THREE Aumowsum LESSONS FOR unumnou V m BRGADGASTING couaszs ' YHESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF M. A. MICHEGAN STATE UNIVERSITY awHAnn D. aAnu-cx 1 9 8 .8 LIBRARY " ' Michig In Sta“ I University ‘ TITLE NO. DATE DO NOT WRITE ZhCVE nus LINE-\- VOLs. E” *1 LOCATION g HEIGHT g D— COLOR Do NOT COLLATE 3? NOT R OVE W ADS. AND IECAEIVERS ’_‘ / NONE BOUND BEFORE g I“ CRITERION _,. 9 BINDING CHG. - HAND SEWING- _ 0 CALL Nos. -2 EXTRA THICK -3 , STUBBING - HINGING - / LETTERING - IMPRINT - - EXTRA TIME 2 EA E EEL FF AT EXTENDED SHEETS AND SEND COPIES I AND 2 (HELD TOGETHER) TO BINDERY NUMERICALLY ARRANGED. _K. _ H‘\ ‘1' Michigan 82:: to!" Uszivcz’séty I”; 14133142 Y ~‘Mnm--- - ‘ - a..- I I Ans. "L... .. 1 .—.v --~LJ:£ I . ABSTRACT THREE AUDIOVISUAL LESSONS FOR UTILIZATION IN BROADCASTING COURSES By Richard D. Garlick Broadcasting courses typically suffer from the lack of studio time, compelling the teacher to continually seek new ways of using classroom time most efficiently. Many new audiovisual techniques are available, but at least one has scarcely ever been used to any degree, according to the literature. Ordinary 35mm slides offer all the advantages of film strips, plus the additional advantages of versatil- ity, and ease of production; they permit the professor to prepare his own lessons and to modify them at will. Pro- viding a script to accompany a slide sequence and recording it on tape provides a slide-tape lesson package which can be used in many different classes. Having established the need to compensate for the lack of studio time in broadcasting courses and demonstrated the efficiency of the slide-tape lesson, this thesis develf ops three such lessons on broadcasting concepts which stu- dents frequently have difficulty mastering: on television lighting, on the physics of radio, and on educational tele- ' vision programming. The lessons are reproduced as '3159Q4_9qn go fixed so paintmqns are sndtzos eqq go sedan orpne pun sepEIs-eqm' °uosset eden-epgts e qons Burpttnq u: motto; on adage go sagzos etdmxs e buxqaebbns Kq Iapntouoo pue- 'suosset eqq butxedexd u: pexequnooue smetqozd sessnostp stasnI Stsaua an: 30 Xan en: pue 18156qn an: on seoIpuedde XOTIJPD '0 DIEHOTH THREE AUDIOVISUAL LESSONS FOR UTILIZATION IN BROADCASTING COURSES BY Richard D. Garlick A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Television and Radio 1968 Approved an“? I/U= 5W Major Professor ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author expresses his gratitude to Dr. Robert Schlater for his guidance and assistance. Special thanks are extended to Mr. Arthur Weld and Roderick Rightmire for their advice on developing les- sons, to David M. Smith, David Kelley, Edward Wozniac, Fred Koloff, Kay Ingram, Richard Brundel, Carole Wagenvord, Pat Cronin Morrison, Les Johnson, Robert O'Brien, and Elizabeth Becker for their production talents and to WMSB-TV of East Lansing, Michiganand WMREjgx Of Schenectady, New York for -.- *_ f ) -’_,..o- ' userf'their facilities. ‘And-this thesis is dedicated to my parents, who gave me reason to start, and to my wife, Jacqulynn, who gave me reason to finish. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER I. THE NATURE OF THE STUDY. . . . . II. _PREPARING THE LESSONS. . . . . . A. Lighting for Television. . . B.' The Physics of Radio . . . . ‘C. Programming for ETV. . . . . III. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS . . APPENDIX A: Lighting for Television. . APPENDIX B: Physics of Radio . . . . . APPENDIX C: Programming for ETV. . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Page ii 11 14 17 20 51 80~ 92 CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF THE STUDY Broadcasting skills and theory courses typically suffer from the lack of studio time and classroom training. At Michigan State University, television majors share stu- dio time with two facilities: the closed-circuit televi- sion studios, and WMSB—TV, the educational station owned by the University. The closed-circuit system is used primarily for pur- poses other than television training. For instance, twenty- two courses made regular use of TV for between one and four hours per week during the 1965-66 school year.1 WMSB-TV broadcasts thirty-eight and one half hours each week, pro- ducing many of its own programs. With only two video tape recorders, the station's production hours must be scheduled after regular broadcasts. As a result, the studios are usually occupied with set-ups, lighting, and rehearsals. In the fall quarter of 1966, for example, the television student was allowed only eight hours per week of studio time at WMSBI-TV.2 1Annual Report for 1965-66, Instructional Media Cen- ter, Earling S. Jorgensen, Assoc. Director - CCTV, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. 2From station vertical files. Clearly the television student at Michigan State Univer- sity has few facilities available for practice.~ There is little hOpe of increasing this time until new studios are' built. As the number of students eXpands, of course, the actual studio time per student is reduced. In common with many courses, broadcasting courses suffer from a second limitation, the lack of classroom time. Ten-week quarters provide a minimum of hours in class, compelling the teacher continually to seek new ways of using the time efficiently. Among the most promising new techniques are those using the systems method, or audio- visual teaching. Many courses lend themselves to an audio- visual approach. R v Film has many disadvantages. These include ini- -tial expense, a complicated projector, an operator, a dark- ened classroom, and usually a requisitioning procedure which restricts viewings. Television pre-supposes eXpensive closed-circuit or broadcast systems to show the lesson. Film strips are limited to a rigid presentation sequence. And still pictures cannot be shown to a large class. Many of these limitations are eliminated by utilizing the simple 35mm slide, the most efficient system for visualizing a lesson in the author's Opinion. A series of slides and scripts can be develOped to teach.some~of the more difficult 1-". , . sic v concepts in courses. -—~ __ "/- '_,’ ,. -'.‘= ’ Slides Offer all the advantages of the familiar film strip, and provide for greater flexibility and cre- ativity as well. As summarized by Wittich and Schuller ‘. slides are inherently suited to the convenient presentation of a great variety of visual materials such (as) pic- tures, cartoons, charts, graphs, diagrams, maps, and tables. Virtually anything that can be photographed can be put on a slide. The user, whether Classroom teacher or student in a study carrel, may set his own rate. With any difficult concept, the teacher or student can reverse the projector and review the points leading up to that concept. Slides may be used in any moderately darkened room. If a classroom is not equipped, a light weight portable screen can be carried to the class, or an image projected on a wall or a blackboard. The projected image can be.made large enough for all stu- ,:;dents to see Clearly.. -“fl”55 —- .E As with film strips, the slide lesson insures that __the material is covered and the quality of the presentation is the same in all classes. The slide sequence may be used for more than one course. Fundamentals learned in a begin- ning course are often reviewed in a more advanced course. If the lesson is on slides, the teacher can review the material he covered originally. 3Walter Arno Wittich and Charles Francis Schuller, Audiovisual Materials: TheirUse and Nature (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), pp. 331-332. ~ Slides offer more advantages than the ordinary film strip. Primarily, they allow any teacher to create his own ‘programs and to adjust those programs to classroom needs ‘whenever necessary. Not only can the lesson be tailor- Tnade to the course in which it is used, but if students find a particular point difficult, more slides can be added to clarify the concepts, or if one slide does not communi- cate what the teacher expected it would, another can be= substituted. Compared with film or video tape, slides are inex- pensive. They take little time to prepare and storage is more convenient than with film or video tapes which are usually kept at a central location. The slide lesson may be kept in the instructor's office and used when he chooses, not at a time dictated by the film service or television system. Audiovisual literature affirms that combining the vocal with the visual can increase both learning and reten- tion. Severin tested junior high school students On the \\ theory that multi-channel communications which combine words with relevant illustrations will produce a greater gain in learning than any single channel communication. As predicted, audio with related pictures was significantly better than audio alone or the written word alone.4 In a 4Werner Severin, "The Effectiveness of Relevant Pictures in Multiple-Channel Communications," A V Communi- cation Review, Vol. 15 (Winter, 1967), p. 392. study by Ketcham and Heath, the data showed that instruction through sound linked to images by association only is fol- lowed by a significant increase in learning over the next most effective method, sound only.5 Wittich and Schuller believe that learners should have available combinations of audiovisual experiences which reinforce one another if we are to provide the most efficient paths possible for the mastery of understandings and concepts.6 To supplement the inherent usefulness and efficiency of slides as a teaching aid, therefore, this thesis suggests that audio tapes be made of the scripts of the slide les- sons, thus insuring that the same lesson or lecture is pre- sented every time. Like the slide projector, the tape may be reversed; if a student misses a point he may rewind the tape to where he understood the lesson.. Audio tapes are long lasting and may be replayed Often without scratches or loss of fidelity. Easily created, tapes can be altered as the course needs change. By re-recording or editing out portions of a taped script, points may be added or deleted. Supplemental tapes can be made for review. 