.V ‘ . _ . ‘IQI - ‘¢:..“ I ’ ° “ ‘ w .H‘L'r ’ ' fist". In’MI-I*\I‘9~r.I.’ { Ii» ‘ '4. II. II, " . o \ r3.” - t' . U. . \. '- I'0 V . to II I ‘ 4} ' :K- \-. .. [,1 _‘ . ‘ .. - .CO‘ I. t " '. ;"l-;::'::"‘.‘ V I I‘” ”n.1, ":‘uz‘ .9- .‘I'CJ. «Mu C;— :‘u‘? l.: I. . .‘z'- . e , lg. -. Tl t-‘I .s I15: ‘2‘; _- :- c . I...) u «1' ‘.II) 1.3.;3‘7.‘ «fix-:9 ' “‘"'“‘"-;‘£" ‘3- ‘ “ "’ ‘ 't-L'- “ ’Ii‘fiu.’ MI ‘ an a! ”I: 'g‘l‘¢l{$ “It‘s. ‘ V n - . . ', II . . ,— - .' t x .l I . 0:0';-! -. NIL fir. II : _ . .le :Iy‘fs (rflfsl qp. . 0”,-.I\ w. : ' " 7"" "n,“ \‘h‘ .1. '3r ' . 'C'NI;O.~ ‘0 »?- . -'I. ‘ U‘ u" ‘ »“':.I.9‘:) I ‘3' g” ' ' ’I' ‘IngI. ‘ ._,u .1 !_, ' ' .. v.9 ‘.' - . -_s 4.5.43; ‘u‘r. A y . I “”II. _..'I SI 1 : h“. t I -‘ . .5 on! ”is? ”Iii: -.' r—I fr;{f:J,I/., ; o 31;; .dnfl.-v.:m. I!” 11.." I'. IN‘ .I I." 9‘ m.” .2739} 434%- '...'i(‘:..:..‘; II" ‘ibf' .‘ I; ’4" I" '. 0 "c “I 00.. .'—.'r ’I.‘ . In I It .0 o:|;"'.' ‘ ‘J . I, o ‘ I. ' r . Ir I _. ' ‘<. “1.1005 NIGE- V.“ 0.1.; I rv‘a.II'* '0": r. I 5"" La '7 _ l ,I. Ih‘v ."."J-D':ll' .Il'; -‘bU- ‘I O’Ifl‘ .0. .I m I.I.p f0; _' .. d I q. - ovIa: .I.1II ~V'1IA_ I"..,-|If"_,' I I , I _v . .. I I I. .. c “I . --I A. ’I' III-"i ' I J O I "V o I J I.' ' 9 I1, :IH'II ro— ' "' .III , l V" ‘0 "I‘d. VIO’E.‘ 'r .J ‘UI' ”Hill-d I-qudI'. ’It" .-'.-I-o.-u. ‘p' "NI'.CI 'W 5" ‘OQI‘II'I'IJO ’I.|Ir . '. I~ .I , III I. I I . ’ v. I. f. .- '. ’1', ‘ ‘. f... I .. , . ' l‘ - I l ‘ J v - I. LII‘J‘. r6 0 I. a 1.3.1: ., «55-52;: ‘0... I‘- I‘ J‘. ‘ 0"}IJ'10 ‘ ‘ "l ‘ ' I. '0 I..'J.:.u . .'..‘I,."_h. ..,.:!- l ' V "“'r.‘ -II..”I . I 00:. I do I - " ‘ L ‘1. '2‘} : Ia .' I4.- "f".".;. ' '.’..c' 0' '|:‘ o . ‘.l v. ' ‘ ": I l' __ o I w I_ I 0" ' ' I. "IIHIIIII 90 'I. ”I‘;,'...)' l'.‘.. 3—: k. ' m‘ «WSW .- I .I. .,.'-I ‘ .‘- 'I,‘ ’ - I. . . . I- "P. . .‘, . ’M‘ - I . . . ' t I 0 I I 4-.- I, 1 I“; 'I“ in I. '5! “pr“... ‘_e~-n~:-:; 1.. ' q ' A f3 5,. I _' A ":2;- (IN. lu' .‘ ' I I I " ... n-J - I o-‘A ‘ .. . h‘ '1 , I. 3.- ' o . . .l . . ‘ . , .v I. . --,. I a v ’1 '0. ’0“ I .' I. II. .. . Iv J . . . -- - - y" . - I ‘ I l ‘_ .3!" .2 """',".":'U —0 Jl~071 ' I o-I.' - ' .,_ ‘ . I c- 0‘ ' I - I ~--I' ' ' v--‘ - " ,.,.. .4: ‘1 ' I ~‘ - . I - I» . u . I . ' “ ' V ‘ rU-!-‘-;'I'HIJ$.,. l a II I I . I . I ‘ }. 0.1 ¢ A IQ 00-. If " . . I . . ~ . .0 O '.. _- . ., . ’. Irv” ;( . Y I 5. I I f I . I” I o - I¢"l I I 0") I X . 3-. I - . '- I-o ._- o o. ~I «.qu -. ' I ' I I. ' J l’. I . I . ‘ . o "‘ UI‘I'!’ ’ 1’ ‘a ' o J O I '- -l ' " I ' "Ov'3’ ""'""" ." o ‘ _. . - -‘ '00 -I I g I- .0- .° ’ , . I o._ . II o . I v .I. . I . I. 3 I ." . I .. ., - . . , ’I-Io'r..'-'1gl". p . l - a . . up I III' ""' ' . 40" Ip.gg:ou1 I , _ . .l '0 C _ I - . ,-- I II .I 9 > C 'l‘jf" J . . - .4 . 1" .- l ,s I o . T 'I O I 9 .! , .l . . ' . .. . fl" ' Y i' ' - ' - I I . ‘ " ' ' - .71“:".’3:;~-:m..ora:-u.- . - - - .. ' - i , _l, _ , , a.‘ I I to . a I '04- - y 2:14" I 0 , Ad‘y’10" \5 .'. . . ' 3 - . . . . ‘ I . . , _ . . . I . . . ' ' C - - . , . . 1 t o I‘ l'( .r. .‘I . . .. . . - .;-pw~¢'nw “no dodur é ‘ I.- '0. - . . - o .0. . '0‘. .V 0’! _. no ‘ I o o o o O, _ w‘ . £an ....... “.4,qu INJ“-‘9 - _ . ' . ’ 'l .0” “gm \.~I¢ by!“ 3.. o‘nutrfiodfihuflDYZo-dw ‘— yfiuIIM-cum-owJ I-v "on...“ :ufivfio‘w v-rwv .‘ 3-07 00'. I;;I5.—:Q‘ :‘j‘~"'*":~"“ 'r-oouw'. Whgv W b.k-Ooo\ .. ‘ 0 “Wu- tfl'fi: 0‘ I. 1' ‘1' vi. you—n... W fl. «.0 l I d A . p -m r . I"\1W._. 0"- u—v‘ ‘IV1ESI_J RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to ”saunas remove this checkout from Jul-zsiiin. your record. FINES H111 be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. 1THE RELATIONSHIP OF INDEIEHDEJCE IN THE WORK SITUATION TO JOB ACCEPTANCE:/ A STUDY OF THE JOB ASPIRATION OF EMPLOYED ADULT MALES by Pierre gonon.7 AN ABSTRACT Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology in Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 1956 Approved ~\..; 1 PIERRE GONON ABSTRACT This study investigated the responses of 100 em- ployed adult males to three job aspiration type questions. The main proposition of the research was that the type of work is not as important a factor in the study of job aspio rations as the amount of "independence" inherent in the work situation. Present occupations of respondents were rated by three judges according to amount of independence. The more independent occupations were classified as "autonomous." The less independent occupations were classified as "hier- archic." Answers to the job aspiration questions indicating varying degree of job acceptance were related to the auton- omous and hierarchic categories. A respondent who named his present job in response to a job aspiration question was said to have a high degree of job acceptance; a re— apondent who named a similar job was said to have a lower degree of job acceptance; and a respondent who named a dis- similar job was said to have the lowest degree of job ac— ceptance. Job acceptance was defined as the degree to which a person was resigned to, acquiesced to, complied with, or accepted his present job. PIER.E GONON ABSTRACT The principal hypothesis for this study was that re- spondents with the most independent (autonomous) jobs would have the highest degree of job acceptance, and respondents with the least independent (hierarchic) jobs would have the lowest degree of job acceptance. A decision was made to analyze each question sepa- rately because the answers of the respondent to the three questions described: (1) job aspiration in terms of job possibilities at his present place of work, (2) job aspira- tion in terms of the jobs he knew of, and (5) job prefer- ence for any job he had actually held. For each question, degree of job acceptance was re- lated to amount of independence. The data confirmed the hypothesis for the two questions that described job aspira- tion in terms of: (1) jobs at present place of work and (2) all jobs known. There was no relationship between job independence and job acceptance for jobs held in the past by the respondent. A decision was made to determine whether the rela- tion between job independence and job acceptance could be attributed to the non-manual and manual composition of the ‘groups. This analysis was performed for questions (1) and (2) above. It was concluded from the supplementary anal- ysis of these two questions that the relation between the 3 PIERRE GONON ABSTRACT two variables could be largely attributed to the non-manual group. Because other significant relations between vari- ables were found that could not be explained in terms of the hypothesis, it was concluded that variables other than job independence were related to job acceptance. The data suggested that non-manual and manual composition of the groups, age, and perception of opportunities for further upward mobility at present place of work might be some of these "other variables." In summary, the hypothesis was substantiated for two of the three questions and it was concluded that, for the two questions where the hypothesis was upheld, the relation between the two variables could be largely attributed to the non-manual group. //THE RELATIONSHIP OF INDEPENDENCE IN THE WORK SITUATION TO JOB ACCEPTANCE: A STUDY OF THE JOB ASPIRATIONS OF EMPLOYED ADULT MALES/, by Pierre Gonon , I. . A THESIS Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology in Michigan State ‘ University East Lansing, Michigan 1956 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank Dr. William H. Form, my major pro- fessor, for his sustained encouragement and guidance. I am also indebted to Joanne Eicher for the prior work she has done with the same data I have used and also for sug- gestions she has given me in pointing out fruitful areas of research. Her aid in familiarizing me with the data in the early stages of my research was invaluable. I am particularly grateful to my wife, Marie-Paule Gonon, for her patience, understanding and support. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I.' INTRODUCTION . 1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Rating the Amount of Independence . . . . . 4 The Criteria Used for Classification . . . . 4 Subdivisions of Occupational Categories . . 9 Criteria for Comparing Other-than-Present- Job Named with Job Held . . . . . . . . . 14 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 The Research Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 General Review of the Literature . . . . . . 18 Occupational Stratification . . . . . . 19 Job Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Job Aspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 II. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Research Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Sample Design and Composition . . . . . . . 60 Social Class Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Sources of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Differentiating the Dimensions of each Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Assumptions . . .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7O Derivation of Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . 72 Statistical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 74 CHAPTER III. JOB ASPIRATION: THE RELATION OF INDEPENDENCE IN THE WORK SITUATION TO JOB INDEPENDENCE . . The Comparison of Percentages for "Present Job" and "Dissimilar Job" Responses with the Hypothetical Rank Order of Percent- ages . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . Chi-Square Test of Significance of Associa- tion between Job Independence and Degree of Job Acceptance for Each of the Three Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A General Discussion of the Findings . . . IV. RELATION BETWEEN JOB INDEPENDENCE AND JOB AC- CEPTANCE FOR NON-NANUAL AND MANUAL GROUPS . The Testing of Other Variables for Question 2: "Of All the Jobs You Know of, What Job Would You Most Like to Have?” . . . . . The Testing of Other Variables for Question 1: "What Job Would You Most Like to Have at Your Present Place of Work?" . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Di SCUSSion O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Limitations in the Wording and Ordering of Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . PAGE 76 82 89 97 98 102 109 109 115 113 117 PAGE APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Appendix A: A Preliminary Investigation . . . 120 Appendix B: Tables Basic to This Thesis . . . 126 LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. Percentage Distribution of Goldwater According to Warner‘s and Edwards' Occupational scales 0 O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O 0 O O O 2. Social Class Composition of.Sample . . . . . . 3. Degree of Job Acceptance for Four Categories of Job Independence in Response to Question 2: "Of All the Jobs You Know of, What Job Would You Most Like to Have?" . . . . . . . . 4. Degree of Job Acceptance for Two Categories of Job Independence in Response to Question 2: "Of All the Jobs You Know of, What Job Would You Most Like to Have?" . . . . . . . . . . 5. Degree of Job Acceptance for Four Categories of Job Independence in Response to Question 5: "Which of All the Jobs You Have Had Did You Like Best?" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Degree of Job Acceptance for Four Categories of Job Independence in Response to Question 1: "What Job Would You Most Like to Have at Your Present Place of Work?" . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Degree of Job Acceptance for Four Non-Manual Categories of Job Independence in Response to Question 2: "Of All the Jobs You Know of, What Job Would You Most Like to Have?" . . . . 8. Degree of Job Acceptance for Four Manual Cate- gories of Job Independence in Response to Question 2: "Of All the Jobs You Know of, What Job Would You Most Like to Have?" . . . . 9. Degree of Job Acceptance for Two Categories Irrespective of ob Independence for Question 2: "Of All the Jobs You Know of, What Job Would You Most Like to Have?" . . . . . . . . . 10. Degree of Job Acceptance for Four Non-Manual Categories of Job Independence in ReSponse to Question 1: "What Job Would You Most Like to Have at Your Present Place of Work?" . . PAGE 62 65 84 85 86 88 99 100 102 103 TABLES 11. 12. 13. 14. 150 16. Degree of Job Acceptance for Four Manual Cate- gories of Job Independence in Response to Question 1: "What Job Would You Most Like to Have at Your Present Place of Work?" Degree of Job Acceptance for Two Hierarchic Categories of Job Independence for Question 1: "What Job Would You Most Like to Have at Your Present Place of Work?" . . . . . List of Occupations Included in Each Category . The Data for Question 1: "What Job Would You Most Like to Have at Your Present Place of Work?" 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O The Data for Question 2: "Of All the Jobs You Know of, What Job Would You Most Like to Have?" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Data for Question 3: "Which of All the Jobs You Have Had Did You Like Best?" 0 PAGE 105 106 126 129 150 131 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Much work has been done on occupational stratifica- tion, job satisfaction, and job aspiration. There is some difficulty in interpreting the results of such studies be- cause of the fact that respondents may have different things in mind by virtue of their work positions. The main prOposition of this paper is that the type of work a re- apondent does is not as important a factor in the study of job aspirations as is the amount of findependence" inherent in the work situation. Previous occupational studies seemed to have ignored the amount of independence or autonomy peculiar to differ— ent occupations. A brief review of the literature reveals no research has focused on this variable as its central problem. It should be stated in all fairness, however, that recent findings reported by Roethlisberger and Dick- 1 2 son, Reynolds and Shister, Fortune Ma azine,3 Lipsit and 1F. J. Roethlisberger and W. J. Dickson, Mane ement and the Worker, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, I939, pp. 86: I79, I84. 2Lloyd G. Reynolds and Joseph Shister, Job Horizons, New York: Harper and Bros., 1949, pp. 7, 10, 73, 77, 78, 84. 5Fortune, February, 1940, p. 20. 2 2 5 Centers,3 Form,4 Bendix,1 Centers and Cantril, and Chinoy indicated a growing awareness of the importance of inde- pendence in attitudes toward work of the adult American male. Since this aspiration for independence in the work situation seems present in American society, this research- er feels that this factor should be incorporated in the context of occupational studies. It is the purpose of this thesis to determine to what extent varying amounts of independence in occupations are related to the job acceptance of the persona holding these occupations. Definitions Job acceptance is a variable that describes the de- gree to which a person is resigned to, acquiesces to, com- plies with, or accepts his present job; and is specifically 1Seymour M. Lipset and Reinhard Bendix, "Social Mo- bility and Occupational Career Patterns, II Social Mobili- ty," American Journal 9; Sociology, 57, March, 1952, p. 497. 2Richard Centers and Hadley Cantril, "Income Satis- faction and Income Aspiration," Journal 2f Abnormal and S2— cial Psychology, 41, 1946, pp. 65-69. 3Richard Centers, "Motivational Aspects of Occupa- tional Stratification," Journal 9; Social Psychology, 28, November, 1948, p. 191. 4William H. Form, "Toward an Occupational Social Psychology," Journal 93 Social Psychology, 24, 1949, p. 89. 5Eli Chinoy, Automobile Workers and the American Dream, Garden City, New YorE: DouEIeday, 1955, p. 82. designed for responses to job aspiration type questions. For example, if a linoleum salesman names selling linoleum (his present job) in response to a question such as "Of all the jobs you know of, what job would you like the best?" he is deemed to have a high degree 9f job acceptance. If this salesman names a similar kind of a job such as selling fish- ing tackle or a selling job, where he meets more peOple or does more traveling, he is deemed to have a lower degree 2; job acceptance. If, however, he names a kind of job that is not similar, such as a molder in a foundry, then he is deemed to have the lowest degree 9; Job acceptance. The criteria for determining whether the jobs named are similar or dissimilar to the "present job" will be discussed at greater length later. Job aspiration is a generic term used to describe studies designed to ascertain the occupational h0pes and desires of workers. Questions regardingjob aspiration are characterized by the use of the conditional tense; i.e., "Of all the jobs you know of, what job 3231; you like most to have?" and sometimes have "if" clauses, i.e., "What Job would you like to have, if all jobs paid the same?" Insofar as job aspiration questions comprise the data for this the- sis, this is a study of 12p aspirations. £22 acceptance, a variable which is but a facet of job aspiration, will be the primary concern of this thesis. Rating the Amount of Independence There are apparently two possible methods of rating the amount of independence of an occupation: (1) by having the respondent rate his occupation in terms of the amount of independence he perceives he has in his work situation, and (2) by having qualified persons rate the occupation of the reapondent in terms of the amount of independence they judge is inherent in the work situation. Because this is an gg ppst facto study, the latter method was the only one deemed feasible. In order to facilitate the rating of the jobs ac- cording to amount of independence, the present occupation of respondents was classified by this researcher and two neutral judges as being either "autonomous" or "hierarchicJ’ The very independent "I'm my own boss" kinds of occupations having little or no supervision were classified as autono- mous, and the graded orders of occupations within hierar- chies having less independence and much supervision were classified as hierarchic. The Criteria Used for Classification The criteria used to classify the occupations of certain respondents in the autonomous category are as fol- lows: 5 1. they were not generally in large hierarchies, or 2. they had no supervision or had only one level of supervision above them,1 or 3. they had a non-confining work situation, or 4. their work situations, in terms of supervision and independence of decision, resembled those of other autonomous respondents more than they did those of hierar— chic respondents. The placing of self-employed respondents in an autonomous category needs little explanation. A self- employed respondent such as a grocery store owner is not within a large hierarchy, is his own boss, and makes his own decisions. The reasons for including other than self-employed respondents in an autonomous category, however, are perhaps not as readily apparent. An examination of the occupations of certain reapondents reveals that in the work situation: they tend not to be in large hierarchies, they tend to have 1Daniel R. Miller and Guy E. Swanson, The American Parent in Egg Twentieth Centur : A Stud in the Detroit Area, UHIversity of EIchIgan, I954, UnpuSlIEhEd-stuay, c0pyrigbt 1955, Chapter V, p. 6. Level of supervision is an adaptation of a concept used by Miller and Swanson to determine which respondents participate in "Mass organiza- tion" which in some reSpects resembles the "autonomous" category of this study--see the review of the literature. It was assumed that those having only one level of supervi- sion above them had less pressure of supervision and thus more job independence than those having two or more levels of supervision above them. no more than one level of supervision above them (their boss has no boss), they tend to have much independence, they tend to have non-confining work situations, or tend to resemble the self-employed more than those respondents who work within larger hierarchies. For example, the carpenter who is not in a large hierarchy, who has much independence, and has but one level of supervision above him (the contractor), was judged to be autonomous. The carpenter who works within a factory, on the other hand, was judged to be hierarchic because of the many levels of supervision above him. Managers at the 32p of hierarchies who either are their own bosses or have one level of supervision above them were also judged to be autonomous. Certain respondents were judged to be autonomous be- cause of the non-confining nature of their work and the re- sultant lack of supervision and independence it gave them. For example, truck drivers and outside salesmen fell in this category. Letter carriers as Opposed to postal money order clerks and "beat" and "patrol" policemen as Opposed to desk sergeants were also judged to be autonomous. However, the non-confining nature of the work did not hold true as a criterion in every case. For example, an ice cream maker, and a stone cutter and monument letter- er, both of whom have but one level of supervision above 7 them, have much independence but relatively confining jobs, were nevertheless also judged to be autonomous. This was the exception rather than the rule, however. Certain other respondents were judged to be autono- mous because their work situations resembled those of other autonomous respondents more than they did those of hierar- chic respondents. For example, a farmer who works as a farmer at the State Training Home for the Feeble-minded and has much independence in the work situation was judged to be autonomous along with other farmers, as opposed to other State Home employees who were judged to be hierarchic. The kinds of occupations that will probably be found in the autonomous category are as follows: 1. self-employed professionals, pr0prietors and farm owners 2. public officials 3. managers at the Egp of hierarchies 4. trades and skilled non-factory 5. outside salesmen, claims adjustors and collec- tors 6. truck drivers 7. mailmen and policemen 8. farm tenants and laborers Much space has been devoted to a detailed discussion of who was included in the autonomous category other than 8 self-employed respondents, because this aspect of the judg- ing is most crucial to the study, is perhaps most contro- versial, and is a type of classification that is not readi- ly identifiable in terms of previous research on occupa- tions. The criteria used to classify the occupations of certain respondents in the hierarchic category are as fol— lows: 1. they were generally in large hierarchies, or 2. they had more supervision and more than one lev- el of supervision above them, or 3. they had a confining work situation, or 4. their work situations, in terms of much supervi- sion and lack of independence of decision, resembled those of other hierarchic respondents more than they did those of autonomous respondents. If the reapondents worked within large organizations such as factories, foundries, stores, banks, or utilities, and met the criteria for the hierarchic category, they in all probability were judged to be hierarchic. The principal criteria in judging respondents to be hierarchic were: evi- dence of more supervision, less independence and more than one level of supervision above them. Subdivisions of Occupational Categories After the occupations had been judged as being either more autonomous or more hierarchic, these two cate- gories were further subdivided in the following manner: 1. The autonomous category was further subdivided by placing the self-employed occupations in a separate cat— egory entitled "self-employed autonomous." Because the self-employed respondents, by virtue of being their own ' bosses, were judged to be more independent than other autonomous respondents, it was felt that they should be in a separate category. The remaining autonomous occupations were placed in a residual category entitled "semi- autonomous." This category is largely made up of respond- ents having not more than one level of supervision above them.1 2. The hierarchic category was further subdivided by placing the white-collar and supervisory occupations in a separate category entitled "hierarchic non-manual." "Non-manual" occupations were separated from the rest of the respondents in the hierarchic category because "non- manual" persons are removed from manipulations on a final 1See Reynolds and Shister, gp. cit., pp. 13-14, for a description of certain occupations hEVIng little supervi- sion, that proved extremely helpful in conceptualizing the "semi-autonomous" category for this thesis. 