THE BULLETIN

of the

UNITED STATES GOLF ASSOCIATION GREEN SECTION

Vol. 13 

Washington, D. C., October, 1933 

No. 5

Contents

Page

Effect of Variations in Concentration of Mineral Nutrients Upon the Growth 
of Several Types of Turf Grasses. By Mary E. Reid..................... 122
Effects of Shade on the Growth of Velvet Bent and Metropolitan Creeping 
Bent. By Mary E. Reid........................................................................  131
Relationship Between Fertilizing and Drainage in the Occurrence of Brown­
patch. By Arnold S. Dahl................................................................... 136
Usefulness of Kentucky Bluegrass and Canada Bluegrass in Turfs as 
Affected by Their Habits of Growth. By Morgan W. Evans and 
John E. Ely.............................................................................................. 140
Buffalo Grass for Fairways in the Plains States. By David A. Savage........ 144
Questions and Answers.......................................................................................... 149

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Ganson Depew, Chairman, Marine Trust Bldg., 

H. Kendall Read, Vice-Chairman, Philadel­

Buffalo, N. Y.

phia, Pa.

Eberhard Anhbuser, St. Louis, Mo.
Robert F. Arnott, Upper Montclair, N. J.

Frederick Snare,

H. Chandler Eagan, Medford, Oreg. 
Walter S. Harban, Washington, D. C. 
K. F. Kellerman, Washington, D. C. 
Norman Macbeth, Los Angeles, Calif. 
John Monteith, Jr., Washington, D. C. 
Guy M. Peters, Chicago, Ill.
Havana. Cuba.

RESEARCH COMMITTEE
United States Department of Agriculture
K. F. Kellerman, Chairman: Associate Chief. Bureau of Plant Industry.
F. H. Hillman, Botanist, Seed Investigations.
A. J. Pieters, Principal Agronomist in Charge, Forage Crops and Diseases.
Oswald Schreiner,.Principal Biochemist in Charge, Soil Fertility.
W. R. Walton, Senior Entomologist, Cereal and Forage Insects.
Harvey L. Westover, Senior Agronomist, Forage Crops and Diseases.

United States Golf Association Green Section
John Monteith, Jr.
Kenneth Welton

ADVISORY

COMMITTEE

William 
H. Aston, Detroit, Mich. 
Douglas 
Call, Richmond, Va. 
Paul N. . .. ____ ______
Coates, St. Paul, Minn.
W. C. Fownes, Jr., Pittsburgh, Pa. 
A. J. Goetz, Webster Groves, Mo. 
William Harig, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
Wiluam R. Hochster, Mamaroneck, N. Y. 
Jas. E. MacCloskey, Jr„ Pittsburgh, Pa. 
John Morley, Youngstown, Ohio. 
Alex Pirie, Fort Sheridan, Ill.

George Sargent, Atlanta, Ga. 
C. A. Sawyer, Jr., Boston, Mass. 
John Shanahan, West Newton, Mass. 
Stanley B. Sherman, Cleveland, Ohio. 
Harrison Smith, Oklahoma City, Okla. 
Henry P. Smith, Waco, Tex.
Raymond Tower, Tampa, Fla.
C. A. Tregillus, Everett, Ill.
Joseph Valentine, Haverford, Pa.
Alan D. Wilson, Philadelphia, Pa.

Frank H. Wilson, Newton Centre, Mass.

The Bulletin is published in January, February, May, August, October, and December by the 
United States Golf Association Green Section, at Room 7207, Building F, Constitution Ave. and 7th 
St., Washington, D. C.

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Entered as second-class matter, April 21, 1926, at the post office at Washington, D. C.. under 
the Act of March 3, 1879. Copyrighted, 1933, by the United States Golf Association Green Section.

122

Vol. 13, No. 5

Effect of Variations in Concentration of Mineral Nutrients 
Upon the Growth of Several Types of Turf Grasses
By Mary E. Reid

The problem of the specific effects of different mineral deficiencies 
on fine turf grasses has remained neglected too long. Information 
concerning the most outstanding symptoms caused by various min­
eral deficiencies may well be of value in diagnosing certain types of 
turf disorders. It would also be desirable to know the effects on turf 
resulting from an unbalanced relation between the quantities of dif­
ferent mineral substances required by plants from the soil. For ex­
ample, nitrogen is sometimes the only important substance supplied 
in the fertilizers employed. The long-continued addition of one sub­
stance exclusively may eventually result in a very unbalanced condi­
tion of the soil with respect to the plant requirements.

With the object of discovering and establishing the chief symp­
toms of a deficiency and in some cases of an excess of the more 
important mineral elements, some experimental studies were under­
taken. Plants were grown in pure quartz sand and were given min­
eral nutrient solutions in high, medium, and low concentrations with 
respect to six mineral elements—nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 
calcium, magnesium, and sulphur. A solution designated as high- 
phosphorus, for example, had the same concentration of the other 
five elements as a standard solution but varied from the standard 
solution in having a much higher phosphorus content. A low-phos- 
phate solution, on the contrary, varied quantitatively from the 
standard only in having a much lower phosphorus content. The solu­
tion designated as “medium” in the accompanying tables was the 
standard solution from which the variations in composition were 
made.

Four types of grasses were grown in the first experiment (Metro­
politan creeping bent, colonial bent, velvet bent, and Kentucky blue­
grass), and in the second experiment two types (Metropolitan creep­
ing bent and Kentucky bluegrass). Some cultures of grass were 
allowed to grow uncut, and others were cut in order to form a turf. 
The experiments continued over a period of 3 months in one case 
and 31/? months in the other. The first experiment was conducted in 
the greenhouse during the spring months and the second was con­
ducted in the open in summer.

The results with Metropolitan creeping bent will be described 
somewhat fully. Results with the other grasses will be mentioned 
only in case of conspicuous differences. The quantitative results 
obtained with Metropolitan creeping bent are given in the tables, 
and photographs depicting the effect of variations in concentration 
of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in the nutrient solution are 
shown in the three illustrations.

