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Michigan State
University

LIBRA RY

 
  

______._ -_ -

SOME MICHIGAN DAIRY FARM ORGANIZATIONS

DESIGHED TO USE LABOR EFFICIENTLY

by

Earl Inmrn Fuller

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the Colleee of Agriculture of Michigan
State University of Agriculture and Applied
Science in partial fulfillment of the
recuirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Agricultural Economics

1957

/~
Approved fiml 2%

 

 

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to design dairy farm
organizations which sum; COMpetitive for labor’with Eichigan
industry in wages, working conditions and fringe benefits.
The usefulness of the study lies in its ability to improve
the relative position of dairy farm workers and dairy farms
as a business in our economy. This was acknowledged to be a
farm management problem.which required the incorporation of
new technology into new farm organizations for solution. It
was necessary to consider aspects of human behavior, of the
work environment, of crop and livestock husbandry and of their
various interactions. The data used were obtained from case
studies of labor efficient and successful dairy farmers, from
recent literature and from researchers and extension personnel.

The following are some of the procedures suggested by
the study for increasing the earning power of labor and im-
proving working conditions:

1. Dairy enterprise; Use loose housing and design a
building layout so that all areas are observable from the
milk house to save steps and make herd management easier.
Build a milking room.capab1e of handling a minimum of forty
cows per man per hour. Milking rooms where this is possible
were observed and are felt capable of wider usage. Some
designs appear capable of permitting a swing man to milk at
about the same rate; an important consideration in making

1

TU

labor competitive. The whole chore work environment can be
simplified and made more flexible in its demands for time

by using self feeding forage structures, easy to clean
materials, adequate and specialized tools, efficient work
methods, and by design to save or even eliminate work travel
and effort.

2. Crgps enterprise; Labor adequate to handle the dairy

 

enterprise and provide swing workers for days off is sufficient
to handle most field work as well on Specialized dairy farms.
While time can be saved in many Operations by supplying ade-
quate and well designed equipment, and by careful coordination,
the one big problem i" harvesting sufficient high quality
forage for a large dairy herd. For this task, procedures are
discussed with high capacity, adequately powered forage har-
vesters as the key to solving this problem. Under Michigan
conditions, it is felt that corn and grass silage stored in
horizontal silos can supply the major part of this kind of
forage more economically than can the other alternatives ob-
served on the farms in the study. It is evident that the
coordination and integration of tasks in forage harvest is of
great importance in producing a large volume of high quality
material.

3. Maintenance and repair; The production of crops
and livestock implies a need for’maintenance and repair.
Inasmuch as dairy chores must be done every day and crops work

is seasonal, off seasons provide time which can be Spent

3
productively at these tasks. Good tools, a shop and skilled
workers are necessary. Attention to maintenance, repair and
construction needs can supply new and maintain old capitol
items at considerable savings to the firm as well as reduce
time requirements for other work during rush seasons.

u. Personnel relationships; It is the "sum total" of
wages, working conditions and fringe benefits which must be
compared with conditions in industry if dairy farms are to
compete for labor. An understanding of human behavior,
flexibility in job assignment, provision for social security
and compensation insurance, active employee-employer communi-
cation and sufficient labor flex bility to provide vacations
and days off must be built into an organization if it is to
be competitive for labor.

5. Management; On most farms, time spent managing con-
flicts with time Spent laboring. Further, the more units of
production, the more important the making of correct mana-
gerial decisions become. For these reasons, the development
Of a labor efficient dairy farm requir;s that management be
efficient as well. A pleasant well organized office and
I’ecord system is necessary. Specialization decreases tie
number of different kincs of decisions managers must make.

For most people, an improvement in the abilities to observe
and ana yze would help their ability to make decisionS. En-
vironments which permit delegation of supervision and con-

+- a 1 9 ‘V
”dln ouilt-in doable checks on maiagcment are suggested.

1L

Pudgets are developed for situations varying from 30
cows producing 10,000 pounds of 3.5 percent milk per cow and
one man, up to one with 360 cows producing 12,000 pounds of
milk per cow and handled by nine men. In the former case,
returns were too low to pa= a five percent return on the
investment and $u,800 in wages to the Operator. Such an
operation has difficulty in providing working conditions and
fringe benefits comparable to those in industry with four
dollar milk and other correSponding economic conditions. Milk
at $h.25 does not improve the situation sufficiently either.

In the two man operations, working conditions improved
and a business profit was made. However a truly conpetitive
organization from the labor standpoint was not obtained. The
three men operations appeared to be more nerrly competitive.

In the case of the 360 cow budgets, deveIOped under
the same general assumptions, it appeared that wages, working
conditions, fringe benefits and business profits could be such
as to compete with industry. A farm of this size would re-
Quire an investment of over $600,000. Inasmuch as such a
Sum is likely to require farm financing of a different type
than is common today, this study suggests a need for further
work in the area of farm credit if Michigan dairy farmers are

to compete for labor.

SOME MICHIGAN DAIRY FARM ORGANIZATIONS

DESIGNED TO USE LABOR EFFICIENTLY

by

Earl Inman Fuller

A THESIS

Submitted to the College of Agriculture of Michigan
State University of Agriculture and Applied
Science in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Agricultural Economics

1957

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is a pleasure to acknowledge those individuals who
made this thesis possible. The author wishes to eXpress his
sincere appreciation to;

Dr. Glenn L. Johnson, under whose direction this thesis
was written, for his guidance, understanding and moral support;

Dr. Lawrence L. Roger, Head of the Department of Agri-
cultural Economics for aid in the form of a graduate assistant-
ship and for allocating other Experiment Station funds to the
study;

The farmers of Michigan and Northern Ohio for their
excellent cooperation which made the field work in this study
a pleasure and an invaluable eXperience;

Professor C. Raymond Hoglund and other staff members
and graduate students of the Michigan State University Agri-
cultural Economics, Dairy, Agricultural Engineering and Crops
Departments from whom valuable comments and advice were ob-
tained;

Miss Annette Avis, Mrs. Barbara Hillier and others of
the clerical staff for typing the rough drafts;

Mrs. Vera Zajas who typed the final draft;

My wife, Nancy, and children, Cindy and Tom, without
whose patience and understanding the task would have been most
difficult.

The author assumes reaponsibility for the content and for
any errors remaining in the manuscript.

11

C RAPPER

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I T 1 .LE P HC’ BL}-‘J‘IVI O O 0 O O O O O Q I O O O O O I O O C

II

Review of Literature Indicating the Magnitude

and Seriousness of the Problem . . . . . . .
Some General Hypotheses and Assumptions . . .
Possible Effects on Farms and on Agriculture .
The Approach to the Problem. . . . . . . . . .

TIIE APPROACH TO Tat PROS-3LT“ M . . . . . . . ”. . . .

The Case Study Annroach—~Whr t Farmers Are Doing
and Would Like To Do . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Sources of Information--Other Workers
and Published Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedures Used in Combining and Synthesizing
Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
budgeting As An Approach to Farm Organization .

III DAIRY HUSBANDRY AND BUILDING REQUIREMENTS . . . .

IV

The Tasks of Dairy Husbandry and the Work Areas

in Which They Are Done . . . . . . . . . . . .

Stanchions Compared to Loose Reusing . . . .
Task Performance in the Six Areas of a Loose

Housing System.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Feeding Area . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bedding and the Loafing Area . . . . . .

The Yard and General Building Arrangement.

Maternity Cows, Small Calves, Young Cattle

and DI'V COWS o o o o ‘0 o

The Milkhouse and Iilking. Roomv. . . . . . .
Integration into a System . . . . . . . . .-. .
Chore Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ConclusionS‘ . . . . . . . . . . . .‘. . . . . .

THE CROPPING PROGRAM AND LABOR UTILIZATION. . . .

Some General Considerations in Machine Use for
Crop Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machinery and Work Methods for Forage Harvest.
Chopping Grass Silage . . . . . . . . . .
Other Methods Using a Forage harvester .
EXpected Accomplishment Rates Using a
Forage Harvester . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Baling Hay o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0

iii

Page

10
ll

13

15

16
17

19

67
7O
72

CO

81

CHAPTER

Some Observed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Field Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oat Plrntinq and Harvest . . . . . . . .
rxanure Handling . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fertilizer 5nd Lime SOIOGdifi‘ . . . . . .
Corn Prodtc-JJIMI . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fencin" 5nd Estes . . . . . . . . . . . .
IfiurtI(xr Ccmr“ JFCfl“It*'fi-s 111iolJI Merl: . . . .
CCVIC"1S1(Y ° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

v BUILD 5:1) 1151315113171“ 313.115. 1;“: CE, REPAIR “Nu

COIISIPRUC I. IOTI o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

The Importance of Maintenance, Repair and Con-

struction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Xperience of t e Int.rviewees as a Source of
Inf ormetion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Sources of Information . . . . . . . .
The Farm Maintenance Center . . . . . . . . .

CCDCI‘JSIC‘ICS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0
VI PERSONNEL MAIJA MENT . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Some Problems with Hired Lzbor . . . . . . .
Perswnnel Policies and Pr5ctices . . . . . .
Monet5ry Rewards and Incentives . . . . .
hcn~Ionetary Revnrds and Incentives . . .
Security for Employee and Employer . . .
COHCII.S IONS . . . o . . o o o o . o . o o . 0

VII THE FUNCTIONS CF L;"ATHLETC. . . . . . . . . .

Reducing the Conflict between M: {cement and
Labor Functions for Time . . . . . . . . .
Sn_pervis ry Ros ponsibilities . . . . . .
Busines s 'Transactions and Record Peeping . .
Collecting and Ana] zing Other Tmr nes of
Information 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VI II T IIE C OI‘iPLE'PED SYST EMS o o o o O o o o o o o 0

General Assuxnptions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assumptions Relative to Dairy} Msbandry . . .
Assumptions Relative to Crop Production . . .
Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maintenance and Repair . . . . . . . . . . .
Land and Buildings 1. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Exnenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Individual Budgets Examined and EXplained
iv

(D

-.f) {I .j ('1) '7‘.) {‘0 m 'j‘q

«efoMIIJ CDxD fo~qxr1

\o,o

108
110
1-1:)
112
116
119

121

12

’E’O

R.) F.)

:AIJ

CLAPIER Pace

unsumntien- and mesults of the Thirty

Cow BuQ ets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l
I o b'orty Cox. Alternative . . . . . . . . 1
A Sixty Cow Limited L.ind Altern tive . . . . 1
5m r'et IV: {st SJminr: 0110 Full Time "Extra

Efficient" Operator, hiring Over Seven

Weeks of Labor and Milking Sixty Cows . . 153
Budeet V: Twr Ken, Riftty Cows and Three

Fundred Acres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Buimet VI: Two Ken and One-hundred Cows . . 157
Budget VII: Two hen end One-hundred and

Twenty Covs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Budfiet VIII: One-hundred Cove and Three Ken 1??
A Three Hundred and Sixty Cow Farm: Budgets

IX and X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The COILClHSiCHS of, and Results Obtained From
C110 B1m1't7‘10ts . O O O 0 O O O I O O O O O O O O O 16

IX A PROPOSED BULLETIN AND OTKER CONCLUSIONS . . . . 167
Cover Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

The Bulletin Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Other Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
:IBLIOGRAPIIY o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 179‘

APPEIqD IX 0 O O O 0 O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 181—1.

 

TABLE

Description of Judget Series; Series Designation,
Number of Len, Number of Cows, and Tillable Acres
13013 :§{vlCh O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I lIl-S
ncinle Assunntions for the Budfiet Series hodi-

{ti n8, (3-3.), (h), 8116 (C) o o o o o o o o o o lilir:

Investmrnts and Inventories for 30 Presented
Budgets, by Series (I-X) and by MOCIfiCLCiOn
(8.,b’C) O O O C . C C C . O O O O O O O O O O . lué

V"!

uxnenses for 30 Presented Budgets, by Series
I-X end by Modificrtion (s,b,c). . . . . . . . In?

Final Budget Balance Sheet; Total Income, 'otsl
Expenses, Net Farm Income and Labor-Management
Residue s, by Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1&5

LIST tr ILLUSTnAIILhS

Self feeding hay storage structure .
Covered silage feeding area . . . .
nut antic silage feeder . . . . . .
thinker silo . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loefin; area . . . . . . . . . . . .
General layout . . . . . . . . . . .
"U" Shaped milking room . . . . . .
3-cn—e-side lane type milking room .
Homemade stalls . . . . . . . . . .

£10m0f11GL3.e Stalls o o o o O o o o O O

Chore—Joy Vacuum Kilk releaser and we

Surge electric releaser and soporete

W-aSI‘ler o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0

vii

rage

Cu

K.» W ?\.‘. to N
4-“ J?“ C13 CC. C x.

mammal
TEE iii-(311L711

Today, many of Michigan's commercial dairy farm opera-
tors are confronted with the following:

1. Labor incomes on most Michigan farms have declined

recently.

2. Many have well paying, off-the-farm alternatives
for the use of their labor.

3. In Spite of recent technological advances, there
are limitations on how much farm operators can accomplish
and hence, how much they can earn at the prices our economy
places on the products they produce.

h. Hired labor often fails to earn high enough returns

to justify its use.
5. A trend seems toward larger farms with higher

:hivestment per farm and greater production per worker in order

to maintain living standards.

6. Greater and greater emphasis is being placed on
the management of resources as investments increase in
farming.

7. Off the farm occupations seem capable of yielding
more, leisure and more attractive working conditions.

8. Adjustment to present economic trends is

detexrred because of low salvage values for many fixed assets.

1

2

Labor earns less in farming than in most other seg-
ments of our society. Yet, according to Productivity of
Resources Used on Commercial Farms, it is the chief single
input item in the major part of our agricultural economy.
When labor earnings are figured residually, as in the Michigan
Farm Account Project, net labor income has accounted for
around one-half of the net returns in farming over the past
few years.

Technology has changed very rapidly in the last cen-
tury in this country. With it has come social and economic
changes. The majority of the labor force now works no hours
per week. The United Automobile Workers are now considering
a 32 hour week. Working in automobile manufacturing is a
Inajor alternative for Michigan farm labor. By contrast,
dairying as typically organized is a long hours per day,
:Seven days a week occupation. As our society new values
tflaeir production, many dairy farmers ask if farming has
Opportunities equal to industry for them.

Concurrently with these seemingly better labor alter-
rurtives, it must also be remembered that Michigan dairy farmers

haVe good markets and that they hold a large investment in
farming.

\

l
tEthin.Strand, Earl O. Heady and James H. Seagraves, Produc-
i"113 of Resources Used on Commercial Farms, U.S.D.A. Tech-

nical BET. 1123, November7-1955r: P. 22.

3
Thus, the problem of labor earnings is particularly

crucial on Michigan dairy farms today. They need ways to

make their labor pay as well as off-the-farm alternatives.
Michigan dairymen also need help to make their investments

pay as well as investments in Compartblc businesses.

Review of Literature Indicating the Magnitude

and Seriousness of the Problem

Most available data fall into three groups. The first

two show the importance of the problem and suggest some solu-
tions. They are (1) functional analyses of the earning power
of input categories and (2) accounting analyses of farm busi-

nesses leading to estimates of residual earnings for family

labor, all labor, and operator's labor and management. The

third group is made up of labor efficiency studies for diff-

exrent building arrangements and crOp production practices.
Both of the first two groups present a gloomy picture

OI‘ labor earnings. Data within.the groups are not strictly

cC’m‘parable because of differences in selection criteria and

111 the year each.was collected. However, they are recent

data and, in general, comparable.

Wagley estimated the marginal value productivity of

inPNJt categories on InghampCounty dairy farms for 1952.2

.\

2
Wagley, Mar inal Productivities of Investments

aggbert Vance
-- E‘gpenditurgg, Selec e ng am County Far-111571952, Un-
published M.S. Thesis, Department of Agricultural Economics,

Michigan State College, 1953-

 

1;

His data were fitted to a Cobb-Douglas function. Results
showed a marginal value product for labor of $30.19 for the
last month of labor used. As will be noted shortly, this
estimate was soon questioned for being too low. However,
changes tried in order to get marginal value products nearer
to the prices for their respective inputs could not raise the
earning power for the last month of labor used past $51.60.
The market price for hired labor in this area varies from
$150 to $200 per month usually with additional benefits. At
the same time, Wagley's original estimates showed labor earning
$69 for the sixth month, $58 for the ninth, $30 for the twelfth
and only $28 for the eighteenth month. In this same year,
Oldsmobile in Lansing was paying a starting wage of around
$1.80 per hour. Wagley concluded that the earning power of
labor was too low to cover hired labor charges. He therefore
suggested that less labor be used relative to other inputs
but that the use of other inputs should, such as livestock-
forage, land and machinery, be eXpanded. At the same time,
he pointed out that improvement in the technology of labor
use might also be a fruitful area in which to work.

Carter attempted to modify the Cobb-Douglas in order
t"0 destroy certain characteristics implied in the function
fitted by klagley.3 The characteristic of concern was the

\

3

 

tHaroid 0. Carter, Modification o__fthe Cobb—Doualas Function
I3estro Constant Elasticity and S et , Unpublished
2:8 \‘T'fi‘5g13, Department of Agricult'E‘EaET-%onomics, Michigan
at te University, 1955.

 

 

S

implicit assmnption that machinery or livestock-forage sub-

stitute for labor over an unlimited range. This is to say

that unlimited amounts of machinery and livestock-forage can
be handled with a fixed amount of labor and that such re-

organizations would continue to increase gross income indef-

initely. It was felt that a function with these characteris-

tics might underestimate the marginal value productivity of

l abOI‘ 0
With these criticisms in mind, Carter proceeded to

modify the Cobb-Douglas function to eliminate certain of its

undesirable characteristics. Working with Wagley's data, he

limited the substitutability between machinery, or livestock-

forage and labor. His modification introduced a ridge on the

production surface. It's location was determined by a man's

Capacity to do work. The ridge was a straight line passing

thlr‘ough the origin and through investments of $1300 in live-
stock-forage and {$1000 in machinery for each month of labor
usSd. The new fit was not statistically better. However, a
$1ighitly higher marginal value product for labor did result.
Where Wagley obtained a $30.19 figure for the twelfth month,

Carter obtained $86.27, an amount still to low to compete with

Off the farm alternatives.
Trant in a study designed to find a method for adjusting

“191’s: inal value product estimates for changing prices fitted

6
1952 dataibr some selected northern Michigan farms.hr He
found that the "usual" farm was returning $15.11 for the last
month of labor used. At the same time the earning power of
labor and all the inputs associated with labor returned $16.97
per day. His conclusions were that too much labor was being
used relative to other inputs and that labor was being paid
from the earnings of other investments.

Schuh, while estimating a short run supply curve for
milk in the Detroit milk shed, found labor difficult to price.5
As some labor requirements do vary with milk production, he
had to consider some labor as variable within the year even
if fixed for the farm.as a whole. He finally used 50¢ per
hour which was below the wage rate and higher than the mar-
ginal value product. When he did this, he pointed out that
during seasonal labor peaks, the opportunity cost of labor
is high.

In a study of resource productivity for the entire

United States, Strand, Heady, and Seagraves arrived at simi-

H _l

Gerald Ion Trant, A_Technique 9£_Adjusting Marginal Value
groduct Estimates for Changing Prices, Unpublished M. S.
Thesis, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State
University, 195h.

SGeorge Edward Schuh A Short Run Su 1 Curve Estimate for
Fluid Milk, Detroit MiIk'SEEH}-Ucto er QSIZSEptember 1252:'

Unpublished M. S. Thesis, Department of Agricultural—Economics,
Michigan State College, 1951;. pp. hit-us and 51-51;.

 

7
lar figures and conclusions.6 Their data were for lane, by

farming areas. They concluded, from both functional analysis
and residual analyses, that many farm.families can attain a
desirable level of living only if they increase the produc-
tivity of their labor inputs.

The U.S.D.A. publication, Agricultural Charts for 1956
indicated further the seriousness of the problem.7 The in-
come of peOple living on farms in the United States, in l9Sh,
included $1.00 from off-farm sources for every $2.00 obtained
from farming. The average total income per person in the
United States is $1,837 for non-farmers and $913 for farm
people in Spite of an average investment of $1u,000 per farm
worker. These charts also point out that as our society
develops nmn.hours decrease in agriculture while output per
worker increases. They go on to illustrate that the smallest
efficiency gains in crops are those in hay production and the
gains in livestock have not come as rapidly as those in crops.
This would indicate that hay producing dairy farms are in a
particularly crucial situation. Dairy farms in eastern
Wisconsin returned only $.81 per hour with an average net in-
come of $h,9u8 in 19Sl--a relatively good year.

Doneth in the Michigan Farm Business Report for 1955

——

6
E. G. Strand, et.al., Op. cit.

7U.S.D.A., A.M.S., A.R.S., A ricultural Outlook Charts - 1956,
Washington, D. 0., November, I955.

8
points out much the same problem.8 His data indicate that
it is time for effective measures to maintain dairy farm
incomes. He points out that 3h percent of the 539 farmers
in the project had labor incomes of zero or less-~more than
any year since the depression! While the particular account-
ing procedures used may make returns to labor and management
appear worse thantflufirreally are, it is evident that returns
are unsatisfactory. Interest on investment for the average
farm in the data, by way of contrast, was $1,878. It is
interesting to note that this unsatisfactory condition exists
in spite of an increase in work units accomplished per man
of 35 percent from.l9u7 to 1955.

Much literature exists which can be helpful in increa-
sing labor productivity. Much of it (popular, technical, or
descruitive)describes methods for combining inputs and the
results thereof. However, most of this literature deals with
either dairy production, or crops, or some other particular
enterprise--not with the integration of the whole into a farm
organization to satisfy the needs of Michigan dairy farmers.

Farm work simplification studies and materials handling
techniques are extremely useful but open to the same criti-

cism. While they may offer good enterprise data, they do not

 

8

John C. Doneth, "Michigan Farm Business Report for 1955."

The Quarterly Bulletin, Michigan State University, Agricultural
EXperiment Station, Vol. 39, No. 2, November 1956, pp. 299 ff.

 

9

suggest a complete farm organization.
Some General Hypotheses and Assumptions

Several hypotheses and assumptions are made in this
thesis.

First, it is hypothesized that solutions to the prob-
lem of low labor earnings exist and that these solutions can
be adOpted by farm operators. This amounts to a conviction
that new and better resource combinations and technologies
can be developed, learned and put into practice. Capable
dairymen are required to place the solutions into force. Such
people are available as dairy husbandry is skilled work per-
formed by individuals at least as capable as the skilled
workers of industry.

This thesis is normative in the sense that it attempts
to make dairy farm labor earnings comparable to those of
skilled industrial labor. _Further, it is based on the con-
viction that the man who manages a dairy farm.should receive
management rewards and profits comparable to those secured
by other individuals in the economy having similar reSponsi-
bilities with regard to capital controlled and output pro-
duced.

At this stage, whether labor and management is per-
formed by the same person has little bearing on the problem.
What is important in that before labor can be performed in

the specified environment, management must develop the

10

environment. Certain assumptions are then required concerning

management.9 It is assumed management can be learned and

improved.

Possible Effects on Farms and on Agriculture

Research on technological change should ask what
such change might mean to both individual farms and to the
agricultural economy as a.whole. Examination can be simpli-
fied by dividing the effects into short and long run effects.

First of all, the ability to produce at lower unit
cost would show a definite advantage to those farms which are
the first innovators. Over time, such advantage tends to
disappear. Even in competitive agriculture however, certain
advantages might remain. Efficient use of machinery and
:relatively'snmller investments in.machinery and buildings
Iweduce the problem.of high fixed costs over time.

In the short run, the tendency is to increase the size
01‘ dairy units. This means fewer units which, with higher
DINDduction per cow, will place greater economic pressures on
iInefficient producers. While in the long run there may always
hm? Some relatively inefficient producers, more mobility of
resources to and from agriculture may make it possible to
attain better adjustments for most individuals remaining in

\—

9
Afiaflvrence A. Bradford and Glenn L. Johnson, Farm.Manggement
.léilgfliig, John Wiley and Sons, New Yerk, 1953, pp. 11-12.

 

1 l I‘ll.[|‘||.‘llr..lllll#

ll
dairy farming.

If larger farming units and competitive wage rates are
attained there may be a greater division between labor and
management than exists today. Entirely new credit arrange-
ments may evolve; just as family grocery store financing
went out with the advent of the supermarket, family farm
financing may go out with the one family dairy farm. That
this is in conflict with the values, beliefs and goals held
by society today may be true. But over time, attitudes change.
With such change may come changes in the relationship of man
to the soil, crops and livestock. To argue that this is good
or bad is an open issue beyond the sc0pe of this thesis;

Ihowever, this thesis will develop some of the possible

alternatives.

The Apprpach to the Problem:

This chapter stated the problem and pointed out its
seinerity. It also set up working hypotheses with which the
tinesis will attempt to solve the problems A short examination
or Esome possible effects of successfully increasing the earn-
inai'power of labor by adopting new technology was made.

The remainder of the thesis has three parts. First,
an gapproach to the problem is develoPed. Second, alternative
techniques and systems for increasing the efficiency of labor
utildization are examined and evaluated. Third, the analysis,

conelcusions and recommendations are presented.

12

Chapter II presents the approach aken to the problem.
The approach is one of using data and principles related to
many aSpects of dairy farm organization. Various aSpects
of human behavior, engineering, physical relationships and
economics are considered. A criteria for use in selecting
between alternatives is discussed.

The second part consists of five chapters which present
alternative ways of organizing a dairy farm to use labor
efficiently. These chapters serve to add empirical content
to the conceptual framework. More Specifically, Chapter III
deals with the tasks of dairy husbandry and the environment
in which these tasks are performed. Chapter IV continues
similarly with the tasks of crop production. Chapter V covers
the ever-present maintenance and repair tasks found on dairy
.faxmm. The next two empirical chapters deal more closely with
tflie relationships between the people involved and their jobs.
CHiapter VI discusses personnel management, particularly as it
cxzcurs in larger operations. Chapter VII shows how manage-
medlt can be spread over more units of production to utilize
lal>or and managerial time more effectively.

In the third part, Chapter VIII brings the earlier
I‘eSIults together in budgets for various sized specialized

dairy farms .
Chapter IX prOposes a possible bulletin for presenting

the :results of the study. It also eXpresses the general

conclusions of the study,

CHAPTER II
THE APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM

The nature and severity of the low labor productivity
problem.discussed in Chapter I suggeSted that procedures for
maximizing profits within existing technologies were not ade-
quate for its solution. Thus, functional analysis, linear
programming and.tke usual type of budgeting based on coeffi-
cients Obtained from surveys did not appear powerful enough
to gain the desired results. Rather, new combinations of

inputs, new technologies and new dairy farm organizations

were needed. The problem appeared to be more nearly one of

(ihanging the coefficients of production functions rather than
cnne of maxmizing profits on a given function..

It seemed that a maximum.of research product could be
otrtained from the limited resources available by (l) finding
curt what the "best" farmers were doing, (2) inquiring what
tkuey-would like to do to improve their organizations, (3)
gathering additional information from other people and rele-
Vafrt literature, and (u) combining and synthesizing organi-

zations superior to any observed. The succeeding sections

will discuss the Specific procedures used.

The Case Study Approach -- what Farmers

Are Doing and Would Like To Do.

One of the most important approaches was to search out,
13

1n

visit, interview and do case studies on dairy farms using
labor efficiently. In seeking these farms, infbrmation was
sought from farmers, county agents, businessmen, extension
people and, in fact, any source which.provided helpful leads.
When searching for interviewees, limits of at least thirty
cows per man equivalent with a production of hOO pounds of

fat per cow were specified. All interviewees had not reached
both of these goals. Yet in terms of production, all produced
at least 250,000 pounds and some over 350,000 pounds of milk
per man. By reputation and by these measurements, all were
efficient in the use of labor and good managers. In addition,
many conducted enterprises of a supplementary nature to their
dairy operation even though they all could be considered Specia-
lized operators. Most of them.produced essentially all of

the feed inputs required though some purchased part of their
grain.

