THE BULLETIN

of the

UNITED STATES GOLF ASSOCIATION GREEN SECTION

Vol. 9 

Washington, D. C., November, 1929 

No. 11

Contents

Page

Annual Meeting of the Green Section...................................................................... 190

The Use of Peat, Muck, and Humus on Golf Courses........................................  191

Peat and Muck. By Alfred P. Dachnowski-Stokes.............................................. 192

Double Bermuda Greens and Their Treatment. By Thomas P. Hinman.... 196

Essentials of Cost Grouping. By William H. Aston........................................  200

New Agricultural Bulletins Applying to Golf Course Problems......................  202

Questions and Answers............................................................................................  206

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Wynant D. Vanderpool, Chairman, P. O. 

77, Newark, N. J.

Russell A. Oakley, Washington, D. C. 
Harvey L. Westover, Washington, D. C. 
H. Kendall Read, Philadelphia, Pa.

Box Walter S. Harran, Washington, D. C.
H. Y. Barrow, New York, N. Y.
John Monteith, Jr., Washington, D. C.
Cornelius S. Lee, New York, N. Y.
Robert M. Cutting. Chicago, Ill.

United States Department of Agriculture 
Russell A. Oakley, Chairman.
Harvey L. Westover.

United States Golf Association 
John Monteith, Jr. 
Kenneth Welton.

RESEARCH COMMITTEE

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

W. A. Alexander, Chicago, III. 
Eberhard Anheuser, St. Louis, Mo. 
A. C. U. Berry, Portland, Oreg. 
N. S. Campbell, Providence, R. I. 
Wm. C. Fownes, Jr., Pittsburgh, Pa. 
F. H. Hillman, Washington, D. C. 
Thos. P. Hinman, Atlanta, Ga. 
Frederic C. Hood, Watertown, Mass. 
K. F. Kellerman, Washington, D. C. 
Norman Macbeth, Las Angeles, Calif. 
E. J. Marshall, Toledo, Ohio.

W. L. Pfeffer, St. Louis, Mo.
George V. Rotan, Houston. Tex.
Sherrill Sherman, Utica, N. Y. 
Frederick Snare, Havana, Cuba. 
James D. Standish, Jr., Detroit, Mich. 
Charles E. Van Nest, Minneapolis, Minn.
W. R. Walton, Washington, D. C. 
Alan D. Wilson, Philadelphia, Pa. 
M. H. Wilson, Jr., Cleveland, Ohio. 
Frank L. Woodward, Denver, Colo.

The Bulletin is published monthly by the United States Golf Association Green Section, 

it Room 7207, Building F, 7th and B Streets, N. W., Washington, D. C.

Address all MAIL to P. O. Box 313, Pennsylvania Avenue Station, Washington, D. C.
Send TELEGRAMS to Room 7207, Building F, "th and B Streets, N. W., Washington, D. C
Subscription Price: In United States of America, Mexico, and West Indies, $4.00 per year; in 

all other countries, $5.00 per year.

Entered as second-class matter, April 21. 1926, at the post office at Washington. D. C.. under the 

Act of March 3, 1879. Copyrighted, 1929, by the United States Golf Association Green Section.

190

Vol. 9, No. 11

Annual Meeting of the United States Golf Association 
Green Section

The annual meeting of the United States Golf Association Green 
Section will be held in New York City at the Hotel Biltmore on Fri­
day, January 10, 1930. In the past few years the annual winter meet­
ing has consisted of three sessions, two on Friday and one on Satur­
day morning, at each of which there have been addresses on various 
subjects related to golf course maintenance. For the coming meeting 
it is planned to limit the formal program to a single session. This 
reduction is considered advisable chiefly because of the recent develop­
ment of the summer meetings. The new experimental and demonstra­
tion turf gardens under the supervision of the Green Section have 
afforded a new means for presenting information of value to those 
interested in turf culture under widely different climatic conditions. 
It is felt that most turf problems can be much more effectually dis­
cussed where methods and results are available for first-hand exami­
nation and comparison than is possible in assembly halls. During the 
past summer the Green Section staff, through the medium of two large 
sectional meetings at Washington and Chicago and local meetings on 
its demonstration gardens, was offered an opportunity to discuss turf 
problems with well over 600 individuals representing golf clubs scat­
tered throughout the country. In addition to the large number 
reached in this manner the Green Section work has been carried to 
many hundreds during the past year through visits of interested indi­
viduals to the turf gardens at Washington and Chicago at times other 
than the summer meeting days; through visits to golf clubs by the 
Green Section staff; and by meetings of many sectional organizations 
at which members of the Green Section staff have been invited to dis­
cuss their work. Since this method has proved so satisfactory this 
year both from the standpoint of those who attend these meetings and 
the Green Section staff, and since every indication points to even 
larger attendance at such meetings next season, it has been decided 
to condense the program at the indoor winter meeting.

The formal program of the Green Section meeting will begin 
promptly at 1 o’clock Friday afternoon. A resume will be given of 
the Green Section activities for the year, together with a brief sum­
mary of the more interesting experimental results. Following the 
Green Section reports there will be a short program by four speakers: 
Dr. K. F. Kellerman, associate chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, 
will discuss scientific agricultural developments and their-application 
to greenkeeping; Prof. F. H. Hillman, of the seed laboratory of the 
United States Department of Agriculture, will speak on the problem 
of bent seed production, identification, and adulteration; Mr. Cor­
nelius S. Lee, Tuxedo Park, N. Y., who is chairman of the green com­
mittee of the Jekyl Island Club, Brunswick, Ga., and Dr. T. P. Hin­
man, for many years chairman of the green committee of the Druid 
Hills Golf Club, Atlanta, Ga., will discuss southern golf turf problems. 
During Friday morning and the afternoon following the program, 
the Green Section will have on display in the hotel an exhibit of vari­
ous golf course grass seeds, fertilizers, different types and constitu­
ents of soils, and other items pertaining to turf maintenance. As at 
all other meetings sponsored by the Green Section, attendance is not 
limited to membership in the United States Golf Association.