5Carl H. Ketcham and Robert W. Heath, "Teaching .Effectiveness of Sound with Pictures That DO Not Embody the Material being Taught," A V Communications Review, Vol. 10 (March-April 1962), p. 92. 6Walter Arno Wittich and Charles Francis Schuller, Audiovisual Materials: Their Use and Nature (New York: ~ Harper and Row, 19571, p. 22. NO nationally distributed slide and tape series in broadcasting are known to the author. But such programs would have at least four applications: the student lis- tening to tape and viewing slides in a study carrel; and to the teacher in class as a lecture, review, and test. Clearly there is a need to compensate for the lack of studio or laboratory time in broadcasting courses at Michigan State University. Since the slide and tape les- son offers a demonstrable efficient teaching technique, -this thesis develops three slide-tape lessons on broad- _ “casting concepts which, because of their difficulty, typ- ically use large segments of studio and class time. Each lesson should do each of the following: (1) facilitate teaching some difficult concept, (2) be adaptable to a slide series, (3) serve more than one class, and (4) be suitable for individual study in a carrel. The same procedure was followed for each lesson produced: (1) an instructor in broadcasting was interviewed in order to find a tOpic in his subject that met the cri- teria set for the thesis; (2) the literature on that topic was reviewed and (3) an outline for a slide lesson developed; (4) the outline was examined by the instructor and, if it seemed to fit his needs, (5) was then developed into a slide lesson. The second chapter describes details of how the lessons were prepared. And the final chapter reviews what was learned from producing the lessons and suggests other lessons that might be develOped. The lessons themselves are reproduced in appendices. The slides and audio tapes are submitted as part of the thesis and are on.deposit with the Department of Television and Radio.~ CHAPTER II PREPARING THE LESSONS A. Lighting for Television Lighting is one Of the basic concepts in begin- ning television courses. Lighting however, cannot be taught in depth without allowing time for each student to gain some direct exPerience. With only ten weeks available for all instruction during a term, using even one for lighting de- tracts from the teaching of production. This topic, first suggested by Mr. Arthur Weld who teaches basic television production courses, seemed to fit the criteria Of the the- sis.7 For instance, lighting is taught in the first course in television prOduction at Michigan State University and reviewed briefly in the second course. A slide-tape lesson in lighting might be used in Television Staging and Design or in Television Program DevelOpment as well. Following a survey of television production text books as well as lighting publications by Century and Kleigl, a detailed outline proposal was prepared and submitted 7Interview with Arthur Weld, Asst. Professor of' Television, Michigan State University, January 10, 1967. to Mr. Weld (see Appendix A). He agreed the lesson should cover the purposes of lighting, equipment used, general techniques, light plots, and the patch board, all in refer- Ience to the equipment students can use at WMSB-TV. Several initial decisions were necessary before actually writing the lesson. Despite its increased cost-- about twice that Of black—and-white slides--color was chosen because Of the greater impact it makes on students. The time for the presentation was limited to one hour; and though not a firm barrier, the eighty-slide capacity of trays used in the Kodak Carousel slide projectors which the Uni- versity uses was taken to suggest a rough guide for the number of slides prepared. Within these broad limits, then, the lesson was develOped from the outline, first by writing a script and story board for the slides, and then deter- mining the pictures needed to illustrate the lesson. A knowledge of photography is extremely helpful, if only to describe requirements to a professional photo- grapher. With a 35 millimeter single lens reflex camera: almost anyone could take most of the pictures used in this lesson. While a basic course in photography (such as Education 381 C at Michigan State University) provides the knowledge necessary, one really need only to follow the instructions that come with the film. A light meter and close-up lens are an added advantage, but not entirely nec- essary. Faculty can also use the services of the Instruc- tional Media Center. I.‘ 10 The lighting lesson utilizes seventy slides. TO obtain these, over 180 pictures were taken, which required about twenty hours.8 Some of the pictures were shot twice and some three or four times..-Sometimes the same scene j o“ ‘ “was shot at twO or more d3 ferent angles and the slide selected which best illustrated the point. And sometimes, unsure of the proper lens Opening, it was necessary to shoot the same picture at two different f-stOps. The film was develOped and the process of organizing and choosing the slides began. The studios of WMSB-TV were used.9 No neon tele- vision light was available, so a neon tube was photographed at a local restaurant pOpular with students. Second and third sets of slides of a Michigan State coed were needed to produce usable illustrations. The worn signs on the lighting patch board photographed were not relettered since “they portray the board students will actually use. After the best slides were chosen, two COpies of each were reproduced commercially (twenty-five cents per slide in quantities of one hundred or more). The slides were then arrangediJIa carousel tray and viewed while read- ing the script. Occasionally the script was changed to better suit the slide shown. With the slides in order and the script proofread,an audio tapecflfthe script was made. 8All three lessons were photographed by David M. Smith, David Kelley and Edward Wozniac. 9With the COOperation of Mr. Richard Brundell, Production Supervisor.- ll Two handouts have been prepared, one for the stu- ‘Tdent and one for the instructor. The student guide, handed out one or two classes before the program, helps him pre- pare in advance for the lesson and to follow-up the ideas presented. It tells the student what to do before the class, what the lesson is about, the major new vocabulary,‘ what to read after the class, and other activities to pur- sue. If the student follows this guide closely, a one hour program can be expanded into a four or five hour learning experience. This handout could include a sheet of the light symbols to help students make their own light- ing plots. Literature published by different light manu- facturers such as Kleigl or Century, or floor plans with simple sets plotted for the students to light, might be added to the handouts. The teacher's guide contains information about the purpose and intended audience of the lesson, what to do~ ‘before the class, how to show the lesson, follow-up, pos- sible assignments and tests, as well as a full script and lesson outline. B. The Physics of Radio The physics of radio poses one of the greatest dif- ficulties students in a basic radio course encounter, usu- ally because their technical background is inadequate to full understanding. With the cooperation of Mr. Roderick 12 Rightmire, who teaches beginning Braodcasting courses, work on a slide program covering the basic physics of sound and radio was begun. And following a review of= the appropriate chapters in the text used by the TV- Radio Department at Michigan State University, Sidney Head's Foundation of Broadcasting,10 as well as of a mimeographed handout by Michael A. Huntington, entitled The Physics of Radio and Television Broadcasting,11 an outline was developed for the lesson (see Appen- dix B). A story board script was drawn from the out- line with simple drawings of the concepts and many of the titles. To eliminate some of the difficulties encountered in the lesson on lighting, a professional artist was engaged12 and preliminary surveys of art styles, colors and size were made. Actual photographs were unavailable in the prOper relative sizes, and enlargements were too expensive. Multi colored pic- tures with some detail looked very nice on paper, loSidney Head, Broadcasting in America (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1956). 