10 product or service and, as a result, were judged to have less supervision or pressure of supervision and were also judged to be more independent as a group in their work sit- uation than other hierarchic respondents. The remaining hierarchic occupations were placed in a residual category entitled "hierarchic manual." The latter category is com— posed largely of skilled and unskilled manual workers.1 To sum up, the judging divided the occupations of the reSpondents into one of the following four categories: 1. self-employed autonomous 2. semi-autonomous 3. hierarchic non-manual 4. hierarchic manual For purposes of this research the above four categories were deemed to represent a crude continuum of occupations ranging from 1 most dependent to 4 least independent. For descriptive purposes and to provide the frame- work/for a supplementary analysis of non-manual and manual occupations the four categories above were further subdi- vided as follows: 1. self-employed autonomous non-manual 2. self-employed autonomous manual 1Because of the small number of respondents, no separate semi-skilled category was used. ll 3. semi-autonomous non-manual 4, semi-autonomous manual 5. hierarchic non-manual white-collar 6. hierarchic non-manual supervisory 7. hierarchic manual skilled 8. hierarchic manual unskilled These eight categories are of secondary importance to this research. They are not incorporated in the hypotheses, and are used to investigate the direction of the relation be- tween independence and job acceptance found in the analysis of the four primary categories.1 Further breakdowns of the categories were deemed im- possible because of the limited number of cases. This does not preclude further subdivisions in similar studies having more cases or limited to certain groups of occupations. On the contrary, the findings of other studies would even in- dicate that further subdivisions in certain investigations may be desirable. 3 For example, Roy2 and Reynolds and Shister suggest that workers on piece rate have a certain amount of freedom 1For a complete list of the occupations of respond- ents in each of the eight categories, see Appendix B. 2D. F. Roy, "Work Satisfaction and Social Reward in Quota Achievement: An Analysis of Piecework Incentive," American Sociological Review, 18, 1953, pp. 507-514. 3Reynolds and Shister, 2p. cit., p. 12. 12 in setting their own pace and have an absence of supervi— sion when "making the rate." Chinoy1 suggests that a hier- archy of desirability of jobs exists in an auto assembly plant based in part on freedom in the work situation, abil- ity to set own pace or rate of work, lack of confinement to one specific work area, and absence of supervision. The jobs, ranked in order of desirability from high to low, are as follows: 1. off-production jobs, 2. production jobs not on the assembly line, 3. assembly line jobs, and 4. unskilled custodial work.2 Thus, according to Chinoy, desirability of auto assembly plant jobs would seem to be in direct relation to amount of independence in the work situation except for unskilled cus- todial work, an occupation of low status. In addition, within these categories of desirability there are jobs that are more desirable than others. For example, from the personal observation of this researcher based on five years' seniority working in an auto body as- sembly plant, certain line jobs are preferred to other as- sembly line and off-the-line jobs because of greater free- 1Chinoy, Automobile Workers and the American Dream, p. 66. 2Ibid. 13 dom manifested by being able to work "back up the line" in order to have a smoke or to be able to go to the men's room without asking for a relief man. Not only may there be independence in the individu- al's work environment, but also independence and autonomy in the work group. This is manifested in such statements as, "I work with a fine bunch," "We stick together," "There ain't a 'company' man amongst us," "Whenever they try to add on to our work, sure we do it, we gotta', but we go 'on down the line' and pile up all the other Operations till they get all the relief men in the shop in here to work us back up the line where we belong--then they take the extra work off," "Besides our work is protected by a written clause in the union contract, they can't add on nothin' ex- tra without violatin' the agreement but they'll try it if they think they can get away with it," and so on.1 Personal observations of this researcher in industry also suggest that persons working on the night shift may have less supervision and a greater amount of freedom than those working on the day shift , because there may be less pressure on the foremen on the night shift to supervise their men closely, because of the absence on the night shift of the "big bosses" who usually work during the day. Note the use of the pronouns "we," "us," and "they." 14 The flaunting of supervision indicated in the viola— tion of company regulations by the workers may also be an attempt by the workers to find a kind of independence and self-determination which may be minimal in the work situa- .tion. This kind of behavior is manifested in such acts as sabotage, theft, drinking, horseplay, gambling, absentee- ism, tardiness, staying in the men's room longer than neces— sary when you finally get a relief man, goldbricking when Asent on an errand, feigning illness or injury in order to go to the company infirmary, use of foul language, illicit sexual relations within the plant, and attempts at getting by with poor or absolute minimum work standards. Although for purposes of this thesis all respondents in each of the autonomous and hierarchic categories is as- sumed to have the same relative degree of independence in 'the work situation, the foregoing discussion would indicate that this is hardly the case. It will necessarily take studies oriented to much larger samples and restricted to specific occupational groups to further investigate the problem which is explored in a cursory manner in thisthesis. Criteria for Comparing Other-Than-Present-Job Named with Job Held Earlier in this chapter respondents naming present 12p in answer to job aspiration questions were deemed to have a high degree 9f job acceptance; those naming a similar 15 job were deemed to have a lower degree 2; job acceptance; and those naming a dissimilar job were deemed to have the lowest degree 2; jgp acceptance. The criteria for deter— mining whether the jobs respondents aspire to are similar or dissimilar in comparison with their present job are as follows: 1. A job is deemed similar when the respondent names a job, other than his present one, that is in the same ggneral category as his present job. For example, a job is deemed similar: a. if an autonomous respondent names an autono- mous job other than his own (for example, if a carpenter wants to be a contractor), or b. if a hierarchic reSpondent names a hierar- chic job other than his own (for example, if a weightshifter in a foundry wants to be a molder in a foundry). 2. A job is deemed dissimilar when the respondent names a job, other than his present one, that is, in a gig- ferent general category than that of his present job. For example, a job is deemed dissimilar: a. if an autonomous respondent names a hierar- chic job (for example, if a gas station own— er wants to go to work in a foundry as a la- borer), or 16 b. if a hierarchic respondent names an autono- mous job (for example, if a foreman in a factory wants to be a farmer). Research Questions The following research questions, posed in this study, are inherent in the dependent variable "job accept- ance": "What kind of respondents tend to accept their present job?" "What kind of respondents tend to aspire to jobs other than the ones they hold?‘ "Do different kinds of respondents tend to prefer certain kinds of occupations?" "What kind of respondents tend to select what kind of occu- pations?" These questions should not be confused with the criteria used for classifying occupations according to amount of independence inherent.in the work situation--the independent variable. The Research Task It is the task of this thesis to determine if cer- tain responses to job aspiration questions indicating vary- ing degrees of job acceptance are related to the more inde- pendent autonomous and the less independent hierarchic cat- egories. The reason for placing those occupations that are judged to allow the respondent a great deal of independence 17 and freedom in the work situation in an autonomous category is to show that the reSpondents having these kinds of occu- pations not only tend to accept their present job in dif- ferent proportions in comparison with those respondents who are in hierarchies, but also to show that autonomous re- spondents tend to aspire to jobs other than their present jobs in different prOportions and in a very different man- ner, compared to those respondents who are employed in hierarchies. The reason for further subdividing the categories in terms of "non-manual“ and "manual" occupations is to pro- vide the framework for a separate analysis to determine whether the relation between independence and job accept- ance is greater or less for non-manual, as Opposed to manu- al, workers, and also to determine whether job acceptance is related to the non-manual, as Opposed to the manual, oc- cupations irrespective Of the use of independence as a variable. Although the number of cases in some of these cate- gories is sometimes small, it was felt that this finer de- lineation might prove helpful in providing leads to other researchers in the formulation Of hypotheses for similar studies. This thesis does not make any value judgment regard- ing the desirability of autonomous or hierarchic occupa- l8 tions, nor does it attempt to impute in any manner job sat- isfaction or job dissatisfaction to the responses of per- sons asked jOb aspiration type questions. General Review of the Literature An attempt is made herein to examine critically areas related to the research, in order to show that the problem treated in this thesis is generally ignored. Figgp, research in the area of occupational strati- fication will be examined because the classification of oc- cupations into autonomous and hierarchic categroies is a type of occupational stratification. Three studies making use Of occupational categories similar to the autonomous and hierarchic categories used in this thesis will also be examined. Second, research in the area of job satisfaction will be examined because job satisfaction is frequently imputed to respondents naming "present job" in response to "job as- piration" type questions. A study of this kind, making use of the same data used for this thesis, will also be crit- ically examined. Thigd, research in the area Of job aspiration will be examined because this thesis deals primarily with the analysis of responses to job aspiration questions. 19 1. Occupational Stratification The bulk Of the literature on occupational stratifi- cation is concerned with socioeconomic scales and prestige scales. Of the socioeconomic scales, Warner's Index of Sta- tus Characteristics (ISC)1 is Of particular interest be- cause a modified version of Warner's ISC was used in this study to determine social class. In addition, in order to draw the sample, all the occupations Of the married males in Goldwater were classified and ranked according to Warner"s seven-point occupational prestige scale.2 The manner in which this was done is discussed in the following chapter on methodology. Despite criticisms Of Warner's ISC by Pfautz} con- cerning method and by Hochbaum £3 21.4 concerning applica- tion in large metrOpolitan cities, Warner's ISC applied to towns and small cities is still one of the best methods Of 1W. Lloyd Warner, Marcia Meeker, and Kenneth Eels, Social Class in America, Chicago: Science Research Asso- ciates, I§4§,‘§. I33. 2Loc. cit. 3H. W. Pfautz and O. D. Duncan, "A Critical Evalua- tion Of Warner's Work in Community Stratification," Ameri- can Sociological Review, 16, April, 1950, pp. 205-215. 4Godfrey Hochbaum, John G. Darley, E. D. Manachesi, and Charles Bird, "Socioeconomic Variables in a Large City," American Journal 9; Sociology, 61, July, 1955, pp. 31-38. 2O determining different economic, social, and occupational strata in a community. Application Of some Of Warner's methods made it possible to Obtain a sample containing sub- stantial numbers Of "self-employed" and "semi-autonomous" respondents. Because so few job aspiration studies have included persons having autonomous jobs, it is felt that findings and conclusions concerning these kinds Of respond- ents will be a major contribution of this thesis. Warner's ISC and his occupational prestige scale, on the other hand, were not used to classify the occupations for the central problem Of this thesis, because they did not differentiate between more or less independent occupa- tions. For the same reason Edwards' occupational scale1 was not used. The autonomous and hierarchic categories were constructed for purposes Of this thesis, because tra- ditional socioeconomic and prestige scales currently in use2 could not be applied to the problem at hand. Certain criticisms of socioeconomic and prestige scales are examined next, in order to place the kind of OO- cupational stratification attempted in this thesis in a 1Alba M. Edwards, Alphabetical Index 2; Occupations, Washington: United States Government Printing f ca, 1957. Po 3- 2H. W. Pfautz, "The Current Literature on Social Stratification: Critique and Bibliography," American Jour- nal g: Sociology, 57, January, 1953, pp. 59l-E18. 21 prOper perspective and in order to answer the question: "DO the autonomous and hierarchic categories resolve to some extent deficiencies that have been attributed to other methods Of classifying jobs?" Hatt, for instance, in criticizing Edward's scale states: His socioeconomic scale is based primarily upon "head and hand" type Of work as constituting a positional scale. . . . While Edward's technique is essentially oriented toward duties it is also validated in terms of yearly income and total educational qualifications of the job occupants. . . . Its chief weakness lies the breadth of its categories some of which clearly overlap, and in the absence of indications that these hierarchal positions actually reflect the invidious value accorded them by the public.1 Hatt says in effect that Edwards' scale is not uni- dimensional and that the categories which comprise it can not be ranked from high to low in terms of status position. As an alternative to this and other scales, Hatt suggests the use of the prestige scale which is accom- plished in the following manner: the method employed is to secure judgments from others about the prestige position of a selected series of occupations. Who these "others" are that give judgments seems to make a difference. Form3 found that persons in manual as Opposed 1Paul K. Hatt, "Occupation and Social Stratifica- tion," American Journal pf Sociology, 55, May, 1950, p. 356. 2 Ibid., p. 538; underlining mine. 3Form, _p. cit., p. 89. 22 to non-manual occupations tended to judge the prestige po- sition of occupations differently. What kinds of occupa- tions are "selected" for judging also seems to make a dif- 2 and Stone and Form3 found that ference. Davies,1 Caplow, reapondents tended to agree in the polar extremes of high and low status occupations, but disagreed on the hierarchal ordering Of those occupations in the middle range. Hatt, in attempting to use the Guttman Scaling Tech- nique to determine whether different individuals consis- tently rated occupations in the same relative positions in the National Opinion Research Center prestige scale,4 found that different samples did not even yield a "Quasi scale." However, he did find subgroupings Of occupational families, which he calls "situses," which did scale although the re- sults were not conclusive. These are his conclusions: While there is insufficient evidence to put forth the occupational families and situses as firmly estab- 1A. F. Davies, "Prestige of Occupations," British Journal pf Sociology, 3, 1952, pp. 134-147. 2 . . Theodore Caplow, SOClOlO pf Work, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, I534, pp. 30-58. 3Gregory P. Stone and William H. Form, "Instabili- ties in Status: The Problem Of Hierarchy in the Community Study Of Status Arrangements," American Sociolpgical 23- view, 18, April, 1953, pp. l49-I62. 4NORC Survey 244. A summary appears in Logan Wilson and William L. Kolb, Sociological Analysis, New York: Har- court, Brace, 1949, Chapter xiii. 23 lished exactly as set forth here, there seems ample evidence to indicate both the possibility and the utility Of vertical--horizontal occupational anal- ysis.1 What Hatt does is to raise serious questions concerning the uni-dimensional ranking Of occupations according to pres- tige. Form goes one step further: The prestige hierarchy of occupations may not be conceived as unilateral in any sense. The evidence points to the fact that manual and white collar groups view the hierarchy with different perspec- tives. Manual workers may regard their occupations as honorific as white collar occupations.2 Hatt ' 5 contribution was in presenting for the first time evidence that the uni-dimensional ranking of occupations according to prestige was not consistent for different in- dividuals. This raised questions concerning the usefulness of prestige scales. By suggesting that subgroupings of co- cupations, sometimes called situses, possibly might scale, he opened the way for other researchers to seek other methods Of occupational stratification that might prove to be more fruitful. The purpose of the preceding discussion has been not only to show the usefulness of Warner's ISC and occupation- al prestige scale in drawing the sample for the study, but lHatt, 92. cit., p. 539. 2Form, 9p. cit. 24 also to show that the kind of occupational stratification develOped especially for this thesis may resolve some of the difficulties that have been inherent in some socioeco- nomic and prestige scales. That this manner of categoriz- ing jobs may answer some Of the criticisms attributed to other methods may in part be due to the fact that the clas- sification of jobs in this thesis is not uni-dimensional but two-dimensional. It incorporates both amount of inde- pendence in the work situation and non-manual and manual distinctions. As such this categorization of occupations cuts across traditional social, economic, and occupational lines. It is a personal innovation and as such any short- comings it may have should be attributed to this researcher. Whether or not, on the other hand, the kind Of occupational stratification outlined in this thesis proves to be a prac- tical tool for empirical research is left for other re- searchers to decide. Before terminating this discussion three studies making use of occupational categories similar to the auton- omous and hierarchic categories used in this thesis are ex- amined. First, Hansen used categories similar to the ones used herein to demonstrate with the use Of census data that the percentage of persons having self-employed and inde- 25 pendent occupations was decreasing through the years. Be- cause Hansen's thoughts on the subject are so closely akin to those of this researcher, a few of his remarks are per- tinent in order to show that the kind Of occupational stratification attempted in this thesis is not altogether new. Hansen makes the following statements: Industrial Independence. . . . it is surprising to find what a large prOportion Of the gainfully employed pOpulation are business men, farmers and professional men. Table IV shows that in 1910 about 38 per cent still belonged to this independent class. Disregard- ing again the unclassified, the gainfully employed population is here placed in two groups. One group is composed of the business and professional classes, farmers and the children of farmers. . . . This, then, is the industrially independent group, independ- ent not so much from the standpoint of income as from the standpoint of being one's own boss.1 The second group is composed of the rural and in- dustrial wage earners and the lower salaried employ- ees. . . . their outlook is different because of their place in the industrial system.2 TO sum up, disregarding the unclassified, Hansen suggests dividing the gainfully employed pOpulation into two groups, with the prOprietary and independent class on the one hand, and with the rural and urban working class on the other. There is little need Of pointing out the similarities be- tween Hansen‘s groups and this researcher's autonomous and hierarchic groups. 