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THE FRONT CRAWL STROKE:
A REVIEW

Thesis for We Degree. of M. 3.
MICHEGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Kenneth Waiter Gest

1962

minis

 

  
 
 

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

 

 

THE FRONT CRAWL STROKE:

A REVIEW

By

Kenneth Walter Gest

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Health, Physical Education,
and Recreation

1962

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer is grateful to Dr. Wayne D. VanHuss,
research professor, Division of Physical Education,
Michigan State University, for guidance in making
this study possible.

The writer is also grateful to his wife for

her assistance and patience in preparing this study.

In dedication to my father

Walter H. Gest

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE

PROBLEM.

II. BODY POSITION . . . . . . . . . .
III. LEG MOVEMENT.

IV. ARM MOVEMENT . . . . . . . . .

V. COORDINATION OF ARMS AND LEGS . .

VI. BREATHING . . . . . . . . . . . .
VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHV O O C C C O O O O O O O O O

Page

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The average coach in the field of competitive swimming
is amazingly limited in source material upon which he
draws the primary components of his activity. Mindful of
this stiuation, the material in this study has been pre—
sented for the purpose of aiding coaches and competitors
in the front crawl stroke.

In the development of competitive swimming, attention
has been focused on the crawl, the fastest of all strokes.
In the mechanical analysis and kinesiology of the crawl
stroke, the combination of forces forming the propulsive
power is being studied and an attempt to construct the most
efficient stroke is being made from the results.

Well known are the studies, past and present, of Cure~

ton, Karpovich, Counsilman, Alley, and Heusner. However,

3

the beginning of swimming research dates back to Wili;a
Fraude in 1872. His study in the field of water resistance
involved the use of ship models and various other objects
drawn through the water.

Further experiments in water resistance were done on
the human body beginning with DuBois Raymond in 1905, F.
Houssay in 1912, and G. Liljestrand and N. Stenstrom in

1912.

In a book published by Jules Amar1 in 1920 we find
the first formula for water resistance as applied to
the human body:

R = C x S x V2

K = A constant equal to from 55 to 73

S

Area in square centimeters of the greatest cross
section of the swimmer's body.

V2 = Velocity in meters squared.

Karpovich2 towed his subjects through the water
using a device called a resistograph to measure the
resistance. Quoting Froude (1874) and Lanchester (1908), he
stated that resistance is caused by skin friction, eddy
resistance, and wave-making resistance.

In a later study3 he experimented on the propelling
forces involved in the crawl stroke. He stated that the
square of the speed of the whole stroke is equal to the
sum of the squares of speed developed by the arms and legs
separately. The arm-leg ratio in propulsion was found to be
approximately 70 per cent arm power and 30 per cent leg power
for good swimmers, and up to 77 per cent arm power and 23

per cent leg power for poor swimmers.

 

1J. Amar, The Human Motor (London: G. Routledge and
Sons Ltd., 1920), p. 2M3.

 

2P. V. Karpovich, "Water Resistance in Swimming,"
Research Quarterly, 4:3 (October 1933), pp. 21-28.

 

3P. V. Karpovich, ”Analysis of the Propelling Force
in the Crawl Stroke,” Research Quarterl , 6:2 (May 1935),
pp. 49-580

'\ ,U

Curetonl in 1930, compared the times of various sub-

jects in the crawl stroke with the purpose of finding the
weaknesses in the component parts of the stroke. He timed
one lap, using legs alone, arms alone, or the complete stroke.
He called this procedure "The Stop Watch Method."

Moyle2 did research on the relative contributions
of the legs and arms to the whole stroke. His correlations
for the whole stroke with the arms and the whole stroke with
the arms and legs were very high. Thus he showed that
the arms contributed the greater per cent to the stroke.

Jeager3 experimented with water resistance as a
limiting factor of speed in swimming. He used the
standard velocity and the formula , R = aVb.

A study was performed by Tews4 on the relationship
of propulsive force and external resistance to speed.
Because his correlations for resistnace and speed were so
low, he concluded that the resistance factor was not
significant in limiting the speed of the swimmer tested,

since the factor of skill was uncontrolled.

 

1Thomas K. Cureton, ”The Stop Watch Method for Testing
Speed," Beach and Pool, 4 (February 1930), pp. 15—19.

2W. J. Moyle, "A Study of Speed and Heart Size as
Related to Endurance in Swimming” (Master's Thesis, State
University of Iowa, l936).

3L. D. Jeager, "Resistance of Water as a Limiting Factor
of Speed in Swimming” (Master's Thesis, State University
of Iowa, 1937).

11LR. W. J. Tews, "The Relationship of Propulsive Force
and External Resistance to Speed in Swimming” (Master's
Thesis, State University of Iowa, 1941).

