.0.1. 1181.0 3000 301 .0 173 .8 32 ° 0.587 102 .0 19 .8 w .0 .7 . 1181 .0 3000 303 .0 173 .1 32 ° 0.601 105.0 19:8 w .0 .7 . 1181.0 TABLE I 33. MULTI-cmlzmm BJGINE 0171 525817 Full Load Operation '8 8 E .3 gym 5 555 555 555 55g . 555 555° 555 5755 .55 gas gag; .5525 5 3.3535 555' 55.5” 593.5 :1 1 3200 295.5 180 0 33’ 0.516 93.0 21.6 1,0,7, 1213.0 ‘ 3200 297.5 181 2 33° 0.530 96.0 21.6 1.0.7 1218.0 3200 298.0 181.7 33' 0.515 99.0 21.6 1.0.7 1218.0 3200 297.0 181.0 33° 0.563 102.0 21.6 5.0.7. 1218.0 3200 296.5 180.7 33° 0.581 105.0 21.6 1.0.7. 1218.0 3200 295.5 180.5 33° 0.59? 108.0 21.6 1,0,7. 1218.0 3100 286.5 185:? 33° 0.51? 96.0 23.0 1.0.7. 1308.0 3100 28725 186.1 33° 0.532 99.0 23.0 8.0.7. 1308.0 3100 288;0 186.5 33’ 0.517 102.0 23.0 1.0.7. 1308.0 3100 287.0 186.1 33° 0.561 105.0 23.0 W.0.7. 1308.0 3100 287.0 186.1 33’ 0.580 108.0 23.0 1.0.7. 1308.0 3100 286.5 185.7 33’ 0.598 111.0 23.0 1.0.7. 1308.0 _i 3500 283.0 188.8 33' 0.525 99.0 21.0 1.0.7, 1330.0 3500 283.5 189.0 33° 0.510 102.0 21.0 5.0.7. 1330.0 3500 281.0 192.2 33° 0.555 105.0 21.0 1.0.7. 1330.0 3500 283.0 188.8 33° 0.572 108.0 21.0 *1.0.7. 1330.3 3500 282.0 188;0 33' 0.590 111.0 21.0 1.0.7. 1330.0 3500 281.0 187.8 33° 111.0 21.0 8.0.7. 1330.0 1___-1L __ _ 71811 XI 31. MULTI-CILIE‘IDELR 175015.11“. DATA 5:11:57 Three-Quarter Load 5 5 - .2 . .. 8.... 555 55° 5 .2 . ~55 5 5 800 213.0 32.1 16° 0.555 18.0 1.80' 21,0° 298.0 800 213.0 32.1 16’ 0.585 1950 5.50 ‘11;S' 276.0 800 213.0 32.1 16° 0.616 20.0 5.70 11.0° 213.0 800 213.0 32.1 16° 0.617 21.0 1.95 15.0’ 269.0 800 213.0 32.1 16° 0.678 22.0 1.95 15.1° 283.0 800 213.0 32.1 16° 0.710 23.0 1.20 20.0“ 308 0 1200 229.0 52.3 21° 0.516 27.0 .5.75 26.5° 2361-0 1200 229.0 52.3 21° 0.535 28.0 5.90 25.0° 317.3 1200 229.0 52.3 21° 0.555 29.0 5.95 - 25.0° 309.0 1200 229.0 52.3 21° 0.581 30.0 5.90 25.0° 339.0 1200 229.0 52.3 21° 0.593 31.0 5.80 26.5° 367.0 1200 229.0 52.3 21° 0.612 32.0 5.63 29.0° 392.0 1600 236.0 71.9 25° 0.515 37.0 5.60 32.0' 517-0 1600 236.0 71.9 25° 0.528 38.0 5.80 31.0° 178.0 1600 236.0 71.9 25° 0.512 39.0 6.00 30.5° 157.0 1600 236.0 71.9 25° 0.556 10.0 6.00 30.5° 168.0 1600 236.0 71.9 25° 0.570 11.0 5.90 31.0° 180.0 1.600 236 .0 71 .9 25° 0.581 12 .0 S .80 31 .S’ 199 .0 MULTI—CYLIIWER ENGINE DATA SHEEP Three-Quarter Load TABLE XII 0'6 '80) B E o H5 a) ' .3 a, 5 890 8°98 92° 9 a: .1 1.... Egg. :1 H 1800 238.0 81.5 26° 0.509 11.5 5.10 35.0“ 578 0 1800 238.0 81.5 26° 0.527 13.0 5.60 31.0° 553.0 1800 238.0 81.5 26° 0.516 11.5 5.70 33.5° 531.0 1800 238.0 81.5 26° 0.561 16.0 5.70 33.5' 510.0 1800 238.0 81.5 26° 0.582 17.5 5.65 31.0° 552.0 1800 238.0 81.5 26° 0.601 19.0 5.60 31.5° 561.0 2000 239.0 91.0 27° 0.538 19.0 5.50 39.0° 610.0 2000 