11Michael A. Huntington, The Physics of Radio and Television Broadcasting. A report prepared for the Television and Radio Department of Michigan State University, October, 1963. 12Miss Patricia Cronin of East Lansing, Michigan and Robert O'Brien of Albany, New York. 13 but did not come across as well on the screen. Nor did color add that much to their effectiveness. SO in the end, “I FJ (D W In (I 12 I I II t I III I I ‘ I h . 6 I a II) '4 III III 0 p 0 III II) I I OI the easiest an ~ = upcnsiv‘ ' ‘-’ ' st:- ple line drawings drawn with India ink on ordinary mimeo- graph paper. After deciding on the basic idea for each slide, a rough sketch was prepared from which the artist drew the final pictures. Several technical matters influenced the develop ment of the art work. For example, since’the slides might L... / .40 ’ Abe used in a telegised course!,ene had to allow wider mar- gins'than'the lens of a 35mm camera alone would require. Certainly in such a project one learns many things from ex- perience. But in many other particular, such as the grey scale, number of words per slide, color contrasts and amount of detail, a good text such as Jerrold E. Kemp's, Planning and Producing Audiovisual Materialsl3 should be consulted.. The need to prepare two copies of each slide intro- duced several additional considerations important to any instructor creating his own slide lessons. The-initial slides were duplicated on a Honeywell Repronar, simply.a 35mm camera mounted on a stand with the lens pointed at a base, illuminating the slide from underneath--it costs about $350.00. Great savings can be effected by purchasing 35mm film Dione hundred foot reels and rolling oneb own cas- settes of twenty or thirty-six exposures for use in a standard 13Jerrold E. Kemp, Planning and Producing Audio Visual Materials (San Francisco: Chandler, 1963). w' 14 a 35mm camera. And additional savings are possible in the mounting. When film comes back from the developer, usually in strips Of six pictures, the frames must be cut into sep- arate pictures, which are mounted in a cardboard holder, then sealed by a hot iron: it takes about an hour to cut and mount sixty slides. Still, unless a great many slides are needed for the course, one does best to use the ser- vices Of an Instructional Resources Center for developing, duplicating and mounting the slides. In matching slides to script, each slide was labeled with either a simplified drawing of the illustrations or a key word. They were then numbered in the upper right hand corner to help the teacher place the slide in the carousel the right way. Now the lesson was read while showing the slides. And with just a few wording changes, the lesson was complete. On final review, the lesson's generality seemed entirely unavoidable. Perhaps its main purpose is really to teach the elements of‘a vocabulary, whereby M_management.canecommunicate>with'engineers. At any rate, the“les;on is just a beginning, and through the handout, _students may go on to further study. C. Programming for ETV Unless he takes a specific course in it, the aver- age broadcasting student has little knowledge of television programming. Without any doubt the subject is a complicated one. But surely a brief orientation to program sources is _—" . 15 possible with the aid of slides. With the advice of Dr. Robert Schlater a slide lesson limited to ETV prOgrams was planned which could be included in either basic or advanced classes in production or in a programming class. The basic outline of the program was developed with the assistance I of the WMSB-TV Program Director, Miss Kay Ingram, and then presented as a proposal to Dr. Schlater. . Next, recent program slides on file at WMSB-TV were searched14 and slides selected to illustrate programming. The slides chosen, the lesson was written. Some new slides had to be drawn to provide unity between those already available, and three cOpies of each new slide were made. Back issues of the WMSB-TV program guide provided informa- about the specific programs shown in the slides, and fur- ther information was obtained from the teleVision listings _ in the KanSas.City Star, the’Milwaukee Journal, the Los Angeles Times and the Seattle Times among others. After the programs were arranged by general topic, the script was organized around them. Aside from getting adequate infor- mation about the programs aired, the biggest problem in. preparing this lesson was getting copies quickly enough of program slides in current use, since ETV stations often use their slide sequences weekly or more Often. 14With the cooperation of Mr. Fred Kollof, Director of Traffic, WMSB-TV. 16 Once the slides were matched with were labeled and numbered, and then filed tray. Since the lesson on programming is intended as an illustration rather than a - For this reason, no guides for instructor included. the script, they in a carousel topical, it is formal lesson. or students are CHAPTER III CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Chapter II examined the process and some of the problems which making a series of slide lessons involves. Aspect ratios, color choices, lettering and other segments of production take on more vivid meaning. And of course, _ one learns how to coordinate a number of people's efforts, as in any collective project. The three lessons offered in this thesis suggest related topics lending themselves to other lessons.of the -Lsame type. The lesson on lighting could lead to a detailed series on lighting a rear projection screen, using cameo light, reading a light meter, or repairing a spot light; one might prepare lessons on the physics of television, the operation of an I-O tube, the director's switchboard, the master control board; the film chain; and the ETV pro- gramming lessOn suggests others covering traffic, continuity, public relations, production co-ordination, sales, purchas- ing and management. An important aspect of any project is its cost. If one plans to do his own art work, use colOr film and take the pictures, the cost for a slide-tape lesson should average about a dollar a slide. This figure includes the 17 18 extra slides taken but not used, developing costs and taping. Slides can be duplicated from originals commercially at about thirty cents apiece. If more than one set is made, the original slides should be retained, as duplicates made from cOpies are seldom of usable quality. Another major consideration is preparation time. This depends entirely upon the subject chosen and how many Epeople are working on the project. As a guide, however, the lesson on lighting took a total of about one hundred twenty hours of the author's time, including research. And considering the help given by others in preparing the title slides, taking pictures and taping the script, the total man-hours were far greater. TO summarize then, the basic steps involved in developing a slide tape lesson are: 1. Select a subject and review the literature available. 2. Decide the source for pictures. 3. Define the purpose Of the lesson: what do you want students to learn? Who is the audience? Shall the lesson be general or detailed. 4. Develop a very general outline for the lesson ‘which will undoubtedly be changed as the lessonv develops. 5. From the outline build a story board which is a script with a roughly drawn picture for each main topic; construct the storbeoard with small index I 10. ll. 19 cards, using separate cards for picture and story. Write a smooth-flowing narrative script so the lesson can be edited before taking any pictures. Choose the pictures to be taken, preferably using real objects or, if this is impossible, have ‘ \f drawings made. Set up a schedule for the photography, arranging the shots by location. Use the correct film for indoor and outdoor shots. Take enough pictures of the subject so that the best can be chosen to illustrate the same idea. After the pictures are developed, place them in~ a tray and project them while reading the script: this is a good point to seek critical advice. After corrections are made, produce a tape of the script. The best way to prepare a lesson, in fact, is prob- .lgably to follow“§ carefullyfpfgnned out series of steps. In this way, not only time but also money will be saved. APPENDIX A LIGHTING FOR TELEVISION 21 PROPOSAL FOR AN AUDIOVISUAL LESSON: LIGHTING FOR TELEVISION This lesson seeks to teach the techniques, equip- —rment1 andklangugge of teléGision lighting. At the conclu- sion, the student should be able to draw a simple light plot including symbols for lights and a patching list, to know basic lighting equipment and its general capabilities, and to understand basic lighting terms. I. Purposes of Lighting A. Technical B. Artistic II. .Lighting Equipment A. Light Sources 1. Incandescent Filament 2. Incandescent Gas 3. Carbon Arc B. Directional Light 1. Fresnel Spot 2. Ellipsoidal Spot 3. Internal Reflector C. Diffused Light 1. The Scoop 2. Floodlight Bank 3. Fluorescent Bank 4. Strip Lights D., Lighting Mounts 1. C-Clamp Grid Catwalks Pantograph Floorstand ecial Equipment Barn Doors Scrims Patterns I111 e wmeUTRbUL-IN eee'dee III. IV. 22 Lighting Techniques A. Basic Lights 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Key Lights Back Fill Background Others Light Plots A. Symbols B. Patch Boards 1. 2. 