November, 1929

191

The Use of Peat, Muck, and Humus on Golf Courses

To the layman the terms peat, muck, and humus are usually re­
garded as synonymous. To one acquainted with these materials the 
terms are by no means interchangeable. There is, however, a close re­
lationship between them, for the origin of all three is the same, namely 
dead organic material. Peat is past centuries’ accumulations of 
wood, sedges, mosses, and similar material which are packed together 
and preserved through the ages in a partially decomposed condition. 
When peat is further decayed it breaks down into a finer form called 
muck, in which form it is usually found mixed with clay or silt. Still 
further decomposition changes the material into what is commonly 
referred to as humus. Since peat, muck, and humus represent vari­
ous stages of decay and since they originated from many different 
types of vegetation, it can be readily understood why there should be 
such striking variations in the material classed under these names. 
In this number of the Bulletin Dr. Dachnowski-Stokes, physiologist 
conducting peat investigations for the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, 
United States Department of Agriculture, gives a brief review of the 
information now available on this subject. Any of our readers who 
are further interested in this subject may obtain additional informa­
tion by referring to the publications cited in his article.

Dr. Dachnowski-Stokes points out that peat and muck may be 
derived from any vegetation, including large trees or delicate mosses, 
which means that the texture varies according to the relative pro­
portions of the coarser or finer constituents. Also the texture varies 
with the stage of decomposition. The color, mineral content, and 
other characteristics vary in different peat and muck deposits. All 
these variations make it impossible to predict with any degree of 
certainty just what results can be expected from the use of peat or 
muck on a golf course.

Many enthusiasts have in the past discredited peats or mucks for 
golf course purposes due to their improper utilization. Many greens 
have been built in the past with underlying layers of peat, and 
invariably the results have been disappointing. Many individuals 
have been misguided into extensive use of peat or muck as a turf 
fertilizer. The Bulletin has repeatedly warned against the use of 
such material in layers and has cautioned its readers against being 
led to believe that it had much value as a fertilizer. The Bulletin 
however has, from time to time, pointed out that peat or muck may 
wisely be used in compost to add organic material to the soil. The 
final stage in the decomposition of peat or muck is humus. This 
latter term applies also to rotted organic material derived from ani­
mal refuse. An adequate supply of humus in the soil is desirable, 
whether it comes from animals or plants. Little definite scientific 
information is available as to what value peat and muck may have 
for turf production. Most of the information available as a result 
of trials so far is negative; that is, peat does not take the place of 
fertilizers, when used in layers it does not stimulate turf, it does not 
greatly stimulate bacterial action, and it does not solve the watering 
problem. As has been pointed out for many years, the only value of 
peat or muck, worthy of consideration from the turf standpoint, is 
as an ingredient of top soil and top-dressing for soil texture improve­
ment. Many soils on golf courses are greatly in need of organic 
material, and in such cases certain peats and mucks may be of much 

192

Vol. 9, No. 11

value. Well-rotted manure serves the same purpose, but in addition 
to its humus content manure also contains certain fertilizing elements 
and beneficial bacteria. Peat moss is now being extensively used as 
stable bedding or for poultry-house litter, and when combined with 
manure in this manner it forms an excellent ingredient of top­
dressing.

Some of the heavy peats have a relatively high nitrogen content; 
but this is not considered important, since this nitrogen is available 
to the plants only after a slow process of disintegration. Some 
mucks and dark-colored peats may contain such large amounts of 
sulphur and iron as to be poisonous to plants under certain condi­
tions. Such material should be avoided in turf work. Some muck 
contains so much clay and silt that it is undesirable for golf course 
use due to its tendency to form a hard crust in dry weather.

It is sometimes claimed that the undecomposed portion of the 
organic material in peat may have a beneficial influence on the soil. 
It is believed that a soil well supplied with such material will pro­
duce a turf which will remain more resilient than one deficient in it. 
There have been no adequate tests made to definitely support this 
claim that the portion which is not broken down can be of much 
value, but it is well known that the portion which is changed to 
humus greatly improves soil texture.

Peat and Muck
By Alfred P. Dachnowski-Stokes
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, United States Department of Agriculture

Many inquiries are received and considerable interest is shown 
concerning the agricultural uses of peat and muck and the conversion 
of these materials into organic manures and fertilizers. What is 
peat and what is muck? Where are the areas in which they are to 
be found ? What can be done with them ? These are questions which 
grow constantly more urgent, and they are difficult to answer briefly.
The aggregate area of peat and muck in the United States is 
approximately 100,000,000 acres. These deposits constitute not only 
one of the great resources of organic raw material and undeveloped 
land, but they also present an invaluable record of the history of 
plant life and changes in environment.

The visual differences between peat and muck have been pointed 
out in an illustration (plate 5) shown in Bulletin 1419* of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. The illustration is here 
reproduced. Reed muck, for example, is a well-decomposed granular 
residue derived from the plant remains of reed-like grasses; its 
existing characteristics are the result of many years of cultivation 
and cropping as well as weathering, oxidation, and the activities of 
micro-organisms at the surface and above the water level. The un­
filled and unaltered parent peat material below the surface is a 
brown, fibrous to felty network of rootlets and underground stems 
that are susceptible of botanical identification. Saturation with water 
had prevented access of air and stopped their decay.

‘All the publications referred to throughout this article are publications of the United States 
Department of Agriculture. They are no longer available for free distribution, but may be pur­
chased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

November, 1929

193

Varieties of Sedge and Reed Peat

(A) sedge muck; (B) radicellate sedge peat; (C) coarsely fibrous sedge peat; (D) 
reed muck; (E) partly fibrous reed peat; (F) coarsely fibrous reed peat. Each variety 
is shown here in natural size from air-dry sample. (From Bulletin 1419, U. S. Dept. 
Agriculture)

194

Vol. 9, No. 11

Different kinds of peat and muck are described and classified in 
Bulletin 802 of the United States Department of Agriculture. The 
most important types of peat in the sedimentary class are finely 
divided plant remains derived from soft herbaceous and aquatic 
plants, and the jelly-like material formed from organic suspensions 
in lakes and ponds. The fibrous class comprises the resistant ma­
terial derived from roots and rootstocks of sawgrass, tule, rushes, 
and sedges, and from the leaves of various mosses. The woody class 
of peat has been formed from disintegrating shrubs and timbers of 
forests.