239.0 91.0 27° 0.560 51.0 5.60 38.0° 607.0 2000 239.0 91.0 27° 0.582 53.0 5.65 37.5° 581.0 2000 239.0 91.0 27° 0.605 55.0 5.60 37.5° 619.0 2000 239.0 91.0 27° 0.626 57.0 5.10 39.0° 611.0 2000 239.0 91.0 27° 0.618 59.0 5.15 11.0 668.0 2200 211.0 101.0 29° 0.515 52.0 5.30 39.0° 710.0 2200 211.0 101.0 29° 0.535 51.0 5.55 38.0° 659.0 2200 211.0 101.0 29° 0.555 56.0 5.55 38.0° 681.0 ___2200 211.0 101.0 29° 0.571 58.0 5.50 38.5° 702.0 ___2200 211.0 101.0 29° 0.591 60.0 5.15 39.0° 733.0 13300 21‘1-0 101.0 29° 0.629 63.5 5.35 395° 770.0 1\_ WWI-CYLINDER ENGINE DATA SHEET Three—Quarter Load TABLE XIII 36. 1 O '8 o ‘8 8 a) . 8 800g ‘03 a :3 .565 53%” a 537 2100 21110 110.1 30’ O .51? i7 .0 5 .15 13 .0“ 771,0 2100 211.0 5 110.1 30’ 0.535 59.0 5.20 11.0° 713.0 2100 211.0 11011 30° 0.551 61.0 5.25 10.5“ 729.0 2100 211.0 110.1 30° 01582 63.0 5.20 11.0’ 756.0 2100 211.0 110.1 30° 0.589 65.0 5.20 11.5 781.0 2100 211.0 110.1 30° 0.618 67.0 5120 13.5. 802.0 2800 231.0 121.9 31° 0.521 65.0 5.00 11.0‘ 912:0 2800 231.0 121.9 31° ' 0.537 67.0 5.10 13.0' 891.0 2800 231 .0 121 .9 31° 0 .553 69 .0 5 .15 12 .0. 859 .0 2800 231.0 121.9 31‘ 0.568 71.0 5.15 12.0° 861.0 2800 231.0 121.9 31° 0.585 73.0 5.15 12.0° 871.0 2800 231.0 121.9 31° 0.611 80.0 5.16 13.0- 879.0 3000 229.5 131:1 32° 0.511 71.0 5.70 11.0° 961.0 3000 229.5 ’ 131.1 32° 0.55? 73.0 5.75 13.5’ 911.0 3000 229 .5 131 .1 32° 0.571 75 .0 S .75 13 .5' 911.0 13000 229.5 131.1 32° 0.591 78.0 5.75 13.5' 951.0 1.2990 229.5 131.1 32° 0.625 82.0 5.70 11.0° 958.0 _:3000 229.5 131.1 32' 0.665 87.0 5.65 15.5“ 963.0 g; TABLE XIV 37. MULTI-CYLDIDER ENGINE DATA SHEET Three-Quarter Load 1 583: E37: Egg 3.3% o 583 $55” $3.58 :8- Efi'“ $88 588% 2g. 5 3‘95 .555 §§§° éfié z: 3200 223.5 136.1 33° 0.528 72.0 5.70 16.0° .1020.0 3200 223.5 136.1 33° 0.513 71.0 5.85 15.0° 991.0 3200 223.5 136.1 33' 0.565 77.0 5.90 15.0° 952.0 3200 223.5 136.1 33’ 0.587 80.0 5.90 15.0° 968.0 3200 223.5 136.1 33° 0.616 81.0 5.85 15.5° 979.0 3200 223.5 136.1 33° 0.653 89.0 5.80 16.0° 987.0 3100 216.0 110 .0 33' 0.513 76 .0 5 .85 16 .5° 1061.0 3100 216 .0 110 .0 33 ’ 0 .561 79 .0 5 .95 16 .0° 1015 .0 3100 216.0 110.0 33° 0.585 82.0 6.00 15.50 991.0 3100 216.0 110.0 33° 0.608 85.0 6.00 15.5° 989.0 3100 216.0 110.0 33° 0.636 89.0 5.95 16.0° 1000.0 3100 216.0 110.0 33° 0.665 93.0 5.90 17.0° 1078.0 3500 213.0 112.0 33’ 0.519 78.0 5.75 17.0° 1100.0 3500 213.0 112.0 33° 0.571 81.0 6.00 16.0° 1019.0 3500 213.0 112.0 33° 0.581 83.0 6.00 16.0° 1051.0 3500 213.0 112.0 33° 0.605 86.0 6.00 16.0° 1057.0 __§§00 213.0 112.0 33° 0.611 91.0 5.95 16.5° 1079.0 __3500 213.0 112.0 33° 0.669 95.0 5.85 17.0° 1119.0 L_____ HULTI-CYLINDER ENGINE DATA SHEEP TABLE XV One—half Load 38. . 