3O Patching Loads Capabilities 23 Lighting For Television Video Audio Sfide#l When Gilbert Seldes was TV program manager for CBS in New York, he once said, "Lighting has two functions in television: one is to make it possible; the other is to make it interesting." Slide #2 In this lesson we shall exam- ine television lighting. This is only a start. Because different stations use differ- ent lighting strategies and employ different terms, we cannot go into much detail. ==~wwe. SO we will discuss lighting after the practice of WMSB-TV at Michigan State University. The mimeographed outline will help you take better notes. ide #3 Lighting is necessary to illuminate the set. Engineers would say that the proper Slide #4 Slide #5 24 light level enables a camera to produce a good electronic JILSignal. A three inch I-O - .5 .r’." . -"»"" ,- camera, for instance, requires about 125 foot candles. Before we can work with lights on a program set, we must know the equipment we have available to us and its capabilities. There are three basic sources of light: the incandescent filament, incandescent gas and the carbon arc. Thomas Edison built the first light bulb, an incandescent filament. In modern filament lamps, electricity passing through a wire generates heat, causing it to glow and produce light. Since the incandescent filament light is the most flexible and easiest to control, it provides the most common television light source. Incandescent filaments are so idk? #7’ Slide #6 25 popular, in fact, that other light sources have little but historical interest for us today. Neon signs illustrate a second basic source of light: incan- descent gas. Gas lamps using mercury vapor were quite pop- ular in the early days of television. But because Of their long warm-up period, the bluish tinge Of their light, and the noise they pro- duce, mercury vapor lamps are seldom used today. Fluores- cent lights were developed from the mercury gas light; but they too are little used in television today. Carbon arc lights used in the- ater and advertising spot lights have an intense beam, a.vary'white light.produced by a spark jumping between two sticks of carbon. Early 26 telecasters experimented with carbon arcs, but generally they have been replaced by more practical and versatile light sources. Slide #8 Lighting fixtures themselves I fall into two categories: first, the floodlight, or spot, or hard light. These throw a directional beam and cast hard shadows. Slide #9 Second is the indirect, or diffused or soft light. These are generally shadowless and cast an undefined light. Slide #10 . Three styles Of hard light are in common use. The most fre- quently used is the fresnal spot, or any spotlight using a fresnal lens; This lens has concentric, circular raised grooves cut in the surface. They form the light into a soft edged beam, allowing 27 overlapping Of light beams without bright spots. Slide #11 The width of the beam can be controlled by moving the bulb and reflector, usually by turning a crank at the base of the lamp. Moving the lamp unit to the front of the housing, next to the lens, produces a wide beam. As the bulb and reflector unit moves toward the rear of the lamp, the beam becomes smaller or is "spotted-down." Slide #12 ;_ ,2/ : ., .-~;;>-"A second hard light, the s " '- - ellipsoidal spot, produces an intense directional beam. Since the lamp is placed I behind the focal point of the lens rather than in front of it as in the fresnal spot, cut- outs may be inserted intO the unit to project sharp outline shadows on the set. ide #13 Slide #14 Slide #15 28 The third type Of spot light commonly used in television is the internal reflector bulb. Since it has its own built-in reflecting unit it needs no housing or lenses. It is usually screwed into a spring clamp socket which can be mounted almost anywhere. Internal reflector bulbs are typically 150 watts and may be plugged into any AC socket. A second broad class of fix- tures is the soft, or diffused, lights. Most common is the scoop, though three others are used occasionally: the flood- 1ight bank, the fluorescent bank, and the strip light. Basically the SOOOp is a flood- light with a very wide beam. The bulb, of from 750 to 2,000 jwatts, is housed in a reflector __;unit whose shape gives it its name. Many studios use an Slide #16 Slide #17 Slide #18 29 18 inch scoop with a 1,000 watt bulb. For a floodlight bank, a series of internal reflector bulbs are mounted on a frame. Such a grouping can light large areas without sharp shadows. But since these banks cannot throw light very far and are bulky and heavy, they receive little use in television today. The fluorescent bank consists of four or more tubes mounted on a box with a reflecting surface, generally used as fill light. But because of their bulkiness and flickering light, fluorescent banks also receive little use today. Strip lights can easily be made at a station shop by mounting a row Of light bulb sockets on a board, Often covered with an aluminum reflector. But-since they 30 produce relatively little light, the strip light is seldom used except as a ground row around the cycorama or background curtain. Slide #19 - Every light requires a mounting and something to_mount it on. The basic mount is the c-clamp having a large bolt to secure the lamp to a grid or floor- stand. Slide #20 Lights are typically mounted on an overhead grid suspended 10 to 20 feet above the studio floor. Pipes, 1 l/2 to 2 l/2 inches in diameter arranged rfour feet apart, allow placing “‘-,/~ :1 4* : .. .wesfé lamp Within two feet Of any '2” I point in the grid. Each pipe is marked for easy identifica- tion, by letter in one direc- tion and by number in the other. Slide #21 Catwalks, used in many large studios, are built around the Slide #22 Slide #23 Slide #24 31 sides Of the studio and some- times through the middle. Smaller studios simply place narrow planks On the grid to allow lighting personnel to reach any desired point on the grid. This arrangement Of levers, called a pantograph, allows the light to be raised or lowered to any desired leve 1 below the grid. Pantographs come in many sizes and are used for other purposes such as hanging monitors or scenery. Floorstands allow one to mount lights much lower than the grid; they usually telescop e so the level may be adjusted. One drawback is that the wiring for the lamp, usually to the floor, limits camera moveme A number of supplemental devices. are employed with lights. nt. The x. I" ) ”‘— Slide #25"‘ .ca' Slide #26 Slide #27 Slide #28 32 ones most commonly used in =television work are barn doors, 'diffusers, and patterns. o-fi The barn door serves to nar- row a spotlight beam. Adjusting these metal flaps can eliminate the spill of light onto an area where no light is wanted. Barn doors can also provide special effects on the set such as this sunlight slash. The diffuser, a sheet Of spun glass sometimes called a scrim, is placed across a scoop to cut down on the inten- sity of the light. Some.stu- dios use frosted bulbs in place of diffusers. Patterns, used with the ellip- soidal lamp, simply outline the edge Of a light beam for special effects. They can easily be cut from tin to any shape desired. Slide #29 Slide #30 ‘Slide #31 33 This pattern gives the effect Of sunlight through a lattice work window. You now know enough about lights to begin learning lighting techniques. In terms Of its function in lighting a set, every light has a name. There are four basic lights in every studio; a key, a back, a fill, and a background light. The key light is the first light to be positioned. The main source of illumination, it is highly directional. Though a "junior" or 1500 watt fresnal is most often used, a "baby", or 750 watt fresnal may be substituted. A junior is placed 8 to 16 feet away from the subject, while babies are placed 4 to 8 feet away. Light placement is primarily a matter of taste, and must be Slide #32 Slide #33 Slide #34 Slide #35 "—"-’ r/ 34 learned through experience and experiment. Usually a key light is placed above the subject at about a 45 degree angle to the floor. Here the subject is lit with a junior, the 1500 watt fresnal, placed about eight feet away. Some studios favor cross keys, or using two key lights for one subject. Each is still placed at about a 45 degree angle to the floor, and gen- erally pointed at the subject. Notice the two shadows under this subject's chin. Such unnatural shadows are one rea- son why some stations avoid -cross keying. ntT e second light to be posi- tioned is the back light usu- ally placed behind and above the subject, again at a 45 degree angle to the floor. Slide #36 Slide #37 Slide #38 Slide #39 35 Backlights are usually babies or juniors, though seldom as hot or bright as the key. Keeping a two to one ratio between the brightness of the key and back lights is a good general practice. Notice how the back light high- lights the subject's hair and shoulders. Fill lights are the third to be positioned. Since they are soft lights, usually scoops, they cast no distinct shadows Of their own. Here the scoop has been placed to illuminate the dark areas Icaused by the shadows from the key light. Once the subject is lit, we must light the background, usually with scoops. To evenly light the cyc, we have placed three scoops on the grid about .‘.n-..- -v-"v I—w . «-rvv fl *4--'-.—.- ”d.“ wfiw a... ’— -..~-.—~. 