1Alvin H. Hansen, "Industrial Class Alinements in the United States," Journal Of the American Statistical fig- sociation, l7, DecemBer, I920: p. 422. 2Ibia. 26 Further refinements Of Hansen's categories were made by Daugherty1 who renamed the two classes "independent" and "dependent" respectively. Second, Lipset and Bendix2 made use Of "Free Enter- prise" and "Bureaucratic" categories as tools for eXplain- ing certain kinds of occupational mobility. His "Free En- terprise" category referred to self-employed prOprietors and his "Bureaucratic" category referred to white collar employees within hierarchies. 5 Third, Miller and Swanson made use of "Mass organi- zation" and "Bureaucratic organization" categories for a study Of the American parent in the Detroit area. The mother was deemed to participate in "Mass organization" if she or her husband: a. were born on a farm or b. were born outside the United States the assumption being that he or she came from a farm or entrepre- neurial organization. and also if any one Of the following characteristics were met by the husband: c. was self-employed 1Carroll R. Daugherty, Labor Problems i9 American Industry, Boston: Houghton, HITTIIn, I933, p. 5 . 2Lipset and Bendix, 2p. cit., p. 497. 3Miller and Swanson, loc. cit. 27 d. gained at least half his income in the form Of profits or commissions e. worked in an organization having only two levels of supervision i.e. if he has a boss then his boss has no boss and he himself has no subordinates, or if he is his own boss then his subordinates do not have any subordinates. Having defined the participants in mass organization, we treated the remainder of our mothers as being bu- reaucratic participants. It is important, however, that they fall, not into some vaguely defined residual classification, but into a conceptually and historical- ly clear position. They are persons who, together with their husbands, were born in towns or cities in the United States.. Their husbands work for someone else in organizations with three or more supervisory levels. Their income is primarily in the form of wages or sal- ary. They are not taking entrepreneurial risks. Nor do most Of them have entrepreneurial Opportunities. They are, in short, the peOple who may be expected to have had the most experience in the non-entrepreneur- ial roles in welfare-bureaucratic relations.1 The principal difference between the Miller-Swanson categories and those of this researcher are primarily due to the fact that Miller and Swanson were concerned with family origins as they might affect child upbringing. Therefore they emphasized place of birth. This researcher, on the other hand, was primarily concerned with the present occupation Of the respondent as related to his job aspira- tions. With the exception of the place of birth distinction, the Miller-Swanson criteria are almost identical to those of this researcher. Especially noteworthy in the Miller- 1Ibid. 28 Swanson study is the explicitness of the criteria for de- termining the participants in each of the two categories. As has been earlier stated, the Miller-Swanson level of su- pervision criteria was adapted for use in this thesis. For purposes Of greater specificity, other researchers may wish to incorporate additional Miller-Swanson criteria into the judging process used to determine participants in the categories used in this thesis. Criteria such as the one concerning profits and commissions might well have been in- cluded in the definition Of the "autonomous" category, for example. 2. Job Satisfaction This review of the literature on job satisfaction will attempt to describe: a. Definitions. b. Job satisfaction studies that attempt to get at job satisfaction directly. c. Apparent conflicts between the findings of job aspiration and job satisfaction studies. d. Job satisfaction studies that incorporate job aspiration questions in their scales. e. Attempts at getting at gpp satisfaction.;p- directly by imputing jO satisfaction to present jpp responses to job aspiration questions. . - f. Attempts at getting at jpp dissatisfaction indirectly by imputing job dissatisfaction other than resent jpp responses to job as- piration questions. 29 g. Attempts to relate job aspiration to job satisfaction in the same research. h. Summary Of criticism. a. Definitions ~ As used in the literature job satisfaction is both a variable and a generic term used to describe studies de- signed tO get at or measure the variable. On the one hand, job satisfaction--the variable-- describes the degree to which a person is happy in, likes, derives pleasure from, is gratified by, or is satisfied with his present job. The variable may range in degree from extreme presence Of satisfaction, happiness, and lik- ing for present job to extreme absence of satisfaction, un- happiness, dislike, displeasure, and "dissatisfaction" with present job. On the other hand, job satisfaction--the generic term--is used to describe studies designed to get at direct- ly the satisfactions and dissatisfactions Of workers with their jobs. For purposes Of this review Of the literature questions regarding job satisfaction are characterized by the use Of the present pgppg pg ppp 133p, i.e., "£33 you satisfied or dissatisfied with your present job?" This is in contrast to jpp aspiration questions that are characterized by the use of the conditional tense p; 30 ppg 223p, i.e., "Of all the jobs you know of, what job gpplg you most like to have?" The methodology of this thesis is based on these definitions and the assumptions inherent therein that: job satisfaction and job aspiration are two separate and dis- tinct types of studies, that use different kinds of ques- tions, that produce different kinds of results. Since this study is concerned with the analysis of job aspiration questions exclusively and since one of the assumptions of this research is that studies of jOb aspira- tion are distinct from those Of job satisfaction, the ques- tion arises: "Why then is a review Of the literature on job satisfaction incorporated in this thesis?" A review of the literature on job satisfaction is incorporated in this thesis because it was felt that the distinction just made between job satisfaction and job as- piration was not clear in the literature. For example, some researchers have included job as- piration questions in job satisfaction scales. Some other researchers have found apparent conflicts between the find- ings of job satisfaction and job aspiration studies. Others have embarked on research that attempts to impute job satisfaction to those who name present app in answer to job aspiration questions such as "Of all the jobs you of, what job would you most like to have?" The latter is the 31 so-called indirect method of getting at job satisfaction. Still others have gone one step further by trying to impute job dissatisfaction to those respondents who name a job ppppp than present job in response to job aspiration ques- tions. b. Job satisfaction studies that attempt to get at job satisfaction directly. Studies that attempt to ascertain job satisfaction directly use such questions as "Are you satisfied or dis- satisfied with your present job?" Investigations Of this type, using cross section samples Of a community or the pOpulation at large, have been reported by HOppock,1 pp;- pppg,2 and Centers.3 The findings of these studies indi- cate that about fifteen per cent of the respondents were dissatisfied with their jobs and about 85 per cent were satisfied with or indifferent to their jobs. Center's comments regarding results of the study he reported shed light on the attitudes of some researchers toward the "direct" method of measuring job satisfaction: 1Robert Hoppock, Job Satisfaction, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1935, p. 2507 2Fortune, December, 1946, p. 10. 3Centers, 2p. cit., p. 198. The question cited is from this source. 32 Considered as a whole 84 per cent of white American males are satisfied. This may not, of course, re- present the exact state of affairs. Admittedly it may take some courage to state to an interviewer that one is not content with one's position, con- taining an admission, as such a statement perhaps does, that one is somehow unsuccessful and malad- justed in life. These results had thus best be re- garded as a quite conservative estimate of Ameri- cans' job satisfaction, for there can be little reason in viewing them as an overstatement in light of our cultural standards which frown to a certain extent on complaining.1 The studies reviewed were selected because they sur- vey samples that included a rather complete range of the occupations normally found in a community or the country at large, and as such were to a degree comparable to the sample used in this thesis. Comparable results were prob- ably Obtained in the studies reviewed because similar samples and similar methods were used to determine job sat- isfaction.2 c. Apparent conflicts between the findings of job aspiration and job satisfaction studies A brief review of the literature indicates that the percentage of respondents who name their present job or 11bid., p. 191. 2For other studies Of job satisfaction see the fol- lowing issues Of the journal Occu ations (recently renamed Personnel and Guidance): ApriI, 1938; October, 1940; Feb- ruary, 1943?_AprII, I945; April, 1948; December, 1948; De- cember, 1949; October, 1950; May, 1951; May, 1952; Septem- ber, 1953; September, 1954; May, 1955. 35 choose the same occupation in response to job aspiration questions is consistently lower than the percentage who say they are satisfied in response to job satisfaction ques- tions. For example, in response to the question "If you could go back to the age Of eighteen and start life over again, would you choose a different career or occupation?" a Fortune survey found: 41.0 per cent answered (Yes) they would choose a different career, 39.2 per cent answered (NO) they would choose the same career, 15.2 per cent said it would depend on the circumstances, and 4.6 per cent an- swered "don't know."1 It is evident that a lower percentage of respondents aspire to the same career and Occupation when contrasted with the higher percentage of respondents who, in other studies reviewed, indicate they are satisfied in response to job satisfaction questions. Form,in a study done in ”Greenbelt" near Washington, D. C., of manual and white collar workers, most of whom were employed by the government, found that: When members Of the sample were asked what occupations they has most aspired to enter over one-quarter, 26.6 per cent, stated that they wanted to go into business for themselves. Most of the remaining mentioned inde- pendent or dependent professional occupations and none mentioned skilled labor or office work. Only 17.3 per cent said they would like to enter the occupations they 1Fortune, June, 1938, p. 86. 34 were in. Yet when asked directly how they felt about their present occupation, 45.8 per cent commented that they were very happy in it, and 30.6 per cent were "on the whole satisfied," 13.8 per cent were ambivalent, 11.8 per cent dissatisfied. These findings reveal an even wider gulf between job aSpi- ration and job satisfaction. It will be noticed that 17.3 per cent aspired to the same occupation and 76.4 per cent of the same sample stated they were satisfied with present job. The results suggest the following question: "If so many of the reSpondents were satisfied with their present jobs, than why did so many Of them aspire to different jobs and so few of them aSpire to enter the same occupation they presently were in?" The probable answer to this question may lie in the following: Due to the fact Form's sample was largely drawn from manual and white collar occupations on the "lower rung of the occupational ladder," it is possible that a large prOportion of the persons fill his sample Egg ppp ypp achieved pp; occupational status pp gplpp ppgy as ired, i.e., ppgy pgg ppp arrived. It is entirely within the realm of possibility that g person pgy pg satisfied with pip present jpp, ygp ppy pp ppp pppg pipg consider his present job pp p "stepping stone" pp another 30 . It is also possible that a person may be dissatisfied with his 1Form, pp. cit. The last sentence is‘a footnote in the original. 55 present job and still desire to remain in his present job. When New HOpe, Pennsylvania, workers were asked the question: "If you could have your choice of all the jobs in the world, which would you choose?"1 Hoppock found that 48 per cent Of the sample checked "Your present job," 16 per cent checked "Another job in the same occupation," and 36 per cent checked "A job in another occupation." This study reveals the same kind of pattern of response that was found in a survey by Fortune and a study by Form, i.e., g lower percentage name present job pp response pp job aspira- tion questions than the percentage 2; persons who indicate pppy are satisfied pp response pp jpp satisfaction ques- ages- Little or no attempt, to this researcher's knowledge, has been made in the literature to reconcile these so- called "discrepancies" or conflicting results. One of the reasons for the different percentages may be that respond- ents to job aspiration questions are less likely to name present job, because they have more freedom of choice to name a job other than present job. This is in contrast to 1Hoppock, O . cit., p. 251. This question was not included in HOppOCE'S_UBb Satisfaction Index. This re- searcher is in complete accord with this procedure. Note the similarity between the three responses in quotation marks and the three degrees Of job acceptance used in this thesis. 36 questions Of job satisfaction, where the respondent is largely restricted to two choices, satisfied or dissatis- fied. The "apparent conflicts" have apparently led some researchers to feel that the direct method of measuring job satisfaction overstates the percentage of respondents that are satisfied with their jobs and understates the percent- age Of respondents that are dissatisfied. For example, Eicher states: The majority of the studies measuring satisfaction were executed by the "direct" method, which contains the drawback of suggesting satisfaction or dissatisfac- tion to the respondent. This may put the respondent on the defensive; he may feel compelled to admit sat- isfaction.1 The reasons for this attitude, the kind of research this attitude has generated, and a kind of research that may re- solve some of these "apparent conflicts" are discussed in the sections that follow. d. Job satisfaction studies that incorporate job aspiration questions in their scales In part, the conflicts and confusion have been due to the newness and relative exploratory nature of the re- lJoanne Eicher, Job Satisfaction: Its Relationship to Occupational, Stratification and Community variables, Ufipublished master's thesis, Michigan State niversity, p. 12. 37 searches in the field of job satisfaction and job aspira- tion. In part, this confusion has also been due to lack of discrimination, confusing terminology, and lack of explana- tion for apparent differences in results of job satisfac- tion and job aspiration studies. The confusion that exists in the presently overlap— ping study Of job satisfaction and job aspiration can also be traced in part to the fact that the two leading method- ologists for job satisfaction studies, HOppock and Bullock, each include a job aspiration question in their respective scales. The responses to the job aspiration questions are then incorporated in job satisfaction indices. Because the bulk of the studies have used and continue to use Hoppock's or Bullock's methods of measuring job satisfaction, this fact takes on added importance.1 HOppock, in Job Satisfaction Blank NO. 5, employs the following job aspiration question as one of four ques- tions that comprise his "Job Satisfaction Index": Check the ONE of the following which best tells how you feel about changing your job: . . . . I would quit this job at once if I could get ___,. anything else to do. 1HOppock's and Bullock's methodological contribu- tions for the study of job satisfaction were invaluable in conceptualizing the problem for this thesis. Notwithstand- ing their many contributions this researcher is in dis- agreement with the use Of job aspiration questions to meas- ure job satisfaction. 38 . . . . I would take almost any other job in which I could earn as much as I am earning now. . . . . I would like to change both my job and my occupation. . . . I would like to exchange my present job for another job in the same line Of work. . . I am not eager to change my job, but I would do so if I could get a better job. . I cannot think Of any jobs for which I would exchange mine. 1 . . . . I would not exchange my job for any other. Bullock uses an adaptation of the same HOppock ques- tion as part Of his ten-point job satisfaction scale.2 Ac- cording tO Bullock: it seems logical to expect that a person experiencing any great degree Of dissatisfaction would take some step toward Obtaining employment elsewhere, either by direct application or by registration with an employ- ment agency.3 The literature, however, points out that Bullock's logic does not necessarily follow. For example, Morse found in a study Of white collar workers that: Those with higher morale plan to remain with the com- pany for a longer period. But why do those who are less satisfied with their present pay and status and likely future pay and status plan to remain in the company? As we shall show . . . , the less satisfied on this index have specialized jobs which they have held for a considerable length Of time. They are the Older employees with long service in the company. De- 1HOppock, _p. cit., p. 243; underlining mine. 2Robert P. Bullock, Social Factors Related to Job Satisfaction, 5 Technique for tEe Measurement of JOB SEEis- faction, Research MonograpE'NumBer 70, Bureau Of Business Research, Ohio State University, 1952, p. 60--see Question 8. 3Ibid., p. 30. 39 spite their dissatisfaction with pay and status con- ditions, they are in a poor position to move because of their degree Of specialization, and their age. They, therefore, plan to remain until retirement.1 Morse also points out that no suitable jobs may be Open to a person, that in periods Of oversupply of labor jobs may be scarce, and that furthermore a person "may fear something new, or have strong ties to his community and not "2 She concludes that "turnover, want to move out Of it. therefore, is probably dependent upon morale, but it is also dependent ppon the psychological ppg physical availa- bility 2; other jobs.3 Chinoy, referring to two machine-Operators in their sixties, makes a similar distinction: "They had no job goals because they were looking forward to the day they could retire."4 If on the one hand it is assumed that naming present jpp in response to a job aspiration question means job sat- isfaction when at the same time a dissatisfied5 person can 1Nancy C. Morse, Satisfactions in the white-collar Ob, Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Rgsearch, University 0 Michigan, 1953, pp. 53-54. 2Ibid. Note: the worker may not particularly like his job, But may have strong ties to his work group, and thus may not want to change jobs. 3Ibia. 4Chinoy, pp. cit., p. 80. 5By "dissatisfied" this researcher means a person who states directly that he is dissatisfied with his job in response to a job satisfaction question. 40 name his present job, it therefore follows that the re- spondent can be both satisfied and dissatisfied at the same itime. If on the other hand it is assumed that naming a job other than present job in reaponse to a job aspiration question means job dissatisfaction when at the same time a satisfied1 person can name a job other than his present job, it again follows that the respondent can be both sat- isfied and dissatisfied at the same time. Because Of the methodological difficulties such a procedure presents, this researcher highly questions the use Of job aspiration questions in job satisfaction scales. e. Attempts at getting at job satisfaction in- directly by imputing job satisfaction to” present job responses to job aspiration questions According to Eicher: The indirect method Of assessing job satisfaction con- sists in asking the respondent what job he would choose if he could start his occupational life over. That is, he is not asked about how satisfied he is with his job, but his answer presumably will indicate— present job satisfaction or job aspiration.2 The "indirect" method essentially consists Of imput- ing job satisfaction to those who name present job, career 1By "satisfied" this researcher means a person who states directly that he is satisfied with his job in re- aponse to a job satisfaction question. 2Eicher, pp. cit., p. 3; underlining mine. 41 or occupation1 in response to job aspiration questions. Because the methodological difficulties inherent in the in- direct method Of determining job satisfaction have already' been pointed out, there will be little need to refer to them in the discussion that follows. Although, as we have seen in the preceding section, job aspiration questions have been and are included in job satisfaction scales, little or no allusion was made by HOp- pock and Bullock concerning those who were "satisfied" or "dissatisfied" in response to job aspiration questions. TO this researcher's knowledge, the first evidence in the literature where job satisfaction was imputed to re— aponses to a job aspiration question was in the previously reported Fortune survey that asked the question "If you could go back to the age Of 18 and start life over again, gpplg you choose the same career or occupation?" Those who chose their present career or occupation were deemed con- tented, happy and satisfied. Those who chose a different career were deemed discontented, frustrated and dissatis- fied.2 A later Fortune survey also imputed job satisfac- 1Although these three terms each with different meanings have been used in job aspiration studies, this re- searcher seriously questions whether the average respondent can clearly differentiate these differences in meaning. 