A total of us farmers were interviewed. They were
questioned relative to the organization they had and the work
methods they used. Job time requirements were requested.
EXperiences with alternative work methods were investigated.
Plans concerning new, and as yet untried procedures, were
discussed and the results recorded. Questions about their
eXperiences with various machines, equipment and buildings
were included. An attempt was made to secure the farmer's
Opinions relative to the management problems involved in

Operating large dairy farms.

15

Other Sources of Information --

Other Workers and Published Reports

Similar kinds of information were gleaned from.exten-
sion Specialists and other authorities to add breadth to the
eXperience of the interviewed farmers and insights as to
possible application of the study. Their observations included
methods of doing things, and merits of different types of
equipment and building layouts, and, perhaps most important,
the coordination and management difficulties experienced by
their clientele.

While rarely cited in the thesis, recent popular and
timely writings on various aSpects of the problem aided greatly
in the analysis. POpular farm.megazines often contain reports
of recent commercial and farmer development of machines, equip-
ment and buildings. They also report on farmer experience
‘with new Operating methods as well as the current recommen—
dations of both experiment station and private researchers.

Information gleaned from these reports often found its
way into the analysis.in combination with data from other
sources. It also served as an aid in evaluating methods
preposed by others. It was felt necessary in many cases, to
require more information than contained in pOpular reports
of one case or of one method. General Speaking, it was found
that the reports of formal research offered more valid data
than the popular writings, yet each provided a check on the

other and the analysis rests on ideas from both in generous

16

quantities.

Procedures Used in Combiningand

§ynthesizinggOrganizations

 

In developing meaningful organizations, it was necessary
to devote some thought to selecting a reasonable set of assump-
tions. For purposes of this study, it was assumedthat the
economic environment faced by Michigan's dairy farms was
the one for which the farm organizations should be developed.
It was further assumed that soils, topography and climate
similar to those with which most Michigan dairy farmers operate
should be considered.

It was also necessary to consider the people to whom
the study was directed. It is directed to about the same type
of individuals found on Michigan's 20 cow or larger success-
ful dairy farms today insofar as skill, managerial ability
and ambition are concerned. It is further assumed that they
see sufficient value in leisure to desire an operation in
which no one man is indiSpensable; are honest with themselves
and others; alert and willing to accept change and risk taking
realistically; and last, but not least, put a high value on
learning about changing conditions which might affect their
operation.

At this stage in the study, the approach to the problem
required taking the best seen, the best heard of, the best
read about, the best conceptualized and putting than all together

into farm organizations.

17

To select the "best" required a basis for evaluation.
In the matter at hand, three questions formed this basis.
(1) It was asked if an alternative was workable under practical
farm conditions. (2) It was further asked if the alternative
would increase labor productivity and if so how much. Most
increases in productivity came from an adopting new technolo-
gies, though some came from marginal adjustment in the use
of inputs as well. (3) The effect of an alternative on the
ability of a farm organization to provide working conditions
and fringe benefits comparable to those of industry was also
asked. Because of the many complexities of farm.organization
common sense and judgement were necessary to help answer all

of these questions.
Budgeting_As An Approach to Fann Organization

Budgeting was used as guide for selecting and evalua-
ting alternatives in the study. A look at relative costs,
returns and investments were required in choosing between
alternative farm organizations. Consideration was taken
of timing, labor loads, accanplishment rates and the underlying
coefficients upon which the alternatives were based.

A series of budgets will be presented in Chapter VIII to
ilhlstrato the result» This method was selected for several
reasons. First of all, it allowed a comparison of added
costs and returns with associated changes in net profit. It

also allowed application of the discussed procedures for task

18

accomplishment to occur under the "usual" conditions of
Michigan dairying. Further, necessary rates of task accom-
plishment at varying rates of output were made explicit. Also,
the majority of necessary assumptions were brought to light
by this procedure.

Budgets also aid in pointing out the economic rela-
tionships between factors and products. This must be done if
a sound evaluation is to be made of the relationships held

between the human element and the other factors of production .

CHAPTER III
DAIRY HUSBANDRY AND BUILDING REQUIREMENTS

This and the following four chapters present the

information and data collected and used in this study. These

five chapters, as a unit, present important considerations
in organizing a Specialized dairy farm to use labor efficiently.
They discuss the various tasks required and indicate superior

methods for organization into a total farm business.

The Tasks of Dairy Husbandry and the

Work Areas in Which They are Done

This chapter deals directly with the tasks involved in

<3ardng for dairy cattle. It attempts to discover and evaluate

runs and efficient working environments. Each task is examined

iluiividually and.in relationship to the whole.
Stanchions Compared to Loose Housing

Considerable discussion and investigation has taken

place in the last ten years comparing loose housing with

Staruihion,dairy systems. Both have been shown to have certain

advarrtages. Both were investigated in this study.

1 L..—
RFOT' 81 rather complete bibliography of recent literature see:
tifC-’ lhngus and W. L. Barr, "An Appraisal of Research Litera-

A He Dealing with Loose and Convention Dairy Cattle Housing:

p Egg-81.4," Journal 93' ‘Dairgyr Science, Vol. 38, No. Li, April 1955,

 

19

20
After observation of both types, it became apparent
that although some farmers could handle thirty cows per man
in a stanchion system, it required higher machinery and equip-
ment investment to reach comparable milk production per man.
It appears that without still higher investments in pipeline
milkers and automatic feeding equipment, little opportunity

for improvement of labor efficiency in good stanchion systems

can be expected. It is true that work simplification techni-
ques are helpful, but more job elements exist in the stanchion

barn regardless of techniques. For example bedding has to be

put in each stall each day. Each stall has to be visited twice

a day for milking. Stalls can be opened in groups but it is
difficult to close them.other than individually. When labor
is replaced with.mechanical equipment maintenance problems
arise. A broken down gutter cleaner on Sunday, with half the
ltflaor force gone, or during rush.work seasons is an unpleasant
time consumer.

One of the main arguments put forth by stanchion barn
Opeueators against the use of loose housing is that it is more
difffiicult to keep track of individual animals. Not one of
the loose housing operators visited would agree. The usual
Confluent was that many old ideas of what good dairy husbandry
ConSjABtS of must be discarded even though certain basics remain
the E38mm. Such comments were underlined by one operator who
depended entirely upon hired labor for the Operation of a 60
°°W herd, Another operator with 29 cows and a butter fat

av
erage of 519 pounds made similar comments.

231
Farmercnfinjalvaried widely as to just how much personal
attention individual cows need in loose housing systems. The
suggestions made here call for more attention than.was found
in a hundred cow herd with a 375 pound fat average but probably
less than found in the smaller herd with a 5&9 pound average.
Little research has been done which is of help here. The
reason for this is probably the difficulty encountered in

measuring the value of time Spent on individual attention

With cows of different quality and inherent capacity.

Task Performance in the Six Areas

of a Loose Housing System

Recommendations for the construction of loose housing

systems call for the designation of six separate and distinct

areas. These are: (l) a feeding area, (2) a loafing area,
(3) a paved yard, (LL) a maternity and small calf area, (5) an
area for young stock and (6) a milking area.2 The following

discussion considers each in turn.

 

2

FOI’ a discussion of this and many recommendations to follow,
a Wealth of literature exists. Most of it is designed for

0P9 I‘EItions of twenty to thirty cows, however. For some of the
beSt See:

L. 11. Brown, B. F. Cargill and R. R. Bookhout, Pen-Type Dairy
1.32.2281. Special Bulletin 363 (First Revision), Michigan State
ollege, East Lansing, Michigan, 1952. Also: C. J. Fenzau
and ‘2. N} VanArsdall, Meeting Daigy Market Sanitation Require-
EQEEEL Ebonomically, Market Research Report Number 6E, United

States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. 0., May 1951*-

All I‘ I
(III. II] u‘l {Illlllllllli

A’-
(LL)

The Feeding Area

Under present economic conditions, all interviewees

find it necessary either to bale or chOp their hay. From the

feeding standpoint eacr.has certain advantages and disadvantages.

There was little common agreement between farmers relative to the

comparative merit of the two systems. On particular farms,

the merits seemed to depend upon the type of storage and feeders

used.
Chopped hay is the easiest to feed from ground level

storage with self feeders. If properly made, it is as pala-

table and as nutritious as baled hay.3 Dust need not be a

problem if mow dried or if itis not moved in feeding. Storage

should be diversified if the different groups of cattle are

separated. Waste can be kept to a minimum with properly de-

signed feeding racks .1;
Baled hay is easier to handle if hay must be moved

to be fed. Moving hay of any type takes time. A handy tool

for feeding hay is either a pitch-fork or bale hook with a

mower blade welded to the shank of the tool. With such a tool,

“

3 .
C. R. Hoglund, High Quality Roughage Reduces Daig: 953531,
Special Bulletin 390, Michigan State College, East 1481181118:

Michigan, February 1951;, p. 8.

1;
FB- 1“. Cargill and N. P. Ralston, "Progress Report on Loose
M‘gu: ing for Dairy Cattle in Steel Buildings," Quarterly Bulletin,
lggsismn Agricultural Experiment Station, Vol. 3’8, No. 1, Aug.
’ p. 9. Also: J. R. McCalmount, Bunker Silos, Agricultural

Infonnation Bulletin, No. lug, U.S.D.A., Feb'. 1938', p. 8.

23

bales may be moved and opened in a minimum.of time. Several
qualities of hay may be stored in one mow for later feeding
simply by using different combinations of colored twine to
designate the various qualities. Baled hay need not be shaken
out to be fed particularly if the feeders have upright members
which force a cow to turn her head sidevays to withdraw it
as this will prevent her from pulling hay out of the manger.
This can be done with the usual "V" type opening or’a more
economical method is to simply slant all upright members in
one direction. If boss cows tend to be troublesome in the
feeding area, another method is to eliminate upright members
in favor of a narrow opening made by the horizontal pieces
'which also force a cow to turn her head to withdraw it.

In feeding either baled or chopped hay, mangers must
Ema cleaned of waste hay periodically. Sufficient hand tools
slnmild be made available in all areas where feeding is done
as <Jircular travel in feeding saves time. Tools can be ro-
tated so that no back tracking is necessary. Various sized
tooljs permits using the proper ones for each task. It is
possible to make feeders which. do not require daily attendance
particularly if they can be seen from the milkhouse with a
casual glance.
EZRSEiijlf Hay Storage

Under present conditions, it is hard to justify the
con'St-I“Ill<.~.tion of overhead hay storage as such storage requires

m
OVirmg 'the hay to the feeding area. However, if a farmer

We

has an overhecd mow, feeding can still be done fairly rapidly.
One method is to build a feeder under one or both sides of the
mow. These feeders can be filled from.overhead with one
handling. A feeder may also be extended at right angles to

the mow and equipped with a mow level catwalk for rapid feeding.

Inside feeding areas become filthy rapidly. They re-
quire more time to keep clean and in general are less satisfac-
tory than outdoor feeding areas. Cows do not mind eating out-
doors. In fact when given a choice, many seem to prefer it
even in sub-zero weather.

Hay can also be fed in a mechanical feeder which is
loaded in the mow and moved to the feeding area. Such feeders
lnay require loading only every other day. ROpes can be laid
out on the mow floor so that hay can be stacked on them. When
llay'is required, a rope is pulled and the bales are tipped
down out of the mow.

Other methods are non—mechanical, less eXpensive to
lnxild, and require less attention and time. Of these the
mOStpOpular is the ground level feeding barn.with moveable

feeéting gates whiCh are pushed in as the hay is fed out. A
dryillg system is easily installed in this type of storage.

Some hay storages are Open on one side only. In general,
this 'type may require more movement of hay and mangers to get
the hayfed. It offers more protection from rain and snow

than C”Sher self-feeding types.

Another type is open on all sides, with feeders usually

I II .II I I'll]! I I'll!‘ I!!!

25
on the two long sides. This type requires a long overhanging
roof for pretection of the hay and also of the cattle. It is
easy to feed several lots of cattle from one such feeder. A
fifty ton feeder may be built for eight hundred dollars.-
Baled hay is usually unloaded directly into place in this type.

A still more economical hay storage is available for
chopped hay.5 It consists of eight poles Spaced in a circle
of 23 foot diameter with a self-feeding fence at the bottom
and snow fence for sides. This structure requires the least
labor of all and five hundred dollars supplies fifty tons of
storage Space.

A new method is now being tried on some farms. A
structure similar to a long six foot wide corn crib is con-
structed from poles with a self-feeding fence at the bottom
and snow fence or used woven wire for sides. Chopped hay of
30 to 35 percent moisture has been kept in this type. Ex-
perience has been limited with this structure. Some operators
have found mold in the center of the crib. Some have felt it
necessary to add a roof to this type structure.6

The difference in chore time saved by selecting

any one of the above self-feeding structuresis not great.

‘Five minutes per day should feed hay to thirty cows in any

¥

5;
Gene C. Shove, Kenneth K. Barnes and Hebert Bergsford, "A

Self-feeding Hay-Storage Structure," Iowa Farm Science, Iowa
State College, Ames, Iowa, Vol. 8, No. 12, JUne 195h, p. 12f.

6
Harold J} Larsen, "Complete Hay Dryer," Michigan Farmer,
iEast Lansing, Michigan, Vol. 226, No. 8, Oct. 20, 1935, p. 30.

 

Figu
Cove

area

Note'

(1)
(2)

(3)
(1+)

26

' will

{w mun
; may

re 2
red silage feeding

Jamesway mechanical
silage feeder

Long narrow bunk
and shelter

Wooden yard fence
Two silos grouped
with room.for more

I‘hl H'i|”"'

Figure 1
Self feeding hay storage
structure

Note:

(1) Mow dryer opening

(2) Feeding fence

(3) Home grown lumber
sides

 

27

of them including those which use baled hay. Fifteen minutes
should feed a hundred or more cows. However, a type which
offers shelter to the herd may become a loafing area if the
herd is eXpanded. While this type is Inore eXpensive to build,
it does permit added flexibility.

Of those observed, the circular type appeared to be
the least eXpensive to build and to require the least feeding
labor. It can go unattended for several days. With a dryer
installed it can produce very high quality hay also. It is
easy to diversify storage with this type structure. If found
necessary, a roof and an overhanging shelter around its bottom
could easily be added.

Silage Feeding

The larger Michigan dairy farmer today usually requires
storage for both grass and corn silage. Essentially, there
are three types of permanent silos to choose between.

The first is the traditional upright silo. If equipped
with an automatic feed bunk and unloader, the only labor needed
in feeding is for operating switches, occasionally lowering the
unloader and removing the silo doors. However, even in the
large diameter sizes, uprights require a high initial invest-
ment. Mechanical feeding equipment requires adjustment and
repair are subject to failure at feeding time.

From a feeding standpoint, there are two types of hori-

zontal silos.7 One type, holding silage around 8 to l0 feet

T. J. Brevik, W. H. Friday and R. L. Maddex, Horizontal Silos,
Farm Building Series Circular 723, Michigan State College, Coop-
erative Extension Service, East Lansing, Apr. 1955, p. 11,12;
Also, J. R. McCalmont, Ibid., pp. 7-8.

 

28

j;:;‘ , Figure 3
~’i«‘ j Automatic silage feeder

? r
.,
-v a: ‘.fi: 1 Note:

—~—\I ‘qafllr. (l) Rotating silage bunk
- ' ~err. (2) Control box for un-
loader and bunk
(3) This is a 20x60 $110

 

 

 

u l
w

 

'T
.s z ,5}- 50 head can eat at
- »HL* one time
t ",
tum-i- J‘- ' ' L - ‘ ~i
~2.." *"s s 4
;£weé§@§%
Figure u 7 ‘ -

Bunker silo
Note: f
(1) Clean condition 2
of the feeding area‘
(2) Long poles for }
supporting a hay 5'
storage-feeder
addition r a.ir
(3) This herd (29 cows)}:4 3‘
has a herd average '.
of 5&9 pounds of fat

 

   

 

29

deep, cannot be entirely self-fed. The silage is usually

fed by a tractor and leader in feed bunks located in nearby
pens. However, the silage can be cut down with.a chain saw
or some other device and self fed. Regardless of how feeding
is done from this type, more labor is used than with a lower
walled silo.

By contrast, silos hfifiiwalls 6 feet ligh can be entirely
self-fed except for an occasional small pen of cattle which
may not have access to them. To be satisfactory, this i
type of silo must have a concrete floor with sufficient slope
to carry liquids away from the feeding face. Two lots may
be fed from one end if an electric fence is used to divide
the feeding face. The majority of farmers visited had found
a charged wire to be sufficient as a feeding fence. While
the open end mry face in any direction, a southern exposure
is preferable from a freezing and shelter standpoint. Some
Operators feel that this type of silo has increased fly prob-
lems.

Recently the building of horizontal silos in portable
sections has been proposed§3 While this may cost more than
some other designs, it may have a place on some farms.

Because of the small amount of labor involved in

 

8
Norval H. Curry and Ray E. Armstrong, "Portable Bunker Silos,"
Iowa Farm Science, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, Vol. 11,

No. 2, August, 1955. p. 3f.

3O

feeding from any of the three, it is difficult to justify the
selection of any one type solely on the basis of differences
in labor requirements. Either the upright or the low hori-
zontal type should not require over ten minutes per day, on
the average, of chore time. With proper management, wastage
of feed is not a major problem with any one type; however,
capital requirements are. Horizontal silos can be built for

one-fourth to one-half of what an upright would cost. If

‘h

capita1.is limited, it is hard to justify investment in an ‘
upright. This is particularly true if storage methods are

used which keep spoilage losses close to those found in up-

rights.

Grain Feeding_

In loose housing, grain serves as an incentive to bring
cows into the milking room though systems can be built where
this is unnecessary. Part of the grain could be mixed into
the silage at filling time or it may be fed in bunks in the
lot.

Heifers sometimes get no grain until moved in with the
milking herd. If they do get grain, it, too, can be fed with
the silage. If desired it also could be fed in bunks--mechani-
cal ones if necessary. There are types of calf'feeds‘which
may be self-fed during the first four or six.months. In most
cases hand feeding twice a day is preferred.

Storage of the dairy ration in heppers directly over

each stall in the milking room is an easily attained ideal

31
in many designs. It is suggested that the milking center be
made part of a structure which also contains Space for mater-
nity cows and small calves. As will be pointed out later,
such a design has several labor saving advantages. It also
provides room for a feed grinding center. If such a design
is adopted, then this same building might just as well become
the farm mixing center for all dairy feed. .A hammer mill,
preferably of the power take-off type, may be kept at ground
level in.tle building. Small grains may be stored over-head i
along with the ground feed. Corn can be brought to the building
at the time of mixing. In some cases a crib for ear corn might
also be overhead. Sacked feed could be stored either above
or at ground level. No more noise or dust problems need be
encountered than with a similar system in a stanchion barn.

Several interviewees have found bottomless fifty gallon
oil barrels to be ideal overhead grain hoppers for such a
system. They do not clog as readily as do heppers which slant
in at thebottom where they attach to the downspouts. Others
have found that a small chain hanging freely in the downSpouts
lessen clogging.

Asbestos cement board makes an inexpensive, rat proof
lining for grain bins but must be supported with a rough
lumber backing if subject to much pressure. An additional
outlet should be provided from the mixed grain bin so that
feed may be sacked off if required or fed to the young cattle

xnechanically.

32
Provision can be made in such a system for weighing
feeds and, possibly,cattle on the same scales. Space should
also be alluded for a mixer if it is later found to be neces-
sary. A dust collector on the hammer mill is virtually a must.
If corn is to be shelled, it, too, may be stored overhead. A
grain cracker can then be substituted for the hammer mill but

some provision for mixing may be required.
Bedding and the Loafing Area

Many types of bedding may be used in loafing areas.
The most common is straw. If straw is used and no traffic
lanes develop on the bedded area, some farmers argue that no
more is needed on,a per-head basis, than what was used pre-
viously in stanchions. If the straw is stored overhead, build-
ing costs are increased, more labor is involved in bedding,
and ventilation is often reduced.

Chopped straw is more absorbent than longer baled straw.
It requires a large fork to carry it as rapidly as bales can
be distributed. However,it does not need shakfln;out..lf the
bale strings are out before they are dropped frat overhead,
considerable of the shaking out can be eliminated. If suffi-
cient straw is available'muCh of the distribution or'shaking
out may be left to the herd itself. Chopped straw is hard to
handle in the wind. Buildings over thirty feet wide tend to
increase bedding time if hand methods are used.

Sufficient hand tools should be made available at all

W‘

33

bedding locations to do the job in a minimum.of time. Long
handled potato hooks for pulling down either bales or chopped
straw stacks are handy. Extra large forks for chopped straw
and bale hooks with attached knives for bales are almost a
necessity when convenience is considered. If chopped straw
(or hay) must be carried to calf pens, a length of woven

wire with pole handles on the ends may be helpful.

The future may well hold the development of a mechani-
cal device which can pick up straw from a.pile and blow it
over the bedded area. Such a device could be used with other
types of bedding also.

Sawdust can eliminate the daily bedding chore entirely
if available. When piled threefeet deep, it was the cleanest
bedding observed on any farm. Even in midsummer, no flies'
were evident in the loafing shed. While sawdust may be mixed
with straw, this is not recommended. A good method consists
of first piling sawdust into the area to a depth of three feet.
At two week intervals, it is necessary to stir the top foot
with a cultivator or similar tool. When this layer becomes
saturated with manure, it is removed, eXposing a fresh layer.
Removal need not take place oftener than once or twice a year.
Mixing in straw makes stirring impossible.

Many other materials can be used for bedding. Chopped
corn stalks taken from the fields after picking are serviceable.
Poor, wasuahay is often used. Corn cobs, preferably crushed,

makes good bedding. Uncrushed corn cobs make a good floor

Figure 5
Loafing area

_‘Note:
‘8 ‘s (1) Clean condition
(2) Pole construction
(3) Transluent roof
¢ panels
'(h) Roof slopes so a
large straw area is
“7 along the rear
.(5) Open shed front

   

Figure 6 ‘* - -- — _w
Gene ral Layout ,

I

i

!

Note: 1
(1) Open hay storage .
in center'whicw'“
obstructs obse
vation .

(2) Twin bunker si{
(3) Open front lea
area

  
    

 

111‘

[- II. ’III I III [I I "II‘I‘IJ

35

for the holding area if it is inside as daily cleaning can
then be diSpensed with. These types of bedding can often be
Spread with a manure Spreader or some type of dump or self-
unloading wagon. Some farmers have even run untied straw bales
through a power take-off’manure Spreader to bed the loafing
area.

Most farmers visited preferred complete open fronts :
on their loafing areas for reasons of economy, elimination

of traffic over the bedded area and as an aid to ventilation.

w“

The newer trussed type of rafter structure eliminates interior

poles and, saves cleaning and bedding time.
The Yard and General Building Arrangement

Herds which take over an hour to milk should not be
held on the bedding. The surface will become punched up,
the cows dirty, and more time and bedding is required than if
a concrete area is provided. An outside holding area is a
common thing for both winter and summer use. Such an area
is less costly and creates less of a fly problem. Scraping
of the holding area is still likely to be a daily task unless
some method of automatic flush washing can be devised.

It was noted that northern and western Michigan farmers,
where more snow is received, seemed to be more concerned with
covered feeding and holding areas. Yet even in the north and
west, open horizontal silos and open holding pens are in

operation, many preferring the outside areas except for days

36

of driving cold rains and wet sloppy snows. They often feel
that such shelter is not worth the added cost considering the
few times needed. At any rate, it would seem that these feat-
ures need not be primary design or construction considerations.

Several general recommendations are in order relative
to the paved yard. It should be designed so that the entire
area can be cleaned from a tractor seat. This means that it
should be smooth with adequate drainage. A curb around the
edge will help keep the manure where a scraper blade can get
it. Loafing barns and horizontal silos should drain into the
yard. There should be cattle guard entrances and exits for
tractors and wagons. A manure pit which will allow manure
to be directly pushed into a Spreader is ideal. Concrete
should extend into the loafing barns a short distance. Eaves
sloping into the yard must be supplied with eave troughs.

AS herds become larger, the relative advantage of pastu-
ring becomes less. This is true because of the need for herd-
ing cows to and from pasture as well as the pasture trampling
which occurs with a large herd. If pasturing is discontinued,
an auxiliary exercise lot covered in part with gravel may
help keep the cow's feet in shape. A lot with some Shade trees
away from the buildings and the flies is of value eSpecially
if summer green chop or storage feeding is practiced.

An Important Recommendation

The most important recommendation of all is of a dif-

ferent nature. The entire dairy plant should be Observable

from the milk house. The man who runs the system.will Spend

 

37

much of his time there. If observation is easy, he will do a
better job of it. If he can check visually for cows in estrum,
for adequate feed, bedding and water, for cows about to calve
or for sickness, without leaving the center which contains the
records, tools and medicines, many steps will be saved, more
core can be taken care of per man and a good job of husbandry
beComeS simpler and easier. This recommendation is an im- “m
portant part of the design of the whole dairy system to allow
labor to core for more and higher producing cows. ‘
Other Recommendations Concerning_General Arrangement
With the same type of reasoning, some other recommen-
dations can be made. With larger herds, two exits from the
milking room.may be justified. The second one could be operated
to block the first whenever a cow needing treatment or a cow
in estrum needs to be separated.‘ This door could lead to a
shunt pen which would serve as a breeding, treating and sort-
ing pen. It Should have a loading dock, breeding stalls and
stocks. It should have gates opening to the open yard, to
the heifer and dry cow area and to the maternity area. Pro—
vision should be made for confining cows in estrum. Corn

cobs over concrete would make an ideal bedding for this area.

Maternity Cows, Small Calves,

Young Cattle and Dry Cows

Some farmers allow dry cows to run with the herd per-
mitting them to calve in the regular loafing area. The calf

is taken away a day or two later. Whether such a method Should

38
be recommended is doubtful. But if it is compatible with
good husbandry for a large herd of high producing cows, it
is the simplest answer to the care of maternity cows.

Even Lfrmfiprnibnxmm3are separated into individual pens,
individual care should be minimized. Making pens readily
observable from the milk house is a good first step. When a
number calve at the same time, as is likely to happen in a
'large her , milking them in the milking room.may save time and
is facilitated by providing a lane to move them to the milk- 3
ing room. There is no good reason that they need to be fed
silage in these pens. A source of hay which could be essen-
tially self-fed to them would be helpful. Automatic waters
for each pen are important labor savers. -

Pens for small calves should be nearby so long as the
calves require pail feeding. Bedding and hay should be close
at hand. Both can be stored over the pens. This is perhaps
the best answer to bedding all small pens. Pail holders or
nipple pails save labor at feeding time. If several calves
run together, stanchions should.be provided for ndlk and grain
feeding. Milk can be measured more quickly than weighed if
the pails are properly marked.

Pens for calves should be draft free and dry. This does
not necessarily mean warm housing. Manure pack bedding is satis-
factory. Calf identification can be simplified by taking a
picture record of each individual animal soon after birth.

Some farmers let the entire herd run together except

for calves of less than six months. Others have separate

39
pens for unbred heifers, bred heifers and dry cows,and for
the milking herd. Others allow dry cows to stay with the herd.
All seemed reasonably satisfied with the system_they were
using.

In general it seems that several requirements must be
met in caring for young cattle and dry cows. Facilities
should make observation of the herd easy. Feeding and clean-
ing should be done in a minimum of time. Some individual
attention is necessary to keep high quality animals and main- i
tain herd health. With hay and silage self-feeders, regular
daily feeding might even be eliminated.

As farmer Opinion seems to vary so widely concerning
arrangementsfor dry cows and young stock, it appears that
many different methods work about equally well. Perhaps the
biggest factor in the design of facilities for dry cows and
young stock on most of the farms was the size and type of
buildings available at the start of the eXpansion.