Nitrogen

The photograph shows the exceptional effect of variations in the 
quantity of nitrogen in modifying the proportions of roots to tops. 
Essentially the same results were obtained with velvet and colonial 
bents. The ratio of roots to tops of Kentucky bluegrass also varied 
with the quantity of nitrogen m the nutrient solution, but the differ­
ences were not nearly so great as were found with the bent grasses. 
With a small supply of nitrogen but an adequate supply of the other 

October, 1933

123

essential mineral elements, the bent grasses produced relatively large 
and deep root systems but small tops with little proliferation, wiry 
stems, reddish at the nodes, and rather stiff leaves, of small size and 
yellowish green in color. With an extremely large supply of nitro­
gen and a normally adequate supply of the other essential elements 
there was a weak development of the root systems but a very rapid 
leafy growth of the tops. The roots were short, tended to be coarse,

Effect of High, Medium, and Low Concentration of Nitrogen on 
Growth of Tops and Roots of Metropolitan Creeping Bent When Cut
to Form Turf and When Uncut.
Figures represent weight in grams

Experiment conducted in the greenhouse 
Cut to form turf

Total 
clippings

Experiment conducted in the open 

Cut to form turf

High nitrogen . .. .... 44.8
Medium nitrogen .. .. 37.6
Low nitrogen . .. .
6.7

. .. 

Uncut

High nitrogen ....
Medium nitrogen .
Low nitrogen ... .

High nitrogen ... .
. . 41.6
Medium nitrogen . .. 29.3
4.1
Low nitrogen ... . 

Uncut

High nitrogen ....
Medium nitrogen .
Low nitrogen ... .

Final harvest Total yield

of tops
38.5
40.9
15.5

of tops
83.3
78.5
22.2

71.5
52.3
21.5

85.0
98.2
30.0

113.1
81.6
25.6

171.0
130.2
31.5

Roots
10.5
20.0
25.5

8.0
29.0
36.0

4.0
7.0
11.5

13.0
22.0
25.5

not profusely branched, and tended to be reddish tan in color. The 
stolons of the uncut plants were long, succulent, not reddish at the 
nodes, and considerably branched. The leaves were bright green in 
color and were very easily injured by shading. Many of the lower 
leaves of the uncut cultures were dead, supposedly due to shading. 
This grass was very soft in texture and easily bruised. The medium 
supply of nitrogen, which was quantitatively well balanced with re­
spect to the other mineral components of the solution, produced char­
acteristics between the two extremes typical of the high and low 
nitrogen, that is, there was a better balanced relationship between 
the rate of growth of roots and tops, there was sufficient proliferation 
to produce good turf, the color was satisfactory, and the grass was 
neither unduly wiry nor excessively soft.

Cutting the grass reduced the total yield of the tops somewhat and 
it reduced very greatly the growth of the roots. This is in accord 
with results previously reported in the Bulletin by Harrison on the 
effects of cutting on the growth of roots of Kentucky bluegrass (Vol. 
11, No. 11, page 210).

Phosphorus

The effect of varying concentrations of phosphorus on the relative 
rate and amount of growth of roots and tops is quite different from 
that produced by nitrogen. Plants gr'dwn in full sunlight in summer 
showed greater growth of both roots and tops with increasing con­
centrations of phosphorus in the nutrient solution. The high-phos- 
phorus plants had longer and very much more branched roots than 

124

Vol. 13, No. 5

the low-phosphorus plants. The roots of the latter plants were much 
coarser than those of the former.

Effect of low (left), medium, and high (right) concentrations of nitrogen upon 
cut and uncut Metropolitan creeping bent.

There was not much readily observable difference in the character 
of the top growth of the plants receiving medium and high concen­
trations of phosphorus, but in both the cut and uncut plants the 
tops of the high-phosphorus plants were larger and more branched 
than those of the low-phosphorus plants. The data for the high- 
phosphorus plants grown in the greenhouse during the spring months 
have not been recorded in the tables because of the possibility that 
the nutrient solution may have been too acid. The composition of the 
high-phosphorus solution was changed for the second experiment so 
that a pH value of approximately 6.3 was maintained throughout the 
course of the experiment. In other experiments dealing with the 
effects of different fertilizers on grasses grown in the greenhouse, 
there has been a general tendency for smaller increases in growth due 
to high-phosphorus fertilizers than there has been with plants grown 

October, 1933

125

in the open in summer. In other words, plants grown in the green­
house tend to do fully as well with a medium amount of phosphorus 
in the nutrient solution as they do with a larger quantity. Plants 
grown in the open profit by a relatively large quantity, particularly 
with respect to growth of roots.

Effect of low (left), medium, and high (right) concentrations of phosphorus 
upon cut and uncut Metropolitan creeping bent.

Although it had been supposed that the phosphorus content of the 
high-phosphorus solution employed in the second experiment was 
sufficiently high to produce definitely unfavorable effects, such results 
were not obtained except possibly in one respect, and only in the case 
of the uncut plants. These plants produced an abundance of foliage 
of healthy color, but there appeared to be some tendency for some of 
the lower leaves to turn yellow. It seemed that this might be an age­
ing effect. There was no indication of it in the cut plants. In other 

126

Vol. 13, No. 5

types of plants, phosphates are sometimes applied to hasten maturity. 
Further work on this point should be done on grasses.

Effect of High, Medium, and Low Concentration of Phosphorus on 
Growth of Tops and Roots of Metropolitan Creeping Bent When Cut 
to Form Turf and When Uncut
Figures represent weight in grains

Total Final harvest Total yield

clippings

of tops

of tops

Experiment conducted in the greenhouse
Cut to form turf

Experiment conducted in the open

Cut to form turf

High phosphorus. ...
• . .
Medium phosphorus,. 37.6
Low phosphorus.. .. ,. 25.5

Uncut

High phosphorus...
Medium phosphorus.
Low phosphorus........

High phosphorus..... 36.7
Medium phosphorus.. 29.3
Low phosphorus......... 16.0

Uncut

High phosphorus....
Medium phosphorus.
Low phosphorus........

...
40.9
29.0

55.5
52.3
41.0

78.5
54.5

98.2
59.0

92.2
81.6
57.0

159.5
130.2
93.5

Roots

. - -
20.0
9.0

. . *
29.0
14.0

9.5
7.0
5.9

33.5
22.0
19.0

The foliage of the low-phosphorus plants was stiff and somewhat 
stunted and of a very dark bluish green shade. This deep color de­
veloped only when nitrogen was abundant, as leaves of plants given 
a solution low both in nitrogen and phosphorus had a light dull green 
color. In other tests in which only a trace of phosphorus was sup­
plied the stems and older leaves were of a bluish red to bronze-purple 
color. The low-phosphorus plants produced a very thin turf, due to 
the small amount of proliferation.