In research both Alleyl and Counsilmang towed sub«
jects to measure the water resistance. They then tested
their propulsive force and by comparison of the difference
between these two values were able to evaluate various
styles of swimming a stroke.

In measuring the force of propulsion, Fox3 tested
the distance his subjects could swim after five complete
stroke cycles, beginning from a free dead start in the water.

All of these studies and research work attempted to
give direction toward a faster and more efficient stroke.
Based on results from a study of water resistance or
propulsive force, conclusions were drawn as to what effect
a smaller amount of water resistance or a more powerful

stroke would have on the swimming speed.

Statement of the Problem

 

To review and analyze the literature on the com«

petitive front crawl stroke.

Scope of the Study

 

This study will be composed of a comprehensive amcurt
of literature written in the field of competitive

swimming with the emphasis placed on the materials

 

lLouis Edward Alley, ”An Analysis of Resi .
Propulsion in Swimming the Crawl Stroke” (Ph. D. State
University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1949).

2James Edward Counsilman, ”An Analysis of th
of Force in Two Types of Crawl Stroke” (Ph. D. St
University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1951).

3M. G. Fox, ”Swimming Power Test,'

Researrii
Quarterly, 23(3):233—237, October 1957.

\fl

pertaining specifically to the front crawl stroke. It
will include material on the beginning of research in

swimming up until the year 1960.

Significance of the Study

 

To date there has been little effort to combine
the literature written on the mechanics of the front
crawl stroke. This information would be of value to
coaches and competitors in the swimming field. Here
they could obtain the major collective works of well

known men in this area of swimming.

Limitations of the Study

 

Some of the thesis, dissertations, and research
work done were unobtainable because they were part of
unpublished material. The author's subjective Judgement
was used in securing and evaluating the literature that
was used, causing the greatest margin of error. However,
a rather exhaustive search for material was conducted

over a period of eight months.

CHAPTER II
BODY POSITION

Humans have not been given the streamlined bodies of
fish, therefore the human body must be held in a position
which maintains a natural streamlined flow. This position
is held in order to illiminate the resistance which retards
the motion of the swimmer.

In testing the drag of four body positions, Counsilmanl
found that the prone position created the least resistance.
He went on to state that the competitive swimmer should
minimize excessive roll, as such rolling of the body only
serves to increase his resistance, however, a slight roll
will permit an easy arm stroke.

According to Bela RajkiQ, the body, fully stretched,
lies on the surface making the slightest possible angle
with the surface of the water. This puts the hips some—
what lower in the water so that the feet are in the

necessary depth to act effectively. The correct position

 

lCounsilman, op. cit., p. 82.

2Bela Rajki, The Technique of Competitive Swimming
(Budapest, Hungary, University Printing House, 1956), p. 40

of the head is very important since it effects the
position of the whole body. The surface of the water
should meet the forehead between the line of the eyebrows
and the hair, when the slightly raised head is in the
basic position.

The Sheffieldsl infer that the correct shoulder
position is in a horizontal line with the surface of the
water. When swimming the front crawl stroke the dropping
of the shoulders should be at a minimum and should be
kept as nearly even as possible.

Balance and control of the body position in the
water, Cureton2 states, depend upon the following
factors:

1. Sense of balance as governed by the semi-
circular canal mechanism

2. Kinesthetic sense of position as determined by
sensory impressions caused by the pull of
ligaments, muscles, and other structures.

3. Pressure sensations of the water upon the body.

A. Anatomical structure

5. Balancing movements as made by the head, arms,
and legs.

 

lLyba Sheffield and Nita Sheffield, Swimming Simplified

 

(New York: A. s. Barnes and Company, 19297?

2Thomas D. Cureton, How to Teach Swimming and
Diving (New York: Association Press, 1934), p. 200.

 

In his book, Armbrusterl breaks the body position
down into its component parts. The important components
are the following four:

a. The head is carried well up with only the face in
the water. The water level will vary, according to
buoyancy of the swimmer, from a position just below the
eyes to one at the level of the hairline. The eyes
are directed forward in a natural position. Being the
main aids in the control of the body position, the eyes
directed upward or Sideward, will easily throw the body
out of equilibrium. The chin is also held in a centered
position, but not held so far forward that wrinkles
appear in the back of the neck.

b. The shoulder blades should be held flat. The
upper level of the shoulder is slightly below that of the
top of the head. The shoulders are also raised forward in
the direction of the movement of the swimmer. Along with
the shoulders the upper spine is flexed slightly forward,
which places the trunk in a more streamlined position.
The whole surface of the thorax and abdomen is flattened,
making, along with the other components, the body level
parallel with the surface of the water, which allows the

water to pass with the least amount of resistance.