Perhaps tle best advice is to try the easiest and cheap-
est method first and then build in modifications as they are
found necessary. Planning should provide for self-feeding
of roughagcs. The herd should be observable from the milk
house. The area should also open into the shunt pen so that ~
individual animals may be bred or shifted to the maternity or
milking herd areas when necessary. Some farmers allow a
young bull to run with their heifers.

When grain feeding is necessary, it may be fed either

no
on the silage or in bunks which ever works better. However,
many farmers feel that excellent roughage alone will make
heifers big enough to breed for 2 year old freshening.

It could be said that success breeds success. Good
feeding, good breeding, and good health make good lcifers
which in turn make good cows. Time Spent caring for good
cows is more productive than time Spent on poor ones. Even
so, the methods whereby cattle are cared for should not in-
volve unnecessary individualized feeding or bedding nor does
a man have to move to the animal if the animal can come to

the man.
The Milkrouse and Milking Room

From the standpoint of time involved in dairy tasks,
the milkhouse and milking room is the most important area
in the whole dairy system. In the overall systems being
developed here, eighty percent or more of the time Spent in
dairy chores is Spent in this area. With a large herd over
half of the time will be Spent milking. This task, then,
is one which is probably worthwhile considering most care-
fully.

Prdbably no perfect universal design will ever be de-
Vised. There are too many farm to farm variations in terms
of management systems, herd size and quality, individual

Skill, effort and values. Still, certain goals and ideals

hl
can be developed and pursued.9

If the whole dairy plant is observable fkom.the milk
house, a big first step has been taken. This minimizes the
number of trips necessary to complete other tasks and promotes
circular travel. Herd record keeping is made easier and more
pleasant. A feeling of pride on the part of the operator is
more easily established.

In looking ahead, mechanical roughage feeding controls
may some day be located there. When combined with adequate
summer cooling, winter heat, insulated walls and windows,
and suitable light and paint, a pleasant and unfatiguing atmos-
phere conducive to good dairy husbandry can be developed.

Such a york area may provide working conditions srgerior to
those in many factories and, even, some offices.

Time Spent in keeping things clean does not produce
saleable product. The use of materials which require a very
minimum of time Spent cleaning will free cleaning labor for
more productive tasks. Tile, stainless steel, cement asbestos
board and concrete floors are such materials. Fly screens,
drains and surfaces to which dirt will not tend to stick are

important. So are cleaning methods which substitute water

n

9

For construction details see: J. S. Boyd, et.al. Milkhouses,
Planning and Construction, Extension Bulletin 32E, Michigan
State College, Cooperative Extension Service, East Lansing,
Michigan, June, l95h, pp. 8ff.

Literature which discusses milking rooms similarly is still
lacking in scope and in emperical data to make adequate com-
Parisons between designs. This is particularly true for opera-
tions of forty or more cows. Various studies do give some infor-
mation. See: L.H. Brown, et.al.,.op.cit., pp. 19f. Also,

C. J. Fenzau and R. N. VanArsdall, op.cit., p. 18.

a2

pressure, or mechanical flushing and brushing, for time and
labor.

In the study, many types of milking systems were ob-
served. One operator could put 50 cows per hour through his
one man system. Another, even with his wife's help, milked
only 1h cows per hour. Four other operators milked at the rate
of MO cows per hour. Observation of three milking rooms in-

dicate it Should be possible to milk, as a minimum, hO cows

 

per hour; the conclusion is drawn that a room, which,_by its

 

construction, does not allow at least this rate of milking

 

should not be considered by the larger operator. It is worthy
of note that all operators interviewed who had herd averages
of at least 500 pounds of fat felt that one man cannot milk
this fast and pay proper attention to his cows. These people
felt that 25 or 30 cows per hour was a more reasonable rate.
Perhaps this is true, yet this is still an insufficient reason
for building a room which restricts the milking rate to this
number. Difficulties in designing eXperiments to determine
Optimum milking rates, methods and equipment leave many as-
pects of this most important problem unsolved. Many variables
exist in terms of mastitis susceptability, individualities of
both cows and operators, the effect of inheritance on milking
Speed, and the extent to which additional individual personal
attention is required by high producing cows.

Milking is not the only job done in the milking room.
The time required for preparation, grain feeding, cleanup and

handling problem cows should be minimized.

11-3

It is hard to conceive of a system.which will require less
than one-half hour extra per milking to accomplish these tasks.
Recommended Construction Features

In an attempt to design a good milking system, many of
the construction and eouipment details deserve close scrutiny
from the standpoint of both capital and labor requirements
for different features. It is difficult to establish the 7
order of importance here. Thus, it is possible that different
designs than discussed would have very little effect on.the
whole system. Hewever, it is felt the methods presented here
will work and that they are improvements over the methods
observed in the study.

Insulated walls and windows conserve heat and make a
more comfortable place in which to work in the winter. In
summer, the same construction combined with ventilating fans
also add to the operator's comfort. A fan blowing air directly
in the milker pit in warm.weather can aid in doing a good job
of milking. In winter, heated air is helpful for similar rea-
sons. Some farmers are installing gas Space heaters controlled
to maintain no degrees except at milking time when the temp-
erature is raised to 65. The same gas source is used to heat
hater. Heat from the milk tank should be vented in summer and
Saved in winter for operator comfort.

Florescent lights save electricity if used where lights
are required for long periods of time. A light under each cow
aids in cleaning the udder. Windows between the milk house

and milk room allow closer observation of the whole operation

m

and hence save steps. Windows in doors allow the operator

to see what is on the other side without opening them. Windows
strategically placed allow the observation of the whole lay-
out from the milk house. Clear glass blocks placed low enough
for observation from the pit can serve the same purpose in the
milking room.

Latex paint is easy to wash. So is asbestos cement
board. Concrete floors should be rough enough to minimize
slippage, yet smooth enough to insure rapid cleaning. Suffi-
cient scrapers, brushes and brooms stored in the milk room
hasten cleaning. An old car bumper, cut to size, with an
attached handle makes a serviceable scraper.

The use of lime on the floors may save time particul-
arly in the winter. A simple way of spreading lime is to put
the lime in a burlap bag, attach a string, and drag the device
over the floor. In summer most farmers seemed to prefer
to hose the parlor out. One advocated wetting the walls prior
to milking to prevent the manure from sticking. Several had
their hose or hoses attached to a mixed hot and cold water line
so that the same system could be used to wash udders. If
lime is used on the floor, then pail and towel type udder washing
is necessary.

Good floor drainage facilitates cleaning. Drains under
the hind quarters of each animal shortens the distance for
liquids and.semi-liquids to be pushed. Shallow gutters along

the walls drain the floor area quickly if the floor is sloped

 

115'

to them. A well drained and daily cleaned holding area keefis
dirt out of the milking room. Steps at the entrance also
help.

‘ Cows can climb the thirty inches of elevation to a
milking platform if suitable entrances and exists are pro-
Vided. A milking room and milk house at the same level saves
effort on the part of the operator. If the cows must cross
over the milker pit a steel plate ramp, suitably counter
balanced, eliminates cow steps inside the room and minimizes
dirt in the pit. Sharp corners slow cow movements and should
be eliminated if possible. Self—closing doors should be used
in all cases. Exit doors should be self-opening. The possi-
bility of a net to sweep flies off at the entrance and treadle
type fly Sprayers at the exit should be considered.

Rope controls on doors, grain feeders and gates which
are centralized to eliminate steps can also be helpful. ‘In
future mechanical or electronic devices may perform these
functions automatically or at a touch of a button. The second
exit door for separating cows out of the herd requires similar
controls.

Equipment should not only be economical in first cost
but simple to operate and easy to maintain and keep clean.
Though stalls can be made on the farm which are as serviceable
as purchased ones, many farmers preferred to purchase theirs
because of time limitations and appearance.

The majority of the farmers preferred short tube "Surge

Inilkers." They felt that less time was recuired to attach,

‘

ho
machine strip and detach a machine which need not be hand
held during these operations. They particularly felt that
the short tube machine was helpful with problem cows with
three quarters or pendulous udders. Most felt that the dis-
advantage of not being able to dip the teat cups between cows
was either not important or that they were willing to Spend
the extra time necessary to dip each cup individually.

Some long tube operators have found that a rubber ball
serves to shut off the milk flow on one test cup provided the
cup is emptied of milk before the machine is detached. Others
feel that machine stripping can be aided by putting a weight
in the claw or pulling forward on the milker hoses.

Most operators felt that a filter in tie line for each
cow and a hose or claw where the milk flow was visible were
both important. No operator visited was using a milker claw
which shuts off the vacuum to eachcnm>when that quarter is
dry although such a device is on tt e rlarket. One man had
tried the device a few years ago and found it unsuccessful.

The concensus of opinion was that any man who could
use two pail units could use three pipeline units in the
same procedure. No operations were observed where one man
attempted to use more than three units while following re-

0
commended rapid milking procedures.1 Some milking rooms have

 

10

Russell E. Horwood, W. W. Snider, and Earl Weaver, Good
Milking Practices, Extension Bulletin 293, Ndchigan State College,
Cooperative Extension Service, East Lansing, Michigan, October

19nd.

m

been designed to reduce milker unit idle time to a minimum.

This may or may not be a good thing. An idle unit is less

expensive than an idle man. Many farmers purchase extra

tractors with this in mind. At the same time, the number of

job elements a man can handle in a process like milking is

limited. Because it is,too many units may actually slow him

down. ‘

Operators who had visible weight jars, such as the
"Chore-Boy," felt they were easy to keep clean and offered a
constant check on the health and production of each cow.

Some jars have gages on the side which make "weighing" of the
milk particularly easy. They also make it easy to see when a
cow has completed milking. They also serve as containers

for abnormal milk or milk from fresh cows.

Another device for Speeding the milking of an abnormal
quarter is a mason jar with a teat cup attached to the lid.
Another hose then goes from the lid to the regular milker claw.

A large clock with a sweep second hand helps the milker
pace himself. A radio can make the job more pleasant. An
intercmm system to the farm house and maintenance center can
save many steps. A telephone in the milkhouse Speeds calling
of the inseminator and keeps the Operator from forgetting to
call later.

At the present rate of grain feeding, few farmers were
eXperiencing trouble with slow eating cows. In this connec-
tion, it was the author's observation that if the operator meant

business so did the cows. One operator had installed wet

k8

feeding equipment.to Speed up eating. He had placed water
closet tanks above each stall; a pull of a rope tripped about
one quart of water into the feeder after the grain.was poured
in.

Grain should be fed to each cow according to production.
When the herd becomes large this task tends to be neglected.
In herds of fairly uniform capacity this may be justifiable.

Operators might find a blackboard on one wall of the
room.with the number of each cow listed in her approximate
milking order and followed by her grain ration as being suffi-
cient. The grain ration would then be chrnged each test day.
At the time of actual feeding, a glance at the cows identi-
fication chain, then at the blackboard and then a pull on the
feeding mechanism.will require not more than twenty seconds
per cow. '

Another suggested improvement would be an attachment
on the neck chain which would, by color or number, specify
the amount of grain to be fed. This would eliminate the need
for the blackboard. Selecting the amount to feed would become
a case of Simple association. Because of its simplicity,
this method seems more likely than other methods to get done
properly.

An area which remains uncluttered during milking aids
efficiency. So does an area which is no larger than necessary.
Sufficient water pressure, hot water, vacuum and a source of

standby electrical power are other things to consider.

 

Le

A milker washing system.which requires a minimum of
operator time is very important. Preparation and clean up
of the milker need not take more than 15 minutes of time
per milking if mechanical or vacuum power is allowed to aid
in the process. When questioned, operators reported operating
costs varying from five to thirty dollars per month for dif-

ferent systems.

A...—

When the milker vacuum pump, as well as the compressor
on direct eXpansion type coolers, is outside the milk house,
the reduction in noise level increases productivity by re-
ducing fatigue and distraction.

Some of the Different Milkinngooms Observed

During the study many arrangements were observed. Some
are worthy of brief description here as examples of what has
been done and the results obtained.

Probably the easiest design to work in consisted of a
pit recessed about 2k inches and supplied with a regular typist
chair. The operator handled one unit on each side of the
four foot wide pit. ‘AS these two cows ate their grain and were
milked, a third was prepared at the rear of the pit in what
was, essentially, a wash stall. Gates were designed to face
the third animal in the direction of the cow which would finish
milking first. This design allowed one man to milk from 18
to 2h cows per hour.

Two other "prep" types of designs were encountered.

The first consisted of two wash stalls in lane fashion on one

side of the parlor. A side opening stall for milking was

50
located on the end. Two additional side opening stalls were
located across the pit from the wash stalls. With this system
one man could milk from 30 to 35 cows per hour.

Another method requires two men for operation. Two
wash stalls were located at the rear of the pit. Ahead of
each were two side opening milking stalls. A total of four
milking units was operated by one man while two more cows were
being prepared by another. The second man did not need any
particular skill. In fact, he was not kept busy. From 55
to 65 cows could be milked per hour.

One farm had a similar setup except there was one wash
and three milking stalls on each side of the pit. Three men
were required, two to milk and one unskilled worker to wash
udders. When unskilled labor is available for milking, this
is a good way of using it. However, it is indiSpensable in
this system. Vacations and time off schedules have to be
adjusted accordingly. Often times it might be better to keep
part of the labor force free to do other chores and field
work. Whether the milking rate of 80 to 90 cows per hour
is worth these inconveniences is questionable.

ferhaps the most common design involved three side
Opening stalls in a row. Rates as low as In cows per hour
were observed here, but determined men could put 30 cows per
hour through this type in the same length of time. From a
labor efficiency standpoint, it is necessary to discard this

type in favor of the Same three stalls placed in a "U" shape.

Figure 8
3-on-a—side lane type
milking room

Note:

(1) Heater, clock, radio
and towels

(2) Udder wash hoses

(3) Rope controls to
feed and control
stanchions from
the rear of the pit

51

 

Figure 7
"U' Shaped Milking
room

Note:

(1) Surge side opening
stalls

(2) Surge suspended
milker

 

 

i 1' I I 1

52
With a "U" design, the whole pit is not over ten feet long
and eight feet wide. Only one such parlor was found but the
regular operator could milk up to 50 cows per hour; a mini-
mum.of grain was fed, slow milkers were culled and the relief

man could not operate this fast. With such a small pit, few

"1 I

steps were required between job elements and milker down-time'
was reduced.

As an alternative, it would be interesting to see how
efficient a design with stalls on all four sides of the milker
pit would be. The fourth stall could serve either as a milking
or as a was” stall. To the author's knowledge no such room
has been built. With a small square pit less time would be
spent walking; however, questions exist relative to just how
many job elements a man can handle in this type of milking
room.

Two milking rooms with lane type stalls were observed
which had three stalls on a side. An operator can milk no
lcows per hour in this type. To do so, he is busy but not
hurrying. This type requires less concentration than do
side opening types. Because it does, it is easy to work in
when tired and/or sleepy. For the same reason, it is an easy~
one for a substitute man or a new operator to handle. Walls
seem to Splatter up rather badly and cleaning this type of
Inilking room.required more time than some other parlors. Con-
siderable walking was necessary in this design.

By way of comparison, two on a side, lane type, milking

53

    

(MI'WI MIMMU JIJI‘I'J
fli'i‘rl' Dr. ‘7 Figure 9
‘ V i ......._ Homemade stalls

L__ 'Note:

, (l) Visible weigh

' pails

'(2) Long-tube milker

Figure 10
Homemade stalls

Note:

(1) This is a 6 milking,
2 prep and 3 man unit,
the picture shows one
side only

 

Sh

’Figure 11

_ Chore-Boy vacuum milk
releaser and washer

 

(1) Window into the
milking room
(2) Glass pipe

Figure 12

Surge electric
releaser and separate
automatic washer

 

’15

rooms equippedxcith two pipeline units did not seem to keep
the operator busy. Speed of operation ranged from 20 to 25
cows per hour. Slow milkers tended to slow up the whole
operation proportionally more in this milking room. With
herds of 30 or less cows, however, the larger size may not
pay because of added investment and cleaning time. Perhaps
the most economical one to build is this type with the front
stalls facing the milkhouse and cows exiting to both sides.
To equip this room, 2 milker units and pipeline serve tne
front two stalls only; the back stalls being used as wash stalls.
If operated in tlis way, a slow cow would not hold another cow
in the back stall.

Recently another type of system has been developed in

New Zeeland.11

Still more recently, it has spread to England.
It is claimed to be operated with one man at rates of 70 or
even 90 cows per hour. One man brings in the cows, ELSLBS

the udders, uses a strip cup, handles eight to ten units and
machine strips the cows. After deducting time for changing
cow groups, about forty to fifty seconds of individual atten-
tion time per cow remain. They feed no grain but grain feeders

could easily be added if desired.

This system is referred to as the "Herringbone Bail."

 

11

John Blrtcher, "Sixteen Cows in a Herringbone Bail," Farmer
and Stock Breeder, Vol. 70, No. 3h69, 17 April 1956, p. 52
and George Wardrop, "Herringbone Bails in Norfolk," Farmer
and Stock Breeder, Vol. 70, No. Buss, 16 October 1955,p.67.

 

 

56

It consists of cow platforms on either side of a center pit.
Eight to ten cows are on each side. Cows stand at about a
thirty degree angle facing out from the pit with about three
feet of the side of the cow eXpOSed to the operator. A zig—
zag rump rail holds the cows in place. There are no partit-
ions between the cows. A gate at the front and a chain at
the rear hold the whole group. A "bail" holding 16 cows
requires about as much Space as a three on a side lane type
milking room and appears to be cheaper to build.

If this system can be operated under American conditions,
it offers more in the way of solving the labor problems of the
specialized dairymen than any other recent technological ad-
vance. Problems exist in adaptation. What is the effect on
herd health and the required individuality of attention, parti-
cularly with cows of hig producing ability? Certainly with
this system of milking observation must be made easy in rder
that proper care can be giVen the cows outside the milking
room such as mastitis treatment or getting cows bred.

In observing milking parlors in operation, it appeared
that if a man was determined that his particular system.would
work for him that it did. Of those observed, the author be-
lieves that the three-on-a-side, lane type design has the
most to offer. It allows milking ho cows per hour. Even
though particular people may not want to Operate it this
fas , it can be so operated. It keeps the operator uniformly

busy; not a hurry and wait situation. It is a pit type and

hence less fatiguing to work in. It is easy to clean and rela-

 

57

tively ineXpensive to construct, particularly if the stalls
are built at home. Sufficient time is available for problem

COWS 0
Integration into a Systenx

After suitable buildings are laid out and proper equip-
ment for feeding, bedding and milking is provided, the general
physical environment for task performance of the major tasks
has been established. Yet, problems of integrating the indi-
vidual tasks into a system.of dairy husbandry and management

emain. These problems seem to grow faster than herd size.
However, it is the author's feeling that certain simple pro-
cedures can be devised to make good herd management for larger
herds less troublesome than the slipshod methods found on
many farms today.

Determination to succeed is necessary. So is a certain
amount of periodic account-taking or mental check-listing.
Still with methods of sinplifying observations, these pro-
cedures need require no great mental effort.

Probably the first place to start is with a system of-
animal identification. Each mature animal should carry three
marks of identification. By neck chain, or by brand, she
needs one mark to identify her as an individual. By a com-
bination of a letter and two numerals her age could also be
included. A second useful item.would be either the date she

is to be bred, or the date she calved, or the date she is

58
eXpected to freshen. The third is the amount of her grain
ration. The latter two should be readily changeable and a
regular period set aside to do this. Probably the best time
is on the day after milk weights are taken.

One man made neck chains from some used car skid chains.
He cut 3x2 inch pieces of metal upon which he welded raised
numbers on both sides. One set of numbers was then placed
on erch side of the chain. It was a simple matter to snap
on tags to signify breeding information and grain ration.
Tags should be readable from both sides. A color and/or a
letter-number code may help.

Once a good srstem of individual identification is
established, many necessary jobs can be made easy. A simple
diary form.can be made whereby estrums, breedings, sicknesses,
calvinES, weather and ration changes can be noted as they
are observed or performed. This form can be carried on a
clip board into the milking room at milking time but left at
the desk in the milkhouse at other times. From this diary,
the milk weights and the herd testing reports, a constant
herd record can easily be maintained.

Several practices can further simplify record keeping
if desired. One Operator freshens his Whole herd in the last
half of the year. This means the estrums, calvings and dry
periods occur only during certain intervals. Although this
does require a certain amount of additional culling, 90 per-

cent of the milk can be sold as base, calves can be raised

59
in groups, and very few cows are in milk during first crop
haying.

Cows can be dried up on a Specified day of the week.
When it is time to dry them up the majority will respond
to nothing more than a simple cessation of grain feeding and
milking. A check of udder condition should be made four to
five days later.

In herds larger than what can be milked in two hours
a division of the herd might well be considered. One possi-
ble way would be to put the early lactators, which produce
more, require more 3nfin and must be watched for estrums in
one group. Cows which are in late lactation, and are soon
to be dried up, could then make up the second group. Both
groups could still be run through the same milking room. Yet
the whole idea may only add to time requirements with.no partic-
ular advantage. Lots of one-hundred cows with 50 young stock
were observed running together.

Cows probably should not be held for milking without
access to feed for over two hours. Dry hay may be the answer
inasmuch as most of them will still leave hay willingly in
order to get grain during milking.

The possibility of one operator milking in the morning
and another at night should be considered. This system creates
less change during Sundays, days off and vacations. It serves
as a double check on husbandry and production. It can make

a shorter work day during the winter serson. It keeps two

60

individuals completely familiar with the dairy herd. It
insures against sickness and hired help quitting.

Herd health and fly problems can best be handled be-
fore they start. Concrete and good drainage are necessary.
Manure in the yard should usually be scraped off every day
that it does not freeze. Concrete in large yards substitute
for labor in smaller ones in this reSpect. Prevision should
be made for brushing off flies and for a foot rot treatment
box at the milking room entrance. Fly traps and power fly
Sprayers aid cleanliness.

Over time, farmers may try to breed a cow which works
well in this system. Cows which do not measure up can be
culled as replacements become available. Most dairymen visited
are still keeping the majority of their female offSpring. They
want big, rugged, high roughage capacity, long lived animals.
They want ones whici.will produce at least 10,000 pounds of
:xilk a year largely from good roughage. They do not want
boss cows. They want relatively fast milkers, without
sensitive udders. Some have suggested that if you consider
flexibility in labor requirements and imperfect knowledge in
forage production, it is unwise to try for a 500 pound butter

fat average.12

 

12

For the opinions of the future trends in dairying by one
,authority see: W. E. Petersen, "Tomorrows Answers to Today's
Producer Problems," Holstein-Friesian World, Vol. 53, No. 16,
Aug. 18, 1956, pp. llff.

 

Chore Case Studies

As examples of what can be done in the ray of chore
operations, three cas study descriptions are presented.

The first example is that of a man VhO has actually
used a step w tch to time alternative methods for doing

1

enores. He was cueted as soying,"Five seconds Wrsted in my
chores amounts to an hour per year."

Cows are leafed in the basement of the barn. Hay,
bedding, and grain are stored overhead. Bay is fed evenings
in a bunk which separates the paved lot for heifers and dry
covs from.the lot for the milking herd. When straw is used
for bedding it is pushed down through the left floor after
the bale strings are out. It is then distributed but only
partially shook out. If shavings or corn cobs are used, they
are pushed down the same holes with a scraper blade on the
tractor. Grain is fed in inside bunks to dry cows and heifers.
It is fed at milking to the rest of the herd.

Corn silage is stored in a 20X60 tower silo equipped
‘with an unloader and rotating feed bunk. It is fed in the
Inorning to both lets by changing the position of an electric
‘wire to allow access to the silo. The concrete barn yard is
scraped regularly.

A wing located at one end of the barn Contains 13

stanchiens for milking. It also contains pens for small

calves as well as access to the milk house. The back wall

62
of the milking room contains blackboards which retrin a
running account of cows in estrum, production and breeding.
The feed alloy has an overhead track feed carrier vhich is

filled from the barn floor.

re nerd of SO C@"S is bred to freshen from

H-

‘flze en+
July through December. By his method over 90 percent of

g

the milk lay be sold as base. Chores do not interfere with
hay making to any greet extent, as only about 10 cows are in
milk during June. The herd is pastured during the summer
months. Calves are raised in groups. Cows are sold which
do not freshen during the last half of the year.

Two or three peeple usually do chores as a team. The
operator feeds grain, helps change groups in the milking room,
and feeds silage or hay as required. He may also treat mas-
titis, care for maternity cows or do some bedding if time
permits. His 16 year old son operates two "Surge" pail
milker units at the rate of about 25 cows per hour. A younger
son, age 8, puts the milk in the cooler, helps feed calves and
clran up during the evening chores.

By attention to details, sudh as a cart and hoist to
case the handling of milk cans so that the eight year old
can do the work of a man, two and a half hours permit completion
of chores for the entire herd during winter months; in June, three-
fourths of an hour is sufficient.

Another operator handles a 100 cow herd with 2% man

equivalents while producing the forage for the entire herd on

63

200 acres. All animals of breeding age run in one lot. Hay
is in an Open sided slelter. Silage, both grass and corn,

is in horizontal silos from which it is either self-fed or
fed in portable trailer type bunks. Dry lot feeding is prac-
ticed the year around.

The original barn has suace for tre younger calves
and maternity cars. The latter are in a row of Stanchions.
Two men are required to milk, though one may be entirely
unskilled. Chores take a total of eleven to twelve man hours
per day. Of this, eight hours are required for milking, in-
cluding preparation and clean-up. Tie rest is taken up with
calves, maternity cows, bedding and feeding.

Grain comes down to each of the four milking and two
prep stalls. Milk is piped to a bulk tank. Equipment includes
an automatic line and milker washer. In 1955, this operator
sold 900,000 pounds of:milk. The herd average was 375 pounds
of butter fat.

33; way of contrast, one operator with a herd average
of Sh? pounds of fat on 29 cows has found it necessary to spend
considerably more time with his cattle. In producing h20,000
pounds of milk, while buying his grain and hiring his hori-
zontal silos filled, he used about 1.3 man equivalents. In
the summer, this herd requires six hours of lobar in.chores
per day. In winter seven or eight hours are required. Some
pasturing is done. The operator feels that it is necessary

to do all the milking himsel§,making it extremely difficult

ob

for him to get may from the frr :1 at any time. He says that
there is 100 pounds of fat in his herd average in care alone.
He also feels that any and all field work should hold a second
priority to cow 0 re, tlis in Sp te of the fact that his herd
average was built on forage so good that grain feeding did
not exceed one pound of grain to four pounds of milk.

In milking, he has found that one "Surge" pail unit
is all he generally wants to handle. He milks in 10 stanchions
in the asement of his old barn. Young calves are also housed
there. Hay is stored over head and fed outside. Silage, both
grass and corn,is for the most part self-fed from the hori-
zontal silos. The older cattle bed in a pole barn. Some

silage must be thrown down from.a small upright silo.

Conclusions

 

This Chapter has pointed out five methods for in-
crewsing labor efficiency insofar as building and equipment
arrangements are concerned.

First, center the milk house to make the entir» arrange-
mentvisible from there; this allows most tasks to be accomplished
with circular travel and a minimum.of ralking.

Second, design buildings and equipment to require the
very minimum of time and effort in feeding, bedding and cleaning.

Third, design a milking system to fit the quantity_and
quality of labor available. Restrict dairy barn lrbor require-

ments to at least one-half of the available labor force.

65

Fourth, reduce time reguiroments per cow to a minimum
consistent with the need for individual care and record keeping.

Fifth, remember that the other four will work if the
man who performs them wants them to. When he finds the atmos-
phere pleasant, remains alert, accepts change as normal, and
is not over-fatigued, he is enticed to remain master of the
Operation. Even so, he need not he a particularly superior
individual; if he can learn and put into effect the recommended
methods for Operating a milking machine, he should be able

to learn how to work in this system given adequate incentives.