36 four feet apart and about three feet from the cyc. Slide #40 - In studios with a regular pro- duction schedule, lights are set from a light plot. From one simple sheet like this, we can set an entire show. This plot indicates the types of lights, their placement, directions, diffusion infor- mation, and patch numbers. Slide #41 From left to right are the symbols for a junior, a baby, and a scoop. A junior is drawn slightly larger than a baby, with a line placed in front Of it. Slide #42 The line in front of the scoop represents a diffuser. The lines to the sides of the baby - indicate barn doors. Slide #43 At WMSB, floor plots are mimeo- graphed On 8 1/2" by 14" sheets of paper to a scale of 1/4 37 inch to one foot. Since the pipe grids are four feet apart, the light plot shows one inch squares. Slide #44 A wavy line around the plot represents the cyc tract. Slide #45 _ Notice the coding of each grid .with a letter or a number. 4f I .. -”fi‘This aids in setting lights on a permanent set. One man can be on the ladder setting lights while another calls out the placement. Slide #46 A baby at 4-B would indicate that a 750 watt fresnal spot is to be placed at the junc- tion of grid 4 and grid B. Slide #47 A junior drawn a little to the left of F on 3 designates a 1500 watt fresnal spot on grid 3 to the camera left of F. Usually, a number, such as 40, is called at the time the light is placed. This Slide #48 Slide #49 Slide #50 Slide #51 38 means that the light has been plugged into socket 40. Where a program is produced regularly with the same set, the studio may place pieces of tape on the grid to mark the exact location of each light. On the back of the floor plan is a key. Each Of the major floor areas has a color code. There is also a space for lighting notes on set and dress requirements. Since it is Often hard to tell which chair is to be used, for instance, such properties are coded with numbers on the front of the plot and described in these notes on the back. Additions made to the set for a single production mabee' drawn on an onion skin overlay and attached to the plot for the particular show. Slide #52 Slide #53 Slide #54 Slide#55 39 SO long as two corner coordi- nates, such as G1, are drawn on the overlay, it can be lined up properly with the light plot. If plots are covered with a clear plastic adhesive sheet, they may be marked with a grease pencil and erased with- out damage tO the plot. This helps in crossing out lights when parts of the set are not in use. This is a light plot for the WMSB-TV production of "Land of Play." Notice the symbols for Juniors, Babies, Scoops, and Patch connections. They are listed in your handout. Another regularly scheduled program is "Spartan Sport- light.“ Notice the numbering of props and the color coding -- Of the light symbols. If the Slide #56 Slide #57 Slide #58 Slide #59 40 "interview set" is not used, the green lights are not placed. ‘ \‘ Each socket on the grid has a number which corresponds to a number on the patch board. Despite its size, the board is not as frightening to Oper- \ ate as it'looks. The tOp of this patch board has sockets numbered from 1 to 75. Each number corresponds to a socket on the light grid. ’On the lower section of the Jbgard are six white handles, v'a called dimmers, numbered from one to six. Pushing up on- any handle allows more power to flow to the lights connected to that dimmer; and the lights become brighter. Dimmer handles should always be moved slowly and carefully. Although the patch board may look like a piece of rugged Slide #60 Slide #61 Slide #62 Slide #63 41 machinery, rough handling can easily damage it. Above each dimmer handle are four sockets for the patch cords, each with its own switch just below. These switches too are identified by numbers. SO, since the board has six dimmers, there are twenty-four dimmer sockets for patching in lights to be dimmed. This does not mean we can plug any four lights into one dim- mer. The maximum load for each dimmer is 3600 watts, which is why it is important to know the wattage Of each lamp. Each dimmer handle has a power switch below it which controls all four sockets of that dimmer. Thus, after the dimmers have been set to any position, they need not be moved to turn Off the board. Slide #64- Slide #65 Slide #66 42 One master switch controls all the power that goes into the board. But before throwing the master switch: (1) all dimmers must be down tO blackout, and (2) 'all switches must be Off. How is the patch board used? Suppose a key light is plugged into socket 27 on the grid. To turn it on you would (1) turn on the master switch, (2) plug a patch cord in socket 27 on the top Of the board, (3) patch the other end of the cord into a socket on the bot- tom of the board, (4) throw on K \— the switch for that socket, (5) throw on the switch for the dimmer which that socket is connected to, and (6) slowly push up the dimmer handle. The light is now on. __— H-r flrfif-‘fl ' Q Slide #67 Slide #68 Slide #69 43 The board also has six non- dimmer sockets which are patched the same as dimmer switches. The only difference is that the brightness of the lamp cannot be controlled. Now suppose there is a scoop on the cyc which is to be used at full power. We can patch it into either a dimmer or a non-dimmer circuit. If the scoop is plugged into outlet 25 on the grid and the master switch is on, (1) plug a patch cord into socket 25 on the top of the board, (2) plug the other end of the patch cord into any socket on the non-dim section of the board, (3) throw on the switch for that socket, and (4) throw on the non-dim switch. The light is now on. A space is provided on the back Of the light plot for writing in the patches. This one for Slide #70 44 "Spartan Sportlight" reads as follows: Patch the lights that are plugged into sockets 45 and 39 on the grid into sockets for dimmer 1. _They are the key lights for Terry Braverman, a co-host of the program. ‘. This is how this patch would look on a patch board. You should now be able to place the prOper lights on a grid by following a floorplan, and then patch those lights on a board. With this lesson and your assigned study, you will have "learned enough to do simple » .fi lighting work in most studios. .LIGHTING FOR TELEVISION STUDENTS' GUIDE 46 This handout is designed to help you better under- stand the basic principles of lighting. Because of the shortness of studio time we cannOt-use the facilities of WMSB as much as we’would.likefagTherefOre, this slide pre- sentatiOn has been develOped to teach you what to expect when you do get into a studio. The lesson is designed around WMSB-TV facilities. But most of the practices described are followed at other stations as well. However, just as some stations call a tilt down a pan down in camera work, some light men call a diffuser a scrim. Some light the set first before the talent. Lighting, like directing, varies with individual taste. That is why this slide program confines itself to general principles. It is intended to give you a good background for working with an experienced lighting crew. 47 RF ORE THE CLAS S Skim the chapter on lighting in one of the following ooks: Bretz, Rudy, Techniques Of Television Production, McGraw Hill, 1962, pp. 332-337. Zettl, Herbert, Television Production Handbook, Wadsworth, Third Printing, 1964, pp. 84-116. >UTLINE OF TOPICS IN LESSON I. Purposes of Lighting II. Sources of Light III. Types of Lights A. Hard Lights B. Soft Lights C. Accessories IV. Lighting Techniques V. Light Plots _ VI. Dimmer Boards JOCABULARY LIST Baby Fresnel Lens Back Light Junior Barn Doors Key Light c-Clamp Non-Dimmer Socket Cross Keys Pantograph Dimmer Patch Cord Elipsiodal Patterns Fill Light Scoop Floor Stand READ INGS Study both texts listed above. differ. Notice how they SUGGESTED ACT IVITIES '1. 2. Visit WMSB while the crew is lighting a show.- On a floor plan, draw a lighting plot for a simple set. INSTRUCTOR'S GUIDE: LIGHTING FOR TELEVISION 49 PURPOSES To teach the student: the purposes Of lighting the four basic sources Of light, the basic lighting fixtures, the basic light accessories, the symbols for the lights, to be able to read a light plot, to be able to patch the light board. AUDIENCE / Television-Radio 350x61ass. .c". 2’ . , 'c BEFORE THE CLASS An assignment in a text should be read for general knowledge of lighting. A packet consisting of the stu- dents guide, a blank floor plan, a completed floor plan of "Land Of Play," and a drawing Of the basic patches should be included. GROUP DISCUSSION 1. What is the purpose of lighting? 2. What types of lights are used? 3. What terms are used? 4. How many lights are needed? FOLLOW-UP 1. Set up problems on a floor plan using trans- parencies on an overhead projector. Have stu- dents try plotting light. 2. Plan out patching for the students' solutions. ASSIGNMENTS Have student read the chapters on lighting in any of the following: Millerson, Gerald, The Techniques of Television Production, Hastings House, Third EditiOn, 1941’ pp. 61-92. Zettl, Herbert, Television Production Handbook, Wadsworth, Third Printing, 1964, pp. 84-116. 50 Bretz, Rudy, Techniques of Television Production, McGraw-Hill, 1962, pp. 332-377. 3THER USES 1. This leeson may be used for a quick review in advanced television courses. 2. The slides may be used for testing purposes. 