2. 2 i" m g . . .9. 6 8 0 8°98 922° 9 g .8 8:25 2.82: 5:? .. 800 112.0 21.6 16° 0.555 12.0 9.95 13.5° 181.0 . 800 112.0 21.6 16° 0.602 13.0 10.3 13.0' 163.0 800 112.0 21.6 16° 0.618 11.0 10.8 12.5° 159.0 800 112.0 21.6 16° 0.691 15.0 10.7 13.0° 165.0: 800 112.0 21.6 16' 0.710 16.0 10.1 13.5' 17753fl 800 112.0 21.6 16° 0.787 17.0 10.2 11.0 192.0: 1200 153 .0 35 .0 21° 0572 20 .0 10 .60 18 j ° 276 .0 1200 153.0 35.0 21° 0.600 21.0 10.75 18.0' 258 0 1200 153.0 35.0 21° 0.621 22.0 10.80 18.0° 261 0 1200 153.0 35.0 21° 0.658 23.0 10.75 18.0‘ 265.0 1200 153.0 35.0 21° 0.686 21.0 10.60 18.5' 272.0 1200 153.0 35.0 21' 0.716 25.0 10.35 19.0 283.0 1600 157.0 17.8 21‘ 0.565 27.0 10.10 23.o° 372.0 1600 157.0 17.8 21° 0.586 28.0 10.55 22:5° 367.0 1600 157.0 17.8 21’ 0.606 29.0 10.60 22.5° 53.0 _;1600 157.0 17.8 21° 0.628 30.0 10.61 225° 319.0 J00 157.0 ‘ 17.8 21' 0.619 31.0 153.55 22.5. 301.9 F__16oo 157.0 17.8 21° 0.690 33.0 10.15 23.0“ 383.0 L__1600 157.0 17.8 21° 0.771 37.0 10.25 21.0° 397 0 MULTI-CYLINDER ENGINE DATA SHEET TABLE XVI 39. One-half Load .3 8. 8 E 6 E 6 .3 232,08 8 66 89; .3. m .2 ~ a a ,. 1800 159.0 51.6 26° 0.562 31 0 10.25 25.0° 129.0 1800 159.0 51.6 26° 0.586 32.0 10.35 21.5° 112.0 1800 159.0 51.6 26° 0.601 33.0 10.10 21.5° 398.0 1800 159.0 51.6 26’ 0.623 31.0 10.10 21.5° 100.0 1800 159.0 51.6 26° 0.686 37.5 10.30 25.0° 115.0 1800 159.0 51.6 26° 0.732 10.0 10.25 25.5° 131.0 2000 159.5 60.8 27° 0.576 35.0 10.35 27.0° 182.0 2000 159.5 60.8 27° 0.592 36.0 10.15 26.5° 161.0 2000 159.5 60.8 27° 0.608 37.0 10.15 26.5° 163.0 2000 159.5 60.8 27° 0.611 39.0 10.10 27.0“ 177.0 2000 159.5 60.8 27° 0.675 11.0 10.35 27.5' 192.0 2000 159.5 60.8 27° 0.721 11.0 10.27 28.5° 501.0 2200 161.0 67.5 29° 0.555 37.5 10.00 29.0° 513.0 2200 161.0 67.5 29° 0.578 39.0 10.20 28.5° 521.0 2200 161.0 67.5 29° 0.593 10.0 10.30 28.0° 505.3 __2200 161.0 67.5 29° 0:607 11.0 10.35 28.0° 508 0 1.3?00 161.0 67.5 29° 0.622 12.0 10.35 28.0° 512.0 __2200 161.0 67.5 29° 0.652 11.0 10.30 28.5° 538.0 2200 161:0 67.5 29° 0.726 19.0 10.20 29.0° 517.0 MULTI-CYLIMDER ENGINE DATA SHEET TABLE XVII 10. One-half Load 28 “88.. 3.? 328 5.8 °583 13.8 5.2 .238 35; 587»: 225 5 “812 35.- 3% 122 89 89g “2' m E H " 8b 2 H 2100 161 .0 73 .6 30° 0 .591 13 .5 9 .90 31.0“ 595.0 2100 161.0 73.6 30' 0.611 15.0 10.05 30.5° 581.0 2100 161.0 73.6 30° 0:632 16:5 10.1 30.0° 568.0 2100 161.0 73.6 30° 01652 18.0 10.05 30.5° 579.0 2100 161.0 73.6 30° 0.680 50.0 9:90 31.0’ 588.0 2100 161.0 73.6 30° 0.710 52.0 9.65 32.0° 603.0 2800 156.0 83.3 31° 0.619 51.5 10.25 325 687.0 2800 156.0 83.3 31° 0.637 53.0 10.35 32.0° 659.0 2800 156.0 83.3 31° 0.655 51.5 10.35 32.0° 653.0 2800 15633 83 .3 31° 0 .672 56.0 10.30 32.5° 671.0 2800 156.0 83.3 31° 0.709 59.0 10.20 33.5' 688.0 2800 156.0 83.3 31° 0.720 60:0 10:00 31.0° 698.0 3000 119.0 90.8 32° 0.595 51.0 10.15 31.0. 