2Fortune, January, 1938, p. 86. Underlining mine. 42 tion to those who chose the "same trade or occupation" in response to a similar job aspiration question.1 One Of the most recent studies Of this kind is an unpublished thesis by Joanne Eicher based on an analysis of the same three questions studied in this thesis. When present job was named as a response to any one of the three questions, that question was given a score of 1. Scores were totalled to Obtain a total score of job satisfaction. Total scores ranged from O to 3: 0 for those respondents who did not name their present job for any of the three questions; 3 for those who answered their present job for all three questions.2 She Observed that: . . . roughly half Of the reapondents (fifty-one) fell into the "more satisfied" categories with scores of three and two. . . . The other half (fifty-eight) fell into the "less satisfied" category . . . . 1Fortune, June, 1947, p. 5. 2Eicher, pp. cit., pp. 23-25. 3Ibid., pp. 25-26. Elsewhere on page 30 of her the- sis, however, Eicher states: "The term 'satisfied' will be used to distinguish those workers scoring three and two on the Index, while 'dissatisfied' will denote those scoring one and zero. The writer realizes that respondents with zero scores actually may be content with certain aspects of their work world." Although Eicher realizes that certain respondents with the zero scores on her index may actually be content with certain aspects of their work world, this researcher seriously questions her use of the terms "satisfied" and "dissatisfied" for responses to job sepiration questions, for reasons previously stated. The use of the terms "more 45 Eicher then proceeded to correlate her job satisfac- tion scores with a number of variables. It was found that those with the highest scores tended to be in the upper classes Of society and tended to have the highest incomes, while those with the lowest scores tended to be in the low- er classes Of society and tended to have the lowest incomes. Basic to the Eicher thesis were these two assump- tions: (1) that naming present job in response to any of the three questions indicated job satisfaction, and (2) that attributing a score Of 1 to each present job named response indicated equal weight was given to each Of the three ques- tions. For purposes of this thesis both Eicher assumptions were rejected.1 f. Attempts at getting at job dissatisfaction indirectly by imputing job dissatisfaction t6 other than present job responses to job aspiration questions Although two Of the Fortune surveys reviewed and the Eicher thesis imputed job dissatisfaction to those who did satisfied" and "less satisfied" may perhaps be less Objec- tionable. 1To bridge the gap between the Eicher study and this thesis, the reader is referred to Appendix A which describes in detail a preliminary investigation that preceded the formulation Of the thesis problem. The reasons for using the term ‘Ob acceptance throughout this thesis rather than the term jpp satisfaction are also to be found in Appendix A. 44 not name present job, career, or occupation in response to job aspiration questions, these studies focused primarily 0 job satisfaction. Lyman in a recent study of a cross section sample Of respondents in the Chicago area, on the other hand, focused primarily on job dissatisfaction. If a respondent named a job other than his present job to even one out of three job aspiration questions, she judged that respondent to be dis- satisfied with his present job. She used the following method: . . . the respondents were classified as satisfied or dissatisfied, depending on the combination Of replies they made to these questions: 1. If you could start over, would you go into the same kind of work again, or what would you like to do? (Probe: This is "are-there-any-regrets" question.) 2. Suppose you could get the same pay, no matter what kind of work you did. Of all the kinds Of work you can think of, what would you like best? 3. How would you feel about a son of yours going into your kind Of work? A respondent was classified as satisfied if he gave the following combination of answers: 1. Would go into the same kind of work again, if he could start over, and gives no indication of dissatis- faction with present jOb, as Opposed to kind of work. 2. Would like best the same kind Of work he is now doing, if he could get the same pay no matter what kind of work done. 3. Approves of having son go into his (respondent's) kind Of work, or says a son should do what he likes. 45 Siséiii-é'f—ar-T—iimbifiitigfiry—T w—ans‘£§€§.2-—ni§2"ie% L—.Z§§°§f1-‘-§hZh-5 sample were classified as dissatisfied . . .)1 This researcher is not convinced that 69 per cent of Lyman's respondents were dissatisfied with their jobs. Moreover, he feels quite confident that if it had been sug- gested to the respondents that they were dissatisfied with their present job if they answered a job other than their present job, in response to even one of Lyman's three job aspiration questions, they would probably have not agreed. Apparently some researchers persist in seeking methods that will ostensibly prove that large percentages of the pOpula- tion are dissatisfied with their jobs. g. Attempts to relate job aspiration to job satisfaction in the same research This review of the literature has been an attempt to identify both "sound" and "unsound" methods Of determining job satisfaction. There is undoubtedly more to identifying the vari- able job satisfaction than asking the question "Are you satisfied with your present job?" The literature suggests that the variable job satisfaction is made up Of numerous "subvariables," such as satisfaction with job content, with 1Elizabeth Lyman, "Occupational Differences in the Value Attached to Work, " American Journal of Sociology, 61, Sept., 1955, p. 140. Underlining mine. 46 pay, with job status, with work group, with union, with company, and with Opportunities for future promotions and advances in pay, with amount of supervision, and with abil- ity to make own decisions and set own pace of work.1 It is not within the province Of this review, how- ever, to determine what are "sound" methods of determining job satisfaction. Rather, it has been to determine "un- sound"methods of determining job satisfaction. This has come about only because many Of those studies on job satis- faction that are not methodologically sound can be attrib- uted to students of job satisfaction who "trespassed" in the area Of job aspiration py imputing job satisfaction pp the responses pg job aspiration questions. The following review of the literature attempts to show that job aspiration and job satisfaction studies are separate and distinct. This has been done in order that researchers will not confuse the kind of research attempted in this thesis with research on job satisfaction. Of course, it is entirely possible and even desirable to study both job aspiration and job satisfaction for the same sample of respondents and to relate the results, as long as the variables are properly delineated and labeled. Hoppock, for example, contrasts the job aspirations of the 100 most satisfied and the 100 most dissatisfied Of 1Morse, pp. cit., Chap. 1. 47 a sample of 500 teachers.1 The results are summarized be- low: If you could have your choice of all the jobs in the world, which would you choose? Check“ one: Percentage of Response Satisfied Dissatisfied Group Group Your present job . . . 43 2 A job which your present job wiil. help you to get . . . . . . . 34 33 Another job in the same occupa- tion . . . . . . . . . 17 28 A job in another Occupation . . 1 36 Omitted . . . . . . 4 l Unusable . . l O HOppock's results, though burdened by serious methodologi- cal shortcomings,2 are presented to show the manner in 1HOppock, pp. pip., p. 169. The categories for re- sponses to the job aspiration question were extremely use- ful to this researcher in conceptualizing the various de- grees of "job acceptance." It should be noted that many 3p the satisfied group desired jobs other than present job. 2The reader should use extreme caution in interpret- ing the neat results Obtained by HOppock, because the pre- viously quoted job aspiration question concerning changing jobs was included in the index that determined if the teachers were satisfied or dissatisfied. Furthermore, this researcher is not quite sure how iHOppock Obtained 100 dissatisfied teachers, since in re- aponse to the "direct" question (the first one on Hoppock' 5 Job Satisfaction Blank NO. 1, see Hoppock, _p. cit., p. 166) only 11 out of 500 teachers indicated they“ were dis- satisfied with their jobs. One reason so few teachers may have indicated they ‘were dissatisfied (11) and so many may have indicated they ‘were satisfied (484; 5 were indifferent) may have been that there were only three possible "dissatisfied" answers, ‘while at the same time there were seven possible "satisfied" 48 which it may be possible to relate job aspiration and job satisfaction in the same study. I attempted to relate job morale factors of Fortune factory workers to their job aspirations. Respondents were rated on the basis Of responses to certain questions as having zero to five Of the following morale factors: 1. interest in the job 2. not being overworked answers. This situation was corrected on Job Satisfaction Blank NO. 5, where there were three possible satisfied and three possible dissatisfied responses. In addition, nothing is said by Hoppock concerning the intensity of the attitude of the satisfied group. Methodologically a complete range of intensity Of attitude Of the satisfied group should have been included if a com- plete range Of intensity Of attitude Of the dissatisfied group was included. Because so few teachers were dissatis- fied, it is strongly suspected that the complete range of intensity Of attitude Of dissatisfaction was included. It is also suspected that the group of teachers who expressed the most intense attitude of satisfaction, by checking "I love it" in telling how well they liked their jobs, was in- cluded in the satisfied group. These suspicions were vir- tually confirmed when it was noted that 60 teachers said they loved their jobs, contrasted to only 1 teacher who said "I hate it." In other words, the satisfied were more satisfied than the dissatisfied were dissatisfied. Another reason so many were satisfied may have been that the study was restricted to teachers exclusively and as such did not include persons in occupations where pos- sibly fewer were proportionately satisfied with their jobs. Because of the foregoing considerations this re- searcher believes that Hoppock s satisfied and dissatisfied groups of teachers are in no way comparable. As such, ex- ‘treme caution should be used in interpreting not only the :results of the question just described, but all questions on pages 169-212 Of HOppock's ggp Sptisfaction that use the satisfied and dissatisfied groups Of teachers for compari- son. It is believed that the kinds Of comparisons made by IHOppock would have proved fruitful, had the satisfied and dissatisfied groups been comparable. 1Fortune, June, 1947, pp. 5-6. 49 3. security for Old age 4. ability to advance 5. belief individual merit is rewarded These morale scores were then related to the re- sponses of these respondents to the question "If you could go back to the age of fifteen and start life over again, would you choose a different trade or occupation?" in the following manner: Would choose Would choose dif- No same occupation ferent occupation Opinion All factory workers 31% 57% 12% O 5 factors 52 41 7 '3 3} 4 factors 38 53 9 a: g 3 factors 32 58 10 m m 2 factors 26 63 11 g 8. 1 factor 15 7O 15 64 None 9 63 28 Note the small percentage in the Fortune survey that have one or no morale factors and still desire to remain in present career or occupation, and the large percentage that have four or five morale factors, yet desire a different ca- reer or occupation. Although the number Of morale factors is not equated to job satisfaction, data of this kind would tend tO sub- stantiate the Observation made earlier that it is possible to be dissatisfied with present job and still desire to re- 50 main in it, and that it is also possible to be satisfied with present job and desire a different one. It is believed by this researcher that studies such as the one just described that relates morale factors to job aspiration will prove extremely fruitful as long as the variables are properly labeled and kept separate and dis- tinct. Regretably, the Fortune article imputed job satis- faction tO responses Of the job aspiration question. Morse, in a similar study, related the responses of white collar workers to the question "What are your plans and ambitions now?"1 to financial and job status satisfac- tion in the following manner: PRESENT PLANS AND ANBITIONS AS RELATED TO FINANCIAL AND JOB STATUS SATISFACTION Type Of aspiration High Medium Low Total N Further advancement in the company 33% 28% 39% 100% 206 Non-job sapiration (school, marriage, home, family) 23 42 35 100 232 NO specific job aspiration ("work in com any until retire," etc. . 19 37 44 100 140 Job outside 18 35 47 100 34 Net ascertained I 23 Total ‘ 635 l MOrse, pp. cit., p. 73. This was the only instance 51 Horse concluded that "there are no significant or strong tendencies for those high in satisfaction to have different plans and ambitions from those low in satisfaction."1 It will again be noted that it is possible for re- spondents to have high financial and job status satisfac- tion and desire a job outside, while it is also possible for those with low financial and job status satisfaction to desire to advance in the company or remain in the company until retirement. Morse then took only those peOple whose aspiration was further advancement in the company and compared their answers to the question: "What do you think will really happen about those plans?" She found that those who were uncertain about achieving advancement or did not expect ad- vancement were low on the financial and job status index, as follows: noted in the literature where use Of the present tense was made in a job aspiration question. Probably job aspiration questions of this sort may be more realistic than hypothet- ical questions using the conditional tense (would) coupled with if-clauses. 1Loc. cit. 52 THE RELATIONSHIP OF EXPECTATIONS FOR ACHIEVEMENT 0F AMBITIONS TO FINANCIAL AND JOB STATUS SATISFACTION (AMONG EMPLOYEES WHO WANT FURTHER ADVANCEMENT IN THE COMPANY)1 Degree Of Financial and Status Satisfaction Expectations High Medium Low Total N Expect advancement 47% 33% 20% 100% 110 Uncertain Of achieving advancement 17 28 55 100 76 Don't eXpect advancement 15 10 75 100 20 Total 206 From the portion of the study reported herein Morse concluded that: From the results for this white-collar pOpulation, it is apparent that satisfaction with salary and status does not depend so much on the actual salary and status which the employee receives, as it does upon the relation- ship Of this salary and status to his sapirations. In this company the new employees are the most satisfied, for they are receiving salaries which are probably adequate in view Of their lack of training and experience, and they still have a chance for advancement to higher level jobs or are not interested in advancement. But the hierarchal job pyramid is such that the employees with over ten years' service in the company have arrived at a point where there are actually very few Opportunities for future promotions. Although many of these employees would like to advance fur- ther, most of them are uncertain of being able to. Fur- thermore their present salary and status level is already below the level that they feel that they should have achieved. As time goes on, there is evidently a widening 19p. pip., p. 74. The use of questions such as "What do you think will really happen about those plans?" or "What (IO you think are your chances of someday getting the job you want?" may prove useful in future studies to determine sf respondents have valid realizable desires. 53 gap between the individual's needs and desires for salary and job status and what the organization Of- fers. . . . ' Whatever the determinants Of aspiration may be, it is apparent that the individual's level Of satis- faction is a function of the relationship between his aspirations and his achievements. A worker who aspires to little may be entirely happy with a very modest job. A worker who aspires to a higher posi- tion which he eventually achieves may find lasting satisfaction therein. A worker whose aspiration level continues to rise as his own achievements rise may never feel that his company has properly recognized his abilities.1 The results of Morse's studies on white-collar em- ployee satisfaction suggested that two factors were operat- ing: "The amount Of satisfaction which an employee experi- enced appeared to be a function Of both what he wanted from 2 Satisfaction a situation and what he Obtained from it." then seemed to depend not only on amount of environmental return but strength of desires: "the greater the amount the individual gets, the greater his satisfaction, and at the same time, the more the individual still desires, the less his satisfaction.5 It is unfortunate that the above studies were limit- ed tO a specific occupational group. HOppock surveyed a lIbid., pp. 74-75. 21bid., p. 27. 3Ibid., p. 28. 54 sample Of teachers, the Fortune survey sampled factory workers, and Morse sampled white collar workers. It is be- lieved that further research relating job aspiration and job satisfaction would prove extremely fruitful, if samples Of the total employed population including "autonomous" and "semi-autonomous" respondents were used. Since the respondents included in the sample for this thesis were not asked any job satisfaction questions, the kind of analyses just described cannot be accomplished herein. This thesis, therefore, will necessarily be re- stricted to the study of job aspiration exclusively. h. Summary Of criticisms The review Of the literature has led this researcher to believe that: (l) the prOper method of measuring job satisfaction is by directly asking such questions as "Are you satisfied or dissatisfied with your present job?" (2) there are no conflicts between the findings of job as- piration and job satisfaction studies, because each Of these studies is separate and distinct, using different questions that get at different variables and produce dif- ferent results; (3) the incorporation Of job aspiration questions in job satisfaction scales is methodologically unsound, because it is possible for a dissatisfied person to desire to remain on his present job, and it is also pos- 35 sible for a satisfied person to desire a job other than his present job; (4) attempts at imputing job satisfaction to present jpp responses and attempts at imputing job dissat- isfaction to other than present jpb responses to job aspi- ration questions are methodologically unsound for the same reasons given in (3) above; (5) it is proper methodology to study job sapiration and job satisfaction separately; and (6) it is also proper methodology to attempt to relate job aspiration to job satisfaction for the same sample in a re- search effort as long as the variables are properly labeled and kept separate and distinct. The reader will probably have noticed in the course of this review that some researchers have confused studies Of job aspiration with studies Of job satisfaction. A re- view Of the literature on job satisfaction was undertaken in order that researchers would not confuse the kind of re- search on job aspiration attempted in this thesis with re- searches on job satisfaction. 3. Job Aspiration Contrasted with the massive body Of research on job satisfaction, there has been virtually no study of job as- pirations of adult employed males,1 apart from the job as- 1For a study of the job aspirations of unemployed Inales, see Harold A. Wren, Vocational Aspiration Levels of .Adults, Teachers College, COIumbia UniverSity, Contributions 56 piration researches already described in the preceding sec- tion. The bulk Of the literature in the job aspiration area consists Of "job preference" studies Of high school and college students, most Of whom have had little or no full-time work experience covering extended periods Of time.1 Most Of the studies which include data on job aSpi- ration had samples that were limited tO specific occupa- tions or occupational groups. Moreover, most Of the limit- ed samples were Of persons who worked within hierarchies such as factories in manual or white-collar jobs. Although these sources were Of some use to this researcher for the analysis of the job aspirations of specific occupational groups within hierarchies,2 they were Of little use in con- ceptualizing the problem for this thesis. This was because the cross-section sample used for this thesis included "autonomous" and "semi-autonomous" respondents who were conspicuously absent in other samples. to Education, No. 855 (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University), 1942. This study was Of little use in conceptualizing the problem for this thesis. 1For an example Of this kind Of research, see: SO- cial Research Service, Youth and the World 2; Work, Michi- gan State College, 1949. 2The job aspiration sources limited to specific oc- cupational groups will be referred to in the AnalySis sec- tion of this thesis where applicable. 57 With the exception Of the job aspiration questions asked in the New HOpe study, "If you could have your choice Of all the jobs in the world, which would you choose?" no other question in the literature was comparable to those used in this research.1 Without such research leads, this study had to be largely exploratory in nature. Much more empirical data than are presented here are needed to either confirm or reject both the methods and the results Obtained. 1Hoppock, pp. cit., p. 169. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY1 During the years of 1950-1955, Michigan State Uni- versity made a study of the social aspects Of clothing in a Michigan city of 10,000 peOple. In the course of the study, 108 families (adult men and women) were intensively studied for their clothing inventory and the importance Of clothing in their lives. In addition, the importance of clothing in the work situation was studied extensively for the men in the sample. Since one of the guiding concerns Of the study was to evaluate the role of clothing in occu- pational facets such as adjustment, mobility and aspira- tion, a great deal of information was gathered on crucial aspects Of the occupational life of the sample. While the research reported on here has nothing to do with clothing, it is concerned with making use Of the unexploited data gathered about the respondents' jobs. 1Joanne Eicher, Job Satisfaction: Its Relationship to Occupational, Stratiination and Communi5_ Variables, Ufipublished master‘s thesis, Michigan State niversity, 1956, pp. 1, 17-23, 30-31. Since the data for this study and that of the Joanne Eicher thesis came from the same larger study undertaken in Goldwater, the methods Of draw- ing the sample and some methodology in both this study and the Eicher thesis were identical. With the kind permission Of Joanne Eicher the pages cited were adapted for use in this chapter. ” 59 Since the data for this study were taken from a larger study1 the research site and sample selection for that project are relevant for the present investigation. Therefore, the general background Of the larger study will be reviewed. Research Site The research site was selected for several reasons. The general research had as its central postulate that clothing functions in social life as a symbol of social status.2 More Specific purposes of the general study were to examine the relevance of clothing in everyday 1ife--the work situation for the males and purchasing situation for the females--in a community context. Therefore it was necessary to select a community of a small enough size to study in detail, yet with a wide enough range of occupa- tions and industries to reflect an urban influence. 1t was 1The study, "Consumer Problems in the Purchase of Clothing and Textiles," has been sponsored by the Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station and con- ducted under the general supervision of Gregory P. Stone. The Department of Sociology and Anthropology collaborated with the Department Of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts. 2Gregory P. Stone and William H. Form, "Instabili- ties in Status: The Problem Of Hierarchy in the Community Study of Status Arrangements," American Sociglogiggl 3g: view, 18, April, 1953, p. 153. 60 also desirable that a rural pOpulation be included nearby in order to compare rural-urban clothing variations.1 Considerable data were already available for Branch 2 Goldwater, the county county in south-central Michigan. seat, had a population of 10,000 and fulfilled the urban requirements. Its principal industries were wholesale and retail trade, metal casting, wood and metal manufacturing, 3 transportation (trucking) and miscellaneous services. Sample Design and Composition For the sample, about one hundred cases were select- ed which represented the complete range of male occupations in the city. In order to draw the sample, all the occupa- tions of the married males in Goldwater were classified and ranked according to the seven-point occupational prestige 1Gregory P. Stone and William H. Form. Clothing in- ventories and preferences among rural and urban families. Michigan State College Agricultural Experiment Station, East Lansing. Technical Bulletin 246, March, 1955. 2The social composition of the county had previously been completed for another study by the Department of SO- ciology and AnthrOpOlogy at Michigan State University. See John B. Holland, Attitudes toward Minoripijroups 3p Rela- tion pp Rural Social Structure, unpublished Ph. D. disser- tation, Department of SociOlogy and AnthroPOlOgy, Michigan State College, 1950. 3William H. Form and Gregory P. Stone. The social significance of clothing in occupational life. Michigan State CollegeAgricultural Experiment Station, East Lansing, Technical Bulletin 247, June, 1955, p. 8. The writers use ”Vansburg" as a pseudonym for Goldwater. 61 scale of Warner.1 Within each of these occupational strata, male heads-Of-households were drawn at random in proportion to the percentage Of all occupations held by married males in the city. This resulted in a stratified sample of 108 married men who were interviewed. A matched second sample was also drawn for selection of cases to fill in for refus- als or chronic not-at-homes. Table 1 depicts the occupa- tional composition of the men in the sample. This job as- piration study concerned itself with the male respondents only. For purposes of this study the responses Of only 100 of the 108 male reapondents were used. Because of the dif- ficulties in judging in which occupational category they be- longed and in deciding in what manner the reSponses to their interviews should be analyzed or coded, the schedules Of one (1) unclassifiable, two (2) unemployed, and five (5) retired respondents were excluded from the sample studied. The sample included married males who were experi- enced workers. Since there were no respondents younger than twenty years Of age, the just-out-Of-school workers were excluded. The actual ages ranged from twenty to 1W. Lloyd Warner, Marcia Meeker, and Kenneth Eells, Social Class in America, Chicago. Science Research Associ- ates, 1949, p. 133. TABLE 1 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF COLDWATER SAMPLE ACCORDING TO WARNER'S AND EDWARDS' OCCUPATIONAL SCALES‘ , . Warner 5 Occupational Edwards' Prestige Scale Occupational Scale 7 Professional . . . . . . . l2 PrOprietors . . . . . . . . . l4 Managers and Officials . . . . 9 Stratum four . 16 Office clerks and sales . . . Stratum five . . 3O Skilled workers and foremen . . 28 Stratum six . . . 12 Semi-skilled and unskilled workers . . . . . . . . . . 24 Stratum seven . . 9 Domestics, attendants, and others . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Stratum one . . Stratum two . Stratum three . Totals . . 100 Totals . . . . . . . . . . 100 (N = 100) 100) A 2 ll "Table adapted from Form and Stone, pp. cit., p. 9. Percentages in the above table differ from the table cited because eight reSpondents were excluded from the sample studied. seventy-nine. The sample was composed largely of native- born whites with native-born parents (only twelve reSpond- ents stated one or both parents were foreign-born). The sample also represented all social levels Of the community. Essentially,then, this thesis deals with certain re- sponses of 100 employed, predominantly native-born, adult males to a work situation clothing interview. Furthermore, these 100 males are a sample Of all adult employed males in the community of 10,000 pOpulation studied. As such, the sample represents a cross section of all occupations in the 63 community and is not restricted to one kind of occupation only as are many other studies. Social Class Criteria The definition of social class used in this research and in the larger study from which these data came is based on a modified version of Warner's Index Of Status Charac- teristics.1 The familiar upper-upper, lower-upper, upper- middle, lower-middle, upper-lower and lower-lower status groups were the result of this Index. In parts of the country newer than the East, Warner suggested, there may be only five classes with no differentiation made between a group of upper-uppers and lower-uppers. He also predicted the possibility that one of the four factors comprising the Index of Status Gharacteristics--occupational status, source of income, house type and dwelling area--may not be available. The index is still effective, however, if only three characteristics are used in computing it, but certain alterations must be made in the weighting Of the items.2 In setting up the larger study, two changes were made in the Index of Status Characteristics because one Of the four characteristics was not obtainable and another had 1LOO. cit. 21bid., p. 185. 64 to be modified.1 Dwelling area ratings were drOpped from the Index because it appeared that the community did not have a clear-cut ecological structure reflecting clear-cut differences. Although the lower status homes tended to be found together, the high and middle status homes were Often situated next to each other. The modification of the Index also involved the oc- cupational ratings. The ratings as developed by Warner did not seem to reflect adequately the status system of occupa- tions in the community. For example, the truck drivers living in Goldwater made up about five per cent of the ap- proximately 2700 employed males. From Observation it ap- peared that their level in the community was thought to be 2 TO higher than in those communities Warner had studied. correct this, ten local long-time residents of diverse oc- cupational backgrounds were asked to rate the occupations in the sample on a seven-point scale.3 The individuals Of the sample were then rated and the scores were included in computing the Index Of Status Characteristics. As a result, the Index of Status Characteristics as computed for Goldwater included a modified rating of occu- 1 p. 154. 2 Stone and Form, "Instabilities in Status," pp. cit., LOO. cit. 3Loc. cit. 65 pational status, source of income, and house type. The so- cial classes of Goldwater, computed by this system, are shown in Table 2.1 TABLE 2 SOCIAL CLASS COMPOSITION OF SAMPLE Social Class Per Cent Upper O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 5 Upper Middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Lower Middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Upper Lower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Lower Lower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Total 0 0 O O O 0 O 0 O O O O O O 0 0 O O 0 O 100 (N - loo) Sources of Data The purpose of this study is to investigate three questions, in the male work situation interview schedule, formulated to probe job aspiration. These three questions are as follows: 1. What job would you most like to have at your present place of work? 1Ibid., p. 153. Percentages in the above table dif- fer from the table cited because eight respondents were ex- cluded from the sample studied. 66 2. Of all the jobs you know of, what job would you most like to have? 3. Which of these jobs did you like best? Question 3 was asked after the complete work history Of the respondent had been determined by the interviewer. For each full-time job presently and formerly held by the respondent questions were asked to find out: kind of job, inclusive dates, kind Of establishment, highest income per month, and clothes worn on the job. For purposes of sim- plification Question 3 will henceforth be stated in the following manner: "Which of all the jobs you have had did you like best?" This thesis analyzes the responses Of 100 employed adult males to these three job aspiration questions and to one other question designed to determine present job: "What kind Of work are you doing now?" Differentiating the Dimensions of Each Question This section explains in detail the manner in which each of the job aspiration questions is a separate and dis- tinct dimension Of the problem Of job acceptance. Question 1 "What job would you most like to have at your present place of work?" describes job acceptance pp ppppp pg present plgpp p; 323k. The question is structured in such a manner that most respondents did not name a "dis- 67 similar" job.1 This occurred because the structuring of the question prevented respondents from indicating a desire for jobs "outside" present place of work. The structuring Of the question and the method Of coding the answers restricted responses to name "present job" and name "similar job." All assumptions, hypotheses and conclusions regarding this question will necessarily be restricted by the present place of work structuring and the method Of coding used. Of the three job aspiration ques- tions asked, it is believed that Question 1 most restricts the freedom Of choicerof response for the interviewee. Question 2 "Of all the jobs you know Of, what job would you most like to have?" describes job acceptance 1p terms 9; all jobs the respondent-knows 9;. In answer to 1In response to Question 1 two clerks desired to be proprietors of the small establishments in which they worked. Two other respondents of high status, one an owner and the other a manager, desired jobs of lower status at present place of work. Normally, according to criteria already dis- cussed, responses indicating desire for these kinds of occu- pations should have been coded as dissimilar. Because desire for proprietorship Lf lace Lf work seemed to be a "legitimate" kind of aspiration, .e., the desire Of a clothing store clerk to be the owner of his father's clothing store, it was not felt that this kind of reSponse should be coded as dissimilar, indicating lowest degree of job acceptance. Because of considerations described in Appendix A it was also felt that the desire for jobs Of lower status at present place Lf work did not indicate lowest degree Of job acceptance and_ thus should not be coded as dissimilar. For the above reasons, the four responses indicating desire for proprietorship of present place of work or desire for a job of lower status at present place of work were ar- bitrarily coded as similar. 68 Question 2 a respondent may name his present job or a sim- ilar job or he may, if he wishes, choose a dissimilar job. The question is the only one that is sufficiently unstruc- tured to allow the interviewee free choice of a dissimilar response. Question 2 also is the only question studied where all respondents gay give an answer that indicates either of the polar extremes of highest or lowest degree of job acceptance. Question 5 "Which of all the jobs you have had did you like best?" describes job acceptance la Eagma a; all full-time jobs presently a; formerly held. The question is structured in such a manner that it restricts respondents to jobs actually held. An autonomous respondent can name a hierarchic job only if he formerly held such a job. In like ‘manner a hierarchic respondent can name an autonomous job only if he formerly held such a job. all respondents there- fore cannot give an answer that indicates either of the polar extremes of highest and lowest degree of Job accept- ance, since all respondents have not had "dissimilar" jobs. It is believed that the range of possible choices in Question 3 is more than that in Question 1 and less than that in Question 2 and varies according to the'number and variety of jobs held by each individual respondent. The greater the number and variety of jobs held by the respond— ent, the greater the range of possible choices. The fewer 69 the number and variety of jobs held by the respondent, the smaller the range of possible choices. Because a respondent cannot in most cases express his hopes and desires for the kind of job he might like to have in the future, Qaestion é la not la any real sense a jag aspiration question. Since the respondent can only in- dicate preference for a job he has actually held, Question 3 might better be termed a "job preference" question. To Sum up, Question 5 describes job acceptance in terms of past experience, as Opposed to Questions 1 and 2 that describe job acceptance in terms of hOpes and desires for the future. The only response that is common to all three questions and that in some way may be comparable is the choice of present job. Implicit in the discussion of freedom of choice re- garding the three questions respectively is the fact that the person who has a greater freedom of choice of reaponse is less likely to name his present job. This is true be- cause he has more possible alternatives other than present job to choose from in answer to the question. Because of this fact, the respondent who still names his present Job in answer to the greatest freedom of choice question has a higher degree of job acceptance than the respondent who names his present job in answer to the question that most limits his freedom of choice. This variation in degree of 70 job acceptance by question is incorporated in the Assump- tions that follow. Assumptions The following postulates or assumptions are accepted as true: A. Assumptions regarding degree of job acceptance1 of dif- ferent responses: 1. A respondent naming present lap in response to a job asPiration question has a high degree of {job acceptance. 2. A respondent naming a similar 322 in response to a job aspiration question has a lower degree of job acceptance, i.e., an autonomous respondent names another autonomous job, or a hierarchic respondent names another hierarchic job. 5. A respondent naming a dissimilar flap in reaponse to a job aspiration question has the lowest degree of Job acceptance, i.e., an autonomous respondent names a hierarchic job, or a hierarchic respondent names an autonomous job. 1N0 assumptions are made concerning degree of job acceptance for "no response," "nobApplicable," and ”don't know" responses--see Chapter V and Appendix A for a discus- sion of these kinds of responses. 71 Assumptions based on freedom of choice, regarding high degree of job acceptance for those naming present job in response to each question: 1. A person naming present job in answer to question 2 "Of all the jobs you know of, what job would you most like to have?" has the highest degree of ac- ceptance compared to those naming present job in answer to the other two questions. 2. A person naming present job in answer to question 3 "Which of all the jobs you have had did you like best?" has the second highest degree of job accept- ance compared to those naming present job in answer to the other two questions. 3. A person naming present job in answer to question 1 "What Job would you most like to have at your pres- ent place of work?" has the third highest degree of job acceptance compared to those naming present job in answer to the other two questions. Assumptions regarding amount of independence in the work situation: 1. Each respondent within each of the discrete occupa- tional categories has the same amount of independ- ence as every other reSpondent in the same cate— ' gory. 72 2. The categories of occupations range from high to low in amount of independence inherent in the work situation in the following order: a. self-employed autonomous b. semi-autonomous c. hierarchic non-manual d. hierarchic manual Derivation of Hypotheses The principal hypothesis for this study is that the most independent respondents will’have the highest degree of job acceptance,and the least indepent reapondents will have the lowest degree of job acceptance. An attempt was made to demonstrate this hypothesis for two kinds of responses to job aspiration question: A. Present job responses-~highest degree of job acceptance is indicated by the highest percentage naming present job. B. Dissimilar job responses-~highest degree of job accept- ance will be indicated by the lowest percentage naming a dissimilar job. The assumptions concerning amount of independence for each of the categories were combined for the two kinds of reaponses just described, in order to provide the fol- lowing more detailed hypotheses: 73 A. The percentage naming present job will be highest for the most independent category and lowest for the least independent category and will range from high to low as follows: 1. self-employed autonomous (highest percentage) 2. semi-autonomous 3. hierarchic non—manual 4. hierarchic manual (lowest percentage) B. The percentage naming a dissimilar job will be highest for the least independent category and will range from high to low as follows: 1. hierarchic manual (highest percentage) 2. hierarchic non-manual 3. semi-autonomous 4. self-employed autonomous (lowest percentage) No attempts were made to compare the "similar" answers of the autonomous and hierarchic categories, be- cause autonomous respondents tended to choose "out" and the hierarchic respondents tended to choose "up." Thus the answers were not comparable. Although certain assumptions were made concerning degree of job acceptance for each of the three questions based on present job responses, no hypotheses were made founded on these assumptions. The reason for this was that 74 the same kind of assumptions could not be made for the three questions based on ppaap than present job responses. The assumptions regarding degree of job acceptance for each of the three questions will only be used as an aid for the orderly arrangement of the findings in the analysis. Since those naming present job in response to Question 2 in- dicate the highest degree of job acceptance, the findings for Question 2 will be presented first in the analysis. Since those naming present job in response to Question 1 indicate the third highest degree of job acceptance, the findings for Question 1 will be presented last in the analysis. Statistical Techniques A Chi-square test of significant association was computed to ascertain the probability of association be- tween Job Independence (the independent variable) and de- gree of Job Acceptance (the dependent variable).1 In de- scribing statistical significance or lack of it, the null 1The procedure for determining Chi-square followed that described by Margaret J. Hagood and Daniel 0. Price, Statistics for Sociolo ists (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 19525, p. 3€§T The formula used was an alternative formula, 2 2 f 7( = S - N where S - . 9 ET; 75 hypothesis statement will be used. The following probabil- ity ranges will be denoted by the qualifying adjectives of: .05>p>.01 -- moderately significant .Ol>p>.OOl - highly significant 1 .OOlf>p - extremely significant In addition, the term ”approaching significance" will be used when the probability range is .10 )p ).05. A coefficient of contingency, C, was computed and corrected2 for all the Chi-squares which were significant, to determine the degree of association between the vari- ables investigated. 1Originally used by George W. Snedecor, Statistical Methods: A lied to Experiments la Agriculture and Biology, Ames: Iowa tate College Press, 4th ed., 1946. ‘BEproduced in Margaret J. Hagood and Daniel 0. Price, Statistics lag §ociologists, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1952, p. 25. . 