3. If a student misses a class he may View the lesson with a script or tape on his own time. APPENDIX B THE PHYSICS OF RADIO 52 PROPOSAL FOR AN AUDIOVISUAL LESSON: THE PHYSICS OF RADIO This lesson seeks to teach the basics of sound and radio waves and the physical principles underlying AM and FM. At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to explain how radio waves are transmitted, the difference between,AM and FM, wand the considerations influencing the ,. .2: choice of broadcast antenna location and coverage. I. Sound A. Pitch B. Amplitude II. Radio Waves . Frequency Propagation Ground Waves Sky Waves Direct Waves Modulation l. amplitude 2. frequency 'UIFJUOUJID' III. Characteristics of AM A. AM Band Assignment B. Interference C. Coverage IV. Characteristics Of PM A; FM Band B. Advantages and Disadvantages "f""—-‘ w-¢.--Hw w-\.‘-' 53 The Physics Of Radio Video Audio Slide #1 A sound is a vibration of air __ which you can hear. And any sound has at least two charac- teristics: pitch and loudness. Let us define each of these separately. Slide #2 Pitch, or tone, remains con- stant whether the sound is loud or soft. The pitch of any sound, a musical tone for exam- ple, is determined by the num- ber Of vibrations per second of the air reaching the ear, which in turn depends on the number of vibrations in what- ever produces the sound. The more vibrations per second, the higher the pitch. For an illustration, picture a gong. A large gong has a lower pitch than a small gong because it is bigger and heavier, and- thus vibrates more slowly. Slide #3 ‘” Slide #4,; Slide #5 54 The harder we hit the gong, the louder it will sound. The pitch will remain the same, but the force of the sound on the ears will change. Loudness is also known as amplitude. = .5 .~.. 0 The strings Of a harp or a piano provide another illus- tration of pitch and amplitude. No matter how we pluck the same string we will get the same pitch. But as we pluck it more or less violently, we get a louder or softer sound; its amplitude varies. Until there is a vibration of air, we cannot hear a sound. But vibrations can travel through other Objects besides air. Water, wood, and steel, for example, are conductors Of sound. In fact, the only thing sound cannot travel through is a vacuum; any solid, liquid or gas can transmit vibrations to some extent . Slide #6 55 \ \' But whether in air or in some other substance, the vibrations are not usually slow enough to see. For, primarily, these vibrations are passed from particle to particle within the substance. Since there are no molecules in a perfect vacuum, the energy cannot be transferred. Set up a row Of wooden blocks, such as dominos, .sO that when one falls it will .;»Ef§ over the next one. When you push the first block, it will tip over the second; the second will tip over the third, and so on down the line. Energy is being transferred from one block to the next. Sound waves. are transferred in the same manner . We say sound travels in waves. If you strike a tuning fork and dip it in a beaker Of water, the vibrations of the fork make ripples in the water. The same Slide #7 Slide #8 Slide #9 56 thing happens to the air. We can draw the wave motion Of the air and the water in this way. When the tuning fork vibrates on a water surface, it first pushes the water into a crest which then falls below the surface level of the water. And as the tuning fork con-' tinues to vibrate, a succes- sion of crests and troughs are produced on the surface. If we placed a cork in the beaker Of water, we could see it bob up and down, showing the waves moving through the water . But what are radio waves? Are they actual vibrations too? The major difference is that radio waves move much faster than sound. Radio waves travel at the speed Of light or Of electricity, at 186,000 Slide #10 Slide #11 57 miles per second. This means radio waves travel about nine hundred thousand times faster than sound. Another difference between sound and radio waves is the way they travel. Sound requires a substance to transfer its energy: it cannot travel through a vacuum. But radio waves require no medium at all. If they did, radio messages could not be transmitted from space satellites. Even so radio waves have their dis- advantages; among other things, for instance, they are affected by temperature and the water content of the atmosphere. Let us go back to using a water surface as an analogy for air. Remember the way we drew a wave. Such a wave has two important characteristics, amplitude and wavelength. Slide #12 Slide #13 Slide #14 Slide #15 58 In this illustration, amplitude is the distance from point Y to ' point Z. It represents the strength of the wave, the loud- ness Of the sound. The greater the distance between Y and Z, the louder the sound. Wavelength is the distance between A and B: it is defined as a cycle. Frequency is the number of cycles coming each second; it corresponds to the pitch Of a sound. Remember that frequency involves time in seconds and the number of cycles that appear in that time. Each frequency has its own wavelength. As frequency increases, wave- length decreases. For example, at 100 kilohertz, meaning one hundred thousand cycles per second, the wavelength is about one mile, but at 10,000 megahertz, meaning 10,000 million or ten Slide #16 Slide #17 Slide #18 59 billion cycles per second, the wavelength is just about One inch. The movement of radio waves through space is called prop- agation. And there are three types of propagation: gound waves, sky waves, and direct waves. 'L Ground waves are so called because they follow the cur- vature of the earth, that is, they actually bend. In the lowest frequency range, ground waves have quite long wave- lengths. They are in the range in which AM radio Oper- ates. The lowest frequencies Of the ground waves, unfortunately, pick up a great deal of atmo- . ‘C a .— spheric noise. But the prob- lem can be overcome by using very high power transmitters, an expensive solution. 60 Slide #19 _ Sky waves, found in the 200 kilohertz to 30 megahertz range, are so called because of the effect the sky has on the waves. Beginning about 30 miles above the earth, there is a thick layer of our atmo- sphere called the ionosphere. At night, when it is cool, this layer reflects transmis- sions in the sky wave frequen- cies. This does not happen during the day, nor is the effect always constant at night. Sky wave service will, therefore, vary. And such waves may not cover the same area all the time. On the other hand, they allow wide coverage at a much lower cost than with lower frequency ground waves. Slide #20 Direct waves are Of such high frequency that they travel only in straight lines. These include FM and television, as Slide #21 61 well as the highest AM frequen- cies. These waves do not bend, but can be reflected off from dense Objects. Thus, they can be directed with great accuracy, even in just a single direction, which allows control of signal strength. Such waves have no noise interference. To understand the difference between AM and FM radio, we must understand the concept of modulation. Radio stations send out in broadcasting a single wave of a set frequency and strength known as a car- rier wave. The reason you do ’ not hear just a steady tone '1‘ a "during a broadcast is because the station can take the jum- ble of frequencies which makes up a concert, for instance, and impose it on the carrier wave, changing or modulating some part of it a little. Your radio unscrambles that ".'*W '1 .v- w 0-. -. _____________—— -mm-w— . pew—won- ~VO-N“ ." V‘ Slide #22 62 sequence of sounds, ignoring the carrier wave, and you have the concept. Amplitude modulation, or AM, involves changing the amplitude or loudness of a wave, or in our diagram, the height of the wave. Here the top line, A, shows sound waves produced in a radio studio. The second line, B, shows the carrier radio wave, having a set fre- quency. Once the radio wave is sent out, its amplitude can be modulated or altered according to the sound being transmitted, as shown in C. But FM, or frequency modulation, logically enough, involves modulating the frequency of a carrier wave in step with vari- ations in sound. Here the top figure shows sound waves. In the middle are unmodulated carrier waves. And on the bottom is the modulated car- rier wave. Slide #23 Slide #24 Slide #25 63 Many students think there should be a connection between the frequency of the original sound to be transmitted and the frequency of the carrier wave. Don't confuse these two factors; they are completely independent. Remember that we are imposing a sound wave on a carrier wave. Any sound wave can be imposed in this way regardless Of the carrier wave's frequency. Let us now look at some Of the characteristics of the AM and FM bands. Amplitude-modulated broadcasting is allocated by law to these _frequencies between 535 and 1605 kilohertz. This band is divided into a number of chan- nels, each occupying a band width of ten cycles. Stations Operate from the middle of the‘ band. This is why the frequen- cies on the dial begin at 540 Slide #26 Slide #27 Slide #28 64 instead of 535. Thus, there are 107 channels available on the AM band. Dials are usually marked off in kilohertz, such as 760 which is WJR, Detroit, or 1240 which is