723.0 3000 119.0 90.8 32° -0.612 55.5 10.55 31.0° 730.0 3000 119.0 90.8 32’ 0.628 57.0 10.55 31.0“ 732.0 3000 119.0 90.8 32° 0.611 58.5 10.50 31.0° 731.0 3000 119.0 90.8 32' 0.672 61.0 10.50 31.0° 710.0 3000 119.0 90.8 32° 0.705 61.0 10.10 31.o° 751.0 WWI—CYLINDER BIGINE DATA SHEET TABLE XVIII One-half Load 73 o 13 g '5 ' 3 m 5 2 $5185 5.79. 32.5 o 53% 555 ‘55" '55 9 gaé gag 63g. 5?. £536 355 5.55 3‘55 3200 119.0 90.8 33' 0.612 55.5 10.15 36.0° 758.0 3200 119.0 90.8 33' 0.628 57.0 10.55 35.5" 719.0 3200 119.0 90 .8 33' 0.611 58 .5 10.60 35 ."5 71? .0 3200 119 .0 90 .8 33' 0 .667 60 .5 10 .60 35 .5 ° 715 .0 3200 119 .0 90.8 33 ° 0.678 61.5 10 .55 35 .5 ° 756 .0 3200 119 .0 90 .8 33' 0 .699 63 .5 10 .10 36 .0° 769 .0 3100 111.0 93.3 33° 0.618 60.5 10.55 37.0° 793 3 3100 111 .0 93 .3 33 ° 0 .661 62 .0 10 .60 36 .0° 771.0 3100 111 .0 93 .3 33° 0.681 63 .5 10.65 36 .0° 759 .3 31400 111.0 93.3 33" 0.708 66 .0 10:60 36 .0’ 769 - 0 3100 111.0 93.3 33' 0.739 69.0 10.55 37.0° 788.0 3100 111.0 93.3 33" 0.750 70.0 10.30 37.5 ° 801.0 3500 112.0 95.0 33° 0.613 161.0 10-16 336° 8‘11113 3500 112.0 95.0 33' 0.671 61.0 10.55 37.5° 832 3 3500 112 .0 95:0 33 ° 0.705 67 .0 10 .60 37 .0“ 823 .0 3500 112.0 95.0 33° 0.737 70.0 10.60 37.0° 829 3 3500 112.0 95.0 33' 0.769 73.0 10.55 37.5° 836.3 3500 112 .0 95 .0 33' 0 .800 76 .0 10.15 38 0’ 813 .0 One-quarter Load T2113 LE X IX MU LT I-CYLII‘ID ER ENG IN E DATA SE { 5.3T L0 ggEngp 3.5 1.8g .52 .56 :7... 5 308'“ 7.5; .771 3.35: 385 3a”? 58; 55% s 889;; 92 9 5.83.8 £73.53. 533 g .29. 800 71:0 10:8 16' 0:832 9:0 15.60 9.0' 131.0 800 71.0 10.8 16° 0.879 9.5 15.75 8.0° 119.0 800 71.0 10.8 16° 0.925 10.0 15.70 8.0° 125.0 800 71.0 10.8 16° 0.970 10.5 15.60 8.5° 132.0 800 71.0 10.8 16‘ 1.017 11.0 15.50 9.0° 137.0 800 71.0 10.8 16° 1.065 11.5 15.12 10.0° 117.0 1200 76.5 17.5 21° 0.733 12.8 15.50 13.0° 179.8 1200 76.5 17.5 21° 0.779 13.6 16.00 12.0° 163.0 1200 76.5 17.5 21° 0.818 11.3 16.05 12.0° 151.0 1200 76.5 17.5 21° 0.817 11.8 16.00 12.0° 161.0 1200 76.5 17.5 21° 0.876 15.3 15.90 12.5° 171.0 1200 76.5 17.5 21° 0.913 16.5 15.50 11.0° 188.0 1600 78.5 21.0 21° 0;786 18.8 15.50 17.0° 252.0 1600 78.5 21.0 21° 0.815 11.5 15.80 16.0° 231.0 1600 78.5 21.0 21' 0.837 20.0 15.90 15.5° 219.0 1600 78 .5 21 .0 21° 0.857 20 .5 15 .80 16 .0" 235 .0 1600 78.5 21.0 21' 0.899 21.5 15.50 17.0° 251.0 1600 78.5 21.0 21° 0.938 22.5 15.25 19.0° 263.0 MULTI-CILINDER EIGI‘I-FE DATA SHEET TAP. LE XX One-quarter Load 13. 