2The formula used for computing the C was 2 . . C . _§2§__, iplg., p. 370. The correction for C was 7K - N C - E'QE" as found in Thomas C. McCormick, Elementary Sp- r c cial Statistics, New York: McGraw, Hill, 1941, p. 207. CHAPTER III JOB ASPIRATION: THE RELATION OF INDEPENDENCE IN THE WORK SITUATION TO JOB ACCEPTANCE An attempt will be made in this chapter to test the hypothesis that the higher the amount of independence in the work situation, the higher the degree of job acceptance. It is believed that no other research has tested this hy- pothesis, since both the occupational stratification that crudely differentiates amount of independence in the work situation and the variable job acceptance that measures the degree to which a person "accepts" his job in response to job aspiration questions are original to this research. A number of research findings, however, suggest that amount of independence in the work situation is relat- ed to the aspiration of either changing jobs or remaining on present job. There is little need to point out that self-employed persons comprise a substantial segment of the pOpulation, enjoy a large measure of independence in the work situa- tion, and by and large like being their own bosses: In re- sponse to the question "Are you in business for yourself or working for someone?" a Fortune Survey found that: 77 35.5 per cent, including farmers, are in business for themselves, 54.7 per cent work for someone, and 9.8 per cent are unemployed. Of those who are in busi- ness for themselves, only 6.6 per cent said they would prefer to work for someone else, against 90.8 per cent who liked being their own bosses.1 When those who worked for someone else or were un- employed were asked the question "Would you like to go into any kind of business for yourself?" the Survey found that 50.7 per cent answered (Yes), 7.6 per cent said ”Depends," 38.1 per cent said (No), and 3.6 per cent answered "Don't know."2 Combining the answers of those who were in business for themselves and liked it, with those who were not but would like to be, Fortune found: "it appears that about 65 per cent of the population would be entrepreneurs by choice, against about 25 per cent who would prefer to work for someone."3 Similar indications of a desire for self employment were found: by Chinoy for a group of auto factory workersf‘ 1Fortune, February, 1940, p. 20.. 2Loc. alp. 3Loc. cit. 4E11 Chinoy, Automobile Workers and he American Dream, Garden City, New York: DouBIeday, I9 , p. . 78 and by Centers,1 and Lipset and Bendix2 for all occupation- al groups of large cross-section samples of the pOpulation. Reynolds and Shister in a study of manual workers found that desire for self employment also seemed to be a desire for absence of supervision.3 These studies suggest that large majorities of per- sons in all occupational groups desire self employment, not only to become more independent, but also to get away from oppressive supervision. Reynolds and Shister, in the same study just cited, also found that independence in the pres- ent job was a reason for not wanting to change jobs.4 Implicit in the literature and in the criteria used in this thesis to judge amount of independence of an occu- pation is a second hypothesis not investigated: that the more the amount of independence in the work situation, the less the amount of supervision. Absence of supervision and independence are almost synonymous in the literature and in 1Richard Centers, "Motivational Aspects of Occupa- tional Stratification," Journal a; Social Psychology, Vol. 28, November, 1948, p. 199. 2Seymour M. Lipset and Reinhard Bendix, ”Social Mo- bility and Occupational Career Patterns, II. Social Mobil- ity " American ournal a; Sociology, Vol. LVII, No. 5, March, [952, p. 551. 3Lloyd G. Reynolds and Joseph Shister, Job Horizons, New York: Harper, 1949, pp. ll-l2. 4Ibid., p. 73. 79 this thesis as well. For example, Centers states: All groups, urban as well as rural, high as well as low, indicate by the frequency of their preferences that independence 9; freedom from supervision is a highly prized and much valued Circumstance. It is the most important value in our culture in terms of our data.1 The reader should not be misled into thinking that independence in the work situation is a factor that is al- 2 who included inde- ways cited by respondents. Schaffer, pendence as a "need" in a study of need satisfaction of white collar workers, did not find independence to be one of the leading needs. None of the studies reviewed point directly to the expectation that persons having much independence in the work situation would have a high degree of job acceptance. Some studies did, however, suggest this expectation, but largely in terms of self employment--most of those self- employed like it, and most of those not self-employed would like to be self-employed. 1Centers, pp. alp., p. 214; underlining mine. See also the following sources for references to freedom from supervision: Reynolds and Shister, o . cit., pp. lO-l3; Theodore V. Purcell, The Worker S e s gig—Mind pa Com and Union, Cambridge:-—Harvard UHIversity Press, 195 , pp. 163,‘I2E:55; Chinoy, 32. cit., p. 73; and F. J. Roethlis- berger and W. J. Dickson,—fiana ement and ppa Worker, Cam- bridge: Harvard University ress, 939: pp. I79 and 86. 2Robert H. Schaffer, "Job Satisfaction as Related to Need Satisfaction in Work,” Psychological Monographs, 67, No. 14, American Psychological Association, Inc., 1955. 80 An attempt will be made here to test the hypothesis for each of the three job aspiration questions separately. This will be done by analyzing the three kinds of responses that indicate varying degrees of job acceptance for each of the four categories that indicate varying amounts of inde- pendence inherent in the work situation. Results will be presented in the following manner: 1. The comparison of percentages for "present job" and "dissimilar job" responses with the hypothetical rank order of percentages, 2. Chi-square test of significance of association between job independence and degree of job acceptance for each of the three questions, and 3. A general discussion of the findings. The internal ordering of the three questions is based on considerations already described in the assump- tions and hypotheses in Chapter II. 1. The comparison of percentages for "present job" and "dissimilar job" responses with the hypothetical rank order of percentages By hypothetical rank order is meant that it is ex- pected that the highest percentage of those naming "present job" will have the most independent occupations and that the lowest percentage of those naming "present job" will have the least independent occupations. For "dissimilar job” responses a rank order of percentages inverse to that for "present job" is eXpected. 81 Because an examination of the data revealed that there was no perfect rank order relation between the two variables for any question (the actual rank order of per- centages did not match the hypothetical rank order), a de- cision was made to abandon a detailed comparison of per- centages with hypothetical rank order. Instead, percent— ages will be used in the description of tables in the sec- tions that follow. The fact that there was no perfect rank order rela- tion between the two variables suggests that perhaps vari- ables other than independence in the work situation were related to job acceptance. Some of these "other" variables will be investigated in Chapter IV. A comparison of the actual rank order of percent- ages with the hypothetical rank order did, however, suggest that the direction of the relation between independence and job acceptance was approximately that expected for Quese tions 1 and 2, and not as expected for Question 3. The data also revealed that a high percentage named "present job" in response to Question 1, that a lower per- centage named "present job" in response to Question 3, and that the lowest percentage named "present job" in response to Question 2. This was true for all occupational groups except hierarchic non-manual. The data would then tend to confirm the assumption that the greater the freedom of 82 choice of response inherent in a question, to name a job other than present job, the less likely a reapondent was to name present job. The percentages also indicated a different pattern of response for each question, suggesting that each ques- tion might perhaps describe a different dimension of job acceptance or job preference. The fact that hierarchic non-manual respondents indicated the highest percentage naming "present job" (69 per cent)1 in response to Question 3 and the lowest percentage naming "present job" (19 per cent) in Question 1 would lend credence to this interpreta- tion. Extreme caution should be used in interpreting all results in this thesis, since it was impossible to control such variables as age, education and income, because of the limited number of respondents included in each of the cate- gories of occupational independence. 2. Chi-square test of significance of association between job independence and degree of job acceptance for each of the three questions. 1This percentage and all subsequent percentages in Chapters III and IV were computed from data in Tables 14, 15, and 16 in Appendix B. "Not applicable," "no response," "don’t know" responses were excluded in computation of the percentages. 83 a. Chi-square test for Question 2: "Of all the jobs you know of, what job would you most like to have?" The data in Table 3 tend to confirm the expected re- sults. The autonomous and semi-autonomous respondents have the highest percentage naming "present job" (61 and 41 per cent, respectively), and the lowest percentage naming "dis- similar job" (6 and 7 per cent, respectively), indicating a high degree of job acceptance, while those hierarchic non- manual and manual respondents have the lowest percentage naming "present job" (7 and 11 per cent, respectively), and the highest percentage naming "dissimilar job" (57 and 50 per cent, respectively), indicating low degree of job ac- ceptance. An extremely significant association was found be- tween job independence and job acceptance. This is demon- strated by the Chi-square computation, in which the proba- bility of the Chi-square is less than .001. The null hy- pothesis may be considered untenable. In addition, the C of .65 indicates a moderate degree of association. Caution should be used by the reader in interpreting the data for Table 3, because of the small number of respondents in the hierarchic non-manual category. 84 TABLE 5 DEGREE OF JOB ACCEPTANCE FOR FOUR CATEGORIES OF JOB INDE- PENDENCE IN RESPONSE TO QUESTION 2: "OF ALL THE JOBS YOU KNOW OF, WHAT JOB WOULD YOU MOST LIKE TO HAVE?" Degree of Job Acceptance*‘ Categories Name Name Name No resp. °§nggcgfigziggel present similar dissimilar Not appl. Total P 20b 'Ob job D. K. 1) 2) 3) (4) Self-employed autonomous ll 6 l 4 22 Semi-autonomous 12 15 2 3 32 Hierarchic non- manual 1 5 8 3 17 Hierarchic manual 3 ll 14 1 29 Total 27 37 25 11 100 x2 - 30.868 p<.OOl 'c - .65 'Basic data are in Table 15 in Appendix B. "Column (4) was excluded in computation of the Chi- square. Table 4 reveals that when only the polar extremes of job acceptance--"present job" response and "dissimilar job" response-~are considered, then the association between job independence and degree of job acceptance is even greater. The extreme significance of the two variables is demon— strated by the Chi-square computation in which the probabil- ity Of the Chi-square is less than .001. The null hypothe- 85 TABLE 4 DEGREE OF JOB ACCEPTANCE FOR TWO CATEGORIES OF JOB INDE- PENDENCE IN RESPONSE TO QUESTION 2: "OF ALL THE JOBS YOU KNOW OF, WHAT JOB WOULD YOU MOST LIKE TO HAVE?" 1 Degree of Job Acceptance‘* Categories Name Name Name No resp. °§nggcgfiggiggel present similar dissimilar Not appl. Total p ’0b job job D. K. 1) 2) 3) (4) Automous 23 21 3 7 54 Hierarchic 4 16 22 4 46 Total 27 37 25 11 100 x2 . 27.810 p<.OOl U - .93 "Basic data are in Table 15 in Appendix B. NColumns (2) and (4) were excluded in the computa- tion of the Chi-square. sis again may be considered untenable. A very strong de- gree of association is indicated by the C of .93. Both Tables 3 and 4 indicate that results for Question 2 confirm the hypothesis. The findings for Question 2 are especially signifi- cant to this study, because it was the only question studied where all respondents had complete freedom of choice to name either "present job" or ”dissimilar job." Thus, the hypothesis could be studied in two dimensions. 86 b. Chi-square test for Question 3: "Which of all the jobs you have had did you like best?" The data in Table 5 do not tend to confirm the ex- pected results. Table 16 in Appendix B shows that a major— ity in all occupational groups except hierarchic manual un- skilled named their present job in preference to former 2 jobs held. In effect the 7( of O for Question 3 indicates TABLE 5 DEGREE OF JOB ACCEPTANCE FOR FOUR CATEGORIES OF JOB INDEPENDENCE IN RESPONSE TO QUESTION 3: "WHICH OF ALL THE JOBS YOU HAVE HAD DID YOU LIKE BEST?" Degree of Job Acceptance" Categories . Name Name Name No resp. oinggcggggiggel present similar dissimilar Not appl. Total P job job gob D. K. 1) 2) 3) (4) Self-employed. autonomous 11 5 4 2 . 22 Semi-autonomous l9 6 4 3 32 Hierarchic non- manual 11 3 2 l 17 Hierarchic manual 13 9 5 2 29 Total 54 23 15 8 100 "Basic data are in Table 16 in Appendix B. ”Column (4) was excluded in computation of the Chi- square. 87 no more association between job independence and job ac- ceptance than might probably be found by chance. The only conclusion that could be drawn from Ques- tion 3 was that most respondents, except the hierarchic manual unskilled group, found their present job more "ac- ceptable" than any former job held. Table 5 indicates that the findings for Question 3 do not confirm the hypothesis. c. Chi-square test for Question 1: "What job would you most like to have at present place of work?" The data in Table 6 tend to confirm the expected re- sults but to a lesser degree than the data in Table 3. The autonomous and semi-autonomous respondents have the highest percentage naming "present job" (82 and 86 per cent, re- spectively), indicating a high degree of job acceptance, while the hierarchic non-manual and manual respondents have a lower percentage naming "present job" (19 and 61 per cent, respectively), indicating a lower degree of job acceptance. Possible reasons why so many (61 per cent) hierarchic manu- al respondents tend to name their present job in reaponse to Question 1, while so few (19 per cent) hierarchic non- manual name their present job, will be discussed later. The extreme significance of the association between job independence and job acceptance is demonstrated by the Chi-square computation in which the probability of the Chi- 88 TABLE 6 DEGREE OF JOB ACCEPTANCE FOR FOUR CATEGORIES OF JOB INDE- PENDENCE IN RESPONSE TO QUESTION 1: "WHAT JOB WOULD YOU MOST LIKE TO HAVE AT YOUR PRESENT PLACE OF WORK?" Degree of Job Acceptance“ Categories °§Dgggg§§ggggel ”Eggs Biggie Nfiog‘jigg‘iY Total in 22) (3) Self-employed autonomous 9 2 11 22 Semi-autonomous 25 4 3 32 Hierarchic non-manual 3 13 l 17 Hierarchic manual 17 11 l 29 Total 54 3O 16 100 x2 a 22.173 p<.OOl U . .63 "Basic data are in Table 14 in Appendix B. "'Column (5) was excluded in the computation of the Chi-square. square is less than .001. The null hypothesis may thus be considered untenable. A moderate degree of association is indicated by the C'of .63. Table 6 indicates that the findings for Question I confirm the hypothesis. To sum up, it may be concluded that of the three questions studied, Questions 1 and 2 confirm the hypothesis and Question 3 does not. - 89 The preceding exploratory observations should in no way be interpreted as conclusive, because of the limited number of respondents in each of the occupational cate- gories. 4. General discussion Job aspiration Questions 1 and 2 are unique, to this‘ researcher's knowledge, in that they permit the respondent to aspire to specific jpp_. Previous studies of job as- piration asked structured questions or furnished structured lists of responses for the interviewee to answer, thus ob- viating the possibility of naming specific jobs. For example, a Fortune survey asked, "If you could go back to the age of eighteen and start life over again, would you choose a different career or occupation?"1 This question is structured to obtain Yes or No answers; the re- apondent cannot name a specific job. Fortune did not ask, "If you could go back to the age of eighteen and start life over again, what career or occupation would you choose?" Similar Observations can also be made for another Fortune survey that asked, "Would you like to go into any kind of business for yourself?"2 and for a study reported 1Fortune, June, 1947, p. 5. 2Fortune, February, 1940, p. 20. \ 90 by Centers that asked, "Do you sometime hOpe or expect to own your own business?"1 Hoppock, on the other hand, structured the responses to an unstructured question ("If you could have your choice of all the jobs in the world, which would you choose?") by furnishing a check list of three ready-made answers.2 It was rather surprising in the light of previous research, that indicated a majority of reapondents in all occupational groups desired self-employment, to find that only a small minority of Goldwater, Michigan, residents in all occupational groups desired self-employment. The de- sire for self-employment by the seventy-two non-self- employed Goldwater respondents by question was as follows: Question 1, two; Question 2, nine; and Question 3, two, making a total of thirteen with no duplication. In other words, eighteen per cent of the non-self-employed Goldwater respondents desired self-employment in answer to Questions 1, 2, and 3. The results found in this study, though based on a small sample, raise serious questions concerning meth- 1Centers, pp. cit., p. 199. 2Robert HOppock, Job Satisfaction, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1935, p. 25IT It I8 Interesting in terms of freedom of choice of response to note that forty-eight per cent of the New Hope respondents to HOppock's question checked present job, when the answer was furnished, while only twenty-seven per cent (see total Table 8) of the Cold- water respondents named present job in response to a compa- rable question when the answer was not furnished. 91 ods used in previous studies and suggest the need for fur- ther research in this area. Self-employment aspirations, though limited, seemed to be fairly evenly distributed between desire for farming, contracting and skilled trades, and small-business pro- prietorship. It was also observed that manual respondents tended to desire manual self-employment, while non-manual respondents tended to desire non-manual self-employment. If respondents did not desire self-employment, what kinds of jobs did they want? More respondents indicated a desire for jobs that fell in the semi-autonomous category than for any other type. For example, in answer to Ques- tion 2, seventeen out of forty-six (37 per cent) of the hierarchic respondents chose semi-autonomous jobs: Hierarchic non-manual white-collar-- Present lap lap Desired Hotel desk clerk Hotel management Receiving clerk Truck driver Ass't cashier, bank Job with travel and contact with more people Clothing store clerk Traveling sales Accountant Triple A traveler Hierarchic non-manual supervisory-- Trader in shipping dept. Manager of business concern Hierarchic manual skilled-- Machinist Tugboat pilot Molder Railroad job Molder Diesel engineer on railroad Core-maker Truck driver 92 Hierarchic manual skilled (continued)—- Present Job Job Desired Lathe operator Salesman Arc welder Salesman Hierarchic manual unskilled-- Oven tender in foundry Truck driver Car—puller in auto body Work in the Open air factory Cable work in telephone Conservation officer company State Home attendant Salesman Iron grinder in factory Truck driver These findings suggest that non-manual respondents tend to choose non-manual semi-autonomous jobs, and that manual respondents tend to choose manual semi-autonomous jobs. The desire for semi-autonomous jobs in preference to self-employment would suggest a desire for greater inde- pendence in the work situation without the risks involved in private business. Upward aspiration, though very limited in response to Question 2, was largely restricted to non-manual re- spondents--five out of six. These five non-manual respond- ents who aspired upward also showed evidence of consistent past upward mobility. These findings, though based on few cases, are in accord with those of Centers who found: "It is clear that the higher people's occupational statusixsnow, the more likely they are to aspire to even higher positions." 1Centers, pp. cit., p. 199. 1 i3. 93 These findings suggest that in order to desire a job higher up the respondent had past success at moving up and/ or the possibility of further upward mobility. Implicit in the desire of the respondent for either his present job or another job was not only his desire for independence in the work situation but also his perception of the Opportunities for further upward mobility at present place of work. For self-employed respondents no further upward mo- bility is possible at place of work. A grocery store owner can desire to expand his store or to have a chain of stores, but he is still owner-manager. He can thus aspire horizon- tally but not upward vertically. This may be one of the reasons a majority of self-employed respondents named pres- ent job in response to all three questions. These findings are in agreement with observations made by Lipset and Ben— dix that there is a "certain finality" in terms of upward mobility for self-employed persons.1 The data also suggest a certain finality in terms of further upward mobility at present place of work for non- manual supervisory and manual skilled workers. Those that were foremen or supervisors named "present job" and those that were assistant foremen named the job of foreman. The 1Lipset and Bendix, _p. cit., p. 499. 94 data, at least for the few cases studied, indicate that the job of foreman or supervisor is the "last step up." The fact that only one skilled respondent wanted to be supervisor while another remarked "This is as high as I can get" may in part explain why a majority (71 per cent) of the skilled manual hierarchic respondents named "present job" in response to Question 1. Fewer (50 per cent) unskilled manual hierarchic re- spondents named "present job" when compared to the skilled workers, suggesting that unskilled workers had more jobs above them to which they could aspire, i.e., the unskilled worker could aspire to be a skilled worker. Again only one unskilled worker desired to be a foreman. These Observations are in accord with findings re- 1 2 ported by Lynd and Chinoy that described the "ladder of Opportunity" for factory workers and foremen, and other 3 4 findings by Chinoy and Fortune that described the limited desire for supervisory jobs on the part of factory employ- ees. 1Robert S. Lynd and Helen M. Lynd, Middletown la Transition, New York: Harcourt, Brace and 50., I937, pp. 64-73. 