CHAPTER IV
THE CROPPING PROGRAM AND LABOR UTILIZATION

This chapter is the second in the group of five which
presents the information and ideas used in designing the final
organizations. It deals with the problems of making efficient
use of labor in producing forage and grain for the dairy herd.

Alternative systems of cron production vary widely
in requirements for time and labor. Inasmuch as croo produc-
tion is seasonal in nature, tre problems which arise reeuire
a different approach than do dairy husbandry tasks. To gain
high productivity from labor, its use over time_must be,
reasonably full and even. Seasonal labor requirements con-
flict with full, even employment even though labor has a
high earning power when weather or other seasonal hazards
are encountered. When hay harvest and milking conflict be-
cause of insufficient labor to do both at the some time, the
Opportunity cost of labor in either use is high.

Profitable crop production must incorporate economic
jprinciples covering capital and land use as well as labor
ynsoductivity. Thus, machinery requirements and soil fertility
Ilevels are also involved in increasing the productivity of
Ilabor. Timeliness in operation makes for maximum returns from
cquended resources. Further, quality of and therefore the

'value of, output influences the earning power of the inputs

s,d.
“9 66

67
0n the specialized dairy farm, only a few cropping

operations really need close examination. If sufficient

labor is available to accomplish these operations, then other
tasks fit in easily. Corn and grass are the two crops which
compete most seriously with dairy husbandry for labor. Others,
such as small grains, are planted and harvested at times and

in qtontities rhich do not seem to create labor peaks and
timeliness problems,henmg they can rather be regarded as
supplementary enterprises which tend to keep labor more fully
employed and thus tend to raise general profitability to the

firm over time.

Some General Considerations in

Machine Use for Crgp Production

 

Men and machines do the work on tie farm. Neither
should be used wtere the additional costs involved are greater
than the additional returns from use. Inasmuch as both are
reuuired, they complement each other. They are not perfect
complements, however, as it is possible to substitute an
additional increment of one for the other.

Versatility of machine use is important. This is
particularly true in crop production where Specialized machines
tend to sit idle over long periods of time while multi-purpose
maclines can be used more days per year. As examples, consider
a tractor which is in use all year long, or a field chopper
which can harvest hay, silage, bedding, and even small grains

if desired,in contrrst to a combine or a corn planter.

68

Some machines can be eliminated entirely by the selection of
the correct system. Blowers, for instance, are not needed
with horizontal silos or with hay if an elevator is available.

Low cost machines can often substitute for much higher
cost ones. A used dump truck suitable for farm use can be
purchased for approximately one-half of whrt a new dump wagon
will cost and is more versatile. Some oper tors keep machines
which duplicate each other. They argue that tTe insurance
of timelines and the suitability to the jet make this action
worth more than the coonomy of purchasing OLe machine to do
both jobs. The most common example observed was the baler
and the chopper both in use on the same form.

Machines are not perfect. Fran a labor use standpoint,
few farm machines even approach the ideal of simple fool-
proof operation. Part of tYe problem lies in the difficulty
of finding and weighing the importance of various goals in

f]. A :-
‘J-l.’ L4

'r-"

3n. Nrt only must mashines be economical in first cost
and maintenance but they must be Capable of Operation by
peoplexcifli only limited ability along these lines. From the
labor use point of view certain goals can be defined. A

Inachine should be capable of operation under adverse conditions

\
A

cf

of topography, s ones, trash, and poor or damaged crops. Time

spent unnlu3"ind a plow or pick—up attachment not only slows

~", J (.3

her opcrrtionS.

gnu epcrrticn but may :ffoct a‘vholc c ain of ot
Machines should be easy to h'tch and unhitch. They

should be simple to adjust, maintain, repair, grease and

.Jo

operate. The quieter a machine is, the lees fatiguing its

Farm machinery chances quickly and depreciates the
same way. A look into the future revetls a need for flexi-
bility in today's decisions. Relatively higier macline in-
vestments are prcbably in the offing, but so is improved
ormance. Hydraulics, power steering, electric power
takeoffs, less noise and less vibration cen all be eXpected
to reduce operrtor fatigue. Easier are sing and sharpeninp
quicker repair features, and areater capacities will tend to
reduce field breakdown problems and increase labor accomplish-
ment rates.

Regtrdless of design improVements, tLe biggest problem
will still be the integration of tasks for smooth and efficient
Operation. Partial solutions include greasing during other-
vise unavoidable delays and keeping a mobile repair center
in the field. Major repairs and overhauls should be made out
of season. Time spent then is a small price to pay for the
elimination of delays in field work.

Equipping men with adequate sized tools makes an
efficient balanced operation possible. JObs done by crew
are restricted by the slowest machine in the job. Often times
an additional man is in the crew for insurance flexibility.
Periaps a better method would be job rotation or extra eouip-
ment standing by instead.

In short, goals of reduction in machine eXpense and

labor efficiency need not always conflict. If the operator

70

selects mactines of a size, design and condition to allow
"vailable labor to complete field work on time he tends to

re i_se the ea rning power of labor over time. He must consider
alternative uses of time, the capacity and trustworthiness

of machines, flexibility, obsolescence and integration of the
investment into tie total equipment inventory. Field layout,
soil fertility, and improved crop practices are also necessary
considerations in selectinq machines and in gaining high labor

productivity.

Machinery and work Methods

for Forage Harvest

In attempting to gain full employment at an even and
highly productive rate for labor in crop production, the
biggest problem involves harvesting the first cutting of hay.
Under Michigan conditions roughly two-thirds of the crop
is harvested in the first cutting. The interval between
early and full bloom for alfalfa is usually about three weeks.
For good yields and a high quality, the crop must be harvested
during this time. This season, which starts in mid-June,
carries considerable weather hazard from summer rains.

In developing a profitable dairy farm, reduction of
labor cos ts is restricted by a need for the production of

high quality forage.l In forage harvest, labor which is fixed

 

1

For methods and farmer experiences in producing high quality
forage see: C. R. Hoglund, High quality Roughage Reduced Dairy
Costs, Agricultural EXperiment Station, Michigan State University,
Sp. Bul. 390, Feb. 19Sh Also: 0. R. Hoglund, et. al., "Forage
Qualit and Protein Feeding of Dairv Cows," auarterly Emiletin,
Mich. gr. Exp. Stat., Vol. 38, No. 3, Feb. 1956.

 

71
to the firm.should be Spread over as many units of product
as compatible with high quality. At the same time, it may
pay to hire additional labor for this task. Still depending
on seaSOnal help can lead to disaster if for any reason it
ceases to be available.

In visiting the farms in the study, a wide Variety of
harvesting methods and forage qualities were observed. Rates
of hay harvest, both in total tons per hour and in tons per
man hour varied widely. It vould anpear that the man who
re the system, his ability to coordinate, and his determination
to (jet the job done on time, were as importz‘nt as the system
used.

All systems centered around chopping and/or baling.
Some methods used included: choosing the first cutting
for silage, mow drying it cu' field curing it.2 On the some
farm, the second cutting might be baled in order to ration
it out where desired in later feeding. Otier farms insiled
part of the first cutting but baled all tie rest of their hay.
On still others, everything was chopped or everything ba-ed.
Some balor owners used a crusher but none mow dried baled
hay. Some operators believed it advisable to green chop or
feed from storage tie year around. While this increased_the
hay harvesting tcsk, they felt that tie UdV’ntLSVS outweighed

the disadvantages.

 

2

Karl A. Vary, Hay Harvesting hothods and Costs, Agricultural
Exocriment Station, Michigan State University, Sp. Bul. 392,
May l95h discusses the merits of various methods. HeweVer,
his data cites 19h6-SO performance records which are now some-
what out of date.

 

72

Chopping Grass Silage

Putting the first key crop into grass silage seems
to be an alternative rortky of rider useage than is common
tocay. It requires a relatively low meetine and storage
space investment, produces high quality forage, one if high
capacity maclines and good coordination is provided, acts
the first cutting of hay harVested as rapidly as any o:

Due to the westher hazard in June, grass silage Can
often be made on days when making dry hay is out of the

question. Grass sila e makes ercellont forag- provided

L

anoroVed practices relative to state of maturity, moisture
content and storage facilities are ca ried out.3 While on
oceasicn other methods can Compete with it, yetr in and

f

year out, under that is kmunxlabout “orage quality today, it

is doubtful that as good a quality forage can be produced by
other means.

The key to successful forage chopping seems to be a
high capacity, adequately powered harvester.u Choppers are
made today utich carry manufacturer's ratings of over 20 tons

of silage per hour. Some farmers in the study reported that

 

3
C. R. lioglmd, OD. Cite, Spa 1311].. F190, pp. 8'90

“C. R. Hoglund, et. al., op. cit., pp. th-Zh.

73
with this type of chopper, they could average at least 20
tons per hour considering minor delays and breakdowns.

At this point a digression is called for to show what
this means in terms of forage harvested. Many dairy farms
could easily use 1,000 tons of grass silage yearly. With
a first cutting of 6 tons of silage, 168 acres of forage
would be reeuired. While operating steadily, 6 leads of
3.3 tons each would have to be taken care of per hour. Under
most conditions, this calls for three hauling units (either
trucks or wagons) with each unit making one trip every 30
minutes. To accomplish all this, mow hay ahead of the chopper,
and either handle a blower or a packing tractor would take
a crew of from five to eight men. Yet, if three weeks are
available to get the entire job done, three men could do it
with good scheduling and integration. Thus, while the task
is enormous, it can be fitted to the labor and time available
over fairly wide ranges. What follows will discuss techniques
for doing this.

The best silage can be made at early bloom. At the
same time, direct-cut chopping results in silage of high
moisture content causing souring and seepage of certain
valuable food nutrients. From half bloom on, direct cutting
is usually more successful. However, due to the limited
capacity of direct-cut attachments, the mowing and pick up
method may still have an advantage. Thus, it is hard to

eliminate a mower from the system.

71L

However, it is possible to mow and windrow at the
some time. While it may take slightly longer, wilting of
the silage will still occur. Those operators with ererience
have found that a tindrower mounted on the cutter bar works
as well as a side rake.

Two types of vindrowers are available. One type places
the windrow behind the tractor in such a manner a; to make 0
it possible to put two windrews together. Under usual con-
ditions, two windrows together reduce chopper travel and in-
crease capacity. However, this type of windrcwer often bunches
the grass and reduces chopping capacity. A second type places
the windrow in the center of the swath without appreciable
bunching. This means that half the field will have to be

raked in order to place two windrows together. When the silage

fl

is raked, atones are likely to get into the windrow. When it

i- simply windrowed with an attachment, this is no problem.

C‘J

Later in the season with a motor mounted chopper, and with
a mid-mounted.mower-windrower, the chopper could be pulled
by'tke same tractor that mows and thereby makes essentially
a seven feet direct cut unit.

Recently a new mower said to be Capable of moving 6
acres per hour has appeared on the market. It consists of
two 7 foot cutter bars, one mid-mounted and the other extended
into the field ‘ast the first and rear mounted. This machine
is made by the Kosh Company. A around driven trailer mower,
if of sufficient capacity, could be towed similarly behind

any draw bar mounted type to accomplish the same end.

75

In order to save labor, trucks can be towed behind
the chopper if a Special hitch is provided and the terrain
is not too rugged. Hm'over, the only operator interviewed
who had tried tiis echrienced difficulty from breaking a
casting in the truck's steering ms Fanism. ImproVement is
crlled for here.

Another type hitch could be devised with a motor driven
chopper utereov the m chine is pulled by the truck being
loaded. If the two units were run side by side and with all
controls accessible from the truck cab, the advantages of
tru k hauling could be cotained without a man actually opera-
ting the chopper. By necessity, any sucL hitching device
would have to be quick, Simple and almost autCM£tic in
Operation.

Zen and time can be saved in hauling also. Large
hauling units and unloading devices which re uire no manual
attention are steps in the right direction. Generally Speaking,
trucks whict dump hydraulically provide a versatile device
for hauling materials on a farm. Three farmers wlo work
together at silage making had each purchased used dump trucks

r’
for 300 dollars a piece.2 To those, they had added higher
sides, the back of thCh were built out over the dump gate
supported in a horizontal position. In working in horizontal

silos, they found snow tires desirable. Witl the longer hauls

 

Cr
,)
See the see study descripton on pace 87

which become necessary as herd size increases, haulinfi tith
trucks becomes more important.

1

c type dump wagons or trucks unless faster

H-

Hydraul

,

1 ‘. J" ‘ .7» . ‘ i' '._ Iw ,. \ v f a ' ‘ ' ' T! ~ ' . ,‘ '1 \ -
than other tjpcs oi regent .nd trtchs. LOkOVCP, if u b_erer

,.. .J-., " ; ....‘ -m w ‘ v -' ‘ r- -
C‘T‘ (:3,ng L'C‘I‘ lg.) USCG, 1.1L lulllp 21",; ill V0 4:4 U M_LVC~V. --c .JC Cf
.\ '_. o g - w f 1-1.. "a... '1 ., 1., .;. -H- . . -_..;1- 'I, ,. A.
:1J13¢;U13 ,4. i icfll c {.3 .AJ? it ise (micpzate t;u;e ;:,;113 oaufizer.

As a Coed and ineLnensiVe substitute, a rote device may be
extended from a manure lender frame to pull the forage off
into a hopper. The sane device might prove to be a useful

bedding tool in loose hoisine. For unloading in a horizontal

silo another inexpensive device is a length of roven wire

[—4

aid on tie recon bed and then up over tie front. To unload,
another tractor is litched to the top end end tte load is
rolled -- not pulled -- off. It can then be spread out by
continuing to pull on the tire.

Another tire-saving feature useablc to Speed hauling
operaticxs with V gene is an automatic coupler. This device
closes around a wagon Clovis pin automatically. It is re-
leased by pulling a rope. If the Wagon tongues are SUrplied
Iit‘n sprinrfs to float them for i‘zfilfj‘ht and both the cl'epper
and hauling tractor are supplied with courkxs, neither driver
needs to leave his tractor to change ragons. Total costs for
tiree Megons floaters and tve COUplers run less than ?S dolla s.

In building forage boxes, considerable money and time
can be saved by usirg corrugated steel roofing for sides as

compared to reed which is expensive and heavy. One place where

77
money should not be spared in first cost is in diagonal bracing.

In order of cost, unloading devices run as follows: lowest
is either the rake attachment for a manure loader or woven
wire to roll the load off, next is the false endgate type
followed by the canvas bottom. Most eXpensive are the hydraulic
dump and the endless chain types. The method of unloading
determines which will operate the fastest and most satisfactorily.
In the upright silo, the silage should be distributed

to exclude air and insure against Spoilage. A distributor
can be built or purchased to do the job with little attention.
The best type observed for grass silage consists of a leped
concave shaped trough located in the center of the silo under
the blower pipe. When rotated rapidly by an electric motor
it threw the silage to the wall of the silo and allowed it
to settle without trapping appreciable amounts of air. If
an elevator is used for silo filling, trapped air seems to be
less of a problem. Regardless of which is used, most opera-
tors still feel that a.man in addition to the hauler is needed
to keep things functioning smoothly. Perhaps some of the
newer and more automatic unloading devices can overcome this.

V To save time in filling a horizontal silo packing should
be done while filling. This means a man and tractor are
needed in the silo at all times. If the tractor is equipped
with a manure loader, the teeth dropped to a vertical position
can be of considerable aid in spreading the fill. At filling

rates of 20 tons or more per hour, two packing tractors may

78
be necessary to insure a tight pack. Wagons or trucks which
can unload while still moving have a definite time advantage
in horizontal silos. If an earth ramp does not close one end
of the silo, perhaps a wood or metal runway should be pro-
vided to get the loads up to the top. The author would like
to try a road contractor's "sheep's foot" type roller in
the hope that it might improve the efficiency of packing
horizontal silos. For that matter, the newer high capacity
choppers might well call for hauling units similar to the
"big wheel" type road builders use.

This one method (ensileing) of harvesting the first
cutting hay crop has been discussed quite thoroughly. There
were several reasons for doing this. It gave an opportunity
to discuss how various pieces of machinery fit together into
a system. It demonstrated one of the simplest methods for
harvesting large volumes of high quality forage with limited
time and labor. It proved to be the method which is least
influenced by weather. It allowed the use of storage Space and
machinery investments which are relatively low in cost as com-
pared to other methods soon to be discussed. When properly
stored, grass silage may be carried over for three to four
years with practically no loss of nutrients. In this way,
it can become an.important source of feed insurance.

Grass silage also has its disadvantages. When stored
in an upright silo it packs extremely hard and is the source

of an unpleasant odor when fed. When stored in horizontal

79

silos, Spoilage is often a problem. However, an air-tight
cover such as a plastic sheet or wet sawdust can reduce this
spoilage to a level comparable with upright storage. Spoiled
silage and seepage tend to increase fly problems. Perhaps
one of the greatest hazards in grass silage is the possibility
of storing a large proportion of total roughage in this form
only later to discover that the palatability or digestibility
of the feed is less than anticipated. Some farmers had ex-
perienced these difficulties but lack explanations for them,

Another way to save time at harvest and hence even out
peak labor loads is to ensile forage in the field rather than
at the barn. Shorter hauls during the harvesting season result.
In the winter, the silage can be hauled to the barns and fed
either in bunks or over the face of self-feeding silos placed
there, as some silo Space at the buildings would still be
necessary for fall, spring and bad weather feeding. A dump
truck, a manure loader, a chain saw for cutting silage loose
and suitable feeding bunks would.be necessary to make this
system work. A self unloading wagon could be used, but in
as much as dump wagons and large rectangular type feeders6
cost less and do the same job, these are the recommended pieces

of equipment.

 

6
See page 22 for a reference to this type plan.

 

80
Other Methods Using a Forage Harvester

There are other systems which should be mentioned.

Some farmers have been very successful with field cured chopped
hay providing weather hazards were not too great and the hay
need not be moved to be fed. Others have produced excellent
forage by mow drying chopped hay. Drying costs tend to run
around a dollar a ton and hay harvesting rates are regulated

by dryer capacity.7

Elevators are generally preferable to blowers in
putting chopped hay in a mow. Hewever, there is at least one
blower (manufactured by the Kools Company) which will handle
mow drying hay without gumming up and plugging. This blower
also had the greatest capacity observed in the study. It
can handle two and one-half tons of silage in five minutes
if fed steadily. With either a elevator or blower, a dis-
tributor to Spread the hay evenly in the mow will save labor
and speed drying.

One farmer had made his own.mow dryer fan for a
materials cost of about sixty dollars. He purchased a used
five horsepower electric motor, some V-belts, pulleys, bearings
and a used wooden airplane propeller. By welding a simple
but rigid frame together and rebalancing the shortened pro-
peller, he had a fan capable of handling a mow 16 feet wide,

50 feet long and 20 feet deep.

 

W. H. Sheldon, et.a1., Barn Ehy Driers in Michigm , Agricultural
Experiment Station, Michigan State University, Cir. Bul. 219
(Second Edition), April 1953, pp. 5- 9.

81

In an attempt to harvest chopped forage more economi-
cally, some farmers have tried the new rotary hammer type
chopper. Results have not been too favorable. This machine
tends to produce a shredded type product which is bulky to
haul and does not pack well. Hammers break off in stony
fields and a ragged stubble is left if an operator attempts
to drive fast enough to get any great capacity. One man had
tried to pick up straw with one from the windrow but found
this extremely slow. No one interviewed had tried to harvest
corn silage or corn stalks for bedding with one.

To get a chOpper to Operate at 20 tons of silage per
hour, or 7 tons of hay per hour, many conditions must be satis-
fied. Not only must it be possible to haul the forage this
fast but the chopper must operate steadily. This means that
it nmmt have a pidkup which does not plug, it must be of large
capacity, it must be adequately powered, and it must not break
down, Some features to watch.for in purchasing follow:

Some choppers may be sharpened without removing the knives.
Some have rather positive feed pickups. Some require less
'power than other similar capacity machines. In selecting a
anachine from the standpoint of economy, first cost as well

as operating costs are important.

Expected Accomplishment Rates

Using a Forage Harvester

Three men, three small or medium sized tractors, a

:manure leader, a mower and windrowing attachment, a siderake,

82
two used dump trucks or three wagons, an elevator and a
large motor driven chOpper can make a complete forage harvesting
unit capable of harvesting all silage, hay and bedding for
a sixty cow dairy farm.
Including minor delays, this unit should be able to
handle 350 tons of silage each week of Operation. One hun-

dred tons of hay could be harvested in the same time period.

This would involve about ten acres of grass silage per day.
Mowing requires three and one-third hours. At a chopping
and hauling rate of only twelve tons per hour (a more prac-
tical rate for a smaller crew), six hours of time would be
required. During these six hours, one man and a tractor
would have to be at the silo almost continuously. Twelve
tons per hour will require three or four loads chopped, hauled
and unloaded per hour. According to the farmers interviewed,
this type of equipment should have no trouble operating at
this rate.

Actually these performance estimates are rather con-
servative including considerable time for delay between jobs,
minor breakdowns, servicing, bad weather and other normally
encountered hazards. With.more attention paid to scheduling,
a smaller harvester might serve just as well. In fact two
men can perform the same work in the same time by working
seven or eight hours per day if both can interchange on all
jobs to insure against scheduling delays. If two men were to

do the entire job, they might well consider quite carefully

83
such items as truck-chopper or wagon-chopper hitches. They

might also consider increasing corn production for silage

to lower the need for grass silage or hay. Methods of corn
spraying or oultivation to reduce time requirements here will
also be important. Managing pastures to require less har-

vested roughages will also have added value.
Baling Hay

Some excellent methods for handling baled hay were also
observed. Many baler owners justify baling from the stand-
point of greater rates of accomplishment alone. Small or
underpowered choppers may have led them to this conclusion.
Available storage Space is another factor. To bale hay often
requires investments in.both baling and chopping equipment.
The work is harder and crew size is usually as large or larger
than for chopping.

There are three general methods which allow three men
to make up a baling crew capable of operating as fast as the
new high speed balers function. In all three, a wagon is
hitched to the baler and two men are required in the field
full time. The third man must then haul as rapidly as the
baler operates.

One method requires hauling to ground level storage
on wagons hydraulically controlled to tilt to a complete
vertical position. This same wagon bed must be equipped

wittlstrong vertical back members capable of supporting the

814.
entire load when the bed is tilted.' The load is backed into
the storage area, tilted, deposited and the wagon is pulled
ahead to free the back members fnmn the load.

Another method consists of using a regular bale ele-
vator emptying onto a ridge line conveyor equipped with a
trip-off device. The third way is to use a winch operated
hay carrier system.with slings or a special baled hay fork
and an automatic return. In either of the latter cases, storage
space must be available where the bales need not be stacked
into place.

A recent development is a type of bale wagon which loads
and unloads itself automatically.8 Various devices such as
bale sleds and bale leaders are also on the market. With
more limited labor, such devices may find a place on many
farms where they are not used today.

To save energy and tbme in unloading hay, either in
round or square bales, an elevator hopper should be built which
will take the bale in any position. With such a device the
bales can be half dragged, half dumped into place without
lifting. When used with a ridge line elevator, this system
allows the carrying of bales into storage to the full lineal
capacity of the elevator.

Some farmers felt that the use of a bale loader to pick

up bales from the ground actually takes less time than to

 

8'
F. Leland Elam, "Load Bales From the Tractor Seat," Farm

Journal, Vol. 81, No. S, May 1957, p. 7hF.

- ‘ifllli
’III
.I.

as
pull a wagon behind the baler. No data are available either
to prove or disapprove this theory. It does allow the use
of trucks for hauling which has an advantage on long hauls.
In some cases it is also true that the baler must slow down
in order to keep the bales on the wagon.

The weather hazard for baling hay can be reduced by
crushing. While crushing either slows the mowing operation
or adds another task to hay making, it can be justified, in
the large Operation, on the basis of improvement in quality
alone.

Without the weatler hazard, baled hay can be put up
as rapidly as grass silage but total digestable nutrients
and protein harvested per acre arezunLIikely to be as high.
According to information collected in the study, three men
should be able to do all the work in putting up 100 tons of

baled hay per week of operation.

Pelleting Hay

If, in the future, may pelleting becomes practical,
hay making will become very similar to grain harvesting today.
The storage Space required today will be reduced by one half
and it will be stored, dried and fed completely with bins,

gravity and elevators.
Some Observed Systems

To add concretness to this discussion Of methods for

harvesting high quality forage rapidly with a minimum.of labor,

86
it is worth describing some of the systems actually employed

on farms visited. The first, a baling operation on a one-
family farm is an outstanding example of what management can
do. First of all by controlled fall freshening, very few of
the 50 cows on.this 177 tillable acre farm are in.milk in
June. Hay is field cured and each good haying day is run the
same way. Hay mowed and raked on a previous day is turned
over when it has dried off on top. Meanwhile, as much hay

is mowed as can be baled in one afternoon. This hay is raked
the first time around noon. The father and his teen-age son
are available for doing these tasks.

In the afternoon, one drives the tractor while the
other loads bales. A younger son hauls the wagons to the
barn. Automatic hitches are used. When three wagons are
full, the younger son drives the baler tractor while the father
goes to the barn to unload. The mother drives a truck on the
hay rope and the bales are unloaded with a Special baled hay
fork. The bales are not stacked. This family has put as
many as 21 tons of hay in the mow in one afternoon.when weather
conditions required the baling of two day's cutting. However,
they average closer to 7 acres or la tons per day.

The second operation shows what efficient machine coordi-
nation will do when farmers work together. Three brothers,
each owned a share of a ten year old, large, motor-mounted,
forage harvester. They also each own an old used dump truck.
When operating, they require one man mowing steadily while a

second rakes two swaths into one windrow. A third man pulls

87
the chopper while three haul. Two packing tractors are re-
quired to keep up. As each brother has a hired man and one
has two teen-age children no additional labor is hired.

They harvest an average of around 23 tons of grass
silage per hour. They have sometimes put in 30 tons. This
amounts to 12 leads per hour or a load every five minutes.

To be fair to all, they rotate priorities from one year to
the next as to which farm will be done first.

Another one-man farm uses a mow drying system. Hay is
mowed and windrowed in one Operation. He does not even own
a rake. The hay field cures so long as it is not likely to
rain. Hay is chopped with a nine year old machine. It is
hauled on dump wagons fashioned from ancient dump trucks and
elevated into the barn on a forty foot elevator. Distribution
is by hand. A circular hay feeder is also filled. The sane
drying fan is used for both. The operator and one other man,
working only when they felt the weather to be right, were able
to put 200 tons in the mow in three weeks. This included only

about 12 days actually worked in the fields.
Other Field Work

With modern equipment and methods, no real timing
problems need occur on the specialized dairy farm expect at
forage harvest. For this reason, this section will discuss
alternatives only briefly except for pointing out that methods
which are relatively economical in.the use of labor are generally

low in total cost.

88

Modern farmers tend to equip themselves with equipment
large enough to insure against bad weather. While this is
good to a point, it can be overdone. It is hard for instance
to justify a four bottom.tractor and plow on a basis of 100
acres plowed per year. If such a tractor is used to run a
forage harvester, it may be more nearly justified. But even
here, a mounted motor and a small tractor may be more economi-
cal. The major consideration is often a matter of the alter-
native uses for the labor and capital required in operating
various sized machines. Certainly as the price paid for
labor increases, so does the justification for larger machines

to accomplish the same amount of work.
Oat Planting and Harvest

Traditionally spring field work startswuith oat planting
and forages are seeded in the cats. In most years, this task
can be accomplished.without conflicting with corn planting.
Because oats are a low value crop, newer methods of forage
seedings have been proposed which tend to conflict even less
with other field work.9 In this type of operation the advantages
of multiple hitches should be considered. Fbr instance, a Spike
tooth.drag can.be mounted underneath the drill tongue while a

cultipacker is towed behind.10 Another time saver is larger

 

C.R.Hog1und,Economics of Alternative Methods of Establishing_
and Harvesting Foragg Crops, Agricultural Economics Department,
Michigan State University, Dec. 1956, Ag. Econ. No. 669.