 

lDavid Armbruster, Robert H. Allen, and Bruce Harlan,
Swimming and Diving (St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company,

1958), PP. 77-83-

 

c. During the competitive splint crawl the hips
remain level, but are carried slightly lower than the
shoulders and move through the water just below the
surface. However, the position that the hips are carried
may vary with the weight of a swimmer.

d. The legs are held in a loosely extended_position
with the ankles and knees passing close by each other in
a supple movement.

Armbruster goes on to state that in most individuals
the proper alignment of the body position can be checked by
drawing a straight line from the midpoint of the shoulder
joint through the midpoint of the hip joint, the line being
extended backward past the feet. If the body is in prOper
alignment, this line will passeaxactly' through a point
which is midway between the ankle joints, when the legs are
fully spread in the stride position at the end of each
beat.

Several other authors of general swimming literature
seem to be in agreement with Armbruster's ideas on the body

position.

Analysis and Discussion

 

The material written on the body position is very
inadequate in good research work. The statements made in
the material are not seemingly backed up by fact and

experiment. The only actual research the author found

10

was done by Counsilman. Armbruster, although still not
backed up by research, appeared to have worthwhile
information on the body position. The area of the body
position in the front crawl stroke is in dire need of

more factual research work.

CHAPTER III
LEG MOVEMENT

The swimmer's leg propels him forward in the water
with both the upward and downward swing just as the fish's
tail propels him forward with each Sideward swing.

Cureton:L experimented with various types of kicks
and found the flutter kick to be inferior in maximum
momentary impulsive force to the frog kick. He found
in his study that 51 per cent of the prOpulsive drive in
kicking comes from hip action. He also found that 48.4
per cent of the total work done in the flutter kick is
useless for propulsion, although a part of it serves a
purpose by helping to keep the legs horizontal to the
surface of the water.

Allen2 analyzed the factors involved in the
propulsive force of the leg kick in the crawl stroke. The
factors taken into consideration were the propulsive force
gained from various widths of the leg kick and the

proportional amount of propulsion the legs contribute to

 

1Thomas K. Cureton, ”Mechanics and Kinesiology of
Swimming the Crawl Flutter Kick,” The Research Quarterly,
December, 1930, pp. 87-121.

2Robert H. Allen, "A Study of the Leg Stroke in
Swimming the Crawl Stroke” (M. A., State University of
Iowa, 1948).

12

the whole stroke. Using four kicks, narrow (12 inches),
medium (18 inches), wide (24 inches), and normal (not
specified), Allen found that the normal kick was slightly
faster than the narrow kick, which was the fastest of the
other three. Another conclusion was that the slower the
kick the less it contributed to the propulsion of the
while stroke. Allen also computed the relative contribution
of the leg movement from average performance data at
various speeds. The factors involved in the computation
were the times in seconds of the whole stroke, arm
stroke, and leg stroke. He subtracted the time of the
arm stroke from the time of the whole stroke with the
remainder used as the relative contribution of the leg
movement. He found that the leg movement was actually
slowing the subject's time for the whole stroke.

Alleyl made a study of propulsion and resistance in
swimming the crawl stroke, using a constant frequency of
stroke. The leg component of this study was done with
two types of kick, the normal (12 inches) and the short
(6 inches). At each velocity for which the surplus-
propulsive force was measured, the mean force for the normal

kick was greater than the mean force for the short kick.

 

lAlley, op. cit.

13

1 states that the kick raises the legs,

Counsilman
fixes the body, and acts a good deal as a stabilizer of
the body position, thus giving the swimmer a firmer base
from which to work. A theory advanced by Counsilman was
that the prOpulsive phase of the kick may counteract its
own resistive phase; so that a swimmer, although not
receiving any additional propulsion from his legs, had
less to pull with his arms.

The proportionate amount of propulsion contributed
by the leg movement as related to the propulsion of the
whole stroke was analyzed by Poulosg. Using three types
of kicks, narrow, normal, and wide, Poulos found the
narrow kick to be faster than the other two. Poulos
computed the relative contribution of the leg stroke in
the same manner as Allen.

Armbruster3, in a completely different context
then the previous research studies, states that the leg
movement is a forcible and regular oscillation, serving to
push the water backward with each upward and downward beat.

The movement in the flutter—kick leg action originates at

the hip joint and is transmitted through the thigh to the

 

1James E. Counsilman, ”Theory of the Flutter Kick,”
Beach and Pool, June 1949, p. 12.

 

2George L. Poulos, "An Analysis of the Propulsion
Factors in the American Crawl Stroke" (M. A., State University
of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1948).