WJIM, Lansing. Some- times the 1ast digit is dropped, so We may find "77" instead .1"; ‘SE'"770" on the dial. The term used in identifying station location on the dial is allocation, or the desig- nation Of specific bands for specific stations. One Of the main problems int assigning radio channels is interference between stations. This is seldom a problem with local stations. But if you wanted to listen to WJR, which broadcasts at 760 kilohertz, and instead you heard rock and roll, station WABC from New York, which broadcasts at 770 Slide #29 Slide #30 65 kilohertz, is interfering. This is called adjacent chan- nel interference. To help eliminate adjacent channel interference, stations in the same geographical areas are separated by at least 40 kilohertz on the dial. If a station-is broadcasting at 1000 kilohertz, the nearest frequency any other station in that area can be assigned is 960 or 1040 kilohertz. Interference can also result from co—channel stations. This happens when a listener is located between two stations broadcasting on the same fre- -_ fi ”ghency. For example: WILS, Lansing and WDMJ, Marquette are both assigned to 1320 kilo- hertz. If you are listening to WILS on your car radio and driving north, WILS will begin to fade, and, under the right Slide #31 Slide #32 Slide #33 Slide #34 66 conditions, you will pick up WDMJ before you lose WILS. The only way to prevent co- channel interference is to ensure that stations using the same frequency are widely sep- arated geographically. Among many factors, a station's AM coverage depends primarily on the conductivity of the soil, power, and frequency. You've seen many radio towers. The tower is only half of the antenna system: the second half lies below the ground. The antenna on the tower is the radiating element. It's height is mathematically related the station's frequency. Usually the higher the fre- quency, the taller the tower. But the second part of the antenna system lies hidden under the ground. It consists of heavy copper wires radiating out from the antenna. Slide #35 Slide #36 67 The strength of ground waves depends upon the soil in which the antenna wires are buried. Swampy ground or a salt flat usually is best, while a dry, sandy soil is the poorest con- ductor. Signal strength mea- surements by the FCC reveal that a signal from a 250 watt station with an antenna in a highly conductive soil can cover an area as great as a 50,000 watt station with an antenna in a poor soil. The power of the station's transmitter is the second limit to its AM coverage. Power is usually measured in -watts or kilowatts. Given comparable conditions, of course, the more powerful the station is, the greater area ‘ it will cover. Few people realize, however, that for a station to double its coverage, it has to increase its power Slide #37 Slide #38 Slide #39 . ‘I‘ 68 four fold. For example, to double coverage a 500 watt station would have to increase its power to 8,000 watts. The last factor affecting cov- erage is frequency. Generally speaking, as frequency increases, the area of coverage decreases 'if other factors remain the - .5 same 0 Limited by all these factors, stations in same localities cover many different patterns. These areas of coverage,called contors, are mapped out to help the FCC in station assign- ment and also to help stations sell advertising. The FCC has many ways to con-- trOl interference between eta-- tions such as decreasing its power or making it sign Off at sunset to reduce sky wave inter- ference. Directional antennas may be used to direct the Slide #40 Slide #41 Slide #42 Slide #43 69 station's waves in a specified pattern, away from areas of interference. Clearly station allocation is a complicated proceedure. The FCC divides the 107 chan- nels on the AM dial into three classes: clear, regional, and local. And it distinguishes among sta- tions according to their power. These classes become very com- plicated, as we shall see. But there is no need to memo- rize the figures. Power classifications corre- pond for the most part to chan- nel classification. Class II stations use a clear channel, however they are secondary stations on that channel. By FCC regulations, class II stations must not interfere with the primary station on that channel. 70 The secondary station usually Operates only in the daytime. If it Operates at night, it has either very low power, or a directional antenna, or both. Slide #44 Class I is a clear channel, and includes fifty-nine chan- nels. These channels are used to provide services to the remote areas of the country. Only powerful 50,000 watt sta- tions occupy these clear chan- nels. Because of the need for more stations, however, class I channels‘are now divided into sub-groups: class IA, and class I. Slide #45 The 24 IA channels, with only one night time station, include the older and more famous sta- tions such as KDKA in Pittsburg,V WGY in Schenectady, and WFAA in Fort Worth. Slide #46 Slide #47 Slide #48 Slide #49 71 \ \ Each of the other I channels have two powerful stations Operating on the frequency at distant places in the country. There are 41 class III or regional channels and six class IV or local channels. Because of their lower power, many stations may be found on these bands. The other major class of radio 'broadcasting is frequency mod- -,.:" ulation. FM stations Operate on the very high frequency band of 88 to 108 megahertz. There are one hundred channels on this band, each with a width of 200 kilohertz. FM has a distinct advantage over AM in that it is static free. Because of their high frequency, FM broadcast waves travel only in line of sight: there are no sky waves, which simplifies station allocation Slide #50 Slide #51 72 and stabilizes coverage. Since the frequency range of FM is greater than AM, it can broad- cast higher fidelity signal. But there are disadvantages to PM as well. Because of its line of sight coverage, FM serves a smaller area than AM can. Until recently, another disadvantage was that many FM stations carried the same pro- gram schedule as their AM sis- ter stations. Now the FCC prevents this in the top one hundred markets, ruling that FM stations in these markets must not duplicate AM coverage more than fifty per cent of the time. This general review of the physics of radio has provided a number of terms and concepts you will all need to know. But the assigned and supple- mentary readings listed in the 73 handout Offer you a far greater grasp of the physics of broad- casting than this brief lesson can give. -._‘.. --'—¢--'w—~—v~ w‘ 4‘ - I‘vO—wor r-‘j"' “"“ I STUDENTS GUIDE THE PHYSICS OF RADIO 74 BEFORE THE CLASS Read Chapter 1 and 2 in Head's Broadcasting In America. OUTLINE OF LESSON I. Sound II. Radio Waves III. Characteristics of AM IV. Characteristics of FM VOCABULARY LIST Allocation Loudness Amplitude Modulation Amplitude Modulation Pitch Clear Channel . PrOpagation Direct Waves -_ .= Radio Waves Frequency ' .. Regional Channel Frequency Modulationr Sound Waves= ,x- Ground Waves ‘ Sky Waves "tlonosphere Wavelength Local Channel READING LIST There is no goOd single source on the physics of broadcasting. For further information, examine a general text on physics. INSTRUCTOR'S GUIDE THE PHYSICS OF RADIO 76 PURPOSE To teach the student the basic terms used in broad- cast physics. To explain the principles of how sound is transmitted. To give an understanding of the advan- tages and disadvantages of AM and FM. To know how to evaluate an antenna site. AUDIENCE Freshmen Broadcast majors. BEFORE THE CLASS The assignment in the text should be read and re- read if necessary. Hand out the student guide. VIEWING This lesson may be shown with the teacher giVing ‘ the narration or by using the accompaning taped narration. , The taped narration should be stopped any time there is a question. A printed version of the taped narration is also included. GROUP DISCUSSION 1. Where would you place an antenna? _ 2. What spot on the dial would you prefer? AM or FM? Why? 3. What distant stations have you received? Are they clear or regional channels? SUGGESTED TEXT Head, Broadcasting-in America.q Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1956, Chapters 1 and 2. .w’.’- . - ‘c o ,— 77 OTHER USES OF LESSON Individual slides from this lesson may be used to test students. APPENDIX C PROGRAMMING FOR ETV 79 PROPOSAL FOR AN A/V LESSON: PROGRAMMING This lesson seeks to communicate a number of pro- yreun sources which are available to ETV stations.- Hopefully :he: student will realize that educational stations do not ieed to be dull. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. NET. A. Public Affairs B. Cultural Affairs C. Childrens Programs D. Specials Local A. WMSB B. WMHT Eastern Educational Network Free Films College Productions Subscription Services - .er. . . .--.—~y- ...-.9—._ ”n I ll_. _— -_-—-‘--.--“. —- ‘———— _mmwr m ——-- m .