The physical and chemical properties of several distinct types of 
peat are to be found in Tables I and II of Bulletin 802. The organic 
constituents, such as waxes, resins, oils, crude fiber including cellu­
loses and lignins, and nitrogenous and other substances of various 
peats from different States, are reported in a paper in the Journal 
of Agricultural Research (29:69-83, 1924), also published by the 
Department of Agriculture.

The inherent structural differences between areas of peat in the 
United States are pointed out in Bulletin 1419. The character, 
number, and sequence of the chief layers of peat of which they are 
composed greatly modify the practices and purposes of peatland agri­
culture. The bulletin contains descriptions of the more common pro­
files which constitute series of peat soils, and the factors involved in 
a proper selection of peatlands are discussed. It draws attention to 
the difficulties encountered in their utilization, and emphasizes their 
principal uses for the production of forage crops and timber and for 
the regulation of stream flow and water supplies. In Circular 252 of 
the Department, an account is given of different methods employed 
for excavating and handling peat and for preparing peat composts. 
Profitable methods of farming have been described in Farmers’ 
Bulletin 761, and some of the crops adapted to peat soils are listed in 
Bulletin 6.

The location and acreage of peat and muck in the United States 
are shown on maps of the Soil Survey, United States Department of 
Agriculture. In order to correlate and coordinate field and labora­
tory work, the peatlands of this country have been broadly divided 
into three main regions. They differ in surface vegetation, struc­
tural framework, and climatic conditions. These regions are 
described as follows:

The first main region consists of areas whose characteristic peat 
layers are derived from sedges, reeds, and similar vegetation. The 
group is technically designated as eutrophic, because the peatlands 
have an abundance of mineral salts and are neutral to alkaline in 
reaction. Outstanding members of this region are the sub-tropical 
Everglades of Florida, the semi-arid Delta peatlands of California, 
the valley peatlands of the Klamath and Willamette Rivers in Ore­
gon, and the areas of peat in the valley of the Mississippi River.

The second main region comprises the group of peat areas de­
ficient in plant nutrients (oligotrophic). It is chiefly confined to the 
northern portion of the New England and the Great Lakes States, 
and includes a belt of domeshaped, raised moors in Maine and Minne­
sota. The “high moors” in Maine contain moss peat up to 10 feet 
in thickness. The surface peat soils are usually acid in reaction, 
lack available nitrogen and mineral salts, notably lime, but have a 

November, 1929

195

relatively high content of decomposable fiber. However, the cool 
soil temperature during the growing season is not conducive to the 
activity of micro-organisms that ordinarily bring about decomposi­
tion and the availability of mineral plant food constituents.

The third main region includes peat lands from New Jersey 
westward to the southernmost boundary of the glacial drift toward 
South Dakota. These areas of peat have a more or less complex 
structural framework and are designated as the mesotrophic group. 
Lime, phosphates, and nitrogen may be present in the surface peat 
soil owing to the greater depth at which decomposition, favored by 
evaporation and warm summers, releases soluble plant food con­
stituents.

A belt of peatland represented by the Dismal Swamps along the 
Atlantic coastal plain from Virginia to Georgia has been included, 
for the present, in this third main group. They are predominantly 
woody and acid in reaction. Their relationships and uses are not 
well established.

Little is known regarding the characteristics of muck and humus 
derived from various peats, how they are formed, and the nature of 
the chemical compounds of the residual material in different regions 
and climates. Reed and sedge peats appear to give a larger fraction 
of nonfibrous soluble constituents, and to yield more rapidly available 
nitrogen and mineral matter. On the other hand, moss peat, for 
example that from Maine, offers a “crude fiber” with a higher 
cellulose content, but its utilization as a food supply and an available 
source of energy for micro-organisms must be aided by the addition 
of liquid manure or a solution of some readily available nitrogen 
carrier such as nitrate of calcium; hence the greater demand for moss 
peat as an absorbent in stables, bedding for poultry, and for com­
posting waste products of agriculture. Changes in water content, the 
action of freezing, leaching, the growth of plant roots, the presence 
of iron, sulphur, and other salts, and various micro-organisms, all 
play a part in the process of decomposition. The forces that are 
active in the transformation of peat into muck and humus are, there­
fore, mechanical, chemical, biological, and climatic as well.

The formation of muck from peat of different kinds is acceler­
ated by factors which are within the control of man. It is favored 
by the addition of manure and fertilizers, and by the application of 
lime, especially in States of the eastern humid belt. Peatlands pass 
more or less slowly from the natural state of well-preserved plant 
remains, through the muck stage, to the final transformation into 
humified organic matter. After that period has been reached, there 
remains a black soil with a high humus content to suggest the former 
location of the areas of peat. Since the settlement of the States, many 
extensive shallow deposits of peat which had once been under cultiva­
tion have disappeared. Today they constitute more properly a mineral 
soil type in the respective localities, with characteristic requirements 
and crop adaptations quite different from those of the original 
organic material._________________

Birds are the greenkeeper’s friends. It is rare that they are de­
structive to turf, and the quantities of earthworms, ants, and grubs 
which they dig out of or pick off the turf is scarcely appreciated. 
They can be attracted to a golf course by planting fruit-bearing 
shrubs and providing bird houses.

196

Vol. 9, No. 11

Double Bermuda Greens and Their Treatment
By Thomas P. Hinman
Druid Hills Golf Club. Atlanta, Ga.

The problem of putting greens in the South, where Bermuda grass 
is used almost exclusively, has been rather difficult of solution. Previ­
ous to 1917, these Bermuda greens were used throughout the year. 
When the frost killed the Bermuda grass we putted on the dead sur­
face, frequently sprinkling a little sand on the greens to make the 
surfaces more true. We were then greatly annoyed by the presence 
of what we called “winter grass,” or annual bluegrass (Poa annua), 
which grew in clumps on the green and practically destroyed what 
putting surface the dead Bermuda made. The continuous use of the 
putting green while the Bermuda lay dormant packed it so that fre­
quently large areas of the grass roots were destroyed and the green 
came through the winter with the surface in a very unsatisfactory 
condition.