Potassium

There is considerable evidence that the supply of potassium should 
also be maintained in the soil in some degree of proportionality to 
that of nitrogen. If nitrogen is added to the soil in large quantities, 
it is probable that potassium in some form should also be added 
unless it is known that the soil has a suitable content of available 
potash. Chemical analyses of several types of grass clippings have 
shown that potassium ranks quantitatively second to nitrogen among 
the mineral elements removed from the soil. Grasses and related 
plants have long been known to absorb larger quantities of potassium 
from the soil than many other types of crop plants.

One illustration shows the effect of low, medium, and high con­
centrations of potassium in the nutrient solution and the first table 
gives the quantitative data for the same plants. The effects of vary­
ing concentrations of potassium were more marked on the roots than 
on the tops. Low potassium was particularly unfavorable to the 
growth of roots. The roots were short, coarse, not profusely branched, 
and tended to be somewhat soft, whereas those of plants receiving a 
high concentration of potassium in the nutrient solution were longer, 
very much more branched, finer, and appeared to be somewhat 
tougher. The foliage of the low-potassium plants was very soft, of 

October, 1933

127

a yellowish green color, showed a definite tendency to burn, and the 
leaves were longer and narrower than those of plants receiving more 
potassium. The leaves also were straight, that is, they lacked the 
somewhat spirally coiled or twisted effect characteristic of Metro­
politan creeping bent. The high-potassium plants, both the cut and 
uncut, were also definitely superior to the medium-potassium plants. 
About the same effects of concentration of potassium in the nutrient 
solution were observed in the cultures grown in the greenhouse during 
the spring and those grown in the open in summer.

Effect of low (left), medium, and high (right) concentrations of potassium upon 
cut and uncut Metropolitan creeping bent.

The most noticeable characteristics of the low-potassium plants 
were stunting of the roots, yellow-green color of foliage, softness of 
texture, and tendency to bruise easily,—characteristics probably due 
to a weak development of the strengthening tissues.

128

Vol. 13, No. 5

Kentucky bluegrass showed a very interesting and striking re­
sponse to potash in the number of rhizomes produced, their length

Effect of High, Medium, and Low Concentrations of Potassium on 
Growth of Tops and Roots of Metropolitan Creeping Bent When Cut to 
Form Turf and When Uncut
Figures represent weight in grams

Total 
clippings

Final harvest Total yield

of tops

of tops

Experiment conducted in the greenhouse 
Cut to form turf

Experiment conducted in the open 

Cut to form turf

High potassium...... 54.9
Medium potassium. . 37.6
. 31.9
Low potassium........

Uncut

High potassium....
Medium potassium.
Low potassium........

High potassium.... . 42.5
Medium potassium.. . 29.3
7.2
Low potassium....

Uncut

High potassium....
Medium potassium » .
Low potassium.....

35.5
40.9
22.5

66.0
52.3
18.0

90.4
78.5
54.4

100.0
98.2
61.3

108.5
81.6
25.2

135.0
130.2
102.0

Roots

27.3
20.0
14.5

40.5
29.0
15.4

12.2
7.0
3.0

34.5
22.0
11.5

and tendency to branch, all increasing as the potassium concentration 
of the nutrient solution increased. Variations in the nitrogen con­
tent of the solution produced somewhat similar effects on rhizome 
growth. This affords a further suggestion that some close connec­
tion exists between the utilization of nitrogen and potassium by grass 
plants.

Calcium

Some calcium is essential to the growth of all types of green 
plants. In these tests it was found that a large supply is in itself not 
directly necessary for the growth of the turf grasses used experi­
mentally. It is true, however, that a fairly good supply of calcium in 
some soils may be beneficial to turf grasses. This applies particularly 
to calcium present as lime, the beneficial chemical and physical effects 
of which are well known. The absorption of calcium is known to be 
increased by sunlight, and there is some evidence in these experi­
ments that plants grown in the open in full sunlight could obtain 
sufficient calcium from low-calcium solutions, whereas in the green­
house higher concentrations were beneficial. The low-calcium solu­
tions used in the greenhouse and out-of-doors experiments were in 
some respects not alike, and consequently it would not be advisable 
to draw any very definite conclusions as to differences in calcium 
requirements under conditions in the greenhouse and in the open.

There was evidence that the clipped grass was somewhat more 
unfavorably affected by having only a small quantity of calcium sup­
plied than the unclipped grass. The roots of the low-calcium plants 
were considerably coarser and less branched than those of the medium 
and high-calcium plants. The foliage of the low-calcium cut plants 

October, 1933

129

was of a somewhat lighter color than that of the plants receiving 
more calcium. A slight stunting of the low-calcium plants was also 
evident.

Magnesium

Magnesium is required by all green plants for the production of 
the substance called chlorophyll, which gives them their green color, 
it may possibly have other uses in the plants, but none other is 
definitely known. The small quantity of magnesium supplied in the

Effect of High, Medium, and Low Concentrations of Calcium on 
Growth of Tops and Roots of Metropolitan Creeping Bent When Cut to 
Form Turf and When Uncut

Figures represent weight in grains

Total 
clippings

Experiment conducted in the greenhouse 
Cut to form turf

High calcium....,... 46.3
Medium calcium.. ... 37.6
Low calcium........
... 30.4

Uncut

High calcium....
Medium calcium..,
Low calcium.........
Experiment conducted in the open 

Cut to form turf

High calcium ... ... 38.9
Medium calcium.. ... 29.3
Low calcium........
. . . 19.2

Uncut

High calcium....
Medium calcium..
Low calcium........

Final harvest Total yield

of tops

of tops

39.4
40.9
25.5

65.5
52.3
53.0

85.7
78.5
55.9

96.0
98.2
60.0

104.4
81.6
72.2

128.0
130.2
125.0

Roots

29.5
20.0
10.5

33.5
29.0
8.5

8.5
7.0
7.0

27.5
22.0
24.5

Effect of High, Medium, and Low Concentrations of Magnesium on 
Growth of Tops and Roots of Metropolitan Creeping Bent When Cut to 
Form Turf and When Uncut

Figures represent weight in grams

Experiment conducted in the greenhouse 
Cut to form turf

Total 
clippings

Experiment conducted in the open 

Cut to form turf

High magnesium... . 42.7
Medium magnesium .. 37.6
Low magnesium....
.. 33.0

Uncut

High magnesium...
Medium magnesium.
Low magnesium....