10Ray L. Cook, "Are Your Tillage Methods Up to Date?" Board's
Daigzman, Vol. 98, No. 6, Mar. 25, 1953, p. 271.

 

 

89
hoppers on the ordinary drill. Hydraulic lifts have con-
siderable advantage over power lifts in both time and ease
of operation of a drill.

Oats can be harvested either as silage in June or as
grain and straw in July. While the latter method involves
less conflict in the use of labor and helps solve the bedding
problem, the former may be more profitable.11

If oat silage is made, timing is critical; the silage
must be made when the oats are in the early dough stage which
conflicts with hay harvest in mid-June in southern Michigan.’
The procedure is the same as grass silage harvest.

After combining, straw must be clipped and swathed.
The windrow attachment may or may not work well here. Other-

wise the procedure is the same as when baling or chopping dry

hay except that timing is usually less critical.
Manure Handling

Manure hauling is usually started when the ground is
still frozen. With the coming of spring rains and thaws it
is often not completed until time to plow for corn. Two
large Spreaders, a tractor mounted manure loader, and two
:men make an efficient unit for hauls of one half mile or less.12

A tractor is needed for each Spreader unless the claw and ring

 

11
C. R. Hoglund, Agricultural Economics No. 669, op. cit.,

pp. 5’6) 8-130
128. F. Cargill, N. P. Ralson, OE. cit., pp. lh-l6.

90
type hitch designed by the Ferguson Company for three point
hitch tractors is used. This same hitch can be a time saver
for any heavy tongued implement. If only one man is available,
he can work efficiently with this equipment.

A loaderINith live hydraulic power and a hydraulic
cylinder dump on the bucket is a definite advantage. In the
yard, a scraper blade on the rear of the tractor can save
time, eSpecially if the manure can be pushed directly into
the spreader. 'With most tractors, additional weights on the
rear Speed loading. So does power steering on the tractor.
Skill in operation on the part of a driver is something which
must be learned by finding just how fast his equipment will
work as conditions vary.13 The newer power take-off Spreaders

are designed to operate when wheel drive models cannot.
Fertilizer and Lime Spreading

Fertilizer and lime spreading are Jobs which can be
done throughout the year. With materials coming in bulk
much of this work is now done on a custom.basis. Some farmers
have found ways of doing this same job about as efficiently
themselves. Some have purchased equipment in partnership.
Others rent equipment. Some use field Spreaders and dump
trucks and get by with little additional equipment costs.

Three of the farmers visited had purchased an old used lime

 

13
Ibid.

91
truck for hauling their lime and fertilizer in bulk. This
is an example of how farmers can get their own labor to do
more work, Spread their equipment cost and take advantage
of bulk rates on materials.
Sacked fertilizers are still likely to be found on

farms for years to come. So are other sacked materials such

as feed supplement and cement. For this reason a pallet lift
is a low cost addition to a manure loader frame which could
be used on many farms. Fertilizer can be loaded on wagens

or trucks in this way. Pallet boxes can serve as silage
feeders for small lots of cattle. Pallets can store cement
and feed up where it is dry and in a minimum.of Space. Small
loads of hay or straw can also be rapidly transported this
way.

The newer methods of handling fertilizer in liquid
form can be labor savers also. Planters, Sprayers and
holding tanks are now on the market. Actually, the main thing
the farmer must consider is the cost of nutrients placed in
the soil regardless of whether they are in a solid, liquid

or a gaseous state.
Corn Production

Even the corn crop no longer need provide any extreme
peak loads on labor requirements. By using minimum tillage
methods, two men can plow and plant ten acres per day with a

1
two bottom plow and two row planter. h With somewhat larger

 

1h ‘
Ray L. Cook, op. cit., p. 271.

92

equipment, two men could double this rate.

Practically all of the interviewees had tried minimum
tillage methods; some have had more success than others. It
appears that tilth, organic matter level and amount of moisture
in the soil were the factors which governed how successful
they were. On well managed soils of suitable moisture con-
tent, the Soil may be prepared by this method with savings
in time and.meney.

As Vaughan and Hardin point out, the reason corn rows
stop at the end of the field is to rest the horses.15 They
report that corn planted around the field can result in S to
10 percent savings of time and labor. The savings in so
doing are not just in planting but also in cultivating and
chopping or picking.

With.rotary hoes, four row cultivators, and large
row crop Sprayers, no problems need arise in getting the
crop taken care while harvesting the first cutting of hay.
Whether or not such equipment is justified on any particular
farm.depends not only on what labor costs but also on the
scale of operation. To use four row cultivators requires four
row corn planters. To get sufficient soil compaction in the
row with the four row planter may take special precautions
at planting time. The time may soon come when corn will

require no work from planting to harvest.

 

lg:

Lawrence M. Vaughan and Lowell S. Hardin, Farm Work Simpli-

fication, John Wiley and Sons, New Yerk, 19h9, p. 36.

 

93

There is a two band fertilizer planter on the market
today which can place high nitrogen fertilizer below the
seed to eliminate the need for mid-season sidedressing. Wide
row planters for seeding forages in corn are also available.
This type of operation may also reduce labor requirements,
particularly if a satisfactory high speed seeding method
can be found. The new stubble-mulch planter is another tool
which should be considered as an alterative, at least in
some areas.

Most farmers could increase the amount of forage and
corn produced quite easily by devising rotations whereby the
crops do not conflict in time requirements. Pre-emergence
Spraying, rotary hoeing, June Spraying, judicious pasturing
and early crop pasturing can all work to this end. There
are enough alternatives to permit a good system to be built
for most of MiChigan'S soils and weather. Sudan grass and
pasture rye may also fit in to serve this end.

The necessary equipment and methods for corn Silage
harvest have been covered by the discussion on grass silage.
Good corn silage harvested at the early dent stage can account
for much of the total digestable nutrients needed to balance
high protein grass silage.16 High capacity equipment is imp
portant here also. The date of harvest is critical. The whole

job should be done within ten days for best results. Production

 

16
C. R. HOGlund, etc 810’ 020 Cite, pp. u25‘260

at
of corn of two different maturities may help.

The bunker silo Serves as well for corn silage as
for grass. Because there is no need to mow or rake, the
capacity of the same crew in tonnage per day is greater for
corn. Averaging 12 tons per hour for a six hour day permits
a total of 700 tons to be put up in 10 days by two men pro-
vided rain and major breakdowns do not occur.

For most Michigan farmers, additional cona raised for
grain is profitable. In years of a poor hay crop, part of
this corn may be insiled to provide insurance against adverse
weather. It also is a crOp which can be stored or sold if a
surplus is raised.

Sufficient time is available to harvest the entire
crop with a one row corn picker at the acreage found on most
Specialized Michigan dairy.farms. Newer pickers are designed
to save more of the crop, be easier to grease and to allow
separation of the snapping rolls from the tractor seat for
safety and Speed.

Other alternatives for corn harvest include the corn
combine and the combination picker-chopper. It is unlikely
that either will prove to be profitable with the limited corn
acreage of any but the very large specialized dairy farm unless
they undergo further development.

Modern corn cribs with draglines in the bottom.and
elevators for both filling and emptying require very little

labor. A design which will allow the farm elevator hopper

95
to sit underneath the crib when in use is ideal and entirely
possible on most farms. Such a structure constructed of poles
set in a lh foot circle with a raised concrete floor and
center drag line pit need cost only about 30 cents per bushel

of Space. This includes woven wire sides, center ventilating

duct and a sheet metal roof.
Fencing and Gates

The farmers interviewed had solved much of their
fencing prpblenw either with electric temporary fencing or
by dry lot feeding. While several mentioned that they wished
they had good permanent fann boundary fences, they felt that
alternative uses for their resources carried a higher priority.
Some reported poor luck with electric fence, particularly during
droughty periods.

Easy opening gates and cattle guards are low cost items
which can lessen time requirements on many farms. Mechanical
winders and post hole diggers also help. A kit of Special
fencing tools lends "extra hands" in fencing work to relieve
the farmer of some of the rather unpleasant work associated

with fence repair.

Further Considerations

In Field Work

Most fanners find it necessary to spend further time
in field work at such tasks as stump and stone removal and

land drainage. Little can be said here wtidh has general

96

application. However, a manure loader, a stone boat, dynamite,
and a dump truck Speed as well as ease such operations. Bull-
dozers and otter earth handling machinery have progressed to
the point where a farmer should consider changing the lay
of problem land areas by hiring these machines.
There are several thumb rules that a farm.manager can
keep in mind for saving time and effort in crop production.
In doing so he should remember that even small savings multi-
plied over many units can be important. For this reason it
behooves him to keep abreast of new technology. Once he has
done this, the following questions serve as a constant check
list for any given farm and its equipment.
(1) Can additional field obstructions such as rocks or
trees be removed?
(2) Would more off-season maintenance avoid unnecessary
field delays and breakdowns?
(3) Would larger seed.and fertilizer containers decrease
the time at filling stops?
(h) Would bulk handling reduce time at filling stops?
(5) Are fields as large as practical? Long narrow
ones are preferable for tractors. Avoid odd shapes
and small sizes.
(6) Could planting, cultivating and harvesting be done
around the field to advantage?
(7) Could rectangular fields be run away from the buildings

to save travel time?

97
(8) Where can cattle guards replace gates to advantage?
(9) Could operations be combined to utilize load
capacity? ‘

(10) Is tie maximum.use being made of easy-to-change
electric fencing?

(11) Are labor and machinery used on the best land first
when a choice is necessary to insure highest re-
turns in cas of future delays?

(12) Are equipment and.work schedules such as to allow
night work if need be?

This list is not exhaustive. Even so it does point

out the types of questions a man should ask himself if he

truly wants to save labor in field work.
Conclusions

The biggest problem.in field work is the harvesting
of forage. While a system.can be designed to allow a very
minimum of labor,itimeliness considerations are such as to
make most operators hire additional labor here. With care-
ful planning this may not be necessary.

With modern.machinery5 the other field work can usually
be fitted in even in the short field day of a dairy farm. Many
of the keys to fast operation are items of low cost items such
as row crop Sprayers, once over tillage, hydraulic loaders,

pallets and automatic hitches.

In the final analysis, the appreciation of timeliness

98
and the coordination of activities will probably affect how

rapidly things can be done just as much as having machines

of the very latest design and large capacity.

CHAPTER V

BUILDING AN EQUIPMENT 114111? EI‘JANCE,

REPAIR AXD CONSTRUCTION

This is the third of the five chapters dealing with
tasks involved in operating a Specialized dairy farm. When
buildings and equipment depreciate, wear out, or break the
problem of repair and maintenance arises. When new buildings
are required someone must build them. The discussion in this
chapter deals with how these tasks can incrorse the overall

earning power of labor on dairy farms.

The Importance of Maintenance,

Repair and Construction

To increase the overall earning power of labor most
repair, maintenance and construction must be done when live-
stock and crop work is not pressing. This provides an opportu-
nity for productive work for the farm labor force in off sea-
sons. Even though equipped with the same tools, it may not
always be possible to make farm labor as productive at these
tasks as is skilled labor. However, with.mechanics charging
three, or even four dollars per hour, farm.labor need not
produce equal services to be profitable.

A few farms may be found where labor is so fully em-

ployed with livestock husbandry and crop production that no

99

100
time exists for these tasks but such farms are rare. To
justify such a farm economically the labor mus , over time,
show earnings at the margin equal to the rates paid carpenters
and other skilled mechanics after adjustment for performance
differentials. So long as crop production is seasonal and
cows nust be milked twice a day, this is hard to do. In the
more usual ease, difficulty occurs in keeping farm labor carn-
ing as much per day as skilled repair and maintenance labor
costs per day.

Farming production items are continually either wearing
out or becoming obsolete. Many can be repaired or replaced
at a considerable saving of capital and operrting eXpense
by building the new ones which go into the business. Under
capital restrictions larger capital eXpansions can often be
justified this way.

Not only is this true of the farm business but also of
the farm.home. Large dairy farms with two or more houses and
barns equipped with modern plumbing, heating, lighting and
appliances will require a regular flow of services for nain-
tenance and repair. Farm shop tools can serve both farm and
home and hence be more economical to both. These same service
functions tend to raise the earning pager of labor by simply
reducing costs which would otherwise have to be borne out of
the funds paid to the families involved.

The same argument holds for construction of new homes

and farm buildings. The majority of the newer facilities

101

seen during the study were built in this wxy. The owners

of them were justly proud of their handiwork.

Experience of the Interviewees as

a Source of Information

 

The eXperience of the interviewed farmers offered little
data to lend empirical content to this discussion. Some seemed
to spend most of their Spare time building and repairing build-
ings and equipment. These peOple had been able to reduce the
cash cost of these items appreciably by so doing. They tended
to caution others about the time necessary to pet a new piece
of equipment operating smoothly and of the risk of failure.

Others were not so inclined and tended to argue that
their time was best Spent elsewhere. They would argue tlat
it is best to buy equipment or hire construction done so that
"you will be sure it will work." They seemed to feelit nec-
essary to put a high cost on time Spent adjusting and modifying
machinery and equipment when field work is pressing. "I couldn't
run the farm and do all that construction too," or "Maybe if
you knew what you were doing you could make a wagon but I
would rather buy mine" are two typical kinds of comments.

In the analysis of these interviews inherent talent
and subjective considerations seemed to weigh heavily in the
,xtent to which repair and maintenance functions were incor-
portated into a farm business. Some people have far greater

ability to design and operate farm tools. Yet in most men

102
these skills and abilities can be developed. If higier
earning power for both capital and labor are desired, this
is a fertile field upon which to Spend time and energy.

The skill, interest and know-how for perfonning these
tasks varies between people. Many individuals capable of
handling tasks as exacting as milking should be able, under
proper incentives, to learn how to do many of the repair,
maintenance and construction jobs on a farm. Thousi such
individuals may be unable to perform them with the skill of a
good mechanic they may perform tiem more economically. Many
simple concise books and manuals are available to aid any-

one wishing to learn how to do these services. People can

be hired or trained who are Capable in this area.
Other Sources of Information

Empirical.reseani:isalso.lacking. While various dis-
cussions imply advantages in performing these jobs on the farm,
no account of time requirements, costs and returns, or of the
level of skill which might be expected from farm workers was
found. Further research is called for in this area.

In lieu of empirical content, this chapter presents
some tentative economic reasoning to support the case for the
production of the major part of these services by a farms'
regular labor force. It is difficult to say just whatzi
"major part" means. Variations in the value of time, capital

outlay, and available skill enter into any given decision.

103

Intrafirm production f maintenance, repair and
construction services is really a form of vertical intezration
These ser ices, no matter how supplied,are ess ntial inputs.
Industrial firms set up whole demartmcnts to perfonn flxan.

Few farms can eXpect to employ even one man, full time, at
these jobs. Yet with high machinery investments and seasonal
crop production, fixed labor supplies can be profitably em-
ployed in these services.

To produce these services requires forward planning.
Tools must be available. In an emerrency, the services must
be justified from an evaluation of the costs and returns
where time may weigh heavily. Repairs out of season can often
ease tiese decisions. So can the training of personnel.

Truly, "a stitch in time can save nine."

As examples of whrt may be done, a list of rainy day
jobs can be kept as tley are noted. A priority system can
be established for doing these asks. As equipment is put
away for the season, each can be tagged with essential infor—
mation needed for winter overh ul.

Tools and facilities are necessary for this type of
work. To provide them reguires capital outlay. Capital should
not be invested P re if limited to the point where irvestment
in such tiines as additional high producing cattle will show
higher returns. On the other hand, savinos in the construction
of the strlls in one milking room could pay for a welder or

might well buy another high producing cow. A trailer ecuirped

10s
as a ncbile maintenance and repair unit might easily save
sufficient time in one harvesting season to pay for itself.
A set of bolt dies can save its cost in bolts and conVenience
in Short order.

There will probably alvrys rer lain sorne tas1:s on any
farm which can best be hired done. When the degree of skill
required is high, or time restrictions are short, or as often
oc urs certain subjective and personal considerations enter
in, then it may pay to hire the job done.

Just how and vhere to spend maintenance time is another
problem. The mxn ager should try to bc’ lance cost and returns
in what jobs s1 ould be do ne, thich ones should be done first,
how time and other fixed inputs shall be distributed between
tasks, and the amount of effort it is vorth while to eXnend
on workmanship. It is hard to justify painting a macMi
which.will wear out or become obsolete before it rusts out.
On the other hand one group of farmers in the study had a
for: 3e ‘ rves ter through Ilich they put some a to 5 thousand
tons of forage a year. The machine was ten years old and had
cost around 200 dollars a year in repairs. They could see no

justification for trading off their machine for a number of

1
years to come.

 

1

For a discussion of the factors to conSider in buying and
trading farm.mactinery see:

Georce Larson, Methods for Evaluating Important Factors Affec-
ting Selection and Total Operating Costs of Farm.MacEinery,
Unpublished Ph. D. *Thesis, Department of Agrimiltural Engineering,
Michigan State University, 1955.

 

105’

The Ferm.Mrintenance Center

 

A comfortable well-equipped farm Shop is the key to
Qaining the time and incentive to do repair work on the farm
in off-seasons. A shop of sufficient size to hold the largest
piece of maclinery on the farm should be provided. A :ide range
of tools capable of performing jobs in mechanics, C2rpentry,
plumbing, electricity, and machine services are needed.

A 150 ampere welder is indiSpenable, but many of the
save, drills and grinders can be made to substitute fer each
other depending upon the reuuired needs. Even a carbon arc
attachment for a welder, if equipped with compressed air for
blowing out metal, could substitute for an acetylene cutting
torch.

In general, equipment which is portable should be given
a priority for farm service over the more accurate but stationary
types. As mentioned earlier, a mobile maintenance trailer can
be very valuable. This unit stould be equipped with the air
ccmpresSor and power greasing equipment. An eXpandable work
bench with rigid legs and a vise should be another fe ture.

The farm source of emergency electric power could be mounted
therein. Carriers for hand tools should be provided. A

ernvas for Spreading on the ground to aid cleanliness and

the finding of lost parts would be a nice addition. The whole
unit Could lift off so that the trailer could serve other uses.

To get maximum service from the farm.maintenance center,

it should be made easy to work in. There should be heat in

106
winter and a fan in the summer. Lighting should be adeouate
for dark rainy days :nd for emergency night work. There
should be an array of hoists, jacks, Vises and such devices
which lend "extra hands" when needed.

Considerable attention should be given to storing tools,
parts and instruction manuals vhere they can be found quickly
when needed. Most hand tools should either be in tool boxes
or hung on the wall in front of the work bench. Rare is the
farm shop which has all of the parts bins it could use. A
desk for planning and for keeping instruction manuals can be

a hrndy time saving feature.
Conclusions

In Chapter II the thesis maintained that to gain high
rewards for abor in dairy farming, ways must be found for
caring for a large number of high producing animals in a mini-
mum of time. Chapter III discussed how fain labor might pro-
duce sufficient ligl quality feed to provide for tiis herd.

At tlis point, the analysis left time wiich was unaccounted
for by either dairy husbandry or crop production.

In this chapter attention was focused on the maintenance
and repair services necessary in dairy husbandry and crop
production. It was pointed out how these services can level
out labor requirements and maintain fairly even employment
throughout the year. Advantages in timeliness and in lower

costs for the services as well as a possible greater convenience

107
were argued. Personal Considerations cannot be avoided.

‘

Aptitude, sk

:4-

ll and pride in accomplishment all have a part.

It was maintained that on most farms the possible «sins are

a
big} enough for tiis kind of work so that considerable effort
should be eXpended to accomplish most of these services. This
may be done by purchzsing repair equipment and either hiring

.0
I

or train ng personnel.

To have been more factual would reguire more empirical
data tlan was availsb e. Additional reserrch in this field
would be helpful. Even without data a strong case exists for
considerable emphasis on this part of the farm business to

improve the earning power of labor.

CHAPTER v1
PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

The three immediately preceding chapters dealt with how
labor as an input might accomplish more by improving the organi-
zation of the physical plant. This chapter deals with personnel
management which is an equally important aSpect of the work
environment dealing with the somewhat less tangible things
affecting a person's attitude toward his job and his proficiency
at it.

Even the family farm operator who does the bulk of
his own work has personnel prdblems when he uses family labor
or seasonal hired help. Even when he uses his own labor, he
wants to do so in as pleasant an environment as possible. It
is to his advantage to consider health, safety, freedom from
drudgery, leisure and security as he plans his business. Many
dairy enterprises which are profitable in the prime of a man's
life are dropped later when he becomes unwilling and/or unable
to milk twice a day, seven days a week, fifty-two weeks per
year. Thus, though this chapter is developed to deal with
hired labor problems, the discussion has application to family

farms as well.
Some Problems With Hired Labor

When farm businesses are operated to yield marginal

108

109

returns for labor equal to industrial wage rates, the relative
importance of hired labor becomes greater. This is true be-
cause it is no longer necessary to subsidize labor with the
earnings of capital in order to get additional labor services,
a practice which appears to be common on family farms.

While in general this is so, there are also disadvantages
in becoming dependent on hired labor. The Operator should ask
himself how much of the management and supervision he personally
wants to do. If he feels it is more profitable to share these
functions with others then perhaps some sort of a partnership
is a better arrangement. If a partnership is decided upon
then the rewards for management and supervision will have to
be shared as well. If he decides upon working with hired
help then not only the rewards but also the responsibilities
of personnel management and supervision fall to him. He must
hire and fire. He must supervise, organize, lead and create
incentives for others.

Whether in a family, a partnership,or in a rather imp
personal employer-employee relationship, human beings interact.
The human element in production makes subjective considerations
important. People must be able to work together when necessary
and as individuals when accomplishments are greater by so doing.
Some jobs on a farm can be done most efficiently by one worker.
Tractor driving is a common example. Other jobs are crew Jobs
which require team effort.

Forage harvesting is a crew job. Coordination of several

110
individuals is important for efficiency. Furthermore, if

farm.work is to be truly comparable with off-farm.employment,
then many aspects of the work environment must be considered.
Days off, vacations, job security and hours of work must all
be at least roughly equivalent. The actual stress and fatigue
of the work itself is another consideration. The challenge,
the creativeness and the health aSpects, both.mental and

physical, are other things which should not be forgotten.
Personnel Policies and Practices

Many things have to be considered in developing per-
sonnel policies and practices conducive to high labor produc-
tivity. Among the things necessary in designing a dairy farm
organization which can compete for labor with industry is a
consideration of the policies and practices of industry. The
suggestions made in this section are made in view of what
industry has to offer.

It may be noted that he who labors in a farm business
does so because of certain incentives. The adequacy of these
incentives govern to a large extent the quality and the accom-
plishment rates of labor. It is therefore assumed that im-
provement in incentives will tend to improve performance.
These incentives can be classified as monetary and nonmonetary,

each of which is discussed below.
Monetary Rewards and Incentives

Most Michigan dairy farm labor is paid a fixed monthly

111

salary. This system needs modification to serve the farm
organizations deve10ped in this thesis. One policy which should
be considered is to establish specified working hours and pay
overtime for additional work. The work day could be changed
with the seasons. If this policy is used, care may be needed

to see that workers do not take advantage of the situation.to
increase their earnings.

Another policy which has considerable merit is some
system of profit Sharing and/or production bonus. Because of
the difficulties in handling inventories, a gross product
bonus is perhaps the best system for a Specialized dairy farm.
The main caution in its use is that some check on grain feeding
rates be maintained to insure against over-feeding. If based
on milk sales, some adjustment occurs with changing prices.

It appears better to pay a production incentive bonus with
each pay period rather than at less frequent intervals in
order to gain a constant high level of effort.

A bonus plan should be simple and presented in writing.
If based on production above a minimum, it should be attain-
able by even fairly good management. Two suggested methods
are: (1) Three to six percent of the milk checks or (2) fifty
cents to a dollar per 100 pounds of milk per cow sold abovea.
Specified minimum.of say perhaps 8,000 pounds, depending upon
butter fat production, prices, breed and similar factors.

Just what proportion of gross receipts should be allo-

cated to a bonus plan is a difficult question. The answer

 

112

depends upon the extent hired help serves to gain the produc-
tion. If more than one man is involved then a bonus based
on total sales will serve to form a group motive capable of
creating a work team attitude. This is an important thing in
gaining high labor productivity.

It seems that more and more of industry is turning to
Similar schemes in order to raise labor productivity. One
of the better ones is the "Scanlon Plan" whereby a normal
ratio of wages to output is established by bargaining.1 Once
this is established, the theory is that labor should profit
from labor-savings and management from a better use of its
assets. This sort of plan develops a laborbmanagement team
striving for the same goals and aware of joint problems in
reaching these goals. The originator, Mr. J. J. Scanlon,
points out that it is a flexible plan for use in many dif-
ferent situations but that it will not work without two pre-
requisites. These he says are (l) intelligent, alert, and
objective laborers or labor leaders and (2) interested res-
ponsible managers willing to give and take in developing

efficient production methods.
Non-Monetary Rewards and Incentives

In work as confining as dairying, an employee would

probably be just as productive in the whole if he were given

 

1
Russell W. Davenport, "Enterprise for Everyman," Fbrtune,

ll3
four‘weeks vacation in.a year. To be truly competitive with
industry, a dairy farm.will have to find ways of allowing
week-ends off, time for personal and family affairs, as well
as time for vacation periods.

The foregoing suggestions are hard to put into prac-
tice on a dairy farm. Hewever, if not more than one-half of
the labor force is needed for chores, time off can be pro-
vided. Budgets to be presented later indicate that enough
milk can be produced per man to permit paying wages and
bonuses which are comparable to industry. If this production
is obtained from a working day averaging nine hours' working
time per day would be similar to the working day of industry
if travel time is censidered. During the Spring, early
summer, August and September crop production may require a
longer day. If so, arrangements can prdbably be made fbr
additional time off at other times, say, during deer hunting
to compensate for this. Vacation schedules can be worked
into slack periods.

There are other non-wage aSpects of farm work which
must be considered. The social security law serves as a
retirement program to some extent. By itself it may or may
not be adequate. The fact that most industrial employment
is now covered by unemployment compensation and employer liabi-
lity acts suggests another area where farms have to compete.
Prerequisites and housing have a value to the employee and

are a cost to the operator. Cheaper rates on fuel, gasoline,

rnd electricity may actually benefit both because of quantity

1

discounts. Group insurance of various kinds may offer addi-

t onal benefits. do can the provision of repair and main-

[—1.

tenance services by farm employees to the farm households.

The fact that tlese same features may be provided in a manner
which reduces income taxes should not be forgotten. It is the
aggerate of these items which must offer a competing level

of living as compared to industry--not the wages per day.

The prerequisites and housing furnished hired help
will have to change from what is common today if high quality
labor, earning competitive wage rates, is to be acquired and
retained. ,With rapid transportation, better knowledge of
alternative employments and a desired higher level of living,
prerequisites and housing capable of keeping employees and
their families satisfied must be available.

Housing must be comparable to urban housing, comfortable
and supplied with modern conveniences. If good employees are
to stay indefinitely, they are likely to want to own their
own homes. As home-owners, they may find some of the security,
pride and human dignity they as permanent members of the
community may seek.

The building, remodeling and maintaining of such homes
offers one more way of evening out seasonal labor peaks. At
the same time, another form of compensation to the employee
is offered. If farm tools and equipment are used, justifi-
cation for additional investment in these items is provided.

An employee owned home should be built where its resale

 

115

value, separate from the farm, can be maintained. A land
contract held by the farm would offer ideal financing. At
the same time the farm could guarantee the resale value at
cost less depreciation as a further incentive to the employee.
Such arrangements would provide unemployment insurance and
retirement benefits as well. Urban living offers these things.
Dairy farms could. Even partnership organizations might con-
sider similar arrangements.