3Armbruster, op. cit., p. 84.

l4

knee joint. In whiplike motion the wave passes from the
knee to the lower leg, next to the ankle, and finally to the
foot where the wave is then leshed about like the free end
of a rOpe being snapped. At the beginning of the upward
leg movement the hip is slightly flexed with the knee and
ankle extended. The water is pressed backward with a
tremendous driving force, thus prOpelling the body forward.
When the leg finishes its upward beat, the hips and knees
are slightly flexed and the ankles are extended. With a
small flexion of the hips the water is sent backward. With
the extension of the knee the water is driven farther back
along the anterior surface of the leg and down over the
ankles as the body moves forward. The toes are turned
inward in a pigeon—toed fashion during the down stroke in
order to contact more water with the tOps of the feet.
The advantage of possessing large feet and flexible ankles
is apparent when the mechanics of the flutter kick are
considered.

Again the author found several other general books and

studies that agreed with Armbruster‘s descriptions and

explanations.

Analysis and Discussion

 

There is an insufficient body of information on the
leg action in the crawl stroke to draw sound generalized

conclusions. The majority of the research work has been

done on some minute component of the leg movement rather
then analyzing the best way to execute the front crawl kick.
In the studies reviewed here, there were several
who experimented on the narrow, normal, wide, etc., kick
of the crawl stroke. All seemed to find the normal kick
superior, however, a swimmer who has executed his "normal”
kick for some time will be slowed down by experimental
kicks even with practice of them. Therefore, these studies
seem to be impractical.
Armbruster has set down logically and clearly the
basic mechanics of the flutter kick. This has served as
a guide in teaching and coaching swimming. However, it
must be recognized that Armbruster's statements are well

founded by the current research.

CHAPTER IV

ARM MOVEMENT
Human's arm, unlike the fish's fin, requires skill and
coordination in movement through water. The whole stroke
would be deficient unless the arm movement was mastered, as
the arms provide about 70 per cent of the total power of the
front crawl stroke.

Curetonl

in 1930 worked on two problems which

related to arm pull, the direction of the pull, and the
length of the levers. He first attempted to measure static
forces involved by having a subject, strapped to a plinth,
pull upon a scale. He concluded that the maximum force was
exerted when the arm passed 120O flexion at the elbow joint.
In the same experiment, Cureton then measured the pull in
three different positions and with three different lengths
of levers. He found that the pull in the midline of the body
exerted the maximum force. Optimum results were obtained
when Cureton shortened the lever to fifteen inches with the
120° flexion at the elbow joint.

In one of Karpovich's2

2 2 2
formula, VW = V5 + VT: whereVw refers to the velocity of the

many studies he developed the

 

lThomas Cureton, "Mechanics of Swimming the Crawl Arm
Stroke,” Beach and Pool, 4:60, May 1930.

2Peter V. Karpovich, "Swimming Speed Analyzed," Scientif-
ic American, 42:224—225, March 1930.

 

 

17

whole stroke, Va represents the velocity of the arms alone,
and V1 represents the velocity of the legs alone. From
this he could obtain the propulsive force from the arms of
a good crawl stroke swimmer, which turned out to be
approximately seventy per cent.

While attempting to determine the relation between the
crawl arm stroke and the application of force, photographic
analysis was used by Lola Osbornel. She states the following:
"The force applied during the arm pull in the crawl is
applied irregularly, but mainly at two points. In the case
of the speed swimmer, the greater force is applied when the
arm has passed from 680 to 950 through the pull. In the
case of the endurance swimmer, the force is also applied at
two points. It is applied when the pulling arm has passed
from 250 to 450 through the cycle.

Campbell2 conducted a study to determine the relation-
ship of arm and shoulder strength to speed and endurance
in the front crawl stroke. 0n the basis of the correlation
coefficients he found from the apparatus, he was able to
conclude that the arm strength was more highly related to

speed in swimming rather then endurance.

 

lLola L. Osborne, I'A Method of Analysis of Swimming
Strokes with Relation to the Application of Force" (M. A.,
University of California, Los Angeles, California, 1941), p. 85.

2Cameron R. Campbell, "A Study of the Relationship of
Arm and Shoulder Strength and Endurance in Free-style Swimming"
(M. A., State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1948), p. 23.

18

Allen1 concluded from his survey of related literature
that the arm movement is of greater importance than the
leg movement in prOpulsion.

While analyzing the prOpulsive factors in the front

crawl stroke, Poulos2

found the long arm, the arm pulling
through past the hip, stroke to be superior to the short
arm, pulling through just to the hip, stroke, which was
in a distance of ten yards.

Alley3 studies prOpulsion and resistance in swimming
the crawl stroke, using a constant frequency of stroke.
He tested two types of arm pull, the ”normal" arm stroke,
in which the arm was pulled through the water with the elbow
held straight, and the bent—arm stroke, in which the elbow
was held at an angle of approximately 90°. The mean for the
surplus-prOpulsive force using the ”normal" arm stroke was
greater than the mean for the bent-arm stroke. As the
velocity became greater than zero, there was a decrease in
the amount of surplus-propulsive force of the whole stroke
and the arm stroke alone, which was greater than could be
attributed to resistance. This was no doubt due to the

decreased effectiveness of the stroke and the increase in

the total resistance.