High magnesium ...,. 28.9
Medium magnesium,.. 29.3
Low magnesium. ...
. 23.6

Uncut

High magnesium ..,
Medium magnesium.
Low magnesium....

Final harvest Total yield

of tops

of tops

47.5
40.9
33.6

54.5
52.3
57.5

90.2
78.5
66.6

103.5
98.2
63.5

83.4
81.6
81.1

146.5
130.2
160.0

Roots

22.2
20.0
10.0

29.0
29.0
9.5

9.0
7.0
8.5

21.5
22.0
31.0

130

Vol. 13, No. 5

low-magnesium solution in the second experiment was sufficient for 
normal growth in regard to size. The color of these plants was ab­
normal. The leaves were a dull pale green. Those of low-magnesium 
plants grown in the greenhouse were considerably tinged with red. 
The cut plants grown in the greenhouse were benefited by having 
at least a medium supply of magnesium in the nutrient solution.

Sulphur

Only a very small quantity of sulphur is required for growth, and 
this is.adequately supplied in most soils. However, the addition of 
sulphur to some types of highly alkaline soils is very definitely bene­
ficial to some crops. This remedial effect of sulphur, however, is un­
doubtedly an indirect one. By its action in the soil it may release 
other elements, such as potash and phosphorus, which may be present 
in the soil chiefly in insoluble forms. It is also possible that it has 
beneficial physical effects upon some kinds of soils.

Effect of High, Medium, and Low Concentration of Sulphur on Growth 
of Tops and Roots of Metropolitan Creeping Bent When Cut to Form
Turf and When Uncut
Figures represent weight in grams

Total 
clippings

Final harvest Total yield

of tops

of tops

Experiment conducted in the greenhouse 

Cut to form turf

High sulphur...........  44.3
Medium sulphur.. ... 37.6
Low sulphur........ ... 46.6

Uncut

High sulphur ....
Medium sulphur..
Low sulphur ....
Experiment conducted in the open 

Cut to form turf

High sulphur .... . . 22.6
Medium sulphur.. ... 29.3
Low sulphur........ ... 14.3

Uncut

High sulphur ....
Medium sulphur..
Low sulphur........

36.8
40.9
36.0

50.5
52.3
38.0

81.1
78.5
82.6

99.0
98.2
91.0

73.1
81.6
52.3

148.5
130.2
137.0

Roots

27.0
20.0
34.5

29.5
29.0
29.7

5.0
7.0
5.2

19.5
22.0
32.5

Grass plants suffering from sulphur deficiency have slightly yel­
lowish green foliage. The coloration is much like that of nitrogen­
deficient plants. The low-sulphur-cut plants kept in the open during 
the summer grew somewhat less than plants receiving more sulphur. 
With this one exception it was found that neither the total growth 
nor the proportion of roots to shoots was influenced to any extent by 
variations in the sulphur content of the nutrient solution.

Effects of Cutting

In all of the tests with Metropolitan creeping bent involving the 
six different elements and at the three concentrations it may be ob­
served that cutting of the tops had a. very restricting effect on the 
growth of roots. This was also true of the other'three types of 
grasses.

October, 1933

131

Summary

It is well known that a supply of available nitrogen must be 
preserved in the soil in which turf grasses are grown in order to 
maintain a pleasing green color as well as to provide for growth. In 
view of the results here shown it would be highly desirable to main­
tain the other mineral elements, with particular attention to phos­
phorus and potassium, in some degree of proportion to the nitrogen.

Effects of Shade on the Growth of Velvet Bent and 
Metropolitan Creeping Bent

By Mary E. Reid

Many putting greens are situated in partially shaded locations. 
It has frequently been observed that under some conditions a certain 
degree of exclusion of sunlight may be beneficial but under other 
conditions may be detrimental to turf of putting greens and also to 
other parts of a golf course. Shading may vary as to intensity, 
quality, and time of day when it occurs. Some trees with dense 
foliage may be situated so as to exclude all direct sunlight over a 
certain area of a golf course, whereas others, with a different type 
of foliage, may produce a speckled shade, allowing considerable 
direct sunlight to filter through. The differences thus produced in 
size and shape of shaded areas in relation to size of individual grass 
plants constituting the turf is a matter of primary importance. If 
only certain portions of a plant are shaded, the effects on growth 
differ from the effects if the entire plant is shaded. There is a pos­
sibility, also, that shading in the forenoon may cause different effects 
from shading in the afternoon. It has, in fact, been observed that 
grass growing in areas shaded in the forenoon and later suddenly 
exposed to full sunlight may wilt more quickly than grass in areas 
exposed all day to full sunlight. Moreover, the soil in the full 
sunlight area may actually appear to be drier than that in the areas 
in which the grass suffers from wilting.

A possible explanation for this peculiar behavior may be found 
in the effects of shading on the development of the roots, as is shown 
in the results of some experiments conducted during the past sum­
mer. Although these tests dealt chiefly with velvet bent and Metro­
politan creeping bents, it is considered probable, on the basis of 
general observations, that other grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass, 
would respond similarly to the effects of shading. The grasses 
experimentally employed were grown both in pots and in plots under 
turf conditions. The results with velvet bent and Metropolitan creep­
ing bent grown in pots were so striking that it seems worth while 
to report them here briefly. In one experiment a liberal supply of 
superphosphate was mixed into the clay loam soil used for the test, 
and in another a small addition only of superphosphate was made. 
In the experiments with velvet bent a relatively light addition of 
sulphate of ammonia was also made.

Cultures in duplicate of velvet bent were grown under each of 
the following conditions: full sunlight; sunlight until 12, then shade; 
shade until 12. then full sunlight; speckled shade; and moderately 
deep shade. Shading was accomplished by setting the cultures under 
trees in locations which would furnish the desired conditions. Plants 
which had developed from a single plant of the 14276 strain of velvet 

132

Vol. 13, No. 5

bent were planted, the same number in each pot. The grass was cut 
to a height of % inch several times during the course of the experi­
ment. The water content of the soil of the various cultures was kept 
approximately uniform.

Cultures of velvet bent grown under five different conditions of light. Reading 
from left to right, (1) fully exposed to sun all day, (2) fully exposed to sun 
forenoon only, (3) fully exposed to sun afternoon only, (4) speckled sun all day, 
(5) shade all day.