The production of meat, eggs, and garden produce
might serve as further sources of income to the farm families.
This is particularly true if this production can be gained
without interfering with the OVerall operation of the farm.
One way this might be done is to allow an employee's family
to produce these things in buildings or on land provided by
the farm. Rent and machinery charges could be paid in kind
in many cases.

one of the interviewed farmers rented farm.maChinery
to his hired.man so that the employee might crop his own farm
on his days off and evenings. When needed additional time off
was granted. '

The non-monetary rewards to farm labor are often of
major importance to farm workers.2 Relations with the employer,

good housing, pleasant working conditions all have a part in

 

2

Varden Fuller and George L. Viles, "Labor-Management Relation-
ships and Personnel Practices," California Ag. Exp. Sta.,
Giannini Foundation of Ag. Econ. Mimeo Report No. lhO, January
1953: PD. 2 ff.

116
gaining high labor productivity. A considerate employer is

the first step toward satisfied employees. A basic written
statement of working arrangements is often advocated but

seldom adopted. Perhaps it should be.
Security for Employee and Employer

In the contractual arrangement of hiring help both
sides require security. Employees desire security from
unjust discharge. An agreement for severance pay may help in
this reSpect. Coverage under workmenis compensation and un-
employment security laws may be a better answer. They deserve
safety from accident and health hazards. Many employees carry
the goal of farming on their own and they want to work toward
this end. A good employer cannot discourage this goal. Some
look forward to the need for old age security for which the
federal insurance plan is hardly adequate. This is where
housing may help. Many desire a certain freedom from adjust-
ment to change in.working conditions. An employer must handle
this aSpect with care.

On the other hand, the employer wants reliable, steady
reSponsible help. He wants security that the time Spent in
training new personnel will not be wasted. He wants sufficient
security in his production to insure profits. He wants to know
that his capital investments are in safe hands. He wants a
maximum.of freedom and flexibility for action. He needs to
consider insurance and other schemes for protection from.lega1

action. But another way to help gain this security is a

 

117

willingness on the part of both to maintain an open and ethical
relationship over time. By so doing, a middle ground of in-
centives and compensation can be found for the mutual good
of both parties. The farm.manager should do whatever is neces-
sary to encourage two way communication between employer and
employee. Grievances, ideas, opinions and beliefs should
flow freely if workers are going to feel that they belong on
the farm.3
Farm workers have a right to know what is eXpected of
them. Wonk should be planned far enough in advance so that
a worker can be given a preview of the next few days require-
ments. A list of rainy day alternatives can then he used
to keep things going smoothly.
Instructions should be clear and definite. Giving
good instructions is harder to do than many people realize.
By using time and motion study and materials handling principles
it is possible to "routinize' tasks to simplify the instruc-
tions necessary. No two peOple work exactly alike, yet the
development of a suitable work environment to reduce waste
time and motion and to promote circular travel will ease the
need for time Spent teaching others how jobs should be done.
The need for building the attitudes of grOUps as well
as individuals is another consideration. Each worker should
feel that he is an important part of a team.if high production

is to be gained. The responsibilities for these things lie

 

Elf ,l_

Ibid., ‘p. 23.

i4.

118

with supervisors and managers. The tools for implementing
these actions are common sense and an understanding of human
behavior. Farm managers will find the study of psychology and
human behavior helpful in dealing with the farm's labor force
because of these and similar considerations.
Some Additional ASpects of Supervision

An employee has a right to know what is eXpected of
him. Starting and quitting times should be definite and areas
of reSponsibilitr defined. Built-in safeguards against human
error and negligence should be workable but not obtuse to the
employee. A supervisor must watch for health and safety hazards.
There are times when a slower but safer way of operation can
save exnenaive hospital bills, lost time and even legal damage
suits .

Generally speaking methods which save human energy
in farm work will improve productivity and lessen fatigue.
Radios, seat belts, cabs, cooling fans and sun-shades on
tractors can be justified from.this stand point on many
farms. There is a limit to saving human energy, FOVeVer,
sometimes methods which offer a certain amount of variety
and challenge reduce boredom and keep a men more alert.
Judgement and an understanding of people are important here.

"he metiods of supervision are important also. An
understrnding of has people respond when criticized, praised
or given instructions is sometling a supervisor should acquire.

The judicious use of praise can often aid in increasing

 

119
worker productivity. Self—criticism.crrfiru3frqm an employer may
do more to correct mistakes than for a supervisor to point
out his misdoings.

People should be allowed some latitude in developing
their own work methods. At the same time a vorker should
first be taught an approved rethed and given a clear under-
standing of the rate and Quality of performrnco.eXpected.

Wlile coordination of individuals into york teams
mry produce gains in productivity, many farm tasks can best
be done alone. Among the factors to consider in organizing
a given task is the likely interaction of tte personalities
involved.

There are times when making a man aware of how the
product Ye helps produce with his labor pays his wages is

necessary. It has been the author's observation that many

arm workers are unaware of this. This idea along with

F!)

status building and a feeling of importance are necessary to

give people a feeling of accomplishment over time. Salar: in-

r
2 I
U

creases can serve the same and.

Conclusions

 

If dairying is to offer a truly competitive alternative
for labor, both wages and working conditions, must be com-

arable. Or perhaps more accurately, tte "sum total" of

1—,

these things must be competitive w th other labor alternatives.

As farms become larger, personnel problems increase.

 

120

Within the objectives of this thesis, it is hoped that they
can be solved by maintaining or even raising be level of
satisfactions to the people involved. By providing competi-
tive wages, housing and other fringe benefits and discreetly
letting it be known how these tlings come about, tte fermx
workers should better appreciate tleir position in the business.
At the some time services to tte households con supply addi-
tional benefits. Good business arrangemen,s can give finen-
ciel and social protection to bet? employer and employee.
Incentives built through stratefiies can aid in gaining produc-
tivity.
Incentive pay plans can gain tEe same end. In short,
an understanding of human behavior is a necessary factor in
good personnel management.

This chapter points out some, but not all, of the
aSpects of good personnel management. Too much is involved

in the problems arising from size and organization to be

more Specific in so short a discussion.

 

CHAPTER VII
THE FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

A labor efficient system ofproduction does not just
happen. Management must build that system. Once it is built
it is still up to management to organize and operate it. This
requires efficient performance of the managerial functions.
When the nun who manages also labors, the time spent at one
conflicts with the other. This chapter first discusses ways
of reducing this conflict and then discusses how to perform
the functions of management more effectively.

At any given time and with any given farm, the appli-
cation of the recommendations contained in this thesis must
be considered relative to the people involved. Their abilities,
values, beliefs and goals have much to do with.the manner in
which the system should be built. The whole discussion is
built on the premise that, by willful action, the abilities
of management and the skill of labor can be improved to the

benefit of both.

Reducing the Conflict between Management
and Labor Functions for Time

Reduction of the time conflict between managing and
laboring has several aSpects. Supervisory responsibilities

can be delegated to others. Information collecting and
121

 

122
decision making can be made more efficient. Methodical labor
tasks can be done while future plans are being made. The
production system.can be designed to contain checks and double
checks on labor and management in order to ease the responsi-
bilities of action on both. At the same time this same system
can serve to minimize the number of decisions which management

must make and the labor which has to be performed.
Supervisory Responsibilities

Even on the one man farm, the operator must occasionally
direct the work of others. On larger farms, supervision assumes
major importance. The task of giving clear, concise instruc-
tions to others is harder than.most people realize. There is
an art in leading and commanding. Doing the job well saves
both time and other resources.

An environment which promotes efficient work habits
simplifies supervision. The hiring and training of skilled
personnel also serves this end. Judiously done, the dele-
gation of responsibilities and even some part of the super-
vision itself may free management for more important tasks.

The type of buildings, equipment and procedures discussed in
the preceding chapters create environments in which work
habits can be simplified and responsibilities Spread as com-
pared to most existing operations.

Specialized production systemsrequire fewer kinds of

supervision.

 

go

1a)

The timing of field work and other crop PTO-($1035 re-
quiresclose attention if the economies of large scale crop
Operations are to be secured.

To gain these ends the interviewed farmers had done
various things. It was evident in most partnership arrange-
ments that either each partner assumed the supervision of
certain parts of the business or that, if jointly done, the
division of labor was such as to serve as a double check on
the actions of each partner. The operators who worked.with
hired help either were forced to Spend a good deal of their
time supervising and making decisions or they had been success-
ful in delegating some supervision to skilled workerS.

In any case, when more units of production come under
the control of a given fully employed manager, he must find
ways of spreading management over these additional units. If
these responsibilities are delegated to others they must be
done under incentives and by methods capable of maintaining
satisfactory production rates if profits are to be secured.

With animal and crop husbandry this is often hard to do.
Business Transactions and Record Keeping,

There are many types of information which must be
gathered in managing a Specialized dairy farm. Keeping breed-
ing and health records for a large number of cows is a major
one which cannot be neglected without financial loss. Most

of the time consuming job of keeping records and conducting

12b,
business transactions falls to the man who manages the farm.
Though most farmers feel that the value of records exceeds
the cost of keeping them when time is figured at average value,
record systems tend to breakdown when time has a high opportu-
nity cost during rush seasons.

On the other hand, records over the years are valuable
to the farm business. If properly kept, they indicate weak
and strong points. They serve as a basis for reducing costs
and increasing production by aiding in herd selection, market
choices and crop rotations.

This section's prilmary concern is in how to save time
in these tasks while still maintaining sufficient accuracy
and completeness in dealing with records. One of the simplest
things which can be done is to pay all expenses by check,
noting on each the purpose of the payment. As a double check,
itemized receipts can also be filed by group until the purchased
items are listed in the account book. These habits along with
one of keeping a note book on one's person while at work con-
tain the essential ideas presented here.

The latter idea is suggested so that memory need not
be relied upon to list fertilizer and planting rates or to
specify dates and quantities of various crops handled. From
this data, a reliable field diary can be developed. Rainy
day jobs can also be noted in this book. It will also aid
in recording price information on occasion.

The farm shop should also contain a set of records to

125
account for gasoline and oil usage, maintenance scheduling
and needed repairs. Special forms will simplify this task.

Herd records have been mentioned previously. Time is
required to analyze the daily herdsman report and other re-
cords. A complete but simple system.which does this‘well
consists of individual cow records, a herd testing report, a
herd breeding record and a daily herdsman report.

With the volume of business transacted on the modern
large dairy farm, it is likely that a small adding machine
would soon pay for itself. By simply making the record
keeping task easier, a better job is likely to be done. The
Job that is tedious is the notation and adding of columns of

figures. Analysis through charts or graphs or similar methods
:may usually be viewed with more pleasure.

Another thing some farmers are doing to aid in making
record keeping more pleasant is to include photographs of the
historical sequence of events. This incbudes pictures of calves
for identification. A color slide record of crop and field
history can be a learning tool as well as a source of pleasure
in accomplishment.

Both labor and management time are eXpended making
business transactions. When items must be delivered labor
is involved. The use of farm labor here is another way of
increasing earning power if fuller employment of resources
result. This is particularly true in off seasons of the year.
Dairy farmers report that hauling lime, fertilizer, livestock

and feed are the main uses of labor in business transactions

126
on their farms. Larger farmers may eventually get involved
in delivering their milk to processors.

Management time can be saved too in business trans-
actions. By the use of the telephone, newspapers, trade
papers, radio and mail order catalogues much comparative
shopping for both price and features can be made right in
the farm office. It takes very few truck loads of fertili-
zer or grain bought at a five percent discount to pay for
up-to-date trade journal price information.

A buyer informed on prices and features stands a better
chance than an uninformed one in dealing with tradesmen.
Catalogues are often an excellent source of these kinds of
information. The people with whom a farmer deals usually
spend their full time*working with prices and features. It
is self-evident that a farmer should inform himself well in
dealing with such people.

An environment for efficient management includes a
well equipped office, pleasant to work in and containing
efficient tools. These tools should include an intrafarm
communication system. On large farms this may even require
two-way radio as well as a telephone.

Good reference sources, orderly kept, are also needed.
In fact a whole filing system.is needed. This is another
center of operation from which a view of as much of the total
enterprise as possible would be helpful. It should be easily
accessible in order to promote its use. How much should be

invested in office equipment depends largely on the size of

 

127

business.

Collecting and AnalyzingAOther

Types of Information

In order to make good decisions rapidly, the farm
manager requires information on things other than prices and
the existing state of affairs on his farm. In a changing
world, many problems must be faced. The behavior of institu-
tions, governmental and otherwise can greatly effect the farm
business. It may be in the managers'best interest to take
time to take an active part in these institutions in order
to remain better informed relative to their actions.

The activities of the people involved in the farm
business may also require a certain proportion of the managers'
time. Social activities of business groups is one example.
Health and welfare aspects of dealing with employees is another.
Strategic parlance may offer a third example. Little can be
said about such time requirements except that they do exist.

Ever changing technology requires a proportion of the
time of managers. One interviewed farmer said, "We always
have to learn. This thing (farming) is changing so fast
you just can't hardly keep up." An efficient filing system
of material having to do with new ideas is one method of
saving time and remaining informed. At least one publication
is on the market which digests current farm articles. This

approach also has merit.

128

In some cases, perhaps the time saving way is not the
best way. Oftentimes a manager will find it helpful to in-
vestigate new information at its source. For this reason
alone, a manager might well consider the building of a system
where he is not indiSpensable and can get away when need be.

For problem solving, a manager has a whole array of
analytical tools at his disposal. The judgement he uses in
selecting particular ones for use on a Specific problem, the
proficiency with which a solution is derived, and the "correct-
ness" of the solution greatly effect his success as a manager.
Thought processes all the way from inductive to deductive are
involved in handling these tools. Budgeting, marginal analy-
sis, and other economic analysis tend to be deductive. So
does the use of logic and the theories of the physical sciences.
The application of fermal or informal statistical procedures
for choosing between alternatives tends to be inductive. No
matter what the source, judgement is needed to sort and evaluate
and make meaningful the information in question.

Regardless of how it is performed, time must be allotted
for management, even though many of the managerial processes
require no time in themselves. A farmer can learn to do much
of his analyzing when engaged in routine tasks such as driving
a tractor. This is another way a man can become more efficient

at management.

Conclusions

 

Inasmuch as management and labor'may compete for time,

129
ways of saving the time of both were discussed. Delegating

reSponsibilities appears promising. Simplifying and systemati-
zing records also saves the time of both. Making record keep-
ing easier and more pleasant serves the same purpose. Using
labor to substitute for the manager's transaction time can
also be used. Keeping informed in the farm office is a time
saver.

Most important of all however, is the systematizing of
the functions of management to save time and do a better job.
To the extent that management time can be saved, time for

other activities can be gained.

 

CHAPTER VIII
THE COMPLETED SYSTEMS

This chapter combines the preceding recommendations
into a workable system.through.planning and budgeting. While
budgets do not give exact answers, they provide an excellent
way of doing forward farm planning.

Budgets are limited in.many ways. To plan for the
future, prices must be projected. Input-output relationships
must be found. Before the profits can be earned, management
must put the plan into action. To go from general budgets,
such as deve10ped here, to specific farms requires adjustment
for prices, input-output ratios, and.the fixed conditions on
particular farms. The larger the required modifications, the
more limited the usefulness of budgets.

The author would argue that managerial limitations are

not particularly important fer the budgets and.plans to be

develOped. For superior management today and for the “typical"

Michigan dairy farm of the future, the performance rates used
may be unduly conservative. Though it is difficult to prove
it, if all the suggestions incorporated in the budgets were
put into practice, greater labor productivity than reflected

in these budgets should be attainable.

130

131

General Assumptions

The budgets presented herein.were developed for specia-
lized dairy farms, varying in size from 30 cows and one man
to 360 cows and nine men. Land varies from.llh to 1368 till-
able acres. Though they are actually complete farm business
budgets they are partial in the sense that no allowances are
made for family living. All labor is paid as if hired. Mach-
inery and building inventories do not cover the home or auto-
mobile. Car services are assumed purchased from the home at
seven cents per mile. Thus the estimates of total returns
probably tend to be conservative as services to the home in
the form of milk, poultry products, garden produce, fuel,
electricity, maintenance and repair will be available either
at low cost or from.the expenditure of small amounts of
additional time.

Furthermore, on many fairly Specialized dairy farms,
additional enterprises would supplement dairyt No budget
presented herein uses labor completely uniformly throughout
the year even after vacation time, repair work and.maintenance
tasks are used to fill the gaps; the opportunity may still
exist to produce such things as wheat or possibly even hogs
and poultry, especially if family labor is available to help
with chores. To incorporate such enterprises only additional
direct costs, investments and returns would need to be con-
sidered so long as land, labor, buildings and machinery were

not increased but simply used.more fully. In fact the corn

132

silage yields were discounted so that early corn might be
used for this proportion of the crop and the same land seeded
to wheat, rye for pasture or oats for silage in order to in-
tensify land use further. This aSpect of the budget then
allows for additional possibilities for spreading the labor
load, insuring against drought and increasing net returns.
However, in none of these cases are the additional eXpected
gains Specified nor the additional difficulties in managing
or supervising discussed.

A.more static situation is assumed than probably exists
on most farms today. Essentially, present prices are used.
Inventory values are held relatively stable. Depreciation
allowances are assumed to cover replacement, the exceptions
being those cases where small amounts of feed are carried
over and valued as an increase in inventory. With the high
rate of herd replacements used, it is assumed that average
production is increasing or that some animals may be sold
for dairy purposes; this additional value is included as
income.

The budgets are for a one year period after the system
is established. Account is not taken of the time and money
consuming difficulties involved in setting up and operating
a farm at the same thme.

Of the performance rates Specified, two are likely to
create argument. The others are essentially those Specified

in recent studies. The two in issue are probably the most

 

133

important of all on a Specialised dairy farm. The figgt_is
the rates specified for forage chopping. The Specified 10
to 20 tons of silage per hour is faster than most farmers are
chOpping at present yet easily within the capacity of a large
chopper, adequately powered, equipped with automatic couplers
and serviced by large hauling units even after allowing for
such.minor repairs as are likely to occur with machinery over-
hauled each winter. The second is milking time. The technology
of milking has not progressed nearhy as far as it can go. New
machines, milking rooms and techniques need to be found. A
cow with a less sensitive udder and nervous system needs to
be bred. The author does not wish to argue that herds should
be milked faster than the maintenance of herd health allows;
however, it appears that a milking room designed for milking
LLO cows an hour should be built if plans call for keeping this
large of a herd.

The people involved in the system.are assumed to have
better than average managerial ability. Someone must be a
good mechanic and someone a good herdsman. They are assumed
to be willing to work a fifty hour week on the average, with
longer hours during the rush.times of the cropping season
being compensated by shorter work days in the winter. The
basic pay rate is assumed to be $h800 a year gross. Seasonal
help is paid $16.00 per 8 hour day when used.“ These hours
and wages are felt to be competitive for equal quality labor

used in alternative employments. This work week is adequate

13h

for all.business transactions and record keeping, as well as
some time lost between jobs. If Michigan dairymen must com-
‘pete eventually with the proposed 32 hour industrial work week,
further adjustment will be required. Though the "best" pro-
cedures presented in this thesis might permit this, is not
demonstrated to be attainable.

Seasonal hired labor is included in the budgets for
several reasons. First of all one man and, often, even two
men do not make up an efficient forage harvesting crew. fiamnmfl.
labor is assumed to cost $16 per 8 hour day. Another reason‘
for employing seasonal labor is that if a dairy farmer takes
a vacation, someone must be available to milk the cows. Also,
sickness may require temporary help. Further, there are
always some jobs which require skills not found on the farm.
As most farms provide additional help in the form of family
labor, this is another way of filling the need for seasonal
labor.

Michigan farms in area five showed an average invest-
ment of $67,187 in the account summary for 1955.1 This is
higher than in the no cow budget. The difference is accounted
for primarily in size, there being 201 tillable acres in the
'average account farm as compared to 150 tillable acres in

the budgeted farm. All larger budgets presented Show higher

 

l

Ieonard R. Kyle and Warren H. Vincent, Fbrming Today, Michigan
State'mniversity Cooperative Extension Service, Ag. Econ., No.

637 for Area 5, 1956, p. 9 with the farm valued at sale value.

135

investments. In fact, the budgets involving 100 or more cows

have investments large enough; to produce a comfortable living

from interest alone.
buck in‘vestz'ao;1ts appear to be profitgole 1.01: and in
the IN“

V","
M l-J ‘-5J-

e. But until lenders are willing to loan substantial

sums on potential earning power rather than on established

security, owner-Operators will have difficulty attaining the

benefits of such large investments.2

Assmnptions Relative to Dairy Husbandg

The plans assume considerable emphasis on improving

production per cow and the management necessary to handle a

better herd. The buildings are laid out as recommended in

Chapter III. All areas are observable from the milk house.

Circular travel is promoted. Roughages are self fed outdoors.
Materials are used to reduce maintenance, repair and cleaning
time. A tractor, scraper, manure loader, spreader and hammer

mill are stored close to the milk house. Maternity cows and

calves are housed in the same building with the milking plant.

A records desk and telephone are in the milk house. A treadle

fly sprayer and shunt pen are at the exit to the milking room.

Grain is simply corn and cob meal with added salt and

bone meal. Heifers are allotted grain although with excellent

roughage it may not be needed; if not fed, the allotted corn

 

2

Sydney D. Staniforth, "Institutional Considerations in Farm

Management in the Decade Ahead," Journal of Farm Economics,
v01ume 38, NO. 5, Dec. 1956, p. 12970

 

136
'becomes added feed insurance or a saleable item, Sufficient
excellent quality roughage is produced so that no protein
supplement is required.3 Replacements are determined by
Imultiplying cow numbers by .35 for yearling heifers and .hO
for calves less than one year. With these high rates of re-
placement, it is assumed that each cow equivalent requires
52 bushels of corn and 8.h tons of hay equivalent under dry
lot conditions. The herd is fed entirely out of storage.
It was heped that pasturing for three month equivalents would
further lower costs and lessen labor requirements. Hewever,
examination of this alternative did not offer sufficient
possibilities to suggest its use under the assumed conditions.u
With more land available relative to labor and cow numbers,
this conclusion could easily change.

.Under the four dollar milk price assumptions, it is
assumed that the herd is artifically bred to freshen through-
out the year. The 12,000 pounds of milk per cow modification
and the four dollar and twenty-five cent milk price modifi-

cation illustrate the obtainable gains from.improved prices,

 

C. R. Hoglund, 32. al., "Forage Quality and Protein Feeding
of Dairy Cows," 22° cit., p. h26. -

Fbr a discussion of various forage alternatives see: 0. R.
Hoglund, The Economigsgof Alternative Forage S%stems, Depart-
ment of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State n varsity, Ag.
Eben. No. 67h, Apr. 2, 1957. In his conclusions (p.9) he says,
"A.combination of different pasture systems may be more desirable
'mnula single system.for some dairymen. It may be desirable
to graze pastures early when they are succulent and when a
farmer's labor load is heavy. Storage-feeding or green-chopping
are often used the balance of the pasture season. Dairymen
needsacertain.amount of flexibility in their feeding practices
ixlorder to meet year-to-year changes in climatic conditions."

137
cow quality, or possibly from seasonal freshening in order

“to sell 90 percent of all milk as base. Ten bushels of
additional grain is calculated for the higher rate of produc-
tion but not for higher prices. Seasonal freshening would
serve to lessen chore requirements during June and July when
forage harvest is pressing and a summer lull suitable for
vacation time occurs.

Bedding and feeding chores are assumed to be arranged
in order to give a certain time flexibility to their completion.
Milking and related chores are assumed to be done on time
regularly,tnm;at intervals which vary with the season of the
year. Individual animals carry recommended identification.

A milker washer is available to save chore time.

Miscellaneous livestock expenses are calculated to
include commercial artificial breeding and owner-sampler dairy
testing. With the larger herd a farmer might consider dairy
herd improvement testing and farm.use of frozen semen in-
stead at about the same cash cost. The major considerations
here are the required time and record keeping involved with
the various alternatives. If a pure-bred herd were main-
tained instead of grades to secure additional income from the
sale of breeding stock, official dairy herd improvement records
should be kept. Likewise, additional depreciation expense
would have to be considered along with higher investments
as costs. Purebred modifications are not included. Veterinary
eXpenses are considered to be high enough to carry on a calf-

hood vaccination and other possible disease preventive programs.

138
Assumptions Relative to Crop Production

CrOp yields used are those anticipated by the extension

service for recommended use-of fertilizer and production

U'l

practices on moderately productive soils in southern Michigan.
The basic yields assumed are 65 bushel corn, 55 bushel oats,
and three ton hay, 10 ton corn silage, 7.5 ton oat silage

and six ton alfalfa brome silage (first cutting) plus one

ton dry hay (second cutting). Corn stover provides one ton
of bedding per acre.

Minimum.tillage procedures are practiced but sufficient
equipment is kept so that traditional methods may be followed
under adverse moisture conditions. Field operations are done
on time. The production of only three crOps reduces the
problem.of managing field operations.

The crop rotation is two years corn, oats seeded to
alfalfa-brome and three years meadow. Various other good
alternative rotations might have been assumed for a more
Specific case. Rough land could be seeded to cats and alfalfa
brome in late August. The oats could then be harvested as
pasture, or silage, in November. Rye could provide late fall

and early spring pasture. In practice some farmers might find

-—

5,
These are quantities close to those established in C. R.

Hoglund and R. L. Cook, Higher Profits from.Fertilizer and
Improved Practices, Department of Agricultural Economics,
Michigan State‘University, Ag. Econ. 5&5, Oct. 1956.

 

139
modification of this forage program justifiable. They might

seed ladino clover as it makes excellent pasture or silage

on lowland fields. Also sudan grass can provide large ton-
nages of pasture, silage or green chopping material in late
July. On heavier soils, some farmers have had success seeding
in Sudan. Furthermore with well located fields, good fences
and.water, pasturing of good forage stands should not be dis-
counted. Getting cows to and from.fields takes time just as
dry lot feeding does. Some farmers might consider Splitting
the herd and pasturing just the young cattle. A bull may

be necessary to pasture breed the yearlings under this system.
This is especially true if good pastures with water are lo-
cated some distance from the main buildings.

In addition to corn stover, additional bedding up to
a total of eight pounds per cow per day must be purchased.
This may include other corn stover, crushed corn cobs, straw,
old hay, shavings or, preferably, saw dust. It is assumed
that this bedding will cost 12 dollars per ton.

The budgets based on cows capable of producing 12,000
pounds of 3.5 percent milk assume that an additional ten bushels
of corn are purchased. This was done in order to make the
budgets more nearly comparable. Roughage consumption is
assumed to remain the same.

Lime and nitrogen side dressing are assumed to be
applied by custom rig at the prices used in the budgets ex-
cept for the 360 cow budget which assumes that the equipment

is owned.

11.;0
After minimum.tillage preparation, corn is assumed

to require one cultivation and Spraying in mid-June. Oats
are seeded on disked corn land using a drill_equipped for
band seeding and followed by a cultipacker. The land is
worked level a: insure smooth hay fields.

Forage and bedding are chopped. Rates vary with
machine capacity and the size of crew as shown on Appendix
Table six. It is assumed that work schedules are varied to
adjust for silage moisture content. No major breakdowns
are accounted for. Rather, slack season overhaul and the
correct operation of machines minimize this risk. Time for
greasing, fueling and sharpening is included in the hourly
rates. A minimum amount of time is allotted to change from
one task to another.

Early season scheduling delays due to high moisture
content are made up later by direct chopping or by mowing,
withdrowing and chopping in one operation,or simply by good
scheduling. With the smaller crews, jobs are interchangeable
so that a delay by one individual does not stop the whole
operation. Fast hitches, hydraulic or other equally fast
unloading devices and horizontal silos are used. If a tractor
pulls the chopper, a hook and eye automatic hitch is used
in order not to tie up that tractor. All units are assumed to be
selected for rapid interchangeability from one task to another.