Double green of Number 11, Druid Hills Golf Club, Atlanta. The two distinct playing areas of this 
green are divided by a steep turf bank where grass is allowed to grow long. The decided difference 
in elevation and the difference in slope of the fairway give a variation in playing this hole depending 
on whether the winter or the summer part is in play.

In 1916, Scott Hudson, president of the East Lake Country Club, 
conceived the idea of sowing a mixture of Italian rye grass, fescue, 
and redtop on a portion of the Bermuda green and using it as a winter 
green. The portion of the green that was sowed with the grass mix­
ture was, however, found to be in a very poor condition in the spring 
when the Bermuda grass started to grow. After a number of years 
of testing, we found that rye grass sowed alone gave best results, as 
fescue and redtop did not last long. In 1917 Mr. Hudson decided to 
make two greens for each hole, maintaining the length of the hole as 
nearly equal as possible for both greens. This plan was so satisfac­
tory that it has been adopted in this section as standard, and nearly 
all of the courses now have two sets of greens, one for summer and 
one for winter play. In this climate, where golf is played the year 
round, we believe it is necessary to have these two sets of greens, for 
in that way there is no interruption of play and no necessity of in­

November, 1929

197

stalling temporary greens between the time of abandonment of one 
green and beginning play on the other. In using single greens, if a 
green is planted in rye grass and is played during the winter, there is 
always a certain amount of time during which it can not be played. 
This interval usually amounts to at least six weeks. Moreover, in the 
spring there is no gradual transition between the rye grass green and 
the Bermuda green, so that temporary greens have to be put in again 
for at least six weeks.

Two distinct types of double greens are illustrated in the photo­
graphs appearing on these pages. The new course of the East Lake 
Country Club has two separate greens for each hole, although the line 
of division is not as clearly defined as in some of the greens at the 
Capital City Club, which were designed and built by Howard Beckett. 
As it has been found both economical and advisable to cover the sum­
mer or Bermuda greens in the fall just as soon as the grass becomes

Double green of Number 8, Capital City Club. Atlanta. This green is distinctly divided into 
summer and winter playing areas with the trapping similar in each case. The winter green is on 
the left and the summer green is on the right of the dividing sand trap.

dormant, it is better to have the summer and winter greens as far 
apart as possible, since it is rather difficult to play over the summer 
green, which is covered with pine needles, wheat straw, or some other 
substance. Under this latter condition there is a local rule to the 
effect that the player must drop off or around the covered green.

Two methods have been used for planting the winter greens. The 
method most generally adopted is as follows. After the winter green 
has been laid aside and we begin to play the summer green, the Ber­
muda comes up in scattered spots on the winter green and gradually 
spreads until it covers the whole green. During the summer, this 
winter green is kept mowed with a machine that is set to cut at about 
i/2 inch. In the fall, approximately October 1, these winter greens 
are cut very close, then thoroughly raked and cut again, and then 
sowed with about 80 pounds of Italian rye grass seed to each green. 
They are then fertilized with about 100 pounds of tankage, and as 
the rye grass germinates in about six days, the first cutting is done 
around the tenth day after sowing. The frequency of the cutting is 
dependent entirely upon the growth of the green. We usually start 
playing these greens about the 1st of December. The rye grass gives 

198

Vol. 9, No. 11

a very fair putting surface; but annual bluegrass begins to make its 
appearance about this time and by the 1st of February has filled in 
the green so as to make an excellent putting surface. By the 1st 
or 15th of June, when these greens are laid aside to use the summer 
greens, the rye grass has practically disappeared and we have nearly 
a pure annual bluegrass green. The annual bluegrass however dis­
appears shortly after this. The other method of planting, which has 
been adopted by Mr. Beckett of the Capital City Club, is early in 
September to skin the green of all grass with a hoe, rake it up, then 
cover with top soil to which has been added 100 pounds of tankage, 
and sow the third day in rye grass. It is his opinion that we thus 
get a better putting surface. The local greenkeeper’s club is watch­
ing these two methods with a great deal of interest, and we shall be 
able to report later which is more satisfactory.

The simplest type of double green, Number 7, Capital City Club, Atlanta. Where space or construc­
tion requirements are prohibitive it is found that double greens of this type will suffice instead of 
the more clearly defined areas such as shown in the two preceding illustrations. One-half of the 
putting area of this green is set aside for winter use and the other half is groomed for summer 
play only. No structural differences mark the line between the two sections.

Regarding the treatment of the summer green that is abandoned 
over winter, it has been found economical and satisfactory to cover 
the green with pine needles, wheat straw, or some other substance 
which will prevent the frost from destroying the dormant roots of the 
Bermuda grass. In this particular section there is a great deal of 
winterkill of the Bermuda roots, and the greens come up very spotted 
and grow very slowly. This covering accomplishes two things: first, 
it lessens the quantity of annual bluegrass which has to be cut out 
with a hoe when the green is being prepared in the spring for summer 
play; second, the green comes up more evenly and grows more vigor­
ously in the spring. In the October number of the Bulletin Mr. 
Beckett has discussed in more detail this subject of covering the 
summer greens over winter, and his article merits careful study in 
connection with my own observations on the subject. However, in 
the spring we have found it necessary in every case to sow some ad­
ditional Bermuda seed. The amount depends, of course, on the num­
ber of bare and thin spots on the green. Covered greens come up 
much more rapidly and evenly and are ready to play from two to 

November, 1929

199

three weeks ahead of those that have been left to the mercy of the 
weather. The United States Golf Association Green Section has a 
local experimental plot at Druid Hills where we are making some 
tests with Bermuda grass covered with various materials, including 
cottonseed hulls. Some of the plots will not be covered, in order to 
provide a control. Next year some of the results of these tests may be 
available for publication.