The yield in grams of clippings from cultures grown under the 
different light conditions employed is shown in table 1. The grass 
kept in full sunlight grew more rapidly during the early phases of 
the experiment, but by the time the first cutting was made, Septem­
ber 10, there was no difference between the yield of clippings from 
these cultures and those which received full sunlight only in the 
forenoon. Plants that were kept in direct sunlight in the afternoon 
only did not grow quite so rapidly as those which were in sunlight 
in the forenoon only. Throughout the course of the experiment, 
growth of the grass shaded the entire day was much less rapid than
Table 1.—Effect of Shade on Velvet Bent.
Weight (in Grams) of Clippings Obtained at Three Different 
Dates Under Various Conditions of Light.

September 10 .
September 26
October 12 .........,  . . .

Sun 
all day
9.9
4.6
8.3

Sun fore­
Shade 
noon only
all day
10.0
3.8
7.7
1.7
8.8
1.1
. ------ — — —

Speckled 
sun all day
1.9
5.3
9.0

Sun after­
noon only
7.6
5.5
9.0

Total green weight of
clippings ...
Total dry weight

of

clippings .

22.8 

5.2

26.5

5.7

22.1

4.7

22.2

3.5

6.6

1.6

October, 1933

133

that of cultures receiving direct sunlight for either the entire day or 
for half a day. Plants grown in speckled sunlight produced about 
the same yield of clippings as those grown in full sunlight all day 
or half of each day. During the latter part of the experiment the 
plants kept in full sunlight all day grew less rapidly than those kept 
in sunlight only part of the time. Undoubtedly this was because 
scarcity of nitrogen had become a limiting factor in growth. At the 
end of the test the leaves of these plants were of a lighter and more 
yellowish green color than those of the others,—a condition here 
considered to be indicative of nitrogen starvation. If more nitrogen 
had been supplied, undoubtedly the differences in growth between 
plants in sun all day and those in shade would have been considerably 
greater than they were in this test.

Table 2.—Effect of Shade on Velvet Bent.

Weight (in Grams) of Tops and Roots Produced at End of Test 
(October 30) Under Various Conditions of Light.

Green tveights:

Tops .. . . ............
Roots .................

Total ...........

Dry weights:

Tops ...................
Roots .................

Total ...........
Ratio of tops to roots:

Green weight . .
Dry weight .......

Sun 
all day

Sun fore­
noon only

Sun after­
noon only

Speckled 
sun all day

Shade 
all day

. 25.3
. 44.4
_ _ —
69.7

6.1
9.S

—„ -
. 15.9

.6
.6

27.9
18.1

46.0

——

5.7
3.1

8.8

1.5
1.8

25.4
14.3
, —
39.7

5.1
2.5

7.6

1.7
2.1

28.5
7.4

35.9

4.6
1.4

6.0

3.9
3.2

-

10.5
2.9
-
13.4

2.1
.5

2.6

3.6
3.9

Table 2 shows the weights of tops and roots of the grass at the 
end of the experiment, October 30, and the illustration shows the 
appearance of the plants. The weights of tops and roots of duplicate 
cultures for each of the five different conditions of illumination were 
in close agreement with those of the corresponding plants shown in 
the photograph. There was not much difference in the growth of 
tops of the first four groups, all of which received some direct sun­
light. The shaded plants had much less branching at the crown than 
those of the four groups receiving direct sunlight. The leaves were 
long, slender, weak, and of a bright but comparatively light green 
color. During the ten weeks’ period of growth a complete ground 
cover was not produced, as was true under each of the four other 
conditions for growth. The individual plants could be readily 
discerned.

In contrast to the similarity in yield of tops of the four groups 
of plants receiving some direct sunlight were the striking differences 
in the weight, number, and length of roots produced. There appeared 
to be a direct relation between the amount of root growth and the 
length of daily duration of exposure to direct sunlight,—the longer 
the period, the larger the root system. The plants grown in full 
sunlight produced a dry weight of roots 18 times greater than the 
plants grown in shade, 7 times greater than those grown in speckled 
shade, and more than 3 times greater than those receiving full sun­
light in the forenoon or afternoon only.

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Vol. 13, No. 5

Table 3 summarizes the quantitative results of the entire experi­
ment (clippings plus plants at final harvest) calculated on a green­
weight basis. The differences in ratios of weights of tops to weights 
of roots under the different conditions for growth suggest an impor­
tant reason why grass may wilt more quickly under one condition 
than under another. If atmospheric conditions are such as to pro­
duce rapidly drying effects, plants with poorly developed root systems 
will naturally suffer more quickly than those with extensively devel­
oped roots.

Table 3.—Effect of Shade on Velvet Bent.
Summary of Results Shown in Tables 1 and 2 (for Green 
Weights Only) at Time of Final Harvest.

Sun 
all day

Sun fore­
noon only

Sun after- Speckled
noon only
sun all day

Shade 
all day

Cuttings, total weight

(table 1) .................  22.8
Tops Oct.30 (table 2) . . 25.3
■ —
Tops, grand total. . 48.1 

Roots, total weight (ta-

ble 2) .......................  44.4
Ratio of tops to roots . 1.1

26.5
27.9
■ —
54.4

18.1
3.0

22.1
25.4
- —
47.5

14.3
3.3

22.2
28.5

50.7

-

7.4
6.9

6.6
10.5

17.1

2.9
5.9

The unfavorable effects resulting from weakly developed root
systems are usually augmented by another factor. When exposed to 
conditions favoring rapid evaporation, such as high temperature, 
dry atmosphere, and wind, some grasses have a greater tendency 
than most plants to give off moisture through the leaves faster than 
they take it in through the roots. Their leaves are thus rather poorly 
adapted for conserving moisture. The mechanism controlling the 
opening and closing of the breathing pores may be less effectively 
developed for conserving moisture than that of most other types 
of leaves.

If velvet bent were grown in situations having a comparatively 
moist atmosphere in which there would never be danger of produc­
ing dessication effects (such as those previously mentioned, in which 
a weakly developed root system would be inadequate for its needs), 
it might thrive in partially shaded situations as well as if not better 
than in full sunlight. As far as top growth is concerned, there is 
evidence that in partial shade it may grow as well as if not better 
than in full sunlight. Its response to sunlight or partial shade would 
be dependent upon the type of soil. In poor soils it might grow 
faster in partial shade; in highly fertile soils faster in full sunlight.
Somewhat similar experiments were also conducted with Metro­
politan creeping bent. Some cultures were grown in full sunlight, 
others in partial shade. The latter condition was attained by placing 
the plants under a lath screen so constructed as to reduce the direct 
sunlight to less than one-half the normal amount. The 1%-inch 
laths were placed 1 inch apart with a north-to-south direction. With 
this arrangement every portion of each culture was in direct sunlight 
for a portion of the day.