6 88 ‘88.. "8.5 68 5 ME; 2588 .58 :5 Fla 1800 79.5 27.3 26° 0.792 21.6 15.70 17.5° 276.0 1800 79.5 27.3 26° 0.826 22.5 15.80 17.0° 263.0 1800 79.5 27.3 26° 0.811 23.0 15.80 17.0° 251.0 1800 79.5 27.3 26° 0.863 23.5 15.75 17.0° 262.0 1800 79.5 27.3 26° 0.899 21.5 15.70 17.5° 271.0 1800 79.5 27.3 26° 0.935 25.5 15.60 19.0° 281.0 2000 79.5 30.3 27° 0.77? 23.5 15.75 20.0° 313 0 2000 79.5 30.3 27° 0.810 21.5 15.80 20.0° 302.0 2000 79.5 30.3 27° 0.813 25.5 15.85 19.5° 291.0 2000 79.5 30.3 27° 0.876 26.5 15.85 19.0° 283.0 2000 79.5 30.3 27° 0.909 27.5 15.80 19.5° 293.0 2000 79.5 30.3 27° 0.913 28.5 15.70 19.5° 307.0 2000 79.5 30.3 27° 0.971 29.5 15.65 20.5° . 318.0 2200 80.5 33.8 29° 0.771 26.0 15.60 21.5° 312.0 2200 80.5 33.8 29° 0.800 27.0 15.70 20.5° 321.0 2200 80.5 33.8 29° 0.830 28.0 15.75 20.0° 307.0 2200 80.5 33.8 29° 0.859 29.0 15.70 20.5° 325.0 2200 80.5 33.8 29° 0.889 30.0 15.60 21.0° 335.0 2200 80.5 33.8 29° 0.918 31.0 15.33 22.0 316.0 MULTI-CYLINDER DIGINE DATA SHEET TABLE XXI One—quarter Load 6 86 '8 3 6 g . o 8mg “52 m g 3 5:5 988 «6:3 2100 80.5 36.8 30' 0.775 28.5 15.15 21.50 377.0 2100 8015 36;8 30' 0.802 29.5 15.50 21.5° 358.0 27.66 66.5 36.8 36- 6.636 36.5 15.55 21.0" 376.6 2100 80.5 36.8 30' 0;857 31.5 15.50 21;5' 361.0 2100 80:5 36 :8 30° 0 .898 33 .0 15 .10 22 .0° 381 .0 2800 78.0 11.7 31' 0.791 3350 15.10 25.5° 182.0 2800 78.0 11.7 31° 0.815 31.0 15;25 25;o° 171.0 2800 78.0 11.7 31° 0.839 35.0 15.30 215° 161.0 2800 78.0 11.7 31° 0.863 36.0 15.35 21.0° 119.0 2800 78 .0 11.7 31° 0.899 37.5 15.30 21.5' 165.0 2800 78.0 11.7 31° 0.935 39.0 15.25 25.0° 183.0 2800 78.0 11.7 31° 1.030 13.0 15.20 26.0° 190.0 3000 76 .5 13 ;9 32 ° 0.820 36 .0 15 .15 26 .5 191 .0 3000 76.5 13.9 32° 0.813 37.0 15.20 26.0 180.6 3000 76.5 13.9 32° 0.865 38.6 15.25 255° 168.6 3000 76.5 13.9 32° 0.890 39.0 15.25 25.5“ 179.0 _.3000 76.5 13.9 32° 0.921 10.5 15.20 26.0' 188.0 .__3000 76.5 13.9 32° 1.002 11.0 15.05 27.0° 196.0 One-quarter Load TABLE XXII MULTI-CYLINDER ENGINE DATA SHEET 15. 6 o 8g... ‘8.” A," E 03 63 63mm 53 :1 6. 8. :1 -< 3200 71.5 15.5 33° 0.857 39.0 15.10 28.0° 531 0 3200 71.5 15.5 33' 0.880 10.0 15.25 27.50 517.0 3200 71.5 15.5 33' 0.901 11.0 15.30 27.0° 508.0 3200 71.5 15.5 33' 0.921 12.0 15.25 27.0° 513.0 3200 71.5 15.5 33' 0.967 11.0 15.20 27.5° 531.0 3200 71.5 15.5 33° 1.055 18.0 15.0 29.0° 517.0 3100 72:0 16.8 33‘ 0.897 12.0 15.10 28.5° 560.0 3100 72.0 16.8 33' 0.919 13.0 15.15 28.0° 519.0 3100 72.0 16.8 33° 0.910 11.0 15.25 27.5° 511.0 3100 72.0 16.8 33° 0.972 15.5 15.20 27.5° 517.0 3100 072.0 16.8 33° 1:015 17.5 15.15 28.0“ 551.3 3100 72.0 16.8 33° 1.070 50.0 15.05 29.0° 565 0 3500 71.0 17.5 33' 0.885 12.0 15.05 29.0 583.0 3500 71.0 17.5 33° 0.916 13.5 15.15 28.5 572.0 3500 71.0 11.5 33' 0.917 15.0 15.20 28.0 563.0 3500 71.0 17.5 33' 0.979 16.5 15.15 28.0 573 0 __.3500 71.0 17.5 33' 1.031 19.0 15.05 28.5 57 .3 3500 71.0 17.5 33‘ 1.115 53.0 11.85 29.5 587.0 .. .l .