Save the birds from starvation over winter.—The providing of 
food for birds on golf club properties this winter is urged by the golf 
club bird-sanctuary committee of the National Association of Audu­
bon Societies. A pamphlet entitled “Winter Birds as Guests of Golf 
Clubs” has just been issued by the association and is being distributed 
from its offices at 1974 Broadway, New York, N. Y. In the pamphlet 
the following statement appears: “It is not the cold weather that kills 
birds. It is the lack of food. Their presence adds a touch of life and 
good cheer. As we feed these winter guests we come to regard them 
somewhat in the light of personal possessions, and with the satisfac­
tion of one who feels that he has done the right thing by his neigh­
bors.” The pamphlet contains specific instructions as to the simple 
methods that may be successfully employed to care for birds about 
golf club properties during the winter months. This pamphlet, it is 
announced, is the first of a series of publications to be distributed in 
the campaign which has been inaugurated by the National Associa­
tion of Audubon Societies to make bird sanctuaries of golf club prop­
erties.

About 337,000 insect parasites of the Japanese beetle were re­
ceived in the United States from Japan and India during the 12 
months ending June 30, 1929. It is reported that 5 or 6 species of 
these insect parasites have now become well established in this coun­
try. It is expected that the introduction of these insects will keep 
the abundance of the beetles reduced to such an extent that the dam­
age the beetles may cause from year to year will be no more serious 
than it is in the Orient.

The development of an organic insecticide which may take the 
place of arsenate of lead is a problem which specialists of the United 
States Department of Agriculture are encouraged to regard hope­
fully. An organic insecticide now being studied with this end in view 
is rotenone, at present obtained chiefly from the roots of derris, a 
plant occurring in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. A new source 
of rotenone promises to be a wild plant occurring in the mountains 
of Bolivia and Peru, called “cube.” The Indians of those countries 
use the roots of this plant to poison fish. Small quantities of the plant 
thrown in streams stun the fish sufficiently for the natives to catch 
them with spears or nets. It is thought the plant may be adapted 
to growing in the southwestern part of the United States. The de­
mand for organic insecticides, such as mowrah meal, nicotine, and 
pyrethrum powder, seems to be much greater than the supply. For 
most agricultural purposes these materials are to be preferred to 
the inorganic insecticides, such as mercury and arsenic compounds, 
since their poisonous effects are attended with less dangerous conse­
quences, especially when used on fruits and vegetables.

200

Vol. 9, No. 11

Essentials of Cost Grouping 
By William H. Aston 
Meadowbrook Country Club, Northville, Mich.

Accounting at the average golf club is conducted inefficiently. This 
is not hard to understand when it is borne in mind that the account­
ing policy of the average club is subject to the whims and fancies 
of changing directorates. As a rule, a golf club director is more 
interested in the physical aspects of his club, in the things he can see 
and feel, than in the unromantic drudgery which is so necessary but 
which to him seems so foreign to the peculiar benefits which mem­
bership in a golf club provides. In many American industries condi­
tions would be very bad today were it not for the assistance which 
individual firms receive from trade associations. A district golf 
association could bear somewhat the same helpful relation to its 
member clubs as a trade association bears to individual enterprises. 
Can not such district golf associations help golf clubs toward a more 
businesslike handling of their affairs? In this connection a uniform 
system of accounting for golf clubs would be a splendid thing. This 
could however be installed only by some governing body, such as a 
district golf association or some larger organization. But we should 
bear in mind that no system of uniformity can be completely worked 
out at any one time. It requires a period of development, which may 
extend over a number of years. Such a system must be broad enough 
to cover the requirements of any club, big or little. Time alone 
can produce a satisfactory system, as the experience of a number of 
clubs is drawn upon. It would not be necessary to try out a proposed 
system in a large number of clubs the first year, as its value could 
be determined by its application in a few clubs only. In fact, it 
might be preferable to start with only a few.

At the end of a year the balance sheet in any system of cost ac­
counting will show what has been spent. But will it contain enough 
information to enable one to make an intelligent analysis of the ex­
penditures? If it does not, then different cost headings must be set 
up on the books. Lump expenditures can not be intelligently analyzed. 
The larger expenditures must be broken up into subdivisions, such 
additional headings being made as seem necessary. If this is done, 
very interesting and instructive information will be obtained, which 
will possess great value in checking expenditures of succeeding years 
and in suggesting further refinement of the accounts. It is well to 
remember, however, that it is impractical to make changes on the 
club books during the busy season.

The key to a successful system of cost accounting is finding out 
what the essential divisions are to the cost grouping in the particular 
kind of business involved. When these are determined, half of the 
work is done, and what remains is a simple matter of bookkeeping. 
It is simply necessary to have the headings determined upon set up 
on the books, and then to have all bills and payrolls marked, before 
sent to the office, so as to indicate to which account they should be 
charged. One word of caution is advisable: do not fall into the error 
of posting such petty details as cutting the grass on this tee or raking 
that trap; such subsidiary records can readily be kept by the green­
keeper in a separate account, where they may be referred to when 
needed.

November, 1929 

201

My experience and study of golf course accounting over the past 
five years at the Meadowbrook Country Club and in the Detroit dis­
trict lead me to suggest the following headings as the essential group­
ing in golf club accounts. These are the headings in use at the 
Meadowbrook Country Club. The expenses of tennis courts and min­
iature golf courses are not included in this grouping, as such items 
should be kept in separate accounts. It will be necessary, of course, 
to make further subdivisions of these major titles, especially in the 
case of house and greens costs; but the same rule of grouping the es­
sentials will apply to such minor divisions.

Office.—Rent, salary, printing, telephone, postage, insurance, in­

terest, taxes, office furniture.

Greens.—Supervision and management of all club property not 
otherwise specifically provided for in the cost grouping. Greens costs 
should be divided into 7 major headings: labor, supplies, equipment, 
motive power, water system, replacement, and construction. These 
should again be divided into minor divisions such as may be shown 
on a greens cost sheet. The dividing line between maintenance and 
construction leaves a possibility of a wide range of opinion and un­
certainty. It is true that some construction work can be done in spare 
time; but if uniformity is desired, a sharp line must be drawn between 
the two.

House.—Supervision and management of the house, cafe, locker 
house, and similar buildings. This may be divided into four sub­
headings, as shown on the house cost sheet: house, cafe, locker house, 
and bar.

Sports and Entertainment.—Entertainments, tournaments, juve­

nile events, music, and similar features.