It was found that Metropolitan creeping bent was less tolerant 
of shade than velvet bent. The tops of the partially shaded plants 

October, 1933

135

grew so slowly that it seemed advisable to leave them uncut through­
out the course of the experiment. As with velvet bent, there was 
very little proliferation, the stems were weak, internodes long, and 
the leaves light green in color. Table 4 gives the quantitative results. 
It may be observed that shading had a more restricting effect on 
root than on top growth. The green weight of roots of the plants 
kept in full sunlight was 8 times greater than that of the partially 
shaded plants. Under the experimental conditions employed, there 
was no benefit in any way resulting from the shading of the Metro­
politan bent. Possibly some benefits might have been observed had 
somewhat more light been provided to the partially shaded cultures.

Table 4.—Effect of Shade on Metropolitan Creeping Bent.
Weight (in Grams) of Clippings, Tops, and Roots Produced 
under Full Sunlight and Partial Shade.
Full 
sunlight 

Weight of clippings removed at end of experiment.......... 24.7 
Weight of tops at end of experiment................................. 40.2 

Partial
shade
Left uncut
19.3

Total weight of clippings and tops............................. 64.9 
Weight of roots at end of experiment................................. 19.4 
Ratio of weight of tops to roots........................................... 3.3 

19.3
2.3
8.3

The results of these experiments as shown in the tables and 
photograph give definite evidence that shade, if not too intense, may 
have a beneficial effect upon top growth of velvet bent in a soil of 
low fertility, but that root growth may be dangerously restricted, 
the reduction being approximately in proportion to the degree of 
exclusion of light. No beneficial results of shading Metropolitan 
creeping bent were observed under the conditions of shading em­
ployed. It is possible, however, that somewhat different results 
would be obtained if the plants were under less shaded conditions.

Violet rays an aid in seed identification.—Although it makes little 
difference to southern golf clubs whether they use perennial (Eng­
lish) ryegrass or Italian ryegrass as a winter turf on their dormant 
Bermuda greens, the seed analyst is often called upon to identify these 
two kinds of seed. Sometimes seeds of these two grasses are indis­
tinguishable by ordinary means. It has been discovered that violet 
rays would produce a glow on white filter paper on which the roots of 
certain plants are growing. With ryegrass seeds it is found that these 
rays when falling upon paper on which Italian ryegrass seeds are 
germinating will produce this glow, but not so with perennial ryegrass 
seeds. The reason for this peculiar behavior of the two varieties of 
seed is an entire mystery, but the test is admirably adapted for identi­
fication of the two varieties. The first experiments were conducted 
with a special violet-ray lamp, but later experiments revealed that an 
ordinary lamp would answer the purpose if a special light filter is 
used to shut out the visible rays.

Chemical fertilizers may be mixed with compost at any time that 
is convenient provided the compost is kept under cover. These ferti­
lizers do not lose their strength under such conditions.

136

Vol. 13, No. 5

Relationship Between Fertilizing and Drainage in the 
Occurrence of Brownpatch
By Arnold S. Dahl

The grass on putting greens tends to grow more slowly and to be 
weaker in the hot periods of the summer than in the cooler periods of 
the growing season, when a very rapid and vigorous growth takes 
place. Many greenkeepers desire to keep the turf growing as vigor­
ously in the summer as during the cooler months of the spring and 
fall. Abundant fertilization or poor drainage particularly during the 
late spring and summer may cause a restriction of the root system, 
and shallow-rooted plants thus produced find it difficult to survive 
the unfavorable periods of the summer. Abundant fertilization may 
also cause an overstimulation of the grass which, although producing 
a turf apparently healthy and vigorous, yet leaves it particularly 
susceptible to fungus diseases and other injuries that may occur 
during the hot periods of the year.

For some time there has been a need for more definite information 
as to the correlation between fertilization and drainage and the 
occurrence of disease. Many observations have been made, and 
reports of experimental work at the Arlington turf garden given, as 
to the greater severity of disease on succulent fast-growing turf as 
opposed to a harder and slower-growing turf. A careful check on 
these observations and reports was thought to be desirable, especially 
on areas which were well drained and those poorly drained. A series 
of plots was therefore planned which would contain areas heavily 
fertilized, areas lightly fertilized, and areas not fertilized. These 
plots were laid out side by side with a series on well drained soil and 
a duplicate series on poorly drained soil.

The area selected for these tests is located under conditions that 
are favorable to severe attacks of brownpatch. It is on a low area 
on Arlington Farm on the bank of a river. The lower part of the 
area is not tile-drained and is only a few feet above the water level 
at high tide, and occasionally the water comes up to within a few 
feet of the turf. Another part of the area is raised four feet above 
the low level; this section is tile-drained and the water is carried off 
within reasonable time. The subsoil in this area is a silt loam and 
the topsoil a rich loam. The plots were 2 years old at the beginning 
of the 1933 season. The turf was of colonial bent, being selected for 
the purpose because of its susceptibility to brownpatch.

The whole area is surrounded by trees, so that most of it is shaded 
a greater part of the day. This retards evaporation of water, and 
the soil dries very slowly after a rain. The trees also form an air 
pocket so that winds are checked and the air drainage is very poor. 
During the past season of 1933 there has been an abundance of 
rainfall, which has kept the lower part of the area almost constantly 
soaked with water and supplied the upper part with more water than 
it would ordinarily have had with artificial watering. At one time 
during the season a flood from the river brought the water up so that 
the higher area was under water for several hours. All of these 
conditions are favorable to severe attacks of brownpatch and under 
such severe conditions brownpatch was at least slightly active on 
89 per cent of the days from June to mid-September and severe 
attacks occurred on 56 per cent of the days during the same period.