‘ 1 l. 9.01 ED ig‘o. 7 s -77 17. m 1 H . _ . .1 . 1 . . .-Iéf1L17L-II7+I.LTMWT 573210471631. 7.717171II...-..-;.W$I- 7-115-127-6247: 1.4.-- 7 6.34-347--- 1- I..:i-.--:-! _ , * .- I I I . 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III -II I22 .-. ..._... -4 ..__.J '2 A I! splo IIII. . ~ L . . . fl .- . .‘I. ~ . _ _-.r_. . . . w v . m . . n . I. -.IITIA. .II-FIIOI . . o — . ..-..--<.. A . _ N . A q n . w u n ._ L- :I. 1-.-II-..- . -.--..-..IIII _ . . . . L .2 L L L. W. I. u .. . w . d. JIII . . . L _. w _ L --_2-_-2.TI...I -2..--2-,I-.-I.-IL --. II ..I. . o . .. _ . w L L ._ W L _ L L L .. . Q j . n .u . H _ m . .. .r m . . .. . I“: . .L. . -1“..-- 1 . III-L I-L_ . . . - ... a . . H . , n .. .. a _ . H n .. III I I..I I. ITI .IflIII4jIII I-AAI I.‘ .L L L L fl a A . . . . . h a II» IILIII.-I .rIIIwIILTI I II IL. I. . -.I --.-II; -I . Mag/hr I I I 'IP - IIWILOI‘ I I - m "“-"I‘ ' I I I I I b- ..1}- ‘ . l . .. 'L. 2‘!) )VI N-J‘I 115. DESCRIPTION (F EQUIPI-{EI‘IT Engines Single—cylinder engine. The single-cylinder engine used in this investigation'was of the variable compression-ratio research type. Com- pression ratio was variable from 3.2:1 to 8.2:1. The engine's physical data was as follows: test compression ratio 6.08:1 bore 3 1/16 inches stroke h l/2 inches valve timing exhaust opens 27° BBC exhaust closes TDC intake opens TDC intake closes 28° ABC manufacturer Christy Machine Works Hulti-cxlinder engin . The multi-cylinder engine used in this investigation'was of the 90' V-8 type. This engine was built as an experimental pilot model to lead the way for future mass-production of similar engines. Its physical data was as follows: 116. compression ratio 7.25:1 bore 3 7/8 inches stroke h 1/8 inches displacement 390 cubic inches valve timing exhaust opens 50° BBC exhaust closes 10° ATC intake opens 10° BTC intake closes 50' ABC Dynamometers The dynamometers used for this investigation were of the direct- current cradle-field type. The dynamometer used for the single- cylinder engine absorbed a maximum of ten horsepower and measured beam load by means of a Toledo scale. The dynamometer used for the multi- cylinder engine absorbed 200 horsepower and also used a Toledo scale for beam load measurements. This scale read directly in engine torque. Each dynamometer was equipped with a Standard Electric Time Company tachometer magneto for engine speed measurements. Aierlow Meters Single-Cylinder engine. The air-flow meter used for the single— cylinder engine was built in the Michigan State College Automotive Laboratory. Fig. 1 shows a photograph of the unit mounted on the test engine. 