Building Maintenance.—New buildings, roof repairs, outside re­
pairs, outside painting, and major repairs and alterations both inside 
and outside. This applies to all buildings on the property, including 
also septic tanks and sewers. These costs should be met from a de­
preciation fund or a special amount set up in the annual budget. 
Some clubs would charge the expense of a new roof on a barn to the 
greens. That is entirely wrong. All accountants annually write off 
as a club expense an amount for depreciation. Consequently, if 
the cost of a new roof on a barn is charged to the greens, it is being 
charged twice. The new roof is prolonging the life of the building 
and should therefore be paid for either from the depreciation account 
or from an amount set up in the annual budget and a credit made to 
depreciation. In other words, the depreciation charge would be re­
duced by the cost of the new roof.

Grounds Maintenance.—Roads, walks, shelter, lawns, gardens, 
shrubbery, and similar improvements adjacent to the club house and 
the locker house. This does not apply to roadways on the course 
which are used for greens service. Items under grounds maintenance 
being purely decorative and in no way necessary for the playing of 
golf, should be entered on the books as a club account. Although at 
first thought they might appear to be included within the supervision 
of the greens, they are not a greens expense. Grounds maintenance 
should have two subheadings, (1) labor and (2) material.

Professional.—Salaries and expenses of the shop.

The most impressive hazard on a golf course is sand; then, in 

order, water, mounds, and rough grass.

202

Vol. 9, No. 11

New Agricultural Bulletins Applying to Golf Course 
Problems

Many of the bulletins issued by the State agricultural experiment 
stations and the United States Department of Agriculture have much 
of value and interest for those responsible for the care of the golf 
course. Below are given brief reviews of some recent publications 
of this type. If any of our readers seek further information on the 
subjects covered in the bulletins they may obtain copies of the bulle­
tins on request from the authors or the institutions which issue them.

“The Persistence of Certain Lawn Grasses as Affected by 
Fertilization and Competition”

This is the title of Bulletin 217 of the Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Kingston, R. I. The authors are E. S. Garner and S. C. 
Damon. The bulletin gives recent observations and an interpretation 
of results on the turf plots at the station, which was a pioneer in in­
vestigation of turf in this country. The grass plots at the Rhode 
Island station were started in 1905, long before golf turf problems 
had aroused much popular notice. The early observations on these 
plots led to the conclusion that soil acidity was an important factor 
in controlling troublesome weeds in turf and was largely responsible 
for the widespread use of sulphate of ammonia in turf culture in this 
country. The authors summarize the results of their studies as 
follows:

“The data contained are critically examined and afford evidence 

that—

“The fertilizers given have been effective in producing healthy 

turf and a wide range of H-ion concentration.

“The bent grasses are particularly tolerant of an acid-soil reaction.
“Kentucky bluegrass does not persist as well as the acclimated 
bent grasses, especially under conditions of relatively high soil acidity.
“Red fescue and fine-leaved fescue are exceptionally durable 

grasses in alkaline as well as in acid soils.

“Redtop and crested dog’s-tail are short-lived under acid or alka­

line lawn conditions.

and an excellent lawn grass.

“Acclimated velvet bent is an aggressive and persistent species 

“Without top-dressing, certain strains of creeping bent show a 
marked tendency to ‘run out’ after a few years under New England 
conditions.

“The number of weeds persisting is in inverse ratio to the degree 

of acidity; the higher the acidity the fewer the weeds.

“White clover volunteers most freely in soil having a slightly acid 

reaction.”

“Transplanting Trees and Shrubs”

This is the title of Farmers’ Bulletin 1591 issued by the United 
States Department of Agriculture. It was written by F. L. Mulford, 
of the office of horticultural crops and diseases, Bureau of Plant 
Industry. The bulletin deals with the care and methods used in 
transplanting trees and shrubs, both deciduous and evergreen. Such 
a bulletin should be useful in any greenkeeping library, since the 
moving of trees and shrubs is a common task about golf courses, and 

November, 1929

203

all too frequently the work shows every evidence of absence of in­
formation on the subject or lack of interest. As pointed out in the 
bulletin, “transplanting trees and shrubs is a means of quickly trans­
forming natural desolation and that brought about by human opera­
tions into attractive scenes.” If work is poorly done the expendi­
tures for the work may be in vain; and in addition to the money 
losses there is the serious loss of time. Various methods of handling 
must be employed with different types and sizes of plants as soil con­
ditions vary. Mechanical helps, such as derricks, pulleys, and jacks, 
are advisable for large plants. The following considerations, accord­
ing to the bulletin, are essential for success in the transplanting of 
trees and shrubs.

“A good plant, including a well-developed root system and a 

healthy top.

“Moving at the proper season: deciduous plants while dormant; 
evergreens when the ground is sufficiently warm and moist to stim­
ulate the plant to the immediate formation of roots.

“Proper digging: dormant deciduous plants to be dug with a min­
imum of injury to the roots, but without soil; evergreens with a ball 
of earth about the roots.

“WelLprotected roots; that is, kept covered and moist, and the 

ball, if any, unbroken.

the roots well spread.

“An adequate hole, wider and deeper than the spread of the roots.
“Proper setting: set at the depth at which it formerly grew, with 

“Suitable soil as to moisture, texture, and fertility.
“Correct planting: the soil to be brought into close contact with 

“Top pruning, to balance the loss of roots or other injury.
“Maintenance of adequate soil moisture until the plant is rees­

the roots.

tablished.”

“Better Lawns”

Under this title the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Wooster, Ohio, has recently issued Special Circular 18, by F. A. Wel­
ton and R. M. Salter. The circular contains instructions on the build­
ing and maintenance of lawns. The discussion appears under four 
main headings, (1) establishing a new lawn, (2) maintenance of turf, 
(3) rejuvenation of old lawns, and (4) pests. Advice is given on the 
subject of grading a new lawn, its drainage, preparation of its soil, 
its fertilization, and the tools useful in these operations. There is 
also a discussion of various standard seed mixtures suitable for lawns 
both in sandy and in shaded locations. It is pointed out that weeds 
and grasses are responsive to soil reaction, and suggestions are made 
as to the suitable soil reaction for success with different lawn grasses. 
Special treatment is recommended for the extremely sandy soils often 
found in the lake ridges of a State. It is pointed out that commercial 
seed mixtures are apt to be badly contaminated with weeds and worth­
less grass seed, although it is stated that “satisfactory results may be 
obtained from the use of ready-mixed seeds providing care is exer­
cised to purchase them from reliable firms.” Advice is given as to 
the time, rate, and method of seeding. There is a short discussion of 
creeping bent, in which it is pointed out that creeping bent although 
suitable for lawns under special conditions is not recommended for 
ordinary use.