2Chinoy, pp. cit., p. 46. 3Ibid., p. 49. 4Fortune, May, 1947, p. 10. 95 On the other hand, the responses of white collar workers to Question 1 indicate that they, as a group, have upward aspirations-~none named "present job"; all but one named a job higher up. In response to Question 2, however, all but two of the white collar workers chose jobs outside place of work. It may be that Opportunities for further upward mobility tend to influence responses of white collar workers to Question 1, which is structured in terms of present place of work, while on the other hand independence in the work situation tends to influence responses to Ques- tion 2, which is unstructured. It may also be that white collar workers are living up to expectations and playing a role. Findings by Noland and Bakke indicate that manage- ment wants its white collar workers to be ambitious, while it deems ambition to be disadvantageous to common labor.1 It may be concluded from this discussion that: (1) most respondents do not desire self-employment, and (2) the kind of occupation desired more than any other is "semi-autonomous." Other findings just discussed are not conclusive because of the small number of respondents in each of the occupational categories. The data suggest that the autonomous and semi- autonomous respondents tend to name present job and do not 1William Noland and E. Wight Bakke, Workers Wanted, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949, pp. 48-52. 96 tend to aspire upward or outside present place of work, and that the hierarchic respondents do not tend to name present job and do tend to aspire upward or outside present place of work. CHAPTER IV RELATION BETWEEN JOB INDEPENDENCE AND JOB ACCEPTANCE FOR NON-MANUAL AND MANUAL GROUPS In the analysis thus far it was noted that non- manual respondents tended to aspire to non-manual jobs and manual respondents tended to aspire to manual jobs. The literature also revealed a significant cleavage between non-manual and manual occupations. Form, in a study of manual and white collar workers, found that 71 per cent of the manual workers began as manu- al workers and that 82 per cent of white collar workers be— 1 gan as white collar workers. Lipset and Bendix in a study of job mobility in the Oakland, California, area found: Though there are many shifts between occupational groups, especially in the lower brackets these are, on the whole, shifts between adjacent occupational groups. Between those who work with their hands and those who do not, there is, however, relatively little shifting. This is perhaps the most fundamental cleavage in Amer- ican society. All those who work with their hands have spent 80 per cent of their working lives in manual oc- cupations; all who do not work with their hands have spent 75 per cent of their working lives in non-manual occupations.2 1William H. Form, "Toward an Occupational Social Psychology," Journal pl Social Psychology, 24, 1949, p. 89. 2Seymour M. Lipset and Reinhard Bendix, "Social M0- bility and Occupational Career Patterns, I. Stability of Jobholding," American Journal pl Sociology, 57, January, 1952, Po 371- 98 Because of this fundamental cleavage between non- manual and manual occupations a decision was made to ascer- tain whether the relation between the two variables, job independence and job acceptance, could be attributed to the manual and non-manual composition of the occupational groups. A. The testing of other variables for Question 2: "Of all the jobs you know of, what job would you most like to have?" The data in Table 7 tend to confirm the expected re- sults. The autonomous and semi-autonomous categories com- bined have the highest percentage naming "present job" (55 per cent), and the lowest percentage naming "dissimilar job" (4 per cent), indicating a high degree of job accept- ance, while the hierarchic non-manual categories combined have the lowest percentage naming "present job" (7 per cent), and the highest percentage naming "dissimilar job" (57 per cent), indicating low degree of job acceptance. An extremely significant association between job in- dependence and job acceptance is demonstrated by the Chi- square, the probability of which is less than .001. The null hypothesis may be considered untenable. A fairly strong degree of association is indicated by the C of .80. Caution should be used in interpreting the data for Table 7 99 TABLE 7 DEGREE OF JOB ACCEPTANCE FOR FOUR NON-MANUAL CATEGORIES OF JOB INDEPENDENCE IN RESPONSE TO QUESTION 2: "OF ALL THE JOBS YOU KNOW OF, WHAT JOB WOULD YOU MOST LIKE TO HAVE?" Degree of Job Acceptance“ Categories . Name Name Name No resp. °§nggcgfigzfigfiel present similar dissimilar Not appl. Total P 20b 30b 20b D. K. 1) 2) 3) (4) Self-employed autonomous non- manual 9 2 ll Semi-autonomous non-manual 7 10 l l 19 Hierarchic non- manual white- collar _ 5 5 3 11 Hierarchic non- manual super- visory l 2 3 6 Total l7 l7 9 4 47 X2 =- 18.592 p(.001 C .. .80 "Rows 1 and 2, and 3 and 4 were combined in computa- tion of the Chi-square. ‘*Column (4) was excluded in computation of the Chi- square. because Of the small number of respondents in the combined autonomous and semi-autonomous categories. The data in Table 8 also tend to cpnfirm the expect- ed results but to a lesser degree than the data in Table'7. 100 TABLE 8 .EGREE OF JOB ACCEPTANCE FOR FOUR MANUAL CATEGORIES OF JOB INDEPENDENCE IN RESPONSE TO QUESTION 2: "OF ALL THE JOBS YOU KNOW OF, WHAT JOB WOULD YOU MOST LIKE TO HAVE?" Degree of Job Acceptance** Categories . Name Name Name No resp. oinggcgfiggiggfl present similar dissimilar Not appl. Total P job job job D. K. 1) 2) 3) (4) Self-employed autonomous manual 2 4 l 4 ll Semi-autonomous manual 5 5 1 2 13 Hierarchic manual skilled 2 3 8 1 l4 Hierarchic manual unskilled 1 8 6 15 Total 10 2O 16 7 53 x2 . 9.05 .02>p ).01 C =- .59 I I "Rows 1 and 2, and 3 and 4 were combined in computa- tion of the Chi-square. *‘Column (4) was excluded in computation of the Chi- square. The autonomous and semi-autonomous categories combined have the highest percentage naming "present job" (35 per cent), and the lowest percentage naming "dissimilar job" (10 per cent), indicating a high degree of job acceptance, while the hierarchic non-manual categories combined have the low- lOl est percentage naming "present job" (11 per cent) and the highest percentage naming "dissimilar job" (50 per cent), indicating a low degree of job acceptance. Table 8 reveals a moderately significant association between the same two variables for manual workers. This is demonstrated by the Chi-square, whose probability is below the .02 level. Again the null hypothesis may be considered untenable. A moderate degree of association is indicated by the C of .59. The data in Tables 7 and 8 show that in response to .Question 2 there is an association between job independence and job acceptance for both non-manual and manual groups, and that this association is greater for non-manual work- ers. It may be concluded from the data in Tables 7 and 8 that much of the relation found between the two variables in Question 2 can be largely attributed to the non-manual group. Table 9 shows there is an extremely significant association between non-manual and manual workers, and job acceptance irrespective of job independence. This is indi- cated by the Chi-square, the probability of which is less than .001. The null hypothesis may be considered unten- able. A moderate degree of association is indicated by a C of .62. Extreme caution should be used in interpreting data in Table 9, because autonomous and semi-autonomous 102 TABLE 9 DEGREE OF JOB ACCEPTANCE FOR TWO CATEGORIES IRRESPECTIVE OF JOB INDEPENDENCE FOR QUESTION 2: "OF ALL THE JOBS YOU KNOW OF, WHAT JOB WOULD YOU M ST LIKE TO HAVE?" Degree of Job Acceptance‘ Categories Name Name Name No resp. Total of Occupations present similar dissimilar Not appl. job job job D. K.‘ 1) 2) 3) (4) Non-manual l7 l7 9 4 47 Manual 10 2O 16 7 53 Total 27 37 27 11 100 x2 =- 19.104 p<.OOl C a .62 "Column (4) was excluded in computation of the Chi- square. respondents are over-represented in the non-manual category and under-represented in the manual category. The data in Table 9) suggest that the non-manual and manual composition of the groups may be a variable other than job independence that is related to job acceptance. B. The testing of other variables for Question 1: "What job would you most like to have at your present place of work?" Observations similar to those found for Question 2 were found for Question 1. The data in Table 10 tend to confirm the hypothesis. The autonomous and semi-autonomous 105 TABLE 10 DEGREE OF JOB ACCEPTANCE FOR FOUR NON-MANUAL CATEGORIES OF JOB INDEPENDENCE IN RESPONSE TO QUESTION 1: "WHAT JOB WOULD YOU MOST LIKE TO HAVE AT YOUR PRESENT PLACE OF WORK?" Degree of Job AcceptanceH Categories . Name Name No response of Occupational Total . present similar Not appl. Independence job 20b D. K. (1) 2) (3) Self-employed autonomous non-manual 5 6 ll Semi-autonomous non- manual 16 2 1 l9 Hierarchic non-manual white-collar 10 1 ll Hierarchic non-manual supervisory 5 3 6 Total 24 15 8 47 ’X2 . 20.986 p<.OOl U - .93 *- ‘Rows l and 2, and 3 and 4 were combined in computa- tion of the Chi-square. "Column (3) was excluded in computation of the Chi- square. categories combined have the highest percentage naming "present job" (91 per cent), indicating a high degree of job acceptance, while the hierarchic categories combined have the lowest percentage naming "present job" (19 per cent), indicating a low degree of job acceptance. 104 Table 10 shows there is an extremely significant as- sociation between job independence and job acceptance for non-manual workers in response to Question 1. This is in- dicated by the Chi-square computation in which the proba- bility is less than .001. A very strong degree of associa- tion is indicated by a C of .93. Caution should be used in interpreting the data in Table 11 because of the disprOpor- tionately few cases in the supervisory group. The data in Table 11 have only a slight tendency to confirm the expected results and to a much lesser degree than the data in Table 10. The autonomous and semi- autonomous combined have the highest percentage naming "present job" (76 per cent), indicating a high degree of job acceptance, while the hierarchic non-manual categories combined have a lower percentage naming "present job" (61 per cent), indicating a lower degree of job acceptance, which is nevertheless fairly high. Table 11 shows little association between job inde- pendence and job acceptance for manual workers. Statisti- cally, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected, for the probability of the Chi-square was less than thirty per cent and greater than twenty per cent. Perhaps, as indicated earlier in Chapter III, certain manual respondents replying to Question 1 may have been more influenced by their per- 105 TABLE 11 DEGREE OF JOB ACCEPTANCE FOR FOUR MANUAL CATEGORIES OF JOB INDEPENDENCE IN RESPONSE TO QUESTION 1: "WHAT JOB WOULD YOU MOST LIKE TO HAVE AT YOUR PRESENT PLACE OF WORK?" Degree of Job Acceptance" Categories . Name Name No response of Occupational ‘ . . Total . present Similar Not appl. Independence gob gob D. K. 1) 2) (3) Self-employed autonomous manual 4 2 5 11 Semi-autonomous manual 9 2 2 l3 Hierarchic manual skilled lO 4 ,‘ l4 Hierarchic manual unskilled 7 7 l 15 Total 30 15 8 53 2 'x = 1.182 .30)p).20 C . .25 "Rows l and 2, and 3 and 4 were combined in computa- tion of the Chi-square. ‘*Column (3) was excluded in computation of the Chi- square. ception of possibilities for further upward mobility than they were by independence in the work situation. From results analyzed in Tables 10 and 11 it may be concluded that much of the association between job inde- pendence and job acceptance for Question 1 can be largely attributed to the non-manual group. 106 Another kind of association was found in response to Question 1. Table 12 reveals that the non-manual hierar- chic respondents have the lowest percentage naming "present job" (19 per cent), indicating a low degree of job accept— ance, while the manual hierarchic respondents have the high- TABLE 12 DEGREE OF JOB ACCEPTANCE FOR TWO HIERARCHIC CATEGORIES OF JOB INDEPENDENCE FOR QUESTION 1: "WHAT JOB WOULD YOU MOST LIKE TO HAVE AT YOUR PRESENT PLACE OF WORK?" Degree of Job Acceptance"" Cate ories easissal A§EA.A§; Rgsgsetal (1) 22) (3) Non-manual hierarchic 3 l3 1 17 Manual hierarchic 17 ll 1 29 Total 20 24 2 46 )(2 = 7.232 .01)p ).001 C =- .59 i I "Rows l and 2 in this table are identical to rows 3 and 4 respectively in Table 6. ""Column (3) was excluded in the computation of the Chi-square. est percentage naming "present job" (61 per cent), indicat- ing a high degree of job acceptance. The data indicate a relation inverse to that expected between job independence and job acceptance according to the hypothesis. 107 The Chi-square computation reveals that this inverse association between the two variables is highly significant. This is demonstrated by the fact that the probability of the Chi-square falls between the .01 and .001 levels. The null hypothesis can be considered untenable. A moderate degree of association is indicated by a.C of .59. The data again suggest that perception of Opportunities for further upward mobility tend to influence acceptance of jobs at present place of work in response to Question 1. Other Chi—square tests of association were computed to test the relation between other discrete occupational groups and job acceptance for all three questions but no other significant association was discovered. In summary, from the analysis described in this chap- ter, it may be concluded that much of the association be- tween job independence and job acceptance for both Ques- tions 1 and 2 can be largely attributed to the non-manual group. It may further be concluded that there are differ- ences in job aspirations for the non-manual and manual groups which cannot be attributed to independence in the work situation alone. The data suggest that "these differ- ences" may be inherent in the non-manual and manual compo- sition of the groups and also in the perception of respond- ents to opportunities for further upward mobility at place of work. Remarks of certain workers who stated "It's too 108 late to change jobs now" also suggest that age may be re- lated to job acceptance. Further research using large samples where it may be possible to control a number of variables seems indicated, in order to discover and more clearly delineate variables other than job independence that are related to job accept- ance. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION Summary In this thesis an attempt was made to explain dif- ferences in job aspiration by investigating the relation of job independence to job acceptance. The study investigated the responses of 100 em- ployed adult males to three job aspiration type questions. The main proposition of the research was that the type of work is not as important a factor in the study of job aspi- rations as the amount of "independence" inherent in the work situation. Present occupations of reSpondents were rated by three judges according to amount of independence. The more independent occupations were classified as "autonomous." The less independent occupations were classified as "hier- archic." Answers to the job aspiration questions indicating varying degrees of job acceptance were related to the auton- omous and hierarchic categories. A respondent who named his present job in response to a job aspiration question was said to have a high degree of job acceptance; a re- 110 spondent who named a similar job was said to have a lower degree of job acceptance; and a respondent who named a dis- similar job was said to have the lowest degree of job ac- ceptance. Job acceptance was defined as the degree to which a person was resigned to, acquiesced to, complied with, or accepted his present job. The principal hypothesis for this study was that respondents with the most independent (autonomOus) jobs would have the highest degree of job acceptance and re- apondents with the least independent (hierarchic) jobs would have the lowest degree of job acceptance. A separate analysis was undertaken for each of the three questions, because each described a separate and dis- tinct dimension of job aspiration or job preference, as fol- lows: 1. Question 1 described the respondent's job as- piration in terms of job possibilities at his present place of work, 2. Question 2 described job aspiration in terms of any jobs the respondent knew of, and 3. Question 3 described job preference of the re- apondent for any job he had actually held. For each question, degree of job acceptance was re- lated to the categories of occupations that indicated vary- lll ing amounts of independence in the work situation. The data confirmed the hypothesis for the two questions that described job aspiration in terms of (1) jobs existing at the present place of work, and (2) all jobs known, respec— tively. There was no relation between independence in the work situation and job acceptance for jobs held in the past by the respondent. Because the literature indicated a fundamental cleavage between non-manual and manual occupations, a deci- sion was made to ascertain whether the relation between the two variables, job independence and job acceptance, could be attributed to the non-manual and manual composition of the groups. A supplementary analysis of the two questions where the relation between the two variables had been established was undertaken to determine the direction of the relation between the two variables for the non-manual group and the manual group. For the question involving job aspiration at pres- ent place of work it was found that there was a significant relation between job independence and job acceptance for the non-manual workers. None was found for the manual group.' It was concluded that the relatiOn between the two variables that was found for the question could be largely attributed to the non-manual group. 112 A significant relation, inverse to that expected according to the hypothesis, was also found between non- manual hierarchic and manual hierarchic workers and job ac- ceptance. The data suggested that another variable, per- ception of Opportunities for further upward mobility at present place of work, possibly influenced the answers of the respondents more than did the variable job independence. For the question involving job aspiration in terms of all jobs known, a significant relation between the two variables was found for the non-manual and manual groups. This relation was more significant for the non-manual than for the manual group. It was concluded that the relation between the two variables that was found for this question could be largely attributed to the non-manual group. It was also found for this question that job acceptance was significantly related to non-manual and manual occupations, irrespective of job independence. In summary, the hypothesis was substantiated for two of the three questions and it was concluded that, for the two questions where the hypothesis was upheld, the re- lation between the two variables could be largely attrib- uted to the non-manual group. Because other significant relations between variables were found that could not be explained in terms of the hypothesis, it was further con- cluded that variables other than job independence were re- lated to job acceptance. ~ mum.“ "I ‘ “ii.“ 113 Because of the limited sample and the fact that other variables such as age, education and income were not controlled, these findings should not be interpreted as conclusive. The fact, however, that significant associa- tions were found between the variables examined suggests further research is needed to either substantiate or reject the methods and/or the results of this exploratory study. Discussion A. Limitations in the wording and ordering of questions 1. Question 1: "What job would you most like to have at your present place of work?" It was noticed in response to Question 1 that eleven autonomous and three semi-autonomous respondents gave "not applicable," "no response," or "don't know" as an answer. Because most of these respondents were the only ones at present place of work, it was obviously difficult for them to answer the question. The extent of this "only person at place of work" structuring on "present job" re— sponses to Question 1 is not known. Answers of some re- spondents suggest, however, that this kind of structuring did affect "present job" responses. For example, a judge gave "It's the only one available" as a reason for naming his present job. Another gave as a reason: "I never worked for anybody else but myself." 114 For future research of this sort it is suggested that additional questions be included to determine approx- imate number of persons at place of work and the exact re- lation of the reapondent, as supervisor and/or subordinate, to other workers. It is not only important to know if a respondent is the only person at place of work, but it is also important to know if there are jobs at present place of work to which the respondent can aspire. If there are such jobs, it is important to identify them and determine, whether the respondent desires any of them or not, and for what reasons. In this study it was almost impossible to determine if those who named "present job" could have as- pired to other jobs or not. 2. Question 2: "Of all the jobs you know of, what job would you most like to have?" Perhaps one of the reasons only four hierarchic re- spondents chose a job higher up in response to Question 2 was that Question2 followedQuestion 1 ("What job would you most like to have at your present place of work?"), that elicited "higher job up" responses. Question 1 then per- haps acted as a filter question that permitted respondents to get "higher job up" responses "out of their system," so to speak. . If such was the case, additional weight should prob- ably have been placed on those who still aspired upward in 115 response to Question 2. Further research using alternate orders of questions seems indicated. A comparison of the answers to Question 2 with the job history of the respondents revealed that ten answers were jobs formerly held by the respondents. It may be pos- sible that respondents interpreted "all jobs know of" to mean knowledge of jobs based on actual work experience. The job history of eight out of the eleven respondents who did not respond to Question 2 showed that present job was the only one they had ever had. This would suggest that they did not "know of" other jobs, because they lacked ac- tual experience on other jobs. This would indicate that eighteen out of seventy-three (25%) of the "other than present job" responses to Question 2 may have been struc- tured by the "all jobs know of" wording. The effect this structuring may have had on "present job" responses is not known. To correct this situation it is suggested that Hop- pock's question, "If you could have your choice of all the jobs in the world, which would you choose?"1 or a question such as "If you had your choice of any job whatever, which would you Choose?" be used instead of Question 2 in similar future research. "Former job held" responses might also be 1Robert Ho pock, 2Job Satisfaction (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1935),p 116 reduced in answer to Question 2 or a similar substitute, if "Question 2" followed rather than preceded Question 3 ("Which of all the jobs you have had did you like best?") that elicits "former job held" responses. Question 3 would probably act as a filter question to reduce "former job held" responses in Question 2, were this suggested order of questions attempted. 