 

lAllen, Op. cit., p. 25.

2Poulos, op. cit., p. 10.

3Louis E. Alley, "An Analysis of Resistance and
Propulsion in Swimming the Crawl Stroke," Research Quarterly,
24:253-270, October 1953.

 

19

The effectiveness of the bent-arm stroke and the
straight—arm stroke in the execution of the front crawl arm
stroke was compared in a study by Harrisl. In his study
Harris quoted McCloy from his lectures: "A mechanical
analysis of the two strokes shows the straight-arm
stroke to be less efficient than the bent arm stroke.
McCloy has shown that as the arm moves backward at a speed
which is less than the forward speed of the body. The
faster the tempo of the arm stroke, relative to forward
Speed, the higher up on the arm is the line that marks
the junction of the lower portion of the arm, which propels,
and of the upper part of the arm that resists. It is easier,
therefore, to perform the bent-arm stroke at a fast tempo
than the straight-arm stroke.” Harris found the following
results:

1. The straight-arm stroke, arm pulled through a semi-
circle, produced the greatest amount of surplus—pro-
pulsive force at each velocity and tempo tested.

2. With the bent-arm stroke, arm follows a path closely
parallel to the body, it was possible to swim at a
faster tempo than with the straight arm stroke.

3. The bent-arm stroke at the ”all—out” tempo produced the
greatest number of points of surplus—propulsive force

recorded at the 1.94, 2.61, and 3.12 feet per second
velocities.

 

lArchibald J. Harris, ”An Analysis of the Straight
Arm Stroke and the Bent—Arm Stroke in Swimming the Crawl"
(M. A., State University of Iowa, Iowa City, 1952), p. 87.

20

Since the bent-arm stroke can be used at a faster tempo,

it should be the more effective stroke, when a maximum tempo
is required. Therefore, Harris concludes, the straight—arm
stroke should be the most effective at normal tempos.

In the study that Counsilmanl

performed in 1951,

it appeared from the data presented that the continuous
stroke is superior to the glide stroke for competitive
swimming. This superiority may be attributed to the fact
that it contributes more prOpulsive force and there is less
fluctuation of this force. The above fact that the continu—
ous stroke created more force at a given tempo might also
give rise to the Opinion that it requires more energy to
accomplish this increase. The continuous stroke appeared

to create more resistance, since the body rolled slightly
more. This might also lead to the assumption that the glide
stroke requires less energy to accomplish a given speed and
as a result, would be the choice for longer races. That

the glide stroke requires less energy for a given tempo
than the continuous stroke is unlikely, however, since the
glide stroke arm pull is faster and fast movements require

more energy than do slower ones. Also to be considered is

the possibility that more of this thrust in the glide stroke

 

lJames Counsilman, "An Analysis of the Application of
Force in Two Types of Crawl Stroke,” 0p. cit.

21

is used to overcome inertia than is necessary in the
continuous stroke. The efficiency of the strokes on the
basis of energy output could only be determined by a study
of that factor by such a method as oxygen consumption
technique.

For the purpose of analysis, states Armbrusterl, the
front crawl arm stroke may be classified into seven components:
entry, support, catch, pull, push, release, and recovery.
The arm must enter the water in such a manner that it is
immediately placed in the most favorable position for a
forceful stroke by taking hold of as much water as possible.
For support the arm and hand serve to prOpel the swimmer
forward as soon as they enter the water and continue this
prOpulsive action until they are removed for the recovery.
During the supporting phase, the arm is pressing downward
and backward causing the catch. At the end of the catch the
arm has gained traction in the water and has been brought
into position for the most prOpulsive phase of the arm
stroke, the pull. The transitional movement from the pull
to the push is accomplished by drawing the upper arm toward
the body so that the arm can be drawn powerfully backward.

At the completion of the push the arm is lifted from the water

 

lArmbruster, op. Cit.

22

causing the release. The action of the arm from the release
to the entry is termed the recovery. The correct arm

action sustains the body balance, as well as, affords a
continuous prOpulsive force which maintains steady forward

progress.

Analysis and Discussion

 

There seemed to be more worthwhile material written
on the arm movement then on that of the previous chapter.
However, here again, it was noticed that, in reading over
the literature written, a pattern seems to develOp. The
pattern develOped, in most instances, is the subjects being
tested seem to follow the style they have already established
for themselves. If this variable could be eliminated the

results obtained would be more meaningful.