204

Vol. 9, No. 11

In a discussion of the maintenance of turf, a mixed fertilizer of 
approximately a 10-6-4 analysis is recommended. Compost is recom­
mended for grass and suggestions are made for using leaves and 
waste material for the compost pile. Lime is recommended only 
where the soil is acid. It is pointed out that “on the limestone soils 
of western Ohio, it is seldom if ever that lawns need the addition of 
lime.” Where the soil is naturally acid it is stated that “an applica­
tion of 25 pounds of hydrated lime or double this quantity of finely 
pulverized limestone to 1,000 square feet once every 5 or 6 years is 
sufficient.” Rolling is recommended in the spring. It is pointed out 
that grass should not be cut too short, especially in dry weather and 
in early spring and late fall. Clippings should be left on turf except 
in shady and damp situations. An application of “water in liberal 
quantities at intervals of several days, rather than in light and fre­
quent applications,” is recommended.

Advice is given as to the best methods of rejuvenating old lawns. 
It is pointed out that this can not be accomplished in a short time and 
that “two or three years, even, may elapse before a satisfactory turf 
can be reestablished.” It is explained that the rejuvenation of old 
turf involves three steps, “(1) elimination of weeds, (2) liberal fer­
tilization, and (3) reseeding.” Each step is explained in the circular.
Suggestions are also given on the control of four common lawn 
pests. Carbon bisulfide treatment is recommended for ants; arsenate 
of lead for the control of grubs; cyanide of calcium, carbon bisulfide, 
or trapping for the control of moles; and bichloride of mercury or 
arsenate of lead for the control of earthworms.

“Artificial Manure from Straw”

The New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, 
N. Y., has recently issued its Bulletin 573 under this title. The 
authors are R. C. Collison and H. J. Conn.

On many golf courses there are large quantities of hay, leaves, 
and other refuse which are usually burned or hauled away. The golf 
club officials frequently inquire as to whether this material can not be 
profitably used as organic matter for compost. Different methods 
have been tested out in recent years for decomposing waste mate­
rial, particularly straw. The bulletin here referred to deals with the 
problem of decomposing piles of straw to form artificial manure. 
Although the authors of the bulletin conclude that this method is not 
an economical one for farms in New York due to certain require­
ments, especially that of the large water supply that is necessary, the 
system might nevertheless be practical on certain golf courses. Those 
who are associated with clubs where grass and leaves are regarded 
as a nuisance would do well to obtain a copy of the bulletin and test 
for themselves the practicability of the method. It also contains de­
tailed descriptions of the various raw materials, decomposing chemi­
cals, and methods of composting used in the experiments. The 
results are summarized in an introductory abstract, from which we 
quote:

“For some years investigations have been under way at this sta­
tion concerning the injury to plants caused by the presence of cereal 
straw in the soil or other medium in which the plants are growing. 
The most recent work has been concerned with methods of treating 

November, 1929 

205

straw to overcome this injurious effect. While these investigations 
were in progress, an English method was announced which, it was 
claimed, would rot straw quickly to an artificial manure. This 
method, together with a simple fertilizer mixture which had already 
been used for the same purpose, was used to rot straw in these ex­
periments. Both methods, in about three months, rotted the straw 
to a point where no injurious effect was noted on the growth of 
plants. The investigations indicated, however, that the labor in­
volved, the large water supply necessary, and the cost made it ques­
tionable if the method would be practical under average farm condi­
tions, at least in New York. Where the necessary requirements 
mentioned can be met, the method is worth a trial. Cutting down 
labor and water supply by depending on natural rainfall was not suc­
cessful in producing a good grade of ‘artificial manure’ within a 
reasonable time.”

“Facts on Lawn Management”

This is the title of Extension Leaflet 85, issued by the Extension 
Service, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. The 
author is L. S. Dickinson. The leaflet gives advice on the manage­
ment of lawns both from the standpoint of construction and main­
tenance.

In discussing the subject of construction the importance of the 
foundation and subsoil is stressed since these not only furnish the 
means of escape of excess water but also should hold a quantity of 
water in reserve for dry periods. A layer of a 5-inch depth of good 
top soil should be used. Some detailed advice is given on the subjects 
of preparation of the seed bed, seed, and seeding. Tables are given 
showing the grass seed found in typical lawn grass mixtures. Differ­
ent rates for mixing seed of different grasses used on good soil, sandy 
soil, and shady locations are given.

It is pointed out that “it is far better and cheaper to restore to a 
good condition a poor lawn than to rebuild it, especially if there is 
some good grass already growing.” A list of fertilizers is given, 
with notes on their rate of application and effect on turf. It is ad­
vised that clippings be left on lawns, and that the mowers be raised 
during dry weather. A thorough soaking once in six or eight days 
is advised in preference to short and daily sprinklings. It is advised 
that grass go into the winter rather long and that it be raked 
thoroughly and rolled in the spring. Suggestions are also given on 
the control of ants, moles, earthworms, dandelions, and crab grass.

To measure the area of a putting green: If rectangular, multiply 

the length by the breadth.

If circular, multiply the square of the radius by 3.1416.
If triangular, multiply the length of one side by half the distance 

from the middle of that side to the tip of the triangle.

If oval, add the long diameter to the short diameter, divide by 4, 
multiply the resulting figure by itself, and then multiply this final 
figure by 3.1416.

After allowances are made for the areas of indentations, projec­
tions, or other irregularities of the green, the figures obtained will 
closely approximate the area of the green.

206

Vol. 9, No. 11

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

All questions sent to the Green Section will be answered in a letter 
to the writer as promptly as possible. The more interesting of these 
questions, with concise answers, will appear in this column. If your ex­
perience leads you to disagree with any answer given in this column, it is 
your privilege and duty to write to the Green Section.