117.. The airqflow meter was based on thin-plate orifice theory for measuring the flow of gases and utilized a large "U" tank to dampen air surge. An inclined water manometer was used to measure the pressure difference between the inside of the surge chamber and the atmosphere. Suitable scales were made for each thin—plate orifice used. Fig. 2 is a photograph of the manometer with a scale in place. The basic equation1 for this type of air—flow meter is: W - C1A2 2g éi-f%_h1 x 3600 'where W n air flow - lbs/hour Cl - orifice discharge coefficient A2 - orifice area - square feet g - acceleration due to gravity -91 - density of dry air - lbs/cubic foot XI- density of water - lbs/cubic foot hh-«water head - inches of water This unit was calibrated for conditions of dry air at 29.1 inches of mercury and an air temperature of 70° Fahrenheit. Hence, a deviation from these conditions will cause a change in the air flow reading of the instrument. However, the effect of these changes will be slight, particularly since the airbflow rate was held constant at each condition of engine speed and relative load. This can be proved in the following manner: l. Diederichs and Andras. Experimental Mechanical Engineering. Vol. I, p. 616, John Wiley and Sons, New York, Nil. 118. Conditions in the Automotive Laboratory on‘April 11, 19514 were as follows: barometer 30.18 inches of mercury relative humidity ‘ 314% temperature 73° Fahrenheit From the Society of Automotive Engineers Engine £6333 9393, the following air correction formula is found: Reference Barometej: 1: 1:60 + t1 (B - s) 1460 * t2 correction factor - where B - actual barometer reading - inches of mercury E - water vapor pressure - inches of mercury t1 - actual temperature reading - '1" t2 - reference temperature - ‘F Solution of this formula using the various values for actual and reference conditions yields an air-correction factor of 1.015. Multiplying, this times the recorded air-flow rate would give the correct air-flow rate. Assuming an uncorrected air-flow rate of 20 lbs/hr. and multiplying this by 1.015 yields a cor- rected aim-flow of 20.3 lbs/hour. In terms of percentages this variation is about 1.106. Multi-cylinder egine. The air-flow meter used for testing the multi-cylinder engine was a commercial instrument manufactured by Commercial Laboratories, Inc. This air-flow meter is based on the metering tube principle, in which an orifice area varies with the flow 119. rats and the pressure differential across the metering element remains constant. The metering element consists of a vertical tapered tube contain— ing a horizontal flat disc