CHAPTER V
COORDINATION OF ARMS AND LEGS

In the crawl stroke the cadence of the legs is faster
then that of the arms. This motion, at first, appears to
be unnatural, since it is unlike any that is used by man
while walking and running. In walking and running the arms
serve to counterbalance the driving action of the legs by
swinging in the Opposite direction as the legs. The legs
and arms thus move to a l to 1 ratio, however, in the crawl
they move in a 3 to 1 ratio. The legs perform 3 beats to
each arm movement, or 6 beats to each complete cycle of both
arms.

While analyzing the prOpulsion factors in the front

1 combined the fastest type of leg

crawl stroke, Poulos
kick, the normal width of the swimmer, and the fastest type
of arm movement, the long—arm pull, to use as the whole
stroke. The author's graphs revealed that the closer the
velocity with the arms alone corresponded to that of the
total stroke, the less the legs contriubted to the prOpulsion

of the whole stroke. Poulos indicated that an increase from

a six beat kick to an eight beat kick increased the velocity

 

lPaulos, op. cit.

24

of the swimmer. However, this resulted in a narrower leg
kick and a longer arm pull in order to maintain the correct
coordination. Increasing the leg action beyond eight beats
per stroke cycle tended to Cause too slow an arm action.

1 he found at each velocity

In a study made by Alley
for which the surplus—propulsive force was measured, the
mean for the whole stroke using the normal kick, 12 inches
in width, and the normal arm stroke, in which the arm was
pulled through the water with the elbow held straight,
was greater than the mean for the other types of strokes.
The sum of the effective-propulsive force of the arms
alone and the kick was not the equivalent of the effective-
propulsive force of the corresponding whole stroke.

Alteveer2 states that there is a very noticable lag
between the pulling of both the arms. If the swimmer could
maintain a constant leg propulsion this drOp of speed
would probably be reduced. However, many top swimmers
definitely neglect their leg movement.

The arms and legs must be well coordinated in their in—

dependent execution, states Cureton3. In addition, a very

 

lAlley, "An Analysis of Resistance and Propulsion
in Swimming the Crawl Stroke,” Op. cit.

2Robert J. G. Alteveer, A Natographic Study of Various
Swimming Strokes (Springfield, Massachusetts: Springfield
College, 1958).

 

3Cureton, How to Teach Swimming and Diving, op. cit.
p. 223.

25'

definite balance and timing are required in the execution
of the whole stroke. 0f greatest importance is the timing
which permits continuous prOpulsion.

Rajkil agrees that in the front crawl the correct
and commonest ration of arm and leg action is one complete
arm cycle for six leg beats. For the correct synchronisa-
tion of arm and leg movement each should bridge the relative
dead points of the other. The preceding sentence is the
most important statement made here. The correct synchron-
isation of arm and leg movement ensures the even glide of
the body.

2 of the mechanics of the

An analysis by Armbruster
six-beat crawl stroke reveals that it is as truly balanced
as is the counterbalancing action of the arms and legs in
walking. The part of the stroke that is performed with the
most regular rhythm is the leg action. Although the arms
also move in cycles, their rhythm is a peculiar one, as
during one complete arm cycle each arm is out of the water
during the remaining two thirds of the cycle. The legs
move upward and downward in uniform periods and each upward

and downward beat of the legs marks a certain regular phase

of the stroke. Each component commences with the instant

 

lRajki, Op. cit. p. 42.
2Armbruster, op. cit. p. 94.

26

the legs are completely spread in the stride position at

the end of each beat.

Analysis and Discussion

 

A percentage of coaches are very weak on carefully
analyzing the elements of coordination in the execution

of the whole crawl stroke. Curetonl

states, much more
research needs to be placed in this area.

The majority of the researchers found, when analyzing
the coordination of the arms and legs, there was a reserve
of surplus prOpulsion during a phase in the cycle of the
front crawl stroke. Also found was a lack of surplus-pro-
pulsive power at a different phase in the cycle.

It is the Opinion of the author, more work should be
done in utilizing this reserve propulsive power in the phase
of the cycle which lacks it. This would mean further re—
search should be done in experimenting with different timing
combinations.

0f major importance again, such a study would mean the
controlling of the swimmer's normal stroke so it would not
influence the experimental strokes.

Here in lies some of the questions that are now left

unanswered.

CHAPTER VI
BREATHING

Expert swimmers who have skillfully mastered breathing
and relaxation of the abdominal muscles seldom have diffi-
culty in breathing when under the exertion of swimming at
great Speed. If the breathing is not mastered the leg kick
and arm rhythm may be disturbed.

Rajkil states the commonest method of breathing
is a single inhalation during one complete arm cycle.