All first cutting forage is mowed with an attached win-
drower. If it is necessary to use the type which lays the

forage in the center of the swaths because of bunching, two

lhl
swaths are thrown together to operate the chopper at maximum
efficiency. Time requirements assume this is done.

When hauling is done by wagons, the farm.truck stands
by as an additional hauling vehicle. In the larger budgets,
trucks are used for hauling and the wagons are held in re-
serve. All hauling units hold at least four tons of grass
silage.

Some manure hauling must be done every month of the
year. However, the greatest bulk of the job is assumed to
be done in the fall and early spring. With either two trac-
tors or one which can pick up a loaded Spreader without having
the operator leave the tractor seat, one man can work alone
as efficiently as with another; therefore, no problem of task
integration need exist with any size operation.

Field improvement work and fence maintenance are fitted

in when time is available.
Machinery

Farmers do not Operate with new equipment all of the
time. Over time, it wears out and is replaced. The inventory
values of machinery used in the budgets are for used equip-
ment in good condition.

The machinery inventory may be looked upon as a com-
plete, integrated unit adequate to handle the crOp and live-
stock enterprises on the farm. It is interesting to note that
the equipment is not fully employed on the 120 cow unit but

can still be Spread over larger units. AcComplishment rates

1&2
as specified allow for minor adjustments and repair as well
as lost time on corners and other similar delays.
Bulk milk tanks and pipeline milkerszue ensumed in
all budgets. At least one old dump truck is included for
general farm service and possibly for forage hauling. The

items carried on inventory are listed in Appendix Table Three.
Maintenance and Repair

A farm shop equipped with a power saw, power drill,
welder, and most of the items discussed in Chapter V is assumed.
A mobile unit for work in other buildings and in the fields
is also assumed. Repair eXpenses are principally material and
parts costs with farm.labor used for all except major over-
hauls or tasks requiring special equipment such as magneto re-
pairs. Adequate time is budgeted for repair and maintenance
work during slack seasons and a certain amount is budgeted for
busy periods also. Wage rates paid are high enough to attract

competent help to perform these tasks.

 

Land and Buildingg

The inventory value on land is $200 per acre with total
acres running some 10 percent in excess of tillable. This
value is considered adequate to mmmr all buildings except
houses. Houses are not included in any budget except in the
last series discussed where an additional $60,000 is included
to cover nine housing units. Real estate taxes are assumed

to be one percent of the inventory value.

1&3

Building depreciation and repair are calculated at a
total of four percent of building values which vary from $9,000
for the smallest series to $110,000 for the largest series
budgets. Fire and extended coverage insurance is computed at

$h.§0 per $1,000 per year.

Other Expenses

 

Because of the variance in possible costs some eXpense
items may appear arbitrary. Truck taxes, licenses, and in-
surance vary wifin location, use and size of operation. So<ioes
fuel and electricity. Because of these difficulties, values
close to those found on similar farms in the Michigan farm
account project were used with 15 percent added to Egggl
expenses for other miscellaneous items. This gave figures
ranging from $2906 for the smallest to $23,398 for the largest

budgets presented to cover these items.

The Individual Budgets

Examined and EXplained

At this point the tables showing the investments, in-
ventorys, eXpenses and balance sheets of thirty different
situations are presented. These situations include ten dif-
ferent combinations of men and investments. Each table will
carry in its column headings the combinations of men, cows,
and tillable acres in the ten situations. Henceforth these
ten situations will be referred to as the I through X series

of budgets respectively, with I series assuming 30 cows and

um

IX and X series assuming 360 cows.

Each series then has three modifications, (a), (b) and

 

(c). The (a) modification assumes an average of 10,000 pounds
of 3.5 percent milk per cow with milk selling for $k.00 per
hundred weight at the farm. Cows are valued at $200 per head
and each cow equivalent requires 65 bushels of corn and 8.h
tons hay equivalent as feed.

The (b) modifications assume the same feeding level,
'production level and inventory value but milk sells for
$h.25 through either a better market or a better freshening
program.

The (c) modifications return to the original milk
price but a better cow is involved. Production is assumed
to be 12,000 pounds of 3.5 percent milk which necessitates
purchasing an additional 10 bushels of corn to maintain this
productive level.

After these tables are presented, the discussion
takes up each of the series in turn. The peculiarities
and assumptions of each are eXplained and the results dis-
cussed. Particular emphasis is placed upon the requirements
and returns which can be eXpected for both labor and manage-

ment in each case.

Assumptions‘and Results of the

Thirty Cow Budget

In budget I, modification (a), a situation is illustrated

which is near the immediate goal of many of Michigan's commercial

115

TABLE 1. - Description of Budget Series; Series Designation, Number of
Men, Number of Cows, and Tillable Acres for Each

Series Designation

 

 

Item - _==
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X
Number of men 1 1 1 l 2 2 2 3 9 9
Number of cows 30 no 60 60 80 100 120 120 360 360

Tillable acres 11h 150 11h 228 300 375 228 u56 1368 1368

 

TABLE 2. - Principle Assumptions for the Budget Series Modifications,
(a), (b), and (c)

 

Modification Designation

 

 

Item Unit
(a) (b) (0)
Production per cow lb. milk 10,000 10,000 12,000
Milk price (f.c.b.) dollars b.00 h.25 b.b0
Inventory value per head dollars 200. 200. 250.
Grain requirements bu. corn 65 65 75

(per cow equivalent)

 

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150
dairy farmers today. This plan grossing filh,193, with an
investment of $li8,836, can be eXpected to return $351130 for the
use of capital, entrepreneurship and the labor of the fanm
operator. This is adequate for a comfortable living provided
the debt load of the operator is not excessive and he is not
renting or otherwise paying some of these returns to others.

There are chores to be done seven days a week with an
eXpected h.o hours per day Spent doing them. Time off would
be difficult to arrange. This budget is calculated.to have
a milking room capable of operation with.two units at thirty
cows per hour. Additional time is allowed for milking mater-
nity COWS.

Perhaps a more complete line of machinery is Specified
than is economical. ‘Yet one man working largely alone must
have a rather complete line unless custom operators are readily
available. TwentyIdays of hired labor is included to do special
jobs and for two weeks at grass silage time. At other times
the farm operator should have no difficulty in accomplishing
all tasks alone. This is the only budget series where corn
picking is hired done.

With $h.25 per hundred weight for milk in modification

(b) it is interesting to note that net farm income6 increased

 

6

Net farm income as used in these budgets is defined somewhat
differently than as used in the Michigan Farm Account Project.
It is calculated here before any deduction of wages for full
time workers. This was done on the assumption that two and
three men farms might be partnerships or similar arrangements
where this amount is available for distribution to the several
owner-Operators.

161

by $8h0. Certainly mOVement in this direction by seasonal
freshening and under dry lot conditions would be advantageous.

With an increase of 2,000 pounds of milk per cow in
modification (0) even higher gains can be eXpected. While
investments and eXpenses also increase, net farm income is
now $6,90h.

In no case, can net farm income pay $u,800 for labor 4
to the operator, a 5 percent return on investment and an
additional business profit. Provided management skill per-
mits, probably still higher production per cow would return
a profit.

The Forty Cow Alternative

In budget II, modification (a) net returns are higher
as is tLe required investment. With $62,678 invested, returns
of $7,575 can be eXpected for capital, labor and entrepreneur-
ship. This still falls short of a 5 percent return on invest-
ment and $h,800 per years work.

This again is a confining alternative requiring some
5 hours of chore time daily, calculated at a milking rate of
35 cows per hour. However, it is unlikely that there would
be over twenty weeks during the year when the Operator would
need to work over 50 hours.

It is interesting to note that even though this budget
provides for twice the cows found on most one-man dairy farms
in Michigan and some 373,000 pounds of milk are produced per

man, no business profit exists after labor is charged at $h800

152

per year. It should also be pointed out that some operators

can produce this much milk from.30 or less cows. Yet in

neither case can the fringe benefits of industry be provided.

While the latter requires less feed inputs, it may actually

be easier to operate the no cow budget. From.the eXperiences

of the interviewed farmers, actual chore time would likely

remain about the same with more skill required with the 7
smaller herd. Also from their exoerience, a man is more

likely to be tied to the farm with the smaller herd of this

quality.

Machinery investment is increased over the thirty cow
budget by a three unit milker, a larger motor-mounted forage
harvester, and a one row corn picker. All three of these
machines save labor and accomplish more work per hour. Machine
overhead costs are still high. ‘Yet 30 days of extra labor are
all that need be hired and, perhaps, under different assumptions
even this could be reduced. Second cutting hay and corn silage
Operations are assumed to be done by the farm operator alone.
With automatic hitches, two tractors and hauling two loads at
once on long trips, the specified rates are not excessive.

With the (b) assumptions an entrepreneurial or business
profit of $627 is made. This again illustrates an adjustment
many farmers might make. In series (c) a profit of $1,h3u
is shown as an attainable worthwhile goal.‘

Again the budgets point to the benefits of developing
an environment where labor produces more product or a higher

valued product.

1C33

.r

A Sixty Cow Limited Land Alternative

Budget III (a) illustrates what could be eXpected by
turning to an all forage alternative on limited land, pur-
chasing some additional forage and all grain. At the level
of productive capacity Specified, it does not appear to be a
particularly good alternatiVe for anyone except a man who may
expect to acquire additional land in the near future. In-
vestment is higher'($68,792) and net farm income is lower
($6,539) than in budget II.

Chores alone require 6.5 hours per day every day, and
when combined with necessary odd jobs, maintenance, repair .
and business transactions, become a full time job. The field
time on 11h tillable acres, even with 20 days of hired labor,
is likely to necessitate many 12 hour days for the operator
in the spring and summer months. Even so, under adverse weather
hazards, field work might easily get delayed.

The (b) and (c) modifications add to profitability,

but even 30, budget II alternatives are superior.

Budget IV: Assuming One Full
Time "Extra Efficient" Operator, Hiring

Over Seven Weeks of Labor and Milking Sixty Cows

This budget illustrates about what one man could accomr
plish provided that he is willing to work what today is con-
sidered excessive hours and has adequate capital for a sixty

cow unit. With an investment of $89,h02, a net farm income of

15:11.

$11,9h9 is obtained. If this return accrued to one family
it would show quite an adequate income or, as is more likely
to be the case of anyone ambitious enough to operate in this
fashion, a rather substantial debt paying capacity.

Even milking ho cows per hour, 6.5 hours of chore time
are required each day. When totalled, this amounts to some
h2 hours per cow per year. Field work and all other jobs
are likely to create steady summer employment, assuming good
scheduling, of some 70 to 75 hours per week. Certainly this
is not what a man would want to do for a life time, yet perhaps
through the use of better alternatives, more time might be cut
off of these totals. If a man were trying to build to this
size and operate at the same time, he almost certainly would
have to count on more labor than specified here.

Some young operators could build this system, but un-
less they develop it into a larger two-man business, a few
years of this kind of work would probably make them.reduce
herd size or quit dairying entirely. Even though profitable,
this alternative has all the problems of the one-man dairy
farm.plus the risk of greater absolute loss if sickness or
other misfortune should occur. The problems created by the
life cycle for family farms are likely to be intensified in.
this situation.

The feur row corn equipment and the three man crew
specified for grass silage operations will help get work done

on time. Even so, careful scheduling and planning to avoid

 

" Ill-Ill} {will

lSS

weather hazards must be done if the field work is to be com-
pleted on time and excellent quality forage is harvested.

Under series (b) and (c) this type operation becomes
even more favorable. Still a word of caution is needed. With
60 cows to milk and feed, as well as caring for considerable
young stock, a man may find difficulty in finding time to
see that breeding schedules are maintained. Sixty cows to
calf, breed and keep records on is no easy matter; yet under
assumptions of seasonal freshening or for caring for 12,000
pound production animals, these jobs must be done carefully.

By seasonal freshening, most of the herd would be dry
in JUne right when this tremendous quantity of forage must be
harvested. Certainly, this possibility could aid in evening
out the labor load a great deal. For this reason, it makes a

‘worth while alternative not considered in these budgets.

Budget V: Two Men,
Eighty Cows and Three Hundred Acres

Budget V, in many reapects, is similar to Budget II
doubled in quantities. 'Yet certain advantages to scale are
evident. Chores are more efficient. Week-ends and vacations
off are no problem, nor would sickness be such a catastrophe
as on the Smaller farm. With a two-man operation working
conditions can begin to compete with industry. It is still
hard to develOp fringe benefits similar to industry though
social security, health and.workmen's compensation insurance

help. Other benefits common to farm workers can aid in making

156
this alternative competitive for labor. Certain savings also
develop in the investments, particularly in machinery.

Sufficient land is being farmed to justify a four plow
tractor. The thirty days of seasonal help might even be
eliminated. The net results of moving to the two-men farm of
this size are shorter working hours, a net income figure of
$17,289, of which $1,893 could be accounted as a residual
profit for entrepreneurship after a 5 percent return on the
$115,926 investment and $9,600 is deducted for wages.

There are several ways that two men could operate this
farm. Perhaps one of the best for attaining this labor effici-
ency and creating a productive pleasant work environment is
to have one man do chores in the morning and the other at
night. Various modifications could be made to get both men
in the field when need be. In off seasons, tre'workday could
be siortened for both this way. In this way, no man becomes
indispensable, as both tend to be reasonably familiar with
all jobs.

The increased rate of forage harvest in this plan
results from a three-man crew and the use of old used dump
trucks specifically to haul forage. Wagons are also retained
for emergency use. Two mowers provide a reserve of cutting
capacity.

The (b) and (c) series budgets point the way to further
profitability. There is sufficient help in this plan to gain
this profitability rather easily as compared to the smaller

operations. June and August are the only months where field

157

work is really pressing.
Budget VI: Two Men and One-hundred Cows

Under the same general assumptions as Budget V, the
caring for 20 additional cows and raising feed for them
increases net farm income to $23,275. Even after deducting
interest and labor charges, $6,632 remains under the (a) #1
series assumptions. While the labor load is increased, it is
still considerably lighter per.man than under Budget IV.
Chores new take nine hours per day. This in itself accounts
for one full time man. The necessary hours of work in this
alternative are likely to exceed what might be considered

competitive with industry.

Budget VII: Two Men and One-hundred and Twenty Cows

I
This plan is another of the type where all the grain

and some hay is purchased. It is relatively unprofitable.
More hours of work are required than in Budget VI and farm
earnings are less. Perhaps adjustment in cow numbers to de-
crease the need for purchased hay might compare more favorably
with an alternative where all grain is grown on the farm.
Under the general assumptions of this chapter this budget can

not provide anything near competitive working conditions.
Budget VIII: One-hundred Cows and Three Men

Here again, many factors tend to be multiples of the

smaller II and V budgets. Cost savings do exist in machinery

158
investment and services. Entrepreneurship returns are rather
favorable. A total investment of $168,678 is involved.

Forage harvest is a busy time in this plan. Three men
are required. Milking a hundred or more cows at one milking
tends to produce another problem. For purposes of illustra-
tion a two-man milking system.is used where one unskilled
man prepares cows and a more skilled one milks. Though there
are several disadvantages to operating this way, some farmers
are doing it. From a strict labor efficiency standpoint a
one-man, MO cow per hour system.is better. If the two-man
system is used, then some part time or family help must be
used for week-ends and at other times. Thirteen hours of
labor are required for chores each day with this system,
considering 60 cows milked per hour in a two preparation--
four milking stall room. Because of this heavy chore load,
additional summer help is also needed. A total allowance of
135 days help is made. If a more efficient milking system
could he used, eliminating most of this extra labor, profits
would increase by about $1,000.

With an operation of this size, a great deal of main-
tenance and repair work will have to be done. For this rea-
son, the shop inventory is increased $100 over series VI.

A larger bulk tank and an additional tractor and plow are
also included.

The profit incentives for striving for the (b) and (c)

alternatives are particularly strong at this level of output,

159
providing management is not taxed too severely. When opera-

ting with. hired labor, management might be taxed too severely

depending upon the individuals involved.

With a three man operation even more nearly competitive

working conditions and fringe benefits can be obtained. Under

the assumptions of this budget, every other Sunday could be

[fl
free. For most of the year this could be stretched to whole

weekends off. There is sufficient time available to allow a

months vacation per man in this budget. While July is a I
rather slack month, most of the potential vacation time occurs

during the wint er 0

At least half of the year could be worked on the basis
of a forty hour week though longer hours are still required
in the Spring and during forage harvest. At this level of

operation outside social security, health and compensation

 

insurance will still have to be relied upon for retirement,

sickness and accident programs. If hired help is used either

housing must be provided or some other housing provisions made.

Neither are provided in the budget.

A Three-hundred and Sixty Cow Farm:
Budgets IX and X

 

As the farm Operations are identical in series IX and

X, one discussion covers both. Both are essentially built

out of three farm units similar to those discussed in Budget

VIII. The difference between the IX and X series is that the

latter includes nine housing units for anployees, valued at

160
$60,000, as part of fine inventory., To operate these units

requires collecting $7,500 yearly in rents. This figure

is roughly equivalent to the repairs, depreciation, taxes

and interest on investment necessary plus an additional

$600 for bearing the risk involved. No profits are made on
this additional investment; rather it is regarded as an added
investment which might be needed to organize such a farm.

No farm this large was observed in the study. These
farms are extensions deveIOped because of the advantages
evidenced in Budget VIII with regards to profits, level of
satisfactions attainable by the workers and economies in
machine use. There are serious problems in establishment.

An eXperienced and trained manager is required whose full

time would be Spent supervising, coordinating, transacting
business and in making management decisions. Skilled.res-
ponsible workmen.secure in their jobs and working under adequate
incentives would also be required. The salaries and fringe
benefits Specified are adequate to compete for this type of
personnel. 1368 relatively contiguous tillable acres are
needed. With the present land institutions of Michigan this
nmch contiguous land is hard to find. This problem is partially
solved by using three dairy units of hS6 acres each. This

also shortens hauling distances, a problem which.arises on

large livestock farms. Over a half million dollars are re-
quired to finance the operation. It is likely that it would
take corporate structure and financing to acquire this many

assets. Once acquired, interest on investment may have to

 

 

 

 

v > I i (I
I.‘. All I. I‘ll! I {1 A:

161

be considered as a perpetual payment for the use of those
assets and most business profits used for dividends, investment
or adjustment and growth rather than as money to retire a
capital debt.

As noted in the Appendix, some operating cost advantages
are secured. None are noted with the dairy herd although
some minor adjustment might be made in veterinary, breeding,
and. testing charges. Most advantages would occur in the
flexibility of labor use or in fuller employment of machinery.

As previously noted, three units each the size of the
discussed 120 cow farms (series VIII) are incorporated into
one farm. Two men are assigned directly to each unit with
the three remaining men assuming the roles of (1.) general
tractor driver, (2) crops and maintenance supervisor, and (3)
farm manager.

Under this system, the overall farm manager would
likely be fully employed even with a herdsman at each unit
assuming considerable responsibility for the performance of
the dairy husbandry tasks. Chores require nearly 12 hours
per day per unit. This means that each unit requires the
services of one and one half men each day leaving two and
one half men for other general assignments. During most
seasons this should be sufficient, even with week days off
to make up for week-ends worked. Vacations would follow the
pattern of Budget VIII.

No man would become indispensable. Every man would be

required to be able to milk if needed. At least two men would

 

 

162

be familiar with each herd. Management would retain the right
to shift assignments at will to make sure that worker frictions
could be taken care of. 'A one man, no cow per hour milking
system.is used. Sunday Chores are done in eight to ten hours.

Chore routines are designed to make it possible for
six.men to be in the field for eight hours a day during
forage Operations. In general, hours worked per day are kept
flexible enough.to allow at least a ten hour day during June
and August even if only eight hours are worked during most
other months.

Because of greater labor efficiency than in.the other
previous plans and a greater need to compete for skilled re-
liable labor, it was felt necessary to raise salaries to the
employees. $h,800 is still the basic wage for the four general
farm workers but it is no longer gross. They, as well as the
other employees, will require an additional two percent of
$h,200 for social security and 2.7 percent of $3,000 as an
unemployment insurance fee as specified in the laws of the
United States and of Michigan. The three herdsman receive
$5,h00, the farm.manager $9,600 and.his assistant $7,200.

This makes a total wages and salaries bill to the firm.of
$53,685 per year. In addition, $2,000 is allocated for extra
clerical help and because of possible increased labor needs
arising fran personnel turn over or similar emergencies.

The machinery program.requires considerable discussion.
Three two-plow tractors are each equipped with manure leaders

to serve as yard tractors. Two three-plow ones are equipped

 

 

 

163
with four row tools for general field work. A six-plow diesel
crawler is used for land preparation, bulldozing, heavy loading
and forage chopping. It can go where other tractors can not
and is a versatile tool on large farms. However, the assumption
of a wheeled tractor would have also been workable. A small
garden tractor is used to mow grass and weeds, operate power
elevators and other tools and for nmny'other tasks.

A multiple hitch is provided to allow the crawler to
use tools of a size ordinarily designed for the three-plow
tractors. Two Sprayers are provided, one for weeds and one
for insect work. The chopper has a rated capacity of 35 tons
per hour and is a power take-off model. In order to benefit
by that capacity, a 1h foot mower (Kosh) is provided with
three or four windrows being thrown together. Hay yields
are not heavy enough to make the use of a direct cut unit
practical.

A rotary dhOpper is also provided. With a unit this
large green chopping through the summer is both practical
and necessary in order to handle the regular silage and hay
harvest on time. Two men using a dump truck and a wagon can
cut and haul three loads in an hour which is about what is
needed.per day. It is assumed that one third of'the hay land
(uni be harvested in this fashion. This procedure will also
aid in.spreading out the normal grass silage harVest time to
one nunfiin This chOpper can also be used to Open fields for

:ailage, serve as an auxiliary or supplementary chopper if

need be, and to harvest corn stalk bedding.

 

164

In addition, a small baler is included for use in
harvesting first cutting hay which may become too dry for
silage, for harvesting calf and maternity cow hay and as an
emergency machine.

Eight thousand dollars worth of trucks are inventoried.
One is a $600 pick—up for the use of the manager and foreman.
Another is an old used $600 gravel dump truck. The other two
are $3,000 long-wheel base, tandem dumps with.8 x 1h combin-
ation grain and stock racks each capblc of hauling 5.5 tons
of silage per load. With a chOpper of the size specified,
it will take units of this size to handle forage at the
Specified average rate of 22 tons per hour. During part
of the year one rack is replaced with a lime box. Lime and
bulk fertilizer are hauled and spread direct.

The other truck is likely to see daily use hauling
grain in bulk from a small, automrtic 5 horse power, feed
sill located at the farm.grain center. It also can be used
for livestock hauling, a common activity on a farm with 360
dairy cows. The small dump truck is adequate for hauling
daily green chop.

The shOp and.small tool inventory is expanded because
of a need for various duplicated items. It is also now adequate
for virtually all repairs and overhauls.

A three row anhydrous nitrogen applicator and supply
tank is included so that this job can be done with farm labor.

Comparison of the balance sheets fbr these budgets with

 

 

165
these for the VIII series discloses several things. Profits

:me about three and one half times as much as for the smaller
budget. Wages and salaries are proportionally more and other
expenses less. The higher salaries of the former about off-
sets the economies in the latter. Fewer services are
hired and fans labor is more productive. In sum then, it
is possible for employees to get a greater share of gross re-
turns in this larger farm but it is likely that this increased
share is necessary in order to get high enough quality labor.

The absolute magnitude of profit levels when the (a)
modification is conpared.with (b) and (c) ones again point
out the profitability of increased production per cow or
prices and point out the danger of movements in the opposite
direction. In the (a) series for instance, it would appear
that without drastic production modifications, the business
could not maintain itself at a milk price below $3.50.

Poor management could produce great absolute losses
in a hurry. So could disease or unfavorable prices. It is
possible that before a farm would get this big under Michigan
conditions, it might diversify into other livestock rather than
stick strictly with dairy. If advantages of less risk, and
a possible fuller use of some fixed assets were found Which
could outweigh the cost and economic advantages of speciali-
zation and simplier management, this could happen. So little
is known of such farms that it is hard to say.

Perhaps the future will indicate that the California

type dry lot operation is superior. However, better hay

 

 

166
will have to be available for purchase before the industry

can profitably move in this direction in Michigan. The

author does not know what the answer is. He does feel that

the larger operation does tend to be relrtively more profitable

and that management sufficient to operate it is being developed.

Yet just how it will be developed or how big it will get is

s ‘5 ill unanswered .
Ibo Conclusions of

and Results Obtained

From The Budgets

In a sense, each budget illustrates the limitations and

benefits of a different allocation of labor and capital in-

vestment. They tend to point out, assuming management ability

capable of handlin’fi; each unit as specif-ied, that added units

of livestock and land Show constant rates of return, whereas

 

investments in machinery, show increasing returns.

Among the assumptions is one that management can be

Spread over more units by simplifying its tasks. Concurrently,

labor is spread over more units by creating; a simplified

working environment. The accomplishment rates Specified are,

 

for the most part, similar to those reported in recent studies.
Perhaps the most important conclusion of all is that anenviron-
ment can be built for dairying where labor can earn sufficient

product to make its use competitive with industry from both a

monetary and a non-monetary standpoint.

 

CLAPTER IX
A PROPOS?D BULLETIN AND OTHER COKCLUSIONS

If the information contained in this thesis is to aid

,.0

Llchiran's dairy farmers it must be presented to them. One

k“

may to do t4 s is to publish a bulletin.

0

Such a bulletin should present dairying as only one
of several alternatives farmers face. Furthermore, it should
present it as fairly and concisely as is consistent with
adequate explanation. The presentation should be directed
toward persons considering major changes in their dairy
operations. It should point out alternatives, answer questions
about dairy farm organizations and, finally, discuss the pit-
falls to be guarded against.

A question and answer format has been selected to ful-
fill these requirements. This method has impact to incite
action. At the same time, it can present the analysis developed
herein.

The conclusions to this thesis take the form of this
bulletin and are herewith presented:

gover Page

 

It is suggested that the title be: Is LARGE SCALE
DAIRYING The Answer FOR YOU?; that it be superimposed and
centered over a "?" mark with small cuts of such items as a

bulk milk tank, a time clock, feeder cattle, workers entering

167

 

 

168

{‘3

a factory, and similar "picture SCOPlCS" of farm operators
alternatives bordering the page.
The Bulletin Fbrmat

The purpose of this bulletin is to give you, the farmer, some
idea of the possible rcouirements and rewards of large scale
dairying.

BUT WHY IS LARGE SCALE DAIRYING IMPORTANT TO ME RIGHT NOW?

 

BeCause this is an age of rapid change and;

(1) It appears that farming is entering an era of
Specialization; an era which demands an increase
in worker productivity to remain competitive.

(2) Michigan farms require fih0,000 or more capital
per man to be profitable.
That is a lot of money, it should be used wisely.
Common stocks paid well in 1935. So did many
non-farm.business Opportunities!
The people with money to loan know this.

(3) You have other alternatives for your time;
Feeder cattle, hogs, casl crops,--
Part-time farming or off the farm work,--
and none of these require milking cows 1h times
a week.

(h) Labor is talking of a 32 hour week. Many dairy
farmers today work on hours per week - and that is
7 days a week - every week - even when they're sick,
or when they want a holiday.

IF IT'S THIS BAD WHY DOES ANY ONE WANT TO DAIRY FARM?

 

Well, first of all some people like dairying and dairy
cows. But let's try to be practical. Let's look at some
budgets as to how you, as a dairymen, might allocate your time
and money. Budgets let you try an alternative out on paper.
They aren't infallible. But they do present an orderly and
organized way of looking at the alternatives you face.

At this point in the bulletin the results obtained in
Chapter VIII by budgeting a one, two and t-ree nan ol'ruticn
should be presented. If additional scoie is considered adv.s-

able, a nine man Operation could be included in this section.