float which is free to move along the axis of the tube. The float area is slightly less than the smallest area of the tube cross-section. Because the tube's smallest area is at the lower end, and since the air flows upward through it, the float adjusts in height until the annular area between it and the tube is just suffic- ient to pass the rate of airqflow existing. There is then established a stable equilibrium in which the float weight is exactly balanced by the upward force imparted by the moving column of air.“ Consequently, there exists a distinct height of the float for each rate of air-flow, This position is read on a scale calibrated directly in flow rate on the front of the instrument. The upward.force on the float consists primarily of that due to the drop in static pressure of the air as it flows through the annular ori- fice. The float weight and float area transverse to the flow remains constant with the result that the pressure differential (p) across the float is practically constant for all equilibrium positions of the float in the tube. Thus for the orifice formula Q . CA “23h I CA q2g p/d the quantity'egé-‘varies directly as the flow rate, Q d ‘where acceleration due to gravity - orifice coefficient 8 C A - orifice area d density of dry air 120. Due to the design of the float tubes (C) is essentially constant. The air density (d) is independent of the float position and varies only as the density of the atmosphere. This variation is quite small as was shown for the single—cylinder engine. This instrument is compensated for pulsations in airbflow by means of a large area flexible diaphragm. The movement of this diaphragm corresponds to the volume change between pulsations thus preventing the transmission of the pulsations to the metering circuit. Fig. 3 is a photograph of this air-flow meter. Fuel—Flow Meters _§ingle-cylinder engine. The fuel-flow meter used for the single- cylinder engine was built in the Michigan State College Automotive Laboratory. This flow meter was based on pressure head difference be- tween two columns of liquid. Fig. b shows a sketch of the fuel flow meter. With this type of liquid flow meter one column of liquid is kept at the level of the supply reservoir-while the second column will be at some distance below this zero level, depending on the pressure differ- ential or head existing between them. This pressure differential or head is a function of the flow rate of the liquid through the orifice between the two tubes. The unit was built in three stages to obtain the necessary range of fuel flows. Calibration was obtained experimentally by weighing the amount of flow over an arbitrarily set length of time. The