In correct inhalation the turning away of the head should,

to a certain extent, be made independent of the arm stroke.
The head turns sideways when the arm corresponding to the

side of breathing reaches the end of the push, and the other
arm reaching forward in the line of the head waits, offering
support and securing the balance of the body during breathing.
The short and quick inhalation is completed when the forward
swinging arm comes level with the shoulders. The head

is now returned with a quick movement into a straight position
in such a rhythm that it should be completed before the
forward swinging arm touches the water. The swimming style

described here is short distance crawl, however, the middle

 

lRajki, Op. cit. p. 42.

98

and long distance crawls do not differ fundamentally, only
in the alteration of the ratio which is caused by the slower
rhythm.

1 found that swimming causes interference

Cureton
with breathing. This is because the leg movements and arm
movements limit the mobility of the abdomen and thorax,
respectively. The crawl stroke requires fast and shallow
breathing if a breath is taken each cycle.

Every ordinary turning of the head for breathing in-
creases the resistance about one half a point for a speed
of five feet per second, observed Karpovichg. He has also
observed that lifting the head or body (hydrOplaning)
invariably increases the resistance.

Swimmers, states Counsilman3, should use a limited
amount of roll so that an easy arm stroke will be permitted
and so there will be proper application of propulsive forces,
and sufficient roll to permit proper breathing. The
swimmer should breath on the side of the weaker arm for

breathing creates resistance. Therefore, a swimmers stronger

arm will tend to keep the stroke in better coordination.

 

JThomas Cureton, How to Teach Swimming and Diving
(New York: Association Press, 1934): p. 190.

2Karpovich, op. cit., pp. 49-58.

3James CounSilman, ”An Analysis of the Application of
Force in Two Types of Crawl Stroke” (Ph. D., State University
of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa), p. 82.

29

1 states some common errors resulting from

Armbruster
faulty head-turning mechanics. Lifting the chin forward and
Sideward to get air results in drOpping the Opposite elbow
and shoulder, which causes the Opposite arm to slide laterally,
and disturbs the leg balance, with the prOpulsive force
being dissipated. Turning the head in the same rhythm and
cadence as the arms results in rolling the body. Not fully
recovering the head results in loss of body balance. Opening
the mouth with the lips stretched back too far results in
strangulation due to water entering the mouth. Moving the
head out of its longitudinal axis results in a low of
symmetric arm and leg movement and disturbs the body balance,
thus, propulsive force is lost. Breathing on one side only
results in the neck and shoulder muscles becoming cramped,

loss of balance, and the inability of the swimmer to see the

field on both sides during a race.

Analysis and Discussion

 

A review of the literature has concluded material on
how and when to turn the head in breathing, however, from a
basic research point of view nothing much has been accomplished.
Counsilman's suggestion of breathing on the swimmer's

weak side, so the coordination of the stroke won't be thrown

 

lArmbruster, op. cit. p. 104.

Off, seems to be of merit. However, to the author's know-
ledge, it is not backed up by research.
Research, therefore, should be done in this area

rather then some other area already covered.

3O

CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The development in the technique of swimming the front
crawl stroke has evolved from the trial and error method of
experimentation, states Armbrusterl. The criterion of
success with the innovations attempted was and is the increase
in speed of the swimming stroke. 'The constant lowering of
records is an indication that the mechanics of the front
crawl stroke still can be improved. The author feels C. T.
Wilson2 sums up mechanical analysis by his statement: "A
mechanical analysis of any particular movement in swimming,
from the simplest phase to the composite stroke, may always
be made in terms of the basic physical concepts of direction,
force, and time."

A coach reviewing the literature on the mechanics of
the front crawl stroke would have difficulty deciphering re-
search phraseology. The author suggests the conclusions Of
this literature should be written for the average coach's

comprehension, since the findings are usually for a coach's

use .

 

llbid. p. 22.

2Collin T. Wilson, ”Coordination Tests in Swimming,"
Research Quarterly, 5:83, December 1934.

 

32

Perhaps the biggest error in the research work done is
with the control groups. In experimenting with the various
innovations, the swimmers complete the testings much better
the style or way they have always swam them, which is only
natural, However, some method to correct this situation is
essential to Obtain an accurate picture of each experiment
attempted.

A few men, who have been in the swimming field a long
time, have develOped and improved upon the various strokes,
yet, in the strict sense Of the word, they are not backed up
nor often recognized by research. The author feels that
both research and long term observation have their place in
the field of swimming.

The possibility of more material and research work com—
piled on swimming is conceivable, however, it is not avail-
able in published form. This is definitely a weakness in
this field. If more coaches and researchers would take time
to publish their material, it would undoubtedly benefit all
of those who are interested. There has not been enough work
done on the front crawl stroke. With the attention focused
on the crawl, because of its faster speed, there should be
many sources available for information concerning the mech-

anics of the stroke.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, Robert H. "A Study of the Leg Stroke in Swimming the
Crawl Stroke." M. A., State University of Iowa, Iowa
City, Iowa, 1948.