3. Question 3: "Which of all the jobs you have had did you like the best?" Another difficulty was apparent upon examination of the job histories of eight respondents who did not answer Question 3. The job histories revealed that all eight had had no job other than their present job. It was obviously difficult for a reapondent who had had no other job than his present one to answer "Which of all the jobs you have had did you like best?" The effect of this kind of struc- turing on "present job" responses is also not known. 4. All three questions. One of the aims of this study was to discover the kinds of occupations "other than present job" that respond- ents desired. Because many respondents named "present job," it is obvious that the conclusions made in this study re- ‘garding "other than present job" occupations were based on a limited number of cases. 117 It is suggested that in future studies, after all job aspiration questions have been asked, the interviewer go back and pose the same question or questions over again to those respondents who answered "present job," prefacing each question with "other than your present job . . ." In .this manner it may be possible to ascertain the "other than present job" occupations desired by most respondents. It is not, however, suggested that "present job" responses be ignored in future analyses. B. Other Considerations 1. Study of positive job acceptance only It should be pointed out that this study only in- vestigated half the continuum of job acceptance--the posi- tive side. As counterparts to the three job aspiration questions studied were these three negative job aspiration questions which were not investigated: (1) "What job would you least like to have at your present place of work?" (2) "Of all the jobs you know of, what job would you least like to have?" and (3) "Which of all the jobs you have had did you like the least?"1 Obviously, naming "dissimilar 1It is interesting to note that only four respond- ents named present job in response to any of the negative questions, while 82 respondents named present job in re- sponse to at least one of the positive job aspiration ques- tions. 118 job"'indicating lowest degree of job acceptance, as inter- preted in this thesis is not as low a degree of job accept- ance as naming "present job" in response to one of the three negative job aspiration questions. 2. Amount of independence in the work situation It is suggested that in future studies questions be devised to ascertain the amount of independence the respond- ent perceives he has in the work situation. These questions would be designed to find out: kind and amount of super- vision, non-confining or confining nature of the work, ability to set own rate or pace of work, ability to make own decisions, method of payment by profits, commissions, salary or wages, and so on. It may be possible with a num- ber of crucial questions to develOp an Index of Job Inde- pendence. This index could then be related to Job Accept- ance or to Job Satisfaction, if such questions were a part of the study. APPENDICES 120 APPENDIX A A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION 'It was felt by this researcher that the Eicher the- sis could be further substantiated if it could be proved that "other than present job" responses to job aspiration questions indicated jpp dissatisfaction. The discussion that follows is an attempt to demonstrate that this assump- tion, henceforth referred to as the negative corollary, did 'not hold true for three kinds of "other than present job" responses to job aspiration questions. The first kind of response that did not necessarily indicate job dissatisfaction was the naming of a job higher up the occupational ladder in response to Question 1 or Question 2. Since one of Eicher's original assumptions in interpreting the data was that naming one's present job in response to any of the three questions indicated a high de- gree of job satisfaction, could job dissatisfaction be as- sumed for those respondents who, because of a desire for upward mobility, did not name their present jobs? Perhaps better questions to have asked would have been: "What kinds of peOple within a hierarchy tend to name a job high- er up the occupational ladder?", "What kinds of peOple within a hierarchy tend to name their present job?", or in 121 addition in Question 2 "What kinds of people within a hier- archy tend to choose jobs outside the hierarchy?" The second kind of response that did not necessari- 1y indicate job dissatisfaction was the naming of a job lower down the occupational ladder at present place of work, in response to any of the three questions. For example, a theatre manager named the job of projectionist because "He has no trouble; comes to work at 6:30; runs two shows and leaves." The theatre manager probably named the job of projectionist because it had certain features that were de- sirable. This did not necessarily mean that he was dissat- isfied with his present job or that he would necessarily Change jobs with the projectionist. Similar kinds of re- sponses were made by a factory owner who named the job of laborer in his factory and by three persons of high status in foundry hierarchies who named the job of molder. Usual- ly these kinds of responses were elicited by persons who were relatively secure in jobs of high status at the top of hierarchies. They had little or no possibility of further upward mobility at present place of work and thus could look back fondly on jobs of lower status with impunity.’ The third kind of response that did not necessarily indicate job dissatisfaction was a "not applicable," "no response," or "don't know" answer to any of the three ques- tions. Specific limitations in the wording and ordering of 122 questions caused some respondents to give these kinds of answers.1 Obviously these "other than present job" re- Sponses, because of limitations inherent in the questions, did not necessarily mean job dissatisfaction--the respond- ent through no fault of his could not name "present job." It was then concluded that for the three kinds of responses just mentioned the negative corollary, the naming of "other than present job" in response to job aspiration questions indicated job dissatisfaction, did not hold true. It should be pointed out that the discussion just described was based on a preliminary investigation that preceded the selection of the terms autonomous and hierar- chic for the occupational categories to be used in this thesis. As may be surmised by the reader, these terms were not chosen arbitrarily but were selected in order to cluster meaningfully the "other than present job" reaponses, par- _ ticularly those of a large number of respondents within hierarchies who named a job higher up the occupational lad- der. A cursory examination of the responses of self- employed and relatively independent respondents suggested that they might tend to aspire to jobs other than their present ones in a different prOportion and in a different 1Specific limitations in the wording and ordering of all three questions are discussed in Chapter V. 123 manner as compared with respondents who worked in hierar- chies. Since the goal of scientific research is the search for observable uniformities, it was deemed important to group similar reaponses in order to make any valid general- izations concerning the data. The terms, autonomous and hierarchic, were chosen as best describing, on the one hand those self-employed and/or "I'm my own boss" respondents, and on the other hand those respondents who worked within hierarchies. This ter- minology, which is an outgrowth of the preliminary investi- gation that preceded this study, is a personal innovation. It is hoped that these categories will prove useful for the study of occupations. This Study Contrasted with the Eicher Thesis Because the answers of the respondent to the three questions described (1) job aspiration in terms of job pos- sibilities at his present place of work, (2) job sepiration in terms of the jobs he knew of, and (3) job preference for any job he had actually held; for purposes of this study it was decided to analyze each question separately without any attempt at scoring. This is in contrast to the Eicher the- sis where the questions were not analyzed separately and an attempt at scoring was made. 124 A Semantic Problem As the investigation for this study progressed, it became increasingly apparent that there was a semantic problem. This problem involved the inherent difficulties implied in the use of the term "job satisfaction" for pur- poses of this research. Did the fact that a respondent named his present job in response to Question 1, 2, or 3 necessarily mean that the respondent was satisfied with his job or should it be said that he: 1. was resigned to keeping his present job 2. had accepted his present status as final 3. precluded further job mobility for himself 4. had achieved the status to which he had earlier aspired and in other words had arrived. Simply stated, naming present job might be termed acceptance of or resignation to present job status, rather than mean- ing a high degree of job satisfaction. Did the fact that a respondent, in answer to a job aspiration question, desired a job higher up the occupa- tional ladder, thus precluding naming "present job," neces- sarily mean that he was dissatisfied with his present job? To this researcher it seemed more realistic to say that this respondent had app achieved the job status to which he aspired. He was in-transit and still had hope. 125 Because of the semantic difficulties just described the term "job satisfaction" was not used for purposes of this research. In preference, the term job acceptance, a variable specifically designed by this researcher for re— Sponses to job aspiration type questions, was used. 126 APPENDIX B TABLES BASIC TO THIS THESIS TABLE 13 LIST OF OCCUPATIONS INCLUDED IN EACH CATEGORY Physician Real Estate Storm Window Sales Farm Implement Retail Store Hotel Proprietor Carpenter and mason Auto Body Repair ShOp Owner Letter ShOp Owner Grocery Store Owner" Partner in a Small Foundry Semi-autonomous non-manual Linoleum Salesman Sec.-Treas. of Savings & Loan General Manager of Factory Probate Court Judge Supervisor of Dry Cleaning Claims Adjuster Manager of Local Utility" High School Coach" Junior High Teacher" Theatre Manager Semi-autonomous manual Carpenter Steam Fitter & Welder Ice Cream Maker V Self-employed autonomous non—manual Furniture Store Owner Owner of Tenant Farms Livestock Broker Florist Surgeon Factory Owner Self-employed autonomous manual Truck Driver--owns own rig Shoe Repair ShOp Owner Partner in Gas Station Contract Painter Carpenter Painter-Decorator Policeman Supt. of Mails Salesman Oil Co. County Surveyor Radio Repair & Collect- $25!! Store Manager Dispatch Postal Clerk" Protestant Minister" Outside Salesman Truck Driver Truck Driver Farmer at State Home 8. 127 TABLE 13 (continued) S‘— Carpenter Auto Body Repairman Wholesale Grocery Delivery Stone Cutter & Carpenter Receiving Clerk Hotel Desk Clerk Asst. Cashier Bank Supervisor Office Dept. Store Manager for State Asst. Cashier Bank Trader in Shipping Dept. Supervisor in Foundry Foundry Foreman Hierarchic manual skilled Arc Welder Factory Coremaker Foundry Molder Foundry Carpenter Factory Weightmaster Factory Core Distributor Foundry Molder Foundry Coremaker Foundry Hierarchic manual unskilled Grinder & Pusher of Bow Iron Gas Meter Repair Rip Saw Machine Operator Foundry Laborer Laborer State Highway Dept. Attendant State Home ShOpwork in Factory Lv Semi-autonomous manual (continued) Painter Mason-~4 yr. ap rentice" etterer Hierarchic non-manual white—collar Clothing Sales Clerk Accountant State Home Sales Manager in Factory Accounting Administrator Bank Officer Hierarchic non-manual supervisory Foreman Woodwork Factory Foreman Factory Asst. Superv. Custodians State Home Maintenance Carpenter Lathe Operator Machine Shop Coremaker Foundry Moulder Foundry Plant Carpenter Owner Furnace Instl. & Machinist"" Cable Work Telephone Co. Car Puller Auto Body Plant OVen Tender Foundry Weightshifter Foundry Stock Work Factory Foundry Laborer Laborer City Street Dept. Attendant State Home "Serious questions were raised by one of the three judges regarding the classifying of those occupations 128 TABLE 13 (continued) marked with an asterisk. The fact that the judges were academic persons may have introduced bias in the judging. It was found after the judging that the minister, the coach, and the teacher has adpirations similar to hierar- chic white-collar respondents. The manager of the Utility was a special case. He could not aspire up at present place of work because he was the boss, but in response to Question 2 "of all the jobs he knew of" he aspired up in the larger hierarchy (the corporation) for which he worked. Irrespective of these considerations, the original judging according to the criteria described in Chapter I was kept intact, in order to maintain the scientific integrity of the study. It should be noted that two of the three judges agreed upon the classification of occupations marked with an asterisk and that all three judges essentially agreed upon the classification of those occupations not marked with an asterisk. ""It will be noted that the reSpondents marked with a double asterisk hold two jobs concurrently and that one of the two jobs is underlined. In each case the respondent answered his interview in terms of one of his two jobs. The job in terms of which he answered is the job underlined in the table. The underlined job is the job that was used for judging the occupational classification of the respond~ ent and for coding his interview. 129 TABLE 14 THE DATA FOR QUESTION 1: "WHAT JOB WOULD YOU MOST LIKE TO HAVE AT YOUR PRESENT PLACE OF WORK?" —‘- -_—‘_-—-——v -: -__ «'1 Degree of Job Acceptance Categories . Name Name No response of Occupational . . Total present Similar Not appl. Independence job gob D. K. (1) 2) (5) Self-employed autonomous non-manual 5 6 ll Self-employed autonomous . manual 4 2 5 ll Semi-autonomous non- manual 16 2 1 l9 Semi-autonomous manual 9 2 2 l3 Hierarchic non-manual white-collar 10 l 11 Hierarchic non-manual supervisory 3 3 6 Hierarchic manual skilled 10 4 14 Hierarchic manual unskilled 7 7 l 15 Total 54 30 16 100 I -w_i ” ’. THE DATA FOR QUESTION 2: TABLE 15 WHAT JOB WOULD YOU MOST LIKE TO HAVE?" 130 "OF ALL THE JOBS YOU KNOW OF, Degree of Job Acceptance Categories Name Name Name No resp. °§nggcgfigzfiggal present similar dissimilar Not appl. Total P 30b job job D. K. 1) 2) 3) (4 Self-employed autonomous non- manual 9 2 ll Self-employed autonomous manual 2 4 l 4 ll Semi-autonomous non—manual 7 10 l 1 l9 Semi-autonomous manual 5 5 1 2 13 Hierarchic non- manual white— collar 5 5 5 11 Hierarchic non- manual super- visory 1 2 3 6 Hierarchic manual skilled 2 3 8 1 14 Hierarchic manual unskilled l 8 6 15 Total 27 37 25 11 100 TABLE 16 THE DATA FOR QUESTION 3: HAVE HAD DID YOU LIKE BEST?" 131 "WHICH OF ALL THE JOBS YOU Degree of Job Acceptance g Categories Name Name Name N 0 re sp. oinggcggggiggal present similar dissimilar Not appl. Total P 20b job job D. K. 1) 2) 3) (4) Self-employed autonomous non- manual 6 2 2 1 ll Self-employed autonomous manual 5 3 2 1 ll Semi-autonomous non-manual 13 4. 2 l9 Semi-autonomous ~ manual 6 2 2 3 l3 Hierarchic non- manual white- collar 7 1 2 1 ll Hierarchic non- manual super- visory 4 2 6 Hierarchic manual skilled 8 2 3 1 14 Hierarchic manual unskilled 5 7 2 1 15 Total 54 . 23 15 8 100 132 LITERATURE CITED Bullock, R. P., Social Factors Related to Job Satisfaction, Columbus, TEe Bureau of Business—Research, ’College of Commerce and Administration, Ohio State Univer- sity, 1952. Caplow, T., The Sociology of Work, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1954. Centers, R., "Motivational Aspects of Occupational Strati- fication," Journal Lf Social Psychology, 28,1948, pp. 187- 217. , and H. Cantril, "Income Satisfaction and Income Aspiration," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychol— 25y, 41,1946_BET‘64T69 Chinoy, E., Automobile Workers and The American Dream, Gar- den City, New York: Doubleday, 1955. Daugherty, C. R., Labor Problems in American Industry, Boston: Houghton and Mifflin, 1933. Davies, A. F., "Prestige of Occupations," British Journal pl Sociology, 1952, III, pp. 134-14 . Edwards, A. M., Alphabetical Index Lf Occu ations, Washing- ton: United States Government PrintIng Office, 1937. Eicher, J., Job Satisfaction: Its Relationship to Occupa- tional, Stratification and Community VariEBles, un- published M. A. theSis, Department of SoCIology and AnthrOpology, Michigan State University, 1956. Form, W. H., "Toward an Occupational Social Psychology," Journal pl Social Psycholpgy, 24, 1949, pp. 85-99. , and G. P. Stone, The social significance of clothing in occupational life. Michigan State Col- lege Agricultural Experiment Station, East Lansing. Technical Bulletin 247, June, 1955. "The Fortune Quarterly Survey: XI," Fortune, 1?, January, 1938, p. 86. """‘ "The Fortune Survey," Fortune,21, February, 1940, p. 20. ‘ 135 "The Fortune Survey," Fortune, 34, December, 1946, p. 10. "The Fortune Survey," Fortune, 35, May, 1947, p. 10. "The Fortune Survey," Fortune, 35, June, 1947, pp. 5-6. Hagood, M. J., and D. 0. Price, Statistics for Sociologists, New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1952. Hansen, A. H., "Industrial Class Alignments in the United States," Journal of the American Statistical Asso- ciation, I7, December, 1920, pp. 421-425. Hatt, P. K., "Occupation and Social Stratification," Amer- ican Journal of Sociology, 55, May, 1950, pp. 533- Hochbaum, G., J. G. Darley, E. D. Monachesi, and C. Bird, "Socioeconomic Variables in a Large City," American Journal of Sociology, 61, July, 1955, pp. 31-38. Holland J. B., Attitudes toward Minority Groups in Rela- tion to Rural Social Structure, unpub ished.Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Sociology and Anthro- pology, Michigan State College, 1950. Hoppock, H., Job Satisfaction, New York: Harper and Brothers, I935. , "Job Satisfaction Researches," Occu atio 8, see vols. 16.2 - 35, April, 1938; October?_T94%? Febru- ary, 1943; April, 1945; April, 1948; December, 1948; December, 1949; October, 1950; May, 1951; May, 1952; September, 1953; September, 1954; May, 1955. Lipset, S. M., and R. Bendix, "Social Mobility and Occupa- tional Career Patterns, I. Stability of Job Holding," American Journal of Sociology, 57, January, 1952, pp. 555-374. , and R. Bendix, "Social Mobility and Occupational Career Patterns, II. Social Mobility," American Journal of Sociology, 57, March, 1952, pp. 494-504. Lyman, E. L., "Occupational Differences in the Value At- tached to Work," American Journal of Sociology, 61, September, 1955, pp. 138-144. Lynd, R. S., and H. M. Lynd, Middletown in Transition, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1937. 134 McCormick, T. 0., Elementary Social Statistics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1941. Miller, D. R., and G. E. Swanson, The American Parent in the Twentieth Century: A Stud in the Detroit AEea, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1954, unpub- lished study, COpyright 1955. Morse, N. C., Satisfactions in the White Collar Job, Ann Arbor: Institute for—Social'Research, University of Michigan, 1953. Noland, W., and E. W. Bakke, Workers Wanted, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1 . Pfautz, H. W., "The Current Literature on Social Stratifi- cation: Critique and Bibliography," American Journal 2; Sociology, 57, January, 1953, pp. 391-418. , and O. D. Duncan, "A Critical Evaluation of Warner's Work in Community Stratification," American Sociological Review, 16, April, 1950, pp. 205-215. Purcell, T. V., The Worker S eaks His Mind 23 Com an and Union, Cambridge: Harvar University Press, {953. Reynolds, L. G., and J. Shister, Job Horizons, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949. Roethlisberger, F. J., and W. J. Dickson, Management and the Worker, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, T939. Roy, D. F., "Work Satisfaction and Social Reward in Quota Achievement: An Analysis of Piecework Incentive," American Sociological Review, 18, 1953, pp. 507—514. Schaffer, R. H., "Job Satisfaction as Related to Need Sat- isfaction in Work," Psychological Monographs, 67, No. 14, 1953. Social Research Service, Youth and the World 2; Work, Michi- gan State College, 1949. - Stone, G. P., and W. H. Form, Clothing inventories and preferences among rural and urban families. Michi- gan State College Agricultural Experiment Station, East Lansing. Technical Bulletin 246, March, 1955. 135 Stone, G. P., "Instabilities in Status: The Problem of Hierarchy in the Community Study of Status Arrange- ments," American Sociological Review, 18, April, Warner, W. L., M. Meeker, and L. Eells, Social Class in America, Chicago: Science Research Associates, 4 . Wilson, L., and W. L. Kolb, Sociological Analysis, New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1949. Wren, H. A., Vocational Aspiration Levels 2f Adults, Teachers College Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 855, New York: Bureau of Publica- tions, Teachers' College, Columbia University, 1942. “11:11]”, 111111 :1 1111111 3111111“