'

a discussion of the required investments, expenses

169

and receipts would be necessary. Important points of com-
parison such as net returns and fringe benefits would need
to be included. The basic assumotions of the budaets must be

mentioned. As doubts would naturally rise and interest

93

must be maintained the bulletin would continue;

YES BUT --

Hold it before you say anything; let's look at the
assumntions and conditions more closely:

(1) 10,000 lhs. milk per cow and lots of cows --in a
moment we'll discuss some things which will allow
a man to take good care of that many cows.

(2) $h.UO a hundred weicht for 3.5 percent milk -- 5b.?5
would be lots nicer -- if you can pet it by
seasonal freshening or through supply-demand re-
lationships. A quarter of a dollar in the other
direction doesn't look nearly so good but you would
still be better off than most dairy men are now.

(3) Forty hours per cow per year chore time -- its
possible and probable. Excellent quality forage --
there are several methods. Yields of to bu. corn
and tiree ton hay aren't really high today.

(A) We tried to leave time for sick cows, broken mower
blades and talking with farm visitors --previded
they are taken care of efficiently.

Additional expansion may be necessary here depending

upon the eXact way the budgets and their eXpressed assumntions

are dealt with earlier. To maintain interest the discussion

would continue:

11: YOU SAY I CAN DO THIS MUCH weak, THEN snow ICE HOW!

O.K. let's look at one method for doing each of the
critical tasks in operating this business. There are several
other good ways of doing many of these things. But before
You decide which mrthod to use ask yourself:

 

 

 

170
(1) Which way re-:-;u:T.1-«:es the highest investment?
(2) Which costs the most to operate?
(3) What can I do with the time I mirht save?

(A) Which will work best for me on my farm under the
conditions I can't change?

(5) ’hioh is the most foolproof and simple for me and
e } ired n*.an to operate?

 

(6) Can I tr at someone else o do it right?

(7) WTich offers the most chance of SWICCB s or the
least of :ailure?

 

(8) Which gives me flexibility in timing or allows me ,
to take off if I want to? '

Bv the way, the farners visited in this study said that the
best way to find better metlods of getting "the job done"
was to go see let your neighbors and other good farrze rs
'were doing. You have to have a dairy frrm_vhich allows you
to get away to do this - most don‘t. If yours doesn't read
tiis, it is the result of visiting—L6 good de iry fem ms from
which nest of the presented ideas were acquired.

 

HOW CAN YOU DO THE DAIRY CHORR S FOR THESE FERDS?

 

Here are some rules:

(1) Design a system that the hired man can handle. \

(2) Reduce cleaning, bedding and feeding to the "bone.”
9

(3) Reduce milking and individuzl attention only so
far as production and health can be maintained.

(h) build in as much flexibility as you can.
(5) Build it to "force" you to run it right.

NOW CAI-E I DO ALL THESE T111 GS?

 

Here is one way of doing some of them:

(1) Design a buildinm layout so that all of the six
housinr areas (feeding, loafing, milking, young
._ cf, :nd calves) are observable from the milk
lease, the "nerve center" of the Operation. Daflgn
it to promote cilwzular travel when doing chores.

 

 

171
Design it to eliminate as much travel as possible
by keeping maternity cows and caIVes in the sea
building as the milking plant. Further, use cattle
euprds, remote controls, catwalks and easy obser-
vation to eliminate work travel when possible.

(2) Try to eliminate as many job elements in cleaning,
feeding and bedding as possible. Use concrete
yards and feed outdoors. A tractor with a scraper
blade and a manure loader parked right next to the
milk house in what might be a grain handling area
should be available for dairy yard cleaning and
other chores. Use self feeding structures or
automatic mechanical ones for forages. With self e
feeding structures perhaps you can eliminate Sun-
day feeding. With his“ quality forage many farmers
aren't feeding grain to dry cows and heifers. Saw-
dust, for instance, may require attention only two
or three times monthly and then only when you aren't
busy with other tasks. Desian loafinq areas to
speed bedding and clevning, to eliminate traffic
lanes and to stay dry.

Kw» -

(3) Design a milking room which will allow you to milk
at least no cows per hour - others have. Then lorrn
how. Of those observed in the study, the three on
a side lane type seemed the one most practical for
adoption today. Design it so the hired man can
Operate it too. Don't forget mastitis problems,
high production requirements and that you are sleepy
in the morning and tired at night. Put in a shunt
pen at the exit to hold animals requiring special
care. Plan it to serve heifers as well. Keep
maternity cows and small calves in the same building
where you.milk so you can Speed the care of them
as well.

 

 

(h) Make the whole operation such that you.will be
proud of your cows and buildings when the chores
are done and so you can‘t forget them.when they
aren't l

 

(S) Select cows who are at home in your system.
If needed, further details may be introduced at this point.

BUT~WHAT ABOUT THE FIELD WORK?
Here Are The Important Factors:

(1) A.man must be fully equipped if he is to be efficient.

172

(2) Fever creps mean few problems and fever machines
to make him fully equipped.

(3) With four row corn equipment, crop sprayers, mini-
mum tillage and multiple hitches, Spring work and
fall work are already "licked" on most dairy farms.

(h) It takes a lot of excellent q elity forage to
Operate a large scale dairy. h rvesting tlis
large quantity is the real problem.

 

(5) Crops require labor seasonally, and each task must
be done on time.

For the purpose of this bulletin, the first three factors
liste ed above cc n take care of themselves, provided you learn
twist the latest aoproved crop practices are and equip your-
self vith the mac tzn ry to get the job done on time. The J
fourth.factor is the one to worry about. Let's talk about a
grass silage for first cutting and cat silage, hay for second
cutting, corn silage for at least part of that crop and corn
stalks chopped for bedding as well.

This makes the forage harvester a pretty big key to
the business. But let's start at the beginning to describe
one way of do: in; a big task. There are other ways w} ich may
work just as xell for you, but ask yourself which is bos t when
you consider:

(1) duality of product,

(2) Speed and Simplicity of operation,

(3) Investment, overhead and operating cost,

(A) Amount and kind of labor needed.

At this point a discussion of devices and motloés of

trsk intofration in forage harves s} .ould app :r in the bulle-

YES BUT WIIAT ABOUT ALL THE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR WORK YOU
IIAVE TO DO? “

 

leos are important, the, and a place to eVen out em-
ployment 1Jhi 1e loxerin" production cos 2. To met the job
demo you need to:

173
(1) LC— arn how,

(2) Supply a "rod shop ind tools,

(3) Plan ahead; be prepared for emergenies,

(L) Be sure that you allow time for these tasks.

Here a short discussion of the importance of this area
and tierefore certain listed procedures are needed.

THIS SOUNDS GOOD, SUT HOW CAL A RAN KEEP TRACK OF TLIS hANY
COWS, AND ACRES AND RACEIHES?

 

It isn't easy. Farming is a re idly changin3 b.usin ss,
what we 3 be st yesterday often isn't nea ly good on ujh tomorrov.
?ut to be forewarned is the first step to being prepared. So
let‘s look at vint can go Lrong and szt you till need to do
about it.

Your problem is to take cvre of each acre and each
cow just about as well as a good manager does now with 20
cows. If you go from 30 to no cot-.3, you don't just druble
th.e job, in some ways you quadruple it' This won't do. To

make a wrong guess zui ht be pretty serious.

 

Let's list some ways we have tc solve this problem:
(1) Continue approved production practices,

(2) Simplify or even eliminate tes ks needed to main-
tain these production practices,

(3) Substitute :uc lines for ltjor - s metimes.
There are times when you can make the mach-
inery you now have do more work 1nstead,

(h) Improve the efficiency with which you work.

(a) Tr :Is IS THE KEY om: Improve the efficieng with
which you manage.

We have 13211 ed about (1) tl‘rough (14-) before so let's

look at number ( ). There are five steps to minesoment. (Eyei
a problem, you gather ideas fbrixs sdhnfion (mxs’ MTV tum1). Then
you examine it and its alternative solutions (analysis). Then

you decide what to do (decision). Then you do it (action).
And before you “re done, you (not people who tell you how

in bulletins)nmst ta {e the res ponsibility for that action.
New anything you can do to improve your abilities to observe,
analyze and decide, llll help you to t Pe tie ccrrect action

17h

d ease the responsibilities. It takes tine to manage -~
low yourself that time.

This moons making up your mind tlet you can improve;
that you can do it. It merns being prepared to eXpect diffi-
culties and beine prepared to meet them. In fact, that is
what you are doing right now as you read this. It also
means that y u must clearly understrnd the problems and pit-
falls you face. le need to see your other alternatives just
as mac? as you need to see large scale deirving as one of
them.

It means that if you decide on this alternative, then
you need to build a system of cow numbers and qualities, of
croes and macPinery, which will be the best for ygu_end the
other people vith whose welfare you are concerned.

WHAT ARE THE THINGS WHICL ARE LIKELY TO GO WRONG?

We can't name them all, but we can mention some of
tPe most important.

(1) Changes in relative prices,
Requires a.minimum of discussion.

(2) Poor crop years
Less grass silage
Wrong cultural decisions
It is possible to build in certain insurance

schemes,
Requires a minimum of discussion.

(3) General price level
Depression or recession effects
Demand -- substitutes for milk,

Requires a minimum of discussion.

(h) People
Problems to be faced with hired help
Problems to be faced with partners
Problems to be faced with other people
Farming and the life cycle
Health and well being
Motivations and goals,

This section also requires furtPer discussion to point out
that a modern farm manager has to learn to deal with people

as well as craps and livestock.

175
(5) Credit,

Requires discussion to point out today's problem. The analogy
of what happened to the family grocery store could be used

tere. To continue:

Some of these problems are more important than others.
But any successful businessman has to eXpect to face, over-
come or circumvent these kinds of problems continuously.

OKz BUT WEERE DO I GET TlE TIRE AND THE MONEY TO BUILD THIS
SYSTEM?

It's pretty hard to eXpand a farm business and still
keep producing at the same time. Perhaps it's even harder
than operating the eXpanded business! There are so many
thinzs you have to learn about. Your management has to keep
up wit? your eXpansinn or vital profits are lost.

Maybe you sheild.consider dning just the planning and
purchasing and hire others to do the bulk of the actual building
construction. There will be enough small details and.actual
farm work to keep most people busy.

As for money, credit is a tool of all modern businesses.
The kind of money needed to establish an 80 cow dairy farm
has to be based on potential earning power just like the
credit extended to other businesses is today. It needs to
be credit which does not place an excessive burden upon
receipts.

Remember that a lender will want to see where repayment
will come from. Farm budgets will help show him. Remember
that other people have acquired the kind of capital discussed
here. It may have to be supervised credit where someone will
help you learn to manage.

This discussion could continue in attempting to ex-
plain how to get credit.

HAVE YOU REALLY SOLVED THE PROBLEM?
No - It's still your problem.

‘ Just remember that none of us are perfect. This system
wasn't built for a perfect man. It was built for the man who
is determined to build a successful dairy operation which pays
as well as other alternatives can; especially one that is
capable of competing for labor with industry in Michigan.

176

You have still to ask yourself:

(1) Do you really want to run this kind of a business;
is this the life you and your family want?

(2) Have you got or can you get the necessary tech-
nical knowledge and capital?

And remember this bulletin presents some general
material which will need modification to fit your fant and
your conditions. Why don't you try to budget it out with
your prices and production rates?

There are Several additions which could be made at
tie conclusion of the bulletin. Coefficients for budgeting

could be included. So could actual budget ferns. A selected

bibliography of recent literature miqht also be considered.

Other Conclusions

‘

The proposed bulletin presented some methods of organi-
zing dairy farms so as to make the earning power of labor
competitive with industry.

The study also has otter implications. Important ways
to simplify the management of dairy farms exist though it is
still necessary to account fer the art of husbandry so aptly

eXpressed by, "The eye of the aster fattens the cattle."

V

n

D

pecialization in a few crops and only one type of liVestock
simplifies management.

Another implication is that dairy farms must be large
enough to employ at least two men if working conditions are to
be even partially comparable with those in industry. Days

off, vacations, illness and a medium.length work week are

difficult to handle otherwise.

177

[—Jo

Furtter, modificat ens are possible to adjust Specific
farms for particular comparative advantages or for particular
soils and climates. Feed crop production is profitable on
Nichisan dairy farms. There are at least two reasons for
this. One is that feed orcduction tends to make better use
of the farms fixed assets over the seasons,e8pecially labor
needed by the firm in order to provide time off for dairy
workers. The otier is that it is difficult to purchase
sufficient excellent quality forage in Michigan to supply

low cost nutrients to the dairy herd.

The budgets indicate that eVen higher herd production
averages should be the soal of the farm manager if such are
attainable without excessive additional cost in feed, mana-
gerial effort and husbandry skill. While data are not avail—
able to determine how far a manager should go in this direC-
tion,it anpears that an. average of 10,000 pounds of 3.5 per-
cent milk per cow should be set as a minimum.standard.

Another implication is tlat no matter what kind of
livestock farm, easier observation should be built into the
production system. Circular travel, work Simplification and

materials handling all have a place. Equally important,

that work environment design must consider comfort and physical

A)

work load per man if high productivity is to be gained as
productivity depends upon motivated conscientious workmen.
Perhaps the most important implication of all

concerns the relative advantage of large operations in pro-

178
viding competitive wages, working conditions and fringe
benefits as well as increased profitability. While two men
budgets permit improved working conditions and the three men
budgets begin to appear competitive with industry, it is not
until a nine man situation is produced that truly comparable
working conditions and wage ra es develop. Little is known
about such farms in Michigan thouah such farms are in opera-
tion in California and England. It appears that the setting
in Michigan is now favorable for their development provided
that financing can be arransed. Present credit institutions
may not be able to finance their development. rther study
in the area of credit seems to be called for if dairy farms
where labor can be used competitively with industry are to

'9

be organized in Michigan.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. BOOKS

Bradford, L. A., and Johnson, G. L., Farm Management Analysis,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1953.

 

Heady, Earl 0., Economics of Agricultural Production and Re—
source Use, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1952.

 

 

Schultz, Theodore W., Agriculture in an Unstaple Economy,
NcGraw-Hill Book Company,_New York, 19h5.

Scitovsky, Tibor, Welfare and Competition, Richard D. Irwin,
Inc., Chicago, 195i.

Vaughan, Lawrence M., and Hardin, Lowell 3., Farm Work Simpli—
fication, John Wiley and Sons, New York, l9h9.

 

B. BULLETINS AND REPORTS

Boyd, J. S., et. al., Milkhouses, Planning_and Construction,
Michigan State College COOperative Extension Service,
Ext. Bul. 325, June l95u.

Brevik, T. J., Friday, W. H., and Maddox, R. L., horizont§;_
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Brown, L. H., Cargill, B. F., and Bookhout, R. H., Pen-212a
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Burdick, R. J., A New Technigue for Field Crop Labor Analysis,
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Byers, George B., ngect of Work Methods and Building Desi ns
on Building Costs and Labor Efficiency for Qairy Cows,
Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Bul. 589,
June 1952.

, Farm and Home Development Handbook, Extension
Services of the Northeastern States, The Extension Ser-
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July 1955.

180

Forth, M. W. and Lehmann, E. H., Performance and Electrical
Load Characteristics of AutomaticS-Horseppwer Grinders
and Motors, Illinois Agricultural EXperiment Station,
Bul. 581, 195A.

Fenzau, C. J., and Van Arsdall, R. H., Meeting Dairy Market
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lQSA.

Fuller, Varden and Viles, George L., gator-Management Relation-
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Experiment Station, Giannini Foundation of Agricultural
Economics, Mime; Report No. lhO, Jan. 1953.

Frick, G. E., Weeks, 8. B., and Fellows, I. F., Production
Efficiency_on New England Dairy Farms; IV Adjustments
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ioglund, C. R., A Budgeting Guide in Estimated Feed In uts
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FEi'Variable Quantities of Grain and Three Qualities
of_RoW7ha e, Agricultural Economics Department, Michigan
State University, Ag. Econ. 670, Jan. 16, 1957.

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, High Quality Roughage Reduces Dairy Costs, Michigan
Agricultural ExPeriment Station, Sp. Bul. 390, Feb. 195A.

, The Economics of Alternative Forage Systems, De-
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University, Ag. Econ. No. 67h, April 2, 1957.

 

, and Cook, R. L., Higher Profits fran Fertilizer
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Michigan State University, Ag. Econ. No. 5&5, Oct. 1956.

 

Horwood, Russell E., Snider, w. W., and Weaver, Earl, Good
Milking Practices, Michigan State College Cooperative
Extension Service, Ext. Bul. 293, Oct. 19MB.

Johnson, Glenn L., Managerial_§oncepts for Agricultgralists,
Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Bul. 519,

July 195A.

181

, and flavor, Cecil B., Decision-Making Principles
in Farm Management, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment
Station, E1110 593, Jan. 1953.

 

 

H

Kalbfleisch,xa.,and Magee, A. I. Cost of Operating Farm
Machine:y_anstepn Canada‘, Canada Department of Agri-
culture, Publication 790, Aug. 1953 Revision.

 

Kyle, Leonard R. and Vincent, Warren H., Farminngoday,
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McCalmount, J. H., Bunker Silos, U.S.D.A., Agricultural Infor-
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Rebman, E. E., Improving_Farm Labor Efficienfiz, Michigan
Agricultural Ekperiment Station, Sp. ul. 33h, Dec. l9h5.

Sheldon, W. H., 33. al., Barn Hay Driers in Michigan, Michigan
Agricultural Experiment Station, Circ. Bul. 219, (Second
Edition), April 1953.

Strand, Edwin C., Heady, Earl 0., and Seagraves, Janes A.,
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U.SoDvo TeCho B111. 1128, NOV. 19!; 0

United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing
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Vary, Karl A., HayLHarvestinggMgphods and Costg, Michigan
Agricultural EXperiment Station, Sp. Bul. 392, May 195k.

Vevilden, James, Farm Labor, Power and Machinegg Performance
for Selected Operations Under Dryland an Irrigatgd,
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Aug. 19530

Vincent, Warren H., (ed.), Farm Management Handy-Book, Agri-
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(2nd Printing, lst Rev.), March 1956.

 

 

Woodworth, Harry C., and Morrow, Kenneth S., Efficiency in
the Dairy Barn, New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment
Station, Sta. Bul. 387, June 1951.

C. PERIODICALS

Angus, R. C., and Barr, W. L., "An Appraisal of Research
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Blatcher, John, "Sixteen Cows in a Herringbone Bail," Farmer
and Stock Breeder, Volume 70, No. 3h69, April 17, 1956.

 

Drunk, Max E., and Thomson, Jack C., "Maximizing Worker
Productivity Through Evaluation of Its Components-~A
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Cargill, B. F., and Ralston, N. P., "Progress Report on Loose
Reusing for Dairy Cattle in Steel Buildings," Quarterly,
Bulletin, Michigan Ag. Exp. Sta., Volume 38, No. 1,
August 1955.

 

Cook, Ray L., "Are Your Tillage Methods Up-To-Date?" Hoard's
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Curry, Norval H., and Armstrong, Ray E., "Portable Bunker
Silos,” Iowa Farm Science, Volume 11, No. 2, August 1955.

 

Davenport, Russell W., "Enterprise For Every Man," Fortune,
Volume kl, No. 1, January 1950.

Doneth, John C., "Michigan Farm Business Report for 1955:"
The Quarterly Bulletin, Michigan Ag. Exp. Sta., Volume 3?,
No. 2, November 1955.

Elam, F. Leland, "Load Bales From.the Tractor Seat," Farm
Journal, Volume 81, No. 5, May 1957.

Hoglund, C. H., et. al., "Forage Quality and Protein Feeding
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Larsen, Harold J., "Complete Hay Dryer," nghigan Farmer,
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Shove, Gene C., Barnes, Kenneth K., and Bergsford, Hobart,
"A Self-Feeding Hay Storage Structure," Iowa Farm
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Petersen, W. E., "Tomorrow's Answers to Today's Producer
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1&3

Staniforth, Sydney D., "Institutional Considerations in Farm
Management in the Decade Ahead, " Journal of Farm
Economics, Volume 38, Mo. 5, December 1956.

Wardrop, George, "Herringbone Bails in Norfolk," Farmer and
Stock Breeder, Volume 70, No. 3b95, October 16,1956

 

D. UNPUBLISIP JD MATERIAL

_—

Carter, Harold D., Iiodifications of the Cobb--Dou :las Function
to Destroy Constant Ela sticity_andfiSymmetry, Unpublished
M. S. Thesis,IDepartment of Agricultural Economics,
Michigan State College, 1955.

Larsen, George, Methods for Evaluating Important Factqgs
Affecting Selection and Total OperatinggCosts of Farm
Machinery, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of
Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University,
19x).

Schuh. George Edward, A Short Run Supply Curve Estimate for
Fluid Milk,_Detroit Milk Shed, October 19El-September 1952,
Unpublished M. S. The§IS, Michi“an State College, 1 I.

Stallings, James, Costs and Returns in the P1oduction of Major
Field Crops in Southwestern Indiana, Unplzblished M. S.

Thesis, Department of AgricuIturaI Economies, Purdue
University, 1956.

 

 

 

 

Trant, Gerald Ion, A Technique of flAdiusting:Marginal Value
Productivity EstimateSTbr Changing Prices,Uhpuin§hed
M. S. Thesis, Department of Agricultural Economics,
Michigan State College, 195A.

Wagley, Robert Vance, Mar ginal Productivities of Investments
and EXpenditures,fi Selected Inrham.County Farms,,l9§2
Unpublished M. S. TIesis, Department of Agricultural
Economics, Michiran State College, 1953.

APPENDIX

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190

APPENDIX TABLE 5.-Accomp1ishments Per Man Hour for Various Sized Field Operations;
Basic Coefficients Used in Budgeting. 3/

A“... A

Total Tillable Acres in CraszQ/

 

 

CROP MONTH TASK UNIT —
' 111; 150 228 300 378 1156 1368
03103 April diSk Acres 205 205 205 305 305 305 5.0
(for 811889) Apnfl‘hy drill do 107 107 107 107 107 1.7 305
June mow c do 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 5.0
do rake g/ do 2.5 2.5 2. 2.5 2.5 2.5 5.0
do chop Tons 8 10 10 2 12 1b 20
do haul do 8 10 10 12 12 1h 10
do store do * * * 12 12 1h 10
Corn Hay plow' Acres 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0
do plant do 1.3 1.3 h.0 b.0 h.0 h.0 h.0
June cultivates/do 3.0 3.0 1..o 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
do spray y do 5.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
do sidedress do E/ 5/ g/ g/ 5 . 0
(corn for silage) Sept. chop Tons 10 12 12 16 2h
do haul do *‘ ‘* 10 12 12 16 12
‘ do store do * * '* * * 16
(corn for grain) Oct. pick do ‘g/ 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
do haul Bushel 100 * * 100 100
do store do * e * * *
(stover bedding) Nov. cut Acres 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
do rake B/ do it it i!- i- {- it
do chap Tons 2 2 2 u L. 1.
do haul do * * * h h u
do store do * * * * * *
Forage June,Aug. mow Acres 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
.June,Aug. rake 0 do 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
July' fart 158 do 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
(grass silage). Season chop Tons 8 10 12 1h 1h 6
do haul do 8 10 12 1h 1h 16 20
do store do * * 12 1h 1h 16 20
(green chop) (5 mos.) do 10
(dry hay) Aug. Chap (10 205 3 hos Lies 1105 has 6
do do do * * 11.5 11.5 11.5 14.5 3
do do do ‘ e a a a a a
(lime spreading) variable Acres g/ g/ ‘g/ g/ g/ .S/ 2

Note: Those coefficients described by an asterisk (*) are considered to be done by
the same man and at the same time as specified by the coefficient immediately above.

5/ Cr0p task accomplishment rates were deve10ped for moderately productive Michigan
soils using secondary data. An attempt was made to be reasonably conservative
considering the general application of the budgets and the assumptions made
relative to people and organization. The data were developed for use
in the budgets at hand and are not an “average" of other reports nor a selected
“best attainable" rate. Michigan weather conditions especially with respect to

191

rain in April, May, June and October entered into the selection. uhen possible
selected rates were compared against farmer experience. The five major data
sources were:

W. Kalbflisch and A. I. Magee, Cost of Operating Farm Machinery (Eastern Canada),
Canada Department of Agriculture, Pub. 750, pp. 20-28.

G. B. Prick, S. B. Weeks and I. P. Fellows, Production Efficiency on New England
DairX_Earms,kIV Adlustments in the Organization of Machinerx_and Equipment, New
Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station, Sta. Bul. 407, May 1954, pp. 9-10.

James Vivilden, Farm.Labor, Power, and Machinery Performance, For Selected
Qperations Under Dryland and Irrigated Conditions in Central South Dakota,
Agricultural Economics Department, South Dakota State College, Pamphlet 43,
August 1953.

James Stallings, Cost and Returns in the Production of Major Field Crops in
Southwestern Indiana, Unpublished M. S. Thesis, Department of Agricultural
Economics, Purdue University, 1956.

R. J. Burdick, A New Technigue for Field Crop_Labor Analysis, Colorado Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, Tech. Bul. 36, 1949.

Q/ In all cases, the rotation is C, C, 0, H, u, H; therefore, one-third of the
land is in corn, one-sixth is in oats and one-ha1f is in forage crops.

g/‘ All grass and oat silage mowing includes windrowing.

g/ When windrowed, only half the land area must be raked to throw two windrows
together for chopping. For silage making this is assumedtobe the common procedure.

I

g; Done when the crop is 4-6 inches high.

£/. Done when the crop is 6—8 inches high.

Q

Custom hired done.

In stover harvest, mowing and raking are done in the same operation.

'51.

19 2

APPENDIX TABLE 6. - Field work labor requirements by crop, acres and months

 

CROPS and LABOR UsnD Number of Acres?
Oats;and;Seedings' 19A 25A 38A 50A . 63A 76A 2281

 

 

PART.A. Han hours required by months.

April 8 10 15 14 18 22 46
April or May 10 15 23 3O 37 44 65
June 46 50 76 120 153 162 297

PART 8. Han hours per day estimated
to be available for field work

 

 

April 5 5 5 5 6 7 7
April or day 5 5 6 6 6 7 7
June 12 12 12 21 2 28 48
PART C. Days required for oats field

work with available labor.
April 2 2 3 3 3 3 7
April or May 2 3 4 5 6 7 10
June 4 4 7 6 7 6 6

Corn 38A 50A -76A 100A 126A 152A 456A
PART.A. Man hours required by months-
May 57 75 76 75 95 112 266
June 20 26 2 33 38 46 230
September 33 34 52 57 72 98 325
October 66 100 100 150 128 384
November 23 37 56 74 93 110 330
PART B. Man hours per day estimated

to be available for field.work.
May 5 6 6 6 10 10 20
June 7 7 ‘ 7 7 7 7 24
September 6 6 12 12 12 18 35
October 5 5 8 8 12 24
November 5 5 5 10 10 10 24

PART C. Days required for corn field
work with available labor.

May 12 13 13 13 10 12 13
June 3 4 4 5 6 7 10
September 6 . 6 5 5 6 6 10
October 13 20 11 14 ll 16

November 5 8 ll 8 10 ll
, continued

123
APPaNDlA TABLE 6: Continued

 

Forage 57A 75A 114A 150A 189A 228A 684A

 

Part A. Man hours required by months.

thy 45
June 120 135 240 285 360 388 525
July 5 6 10 13 16 19 114
August 69 85 142 186 234 282 522
September 45
October 45

Part B. Man hours per day estimated
to be available for field work

May ' 2
JUne 12 12 18 21 24 28 48
July 6 o o o o o 3/
August ’ 6 6 12 12 12 14 40
September 2
October 2

Part C. Days required for forage field
work with available labor.

May 3f
June 10 11 14 13 15 14 11

July 1 1 2 2 3 3 3/
August 12 15 12 16 20 20 15 '
September ‘3/
October 3/

é/ Consists of one hour apiece for two men per day plus fertilizer hauling
and Spreading.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Demco-293

Ry—y