Alley, Louis Edward. "An Analysis of Resistance and Propulsion
in Swimming the Crawl Stroke." Ph. D., State University
of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1949.

iAlley, Louis Edward. "An Analysis of Resistance and Propulsion
in Swimming the Crawl Stroke." Research Quarterly, 24:
253-270, October 1953.

 

Alteveer, Robert J. G. "A Natographic Study of Various Swim-
ming Strokes.” M. S., Springfield College, Springfield,
Massachusetts, 1958.

Amarf J. The Human Motor, London: G. Routledge and Sons Ltd.,
1920.
/

Armbruster, David, Robert H. Allen, and Bruce Harlan. Swim-
ming and Diving, St Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company,
1958.

 

Bengston, Edwin J., and Alan A. Butter. ”An Analysis of the
Back Crawl and Crawl Arm Strokes.” M. S. Springfield
College, Springfield, Massachusetts, 1956.

Callander, Audrey E. ”An Analysis of the Newer Techniques of
Swimming.” M. Ed., Ohio University, Athen, Ohio, 1939.

Campbell, Cameron R. ”A Study of the Relationship of Arm and
Shoulder Strength and Endurance in Free-style Swimming."
M. A., State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1948.

Child, E. The Art of Swimming and Diving, London: Thorsons,
1951.

Counsilman, James E. "Theory of the Flutter Kick.” Beach
and Pool, June 1949.

Counsilman, James E. ”An Analysis of the Application of Force
in Two Types of Crawl Stroke.” Ph. D. State University
of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1951.

34

Cureton, Thomas. "Mechanics and Kinesiology of Swimming the
Crawl Flutter Kick," The Research Quarterly, December

1930.

 

Cureton, Thomas. "Mechanics of Swimming the Crawl Arm Stroke."

Beach andpPool, 4:60, May 1930.

 

Cureton, Thomas. "The Stop Watch Method of Testing Speed."
Beach and Pool, 4:15-19, February 1930.

 

/Fox, M. G. "Swimming Power Test." Research Quarterly.

28(3):233-237, October 1957.

 

Goss, G. "Swimming Analyzed." The Author. Northampton, Mass—
achusetts.

 

J
Handy, J. "Six-beat Crawl.” Scholastic Coach. 20:30, Dec—
ember, 1950.

 

Harris, Archibald J. ”An Analysis of the Straight Arm Stroke
and the Bent Arm Stroke in Swimming the Crawl." M. A.,
State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1952.

Jeager, L. D. "Resistance of Water as a Limiting Factor of
Speed in Swimming.” Master's Thesis, State University
of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1937.

Karpovich, Peter V. "Swimming Speed Analyzed." Scientific
American, 42:224-225, March 1930.

 

'Earpovich, Peter. "Water Resistance in Swimming." Research
Quarterly, 4(3):2l-28, October 1933. ""““’

 

Karpovich, Peter. "Analysis of the PrOpelling Force in the
Crawl Stroke.” Research Quarterly, 6(2):49-58, May

1935.

Moyle, W. J. ”A Study of Speed and Heart Size as Related to
Endurance in Swimming.” Master's Thesis. State Univere
sity of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1936.

 

Osborne, Lola, L. ”A Method of Analysis of Swimming Strokes
with Relation to the Application of Force.” M. A.,
University of California, Los Angeles, California, 1941.

Poulos, George. ”An Analysis of Propulsive Factors in the
American Crawl Stroke.” M. A., State University of Iowa,
Iowa City, Iowa, 1949. '

35

Pulley, Frances C. "The Relationship of Speed Swimming and
Buoyancy to Form in the Execution of the Front Crawl
Stroke." M. S., Smith College, Northamption, Massachusetts,

1955.

Rajki, Bela. The Technique of Competitive Swimming.
Budapest, Hungary: University Printing House, 1956.

Runquist, K. C. ”Teaching Arm Action for the Crawl Stroke."
Journal Health, Physical Education, and Recreation,
28:42, December, 1957.

Sheffield, Lyba and Nita. Swimming Simplified. New York:
A. S. Barnes and Company, 1929.

~’Tews, R. W. J. "The Relationship of Propulsive Force and

External Resistance to Speed in Swimming." Master's
Thisis, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa,
19 1.

Wetmore, R. C. "Experimental Data Applied to the Crawl and
Breast Strokes.” il., Athletic Journal, 33:30, Novem-
ber 1952.

/
Wilson, Collin T. "Coordination Tests in Swimming."
Research Quarterly. 5:83, December, 1934.

 

ME 0:23:11

 

 

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