October, 1933

137

The fertilizer selected for these tests was sulphate of ammonia, 
since it is readily available to the plants and causes a succulent 
growth and a quick response of the grass. This fertilizer when 
applied abundantly makes grass more susceptible to brownpatch, as 
has been proved in other tests that have been made previously. The 
treatments were divided into three classes—heavily fertilized, lightly 
fertilized, and checks which received no fertilizer. The heavily fer­
tilized plots received 23 pounds of sulphate of ammonia to 1,000 
square feet during the period from April to August. The first 
applications were at the rate of 5 pounds to 1,000 square feet. This 
rate was cut to 4 pounds in the early summer, and 3 pounds were 
applied during the midsummer period. This amount of fertilizer 
may not be considered overfertilization on many putting greens, 
particularly for greens on sandy soil, but for greens located in low 
pocketed areas with poor drainage and stiff soil it proved much more 
than is necessary or good for the turf.

The lightly fertilized plots received 8 pounds of sulphate of am­
monia for the same period. The first application of the year was at 
the rate of 5 pounds to 1,000 square feet, and 1 pound to 1,000 square 
feet in the subsequent treatments. This amount of fertilizer was suf­
ficient to keep a good growth of grass on the plots during the season, 
and in a drier year when the fertilizer would not have leached out as 
quickly less might have been applied to obtain a lightly fertilized turf.
During the month of May all of the plots were given fungicidal 
treatments to check brownpatch so as to give the grass a chance to 
respond to the fertilizer before the advent of the brownpatch season 
in June. These treatments consisted of 3 ounces of corrosive subli­
mate and calomel in the proportion of 1 part of corrosive sublimate 
to 2 parts of calomel mixed with topdressing and watered. After 
June 1 only half of each plot was treated for brownpatch and the 
other half was left untreated for the rest of the season. The treat­
ments during June were at the rate of 2 ounces to 1,000 square feet 
and during the rest of the summer at the rate of 1 ounce to 1,000 
square feet. Where an ounce of fungicide was applied, corrosive 
sublimate alone was used because of its rapidity in checking the 
disease, which became so serious that treatments had to be applied 
frequently.

Brownpatch developed in the untreated areas during most of the 
summer. There were only a few days when the disease was not 
active on some part of the test plots. During the summer, only on 
one or two occasions did any brownpatch appear in the treated areas, 
and on those occasions the attacks were small isolated spots which 
did little damage. It was necessary to treat every week, and in some 
weeks when it was hot and humid it was necessary to treat oftener 
than once a week.

On these plots, where every condition was favorable to severe 
and frequent attacks of brownpatch, almost complete control was 
obtained. At the end of the season some of the untreated plots were 
almost completely covered with areas injured by the disease, and 
many of these areas had to be reseeded to reestablish the turf.

During the course of the experiment the occurrence of brown- 
patch on the untreated plots was noted. A record of severe and light 
attacks was kept; the accompanying table gives a summary of these 
records. In making this arbitrary division between light and severe 

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Vol. 13, No. 5

attacks consideration was given to the total number and size of 
affected areas as well as to the amount of damage resulting from the 
attack. Therefore an attack which affected a large proportion of 
turf might be classed as a light attack if the total damage to the turf 
was light. On the other hand, if an attack resulted in serious damage 
to turf it might be regarded as a severe attack even though a rela­
tively small amount of turf was involved. As a general rule, how­
ever, there was a direct relation between the area affected and the 
amount of injury resulting from any attack.

Number of Attacks of Brownpatch on Heavily and Lightly 
Fertilized Plots and on Check Plots on Well Drained and 
Poorly Drained Areas.

Well Drained 
Heavily
Lightly
fertilized fertilized

Severe attacks . .... 26
Light attacks . .
. . . . 15

18
19

Check
12
18

Poorly Drained
Heavily
Lightly
fertilized fertilized

27
14

27
14

Check
18
24

41

41

37

42

30

Total.......... . . . . 41
It will be noted from the table that on the well drained areas 
the heavily fertilized plots had 26 severe attacks of brownpatch while 
the lightly fertilized plots had 18 and the checks only 12. The heavily 
fertilized plots had fewer light attacks of the disease than the lightly 
fertilized or the check plots. However, the heavily fertilized plots 
had a total of 41 attacks of disease, which is 37 per cent more than 
the checks. The lightly fertilized plots had a total of 37 attacks, or 
21 per cent more than the checks. There is not a great difference 
between the total number of attacks on the lightly and heavily 
fertilized areas, but the attacks that did occur on the heavily fertilized 
plots were much more severe.

The first occurrence of the disease in the season took place on 
the heavily fertilized plots, and these attacks were severe. The first 
few attacks that occurred on the lightly fertilized plots were light 
compared to those on the heavily fertilized plots. Later in the season 
severe attacks occurred on both the heavily and lightly fertilized 
areas. This indicates that when the turf is succulent and growing 
fast the grass is more susceptible than when it is not. In the early 
part of the year, when the temperature is not as favorable for the 
fungus, the disease will not develop as severely if the grass is not 
particularly susceptible. Later in the season, when temperature 
conditions are more favorable for the development of the fungus, the 
disease may attack grass which is not succulent and susceptible.

On the poorly drained area the heavily and lightly fertilized plots 
had the same number of severe and light attacks, 27 and 14 respec­
tively. The number of severe attacks on the fertilized plots was 50 
per cent greater than on the unfertilized check plots. The check 
plots had more light attacks than the fertilized plots and about the 
same total number of attacks, but the damage they caused was much 
less severe. In this area the moisture content of the soil was high at 
all times and conditions were favorable for the development of the 
disease. The fungus attacked the grass whether it was fertilized or 
not, but the unfertilized grass suffered far fewer severe attacks and 
was not as severely injured.

The heavily fertilized plots had about the same number of severe 
and light attacks on the well drained as on the undrained areas. This 

October, 1933

139

indicates that when too much fertilizer is applied disease will occur 
as frequently on well drained as on poorly drained turf. However, 
the injury is often more severe and the grass does not recover as 
quickly on the poorly drained areas. On the lightly fertilized plots 
there were 50 per cent more severe attacks on the poorly drained than 
on the well drained areas. The poorly drained check plots also had 
50 per cent more severe attacks than the drained check plots. In both 
instances there were more light attacks on the well drained than on 
the poorly drained plots, showing that when conditions were favor­
able for fungus growth the attack was apt to be more severe on the 
poorly drained than on the well drained plots. The total number of 
attacks on the poorly drained check plots was 40 per cent greater than 
on the well drained check plots, so that evidently the rapid draining 
of the water gave the turf some measure of protection from the 
disease.