While most of the answers are of general application, please bear in 
mind that each recommendation is intended specifically for the locality 
designated at the end of the question.

Ridding greens of coarse Bermuda grass.—We have been using in 
our summer greens for many years Bermuda grass grown from Ari­
zona seed. It has been satisfactory except that some coarse Bermuda 
grass persists, which was doubtless introduced when the greens were 
first planted. We seed our greens each summer with the new fine 
strain of Bermuda grass but are unable to rid the greens of the old 
coarse strain. In several of our greens other grasses have become 
mixed with the coarse Bermuda and seem to make it a little finer and 
softer and better suited for putting purposes, by restricting its 
growth. Is it advisable to attempt to introduce bluegrass or some 
other grass into our greens in order to keep the Bermuda turf fine 
in texture? (North Carolina.)

Answer.—Practically all of the Bermuda grass seed on the mar­
ket is grown in Arizona. It is true that considerable seed of the fine- 
textured Bermuda grass is produced in Arizona, but since Arizona 
Bermuda grass is not uniformly fine a considerable proportion of the 
Arizona seed is likely to be from the coarser strains. It would appear 
from this fact and the fact that you are seeding your greens each 
summer, that you are introducing some coarse Bermuda on the greens 
each year. It is probable that the proportion of fine strains is in­
creasing; but since a considerable part of the Bermuda dies out each 
winter you are likely to introduce some coarse Bermuda with each 
seeding. It is also possible that some coarser strains can survive the 
winter better than some of the finer strains. We believe the best 
method of producing a uniformly fine Bermuda turf on all the greens 
of a southern golf course is the planting of stolons of selected fine 
strains of Bermuda grass in the same manner in which selected 
strains of bent grass are introduced into northern greens. A nursery 
of these fine strains can be established by selection of fine strains 
already in the greens. The greens can be planted each summer in 
the vegetative manner by scattering on the greens stolons cut from 
the nursery, and then top-dressing. In this manner nothing but the 
fine selected strains would be introduced on the greens. We know 
of nothing better than the fine strains of Bermuda grass for summer 
greens in your locality, unless it be creeping bent grass. Several 
courses in Virginia and North Carolina have all or some of their 
putting greens in the Washington or Metropolitan strain of bent 
grass, and it might be well for you also to try out one of these bent 
strains on your greens in view of the success appearing to result 
from their use under conditions very similar to yours.

Necessity for proper balance in complete fertilizers.—We are 
offered a commercial fertilizer analyzing 15-30-15 at $90 a ton de­

November, 1929

207

livered. What is its value in comparison with cottonseed meal at 
$45.50 a ton delivered? (Virginia.)

Answer.—We compare fertilizers for turf work chiefly on the 
basis of the nitrogen content since this is the element which is most 
costly and of most value for growing fine turf. Cottonseed meal usu­
ally analyzes 6-3-2. If 6 per cent of nitrogen, such as contained in 
the cottonseed meal, costs $45.50 a ton, 15 per cent, as contained in 
the commercial fertilizer you mention, would be worth $113.75 a ton. 
Therefore on the nitrogen basis alone the commercial fertilizer at 
$90 a ton would be an economy. We do not, however, recommend a 
fertilizer analyzing 15-30-15 for regular use on putting greens or 
fairways, since it is too high in phosphorus (30 per cent) and potash 
(15 per cent). One or two applications of such a fertilizer to greens 
or fairways would probably be beneficial, but if used constantly the 
phosphorus and potash content of the soil might be increased to such 
an extent as to cause trouble from clover and weeds. Cottonseed 
meal, pulverized poultry manure, and activated sludge, each of which 
analyzes about 6-3-2, are in our opinion better balanced for fine turf 
purposes than the commercial fertilizer to which you have referred. 
These three 6-3-2 fertilizers possess further advantage in that, being 
organic fertilizers, they decompose more slowly and thus have a more 
lasting effect than the inorganic fertilizers. Where quick results are, 
however, desired, the inorganic fertilizers are to be preferred. Sul­
phate of ammonia and nitrate of soda are of this latter class, and are 
very valuable as such. Sulphate of ammonia at a cost of about $60 a 
ton contains 20 per cent nitrogen. Detailed information on deter­
mining the value of commercial fertilizers is contained in the article 
on page 113 of the Bulletin for June, 1928.

Controlling chickweed with arsenate of lead.—We have usually 
been able to control chickweed in our greens by the annual weeding 
process, but this year it is altogether too much for us. One of our 
greens is liable to be entirely lost unless we can rid it of chickweed 
by some other method than weeding. In the Bulletin for September, 
1927, a report is published of the control of chickweed by the use of 
arsenate of lead at the Pine Valley Golf Club. Would you recom­
mend the use of this chemical under our conditions? (New York.)
Answer.—We have received a great many reports and have made 
some observations to the effect that arsenate of lead will rid turf of 
chickweed on some soils. If your putting greens are made up of any 
of the bents, fescues, or Kentucky bluegrass, we should recommend 
that you commence treating them with arsenate of lead, for it is 
probable that under your conditions the result would be successful. 
It is generally applied at the rate of 5 pounds to 1,000 square feet, 
mixed with compost or other top-dressing material. If however your 
turf is made up largely of annual blue grass (Poa annua), we should 
not advise you to apply arsenate of lead at this time, as we have re­
ceived some reports that this chemical will kill annual bluegrass. 
You mention that one green is practically covered with chickweed. 
It is therefore probable that if the chickweed were killed there would 
not be sufficient grass turf to take its place. In that case it would be 
necessary to replace the dying chickweed with sod. When a green 
becomes too badly infested with a foreign grass or a weed, it is usually 
advisable to remove the turf and either replant with seed, stolons, 
or sod.

To live in a scientific age, an age of rapidly accumulating 
knowledge, imposes heavy obligations upon education and 
upon the resultant social and industrial controls. In the 
presence of modern science those who do not know can not 
long survive, else they must seek the primitive places of 
the earth where the more elemental practices may persist 
for a time. Even in these primitive places, science will soon 
catch up and there will again recur the old biological require­
ment to learn, to move, or to cease to exist.

Otis W. Caldwell