-y A——- --..w'»q~w - _ - ._ ' oys- vvn Slide #1' Slide #2 Slide #3 Video 80 Programming for ETV Audio How does a television program get on the air? Where do the stations get the programs they telecast? In any station, this question is answered by the Programming Department, working directly with the Production Department. A station's organization chart might look like this. The examples we are using are taken from two educational‘ television stations: WMSB-TV in East Lansing, Michigan and WMHT-TV in Schenectady, New York. These stations have six main sources of programs. The most important single source is NET, the National Educational Television Network. NET, like commercial networks, is connected electronically, Slide #4 81 at least in the eastern part. But the network still sends many of its programs on video tape and film by mail from the tape duplication center in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The tapes I are distributed by a method termed "bicycling." That is, one third of the stations receive a program. After they play the program, they forward it to a second station and then to a third. NET distributes five hours of new programming a week to its member stations. The programsy are divided into two types: Public Affairs and Cultural Affairs. They further divide Public Affairs into three groups, and Cultural Affairs into four. Most of these Offerings are Public Affairs produced on film and tape. Slide #5 Slide #6 Slide #7 Slide #8 Slide #9 _ Slide #10 j 82 A few examples of the NET Journal will suggest the type of Public Affairs productions available. "Eaton" is an appraisal of the preparatory schools in England. The Journal believes "The Poor Pay More" because they are unable to see through unscru: pulous designs set forth by merchants and landlords. And "The Vanishing Newspaper" investigates the problems caused by the mergers of news- papers. Two other NET Journal programs are, "The Way It Is" on social problems, and "Search for the Lost Self" I surveying'modern psychology. weV;HOSt David Webber reports on International Magazine, another Public Affairs program, a vari- ety of stories from abroad, Slide #11 Slide #12 Slide #13 83 ranging from the deep and docu- mented to the light and humorous. In 1967, the program Regional Report covered the issue of school prayers and the problems of the use of drugs, including an interview with Dr. Timothy Leary. Prominent news reporters, such as C. L. Sulzberger and Lester Markel, analyze the past months, headlines on News In Perspective. Recently Bishop James Pike dis- cussed the moral and personal problems confronting the indi- vidual today on Crisis of Modern Man, another public affairs program. One of the most pOpular pro- grams carried is NET Playhouse \ \ in the Cultural Affairs series. Productions have included Arthur Miller's adaptation of Ibsen's classic, "An Enemy of the PeOple"; Slide Slide Slide Slide Slide Slide Slide Slide #14 #15 #16 #17 #18 #19 #20 #21 84 Orson Bean in "The Star Wagon"; "Ofoeti," a modern folk tale about a boy's search for a troll; and "Acquit or Hang" based on the Bounty trial of 1792. The Creative Person has examined such personalities as Joan Baez, Harry Golden, and Federico Fellini. Spectrum has studied "Noise as .a Pollution Problem," "The Automated Society," "Safety in New Cars," and recent research in biochemistry. The Cultural Affairs series has also offered many special programs including an hour of Duke Ellington, a performance of Beethoven's "Ninth Symphony" by the Israel Philharmonic, a study of "The Making of a Doctor," The Baltimore Symphony, Slide #22 Slide #23 Slide #24 Slide #25 Slide #26 Slide #27 85 and conversations with historian Arnold Toynbee, who reflected on history, its events and record- ing. For children NET provides . . . What's New. Many adults as well are interested in coins, Indian dances, or photography. Julia Child in The French Chef won the first "Emmy" awarded to a NET Program. Each week she teaches viewers how to cook a new dish, from crepes suzette to hamburgers. . \ \ Women also appreciate the tips they receive from "Smart Sew- ing. II and "The Busy Knitter." Menuhin Teaches has presented classes for musically talented children on a BBC-produced series of four programs fea- turing children of 8 - 12 playing Beethoven. 86 Slide #28 Max Morath, of KRMA in Denver, is host of this series on the life and times at The Turn of the Century. Slide #29 , Other NET programs are Science - Reporter, *“SiideI#30% II I I 'I I I and Legacy. Slide #31 In addition to these network offerings, a surprising amount of programming is produced locally. Slide #32 For example, station WMSB of Michigan State University pro- duces two classes of programs: those for general public con- sumption, and those for tele- vision teaching in Michigan classrooms. Slide #33 Recital Hall features clasical musicians in half hour concerts. This program has also been distributed to many other ETV stations. Slide #34 Slide_#35 Slide #36 Slide #37 Slide #38 87 Norm Cleary, a member of the College of Communication Arts, examines the many sides Of MSU on Polygon. Aimed at the farm community, but of interest to the general public, the weekly Harvest reports on the world of agri- culture, covering such activ- ities as horse shows, plowing contests, mink farms and 4-H Clubs. Starting with a daily letter from the postman and a wish at the wishing well, Miss Helen takes Michigan pre- school children on a tour of the Land of Play. On the local level, Spartan Sportlite reports the athletics of Michigan State and the Big Ten each week. Both WMSB and WMHT feature lessons for in school use. WMSB Offers Spanish, Music, Slide #39 Slide #40 Slide #41 Slide #42 Slide #43 Slide #44 88 Science, and World Understand- ing. and WMHT offers Science and current events. In cooperation with the Univer- sity Of the Air, from the State ‘wt*m» University of New York, WMHT also has Saturday courses for credit. These include Astron- omy, Calculus, Humanities and American History. WMHT has an equally wide vari- ety of evening shows for the public. Phone-in programs have become very pOpular recently. Chan- nel 17's Telecon on at seven O'clock every night uses this . format as a community service, where one or two guests involved in local or national issues are‘ on stage to answer questions \ from the community. .4, ' ’4‘- 89 Slide #45 With eight colleges and univer- sities in the receiving area, many professors bring a vari- \ ety of subjects to the audience. Slide #46 Home eonomics and gardening are always pOpular and helpful to the women of the area. Slide #47 WMHT doesn't stay at the stu- dio for programs.- Its mobile unit covered . . . Slide #48 the New York State political conventions last year. Slide #49 Other WMHT programs feature local music, plays, and art ..:r" h . . "‘P' SUBWingS .' Slide #50 WMHT is a member of the East- tern Educational Network, another program source. There are many other networks of this type in the country which act as central distribution points, for their area. Slide #51 - This network, the EEN, offers a regular sports schedule from . ' _ “M<--.-."Jv-‘ A Slide #52 Slide #53 Slide #54 Slide #55 90 the area's colleges, including basketball, track, lacrosse, rugby and hockey. In the fall of 1967 this net- work also carried the U.S. Lawn Tennis Association tourna- ment. Auto Mechanics isn't designed just for the men. Women too can understand the whys of a tune-up, as host Richard Pinette takes the viewer step- by-step from the generator through to the transmission in simple basic language, with tips everybody can use. Educational TV can also get many free films; the most familiar is The Big Picture produced by the United States Army. Other free films are available from industries and tourist bureaus. Colleges often produce TV pro- grams for low cost distribution. Slide #56 Slide #57 91 For instance, the University of Michigan offers Understanding Our World for high school social studies. Programs are also available from subscription services. Parlons Francais is an example. So, by way of review, here is a general summary of a station's programming sources. '. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bretz, Rudy. Techniques of Television Production. New York: McGraw Hill, 1962. Head, Sydney. Broadcasting in America. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin, 1956. Huntington, Michael A. The Physics of Radio and Television Broadcasting. A report prepared for the Television and Radio Department of Michigan State University, October, 1963. The Kansas City Star. November l966-March 1967. Kemp, Jerrold E. Planning and Producing Audio Visual Mater- ials. San Francisco: Chandler, 1963. Ketcham, Carl H., Heath, Robert W. "Teaching Effectiveness of Sound with Pictures that Do Not Embody the Mater- ial Being Taught." A V Communication Review, Vol. 10 (March-April 1962), 92. The Los Angeles Times. November l966-March 1967. The Milwaukee Journal. .November l966-March 1967. Program Previews. Volumn 6 and 7. East Lansing, Michigan WMSB-TV, 1966-1967. Reinsch, Leonard, Ellis, Elmo. Radio Station Management. New York: Harper and Row, 1960. Scene on 17. Volumn 1 number 7-Volumn 3 number 2. Schenec- tady, New York, WMHT-TV. Box 17. 1965-1967. Severin, Werner. "The Effectiveness of Relevant Pictures in Multiple--Channel CommunicatiOns." A V Communi- cation Review, Vol. 15 (Winter, 1967), 392. The Seattle Times. January, 1967. Wittich, Walter Arno, Schuller, Charles Francis. Audio- visual Materials: Their Use and Nature. New York: Harper and Row, 1957. 92 93 Zettl, Herbert. Television Production Handbook. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1964. MICHIGAN STATE UNI ERS TY LIB V I RARIES III II 3 1293 03161 1614