Severe attacks of brownpatch can in a large measure be prevented 
or lessened in many cases by providing good drainage. On putting 
greens where a healthy and vigorous growth of turf is desired at all 
seasons of the year every means should be taken to encourage such 
healthy and vigorous growth. Therefore the green should be pro­
vided with drainage, both surface and underdrainage, efficient enough 
to remove excessive water with reasonable rapidity during wet 
seasons.

The conclusion may be drawn from these experiments that over­
fertilization of turf and poor drainage may cause frequent and severe 
attacks of brownpatch. The time to fertilize and the amount of fer­
tilizer to apply depend on the condition of the grass, the location of 
the putting greens, drainage, amount of rainfall during season, type 
of soil, weather conditions, natural richness of soil, and type of grass. 
It is not possible to give a general recommendation of the amount 
and kind of fertilizer to apply to greens, since each green must be 
treated differently, according to its requirements and to the season. 
It is important, however, to be careful with fertilizers and to apply 
only as much as is necessary to keep the turf in good putting condi­
tion without making it succulent. Turf on poorly drained areas may 
be much more seriously injured by overfertilization than turf on 
well drained areas, and when grass is injured by disease or any 
other condition recovery is much slower on poorly drained areas. 
Less fertilizer is needed to keep grass in a healthy condition on 
poorly drained soil, because there is no leaching of plant nutrients; 
such grass tends to grow more slowly, and less fertilizer is used in 
a certain period of time.

The title “poor man’s weatherglass” has been earned by a species 
of nonpoisonous mushroom of the genus Geaster (earth star), which 
serves as a barometer on account of its sensitivity to changes in at­
mospheric humidity. It grows in woods and sandy places and on 
partly cleared land. The two outer coats of its puffball split into 
sections which remain united at the top of the ball. These two coats 
however do not absorb moisture in the same degree, with the result 
that when the relative humidity is high- the sections of the outer coats 
stand out from the plant, and when the humidity is low the inner 
coat contracts more than the outer coat so that the sections curve 
sharply inward. This mushroom is also known as the barometer 
earth-star.

140

Vol. 13, No. 5

Usefulness of Kentucky Bluegrass and Canada Bluegrass 
in Turfs as Affected by Their Habits of Growth
By Morgan W. Evans and John E. Ely 
Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture

There are two species of grass belonging to the genus Poa com­
monly known as bluegrasses, both natives of the Old World but now 
very widely disseminated in North America which have become of 
great economic importance here. One of them, Kentucky bluegrass 
(Poa pratensis), is very extensively used in lawns, on the fairways 
and tees of golf courses, and elsewhere for turfs. It is quite com­
monly regarded as the best grass for these purposes. The other, 
Canada bluegrass (Poa compressa), is rarely or never used on lawns 
or in similar situations.

Each of these grasses has its own peculiar soil requirements. 
Although both grow under the climatic conditions existing in the 
humid parts of the northern United States and southern Canada, 
sometimes even in the same vicinity, yet usually they do not grow in

Figure 1.—A plant of Kentucky bluegrass. The soil has been removed so that 
the underground rooting stems are visible.

mixture. Generally, Kentucky bluegrass grows on comparatively 
fertile soils, Canada bluegrass on poorer soils. In some localities, its 
ability to thrive under conditions unfavorable to Kentucky bluegrass 
makes Canada bluegrass a valuable species for pastures or even foT 
meadows. A striking illustration of the differences in adaptability 
of these grasses was observed, a number of years ago, along a road­
side near New London, Ohio. Kentucky bluegrass was growing in an 
almost pure stand in the surface soil along the fence separating the 
roadway from the adjacent field. Near the roadbed there was a cut, 
on the sloping face of which the subsoil was exposed. On this subsoil 
there was a practically pure stand of Canada bluegrass. The line of 
demarcation between the areas occupied by the two grasses was as 
distinct as the differences between the soil and subsoil.

October, 1933

141

Canada bluegrass might have some value for turfs, if it did not 
have certain habits of growth which make it almost wholly unfitted 
for this purpose. Some of the differences in the habits of growth of 
Kentucky bluegrass and Canada bluegrass are illustrated in figures 
1 and 2. These photographs were made on May 3, 1932. Each plant 
had developed from a single stem or shoot, like those illustrated in 
figure 4, which was transplanted about the middle of May, 1931. On 
the day when the photographs shown in figures 1 and 2 were made, 
each plant was dug up, and the soil was carefully washed away from 
the roots and the underground rooting stems. The plants are shown 
in the illustrations with about the same arrangement of their parts 
as they had when growing in the soil.

Both grasses grow and spread outwards in the same way—namely, 
by means of underground rooting stems, technically known as 
rhizomes. After one of these rhizomes has continued its growth, 
usually for several months, and has extended outwards for a distance 
of perhaps several inches from the point of its origin, it turns upwards 
to the surface of the soil. From the bud or growing point at its tip. 
an above-ground shoot forms.

Figure 2.—A plant of Canada bluegrass, with the rooting stems exposed to view. 
Canada bluegrass plants are less leafy than those of Kentucky bluegrass.

At this stage of their development, an important difference occurs 
in the growing habits of the two species. On the plants of Kentucky 
IjJuegrass, at all times during the spring, summer, and fall, new 
branch shoots continue to form on older ones. On the plants of 
Canada bluegrass, on the other hand, during the spring and summer 
relatively few branches grow on the shoots which terminate the 
rooting stems. Although during the fall, on the stems of Canada 
bluegrass, branches do develop in large numbers, even then the leaves 
do not create the appearance of leafiness characteristic of the plants 
of Kentucky bluegrass.

The tendency of the plants of Kentucky bluegrass to produce 
numerous branch shoots and leaves, and the opposite tendency in the 
plants of Canada bluegrass, are indicated in figures 1 and 2.

142

Vol. 13, No. 5

The steins also of Kentucky bluegrass and of Canada bluegrass 
differ in the manner in which they grow in length. This difference 
largely explains the adaptability in the one, and the lack of it in the 
other, for use on closely mown turfs.

Except in the spring, on those shoots which produce seed heads, 
the stems of Kentucky bluegrass make a hardly perceptible growth in 
length. The growing point from which new leaves arise on each 
stem consequently remains near the surface of the soil. If the grass 
is cut with a lawn mower, the bases of the older leaves remain 
attached to the shoot, and new leaves continue to be produced from 
the growing point.

In the stems of Canada bluegrass, on the other hand, at all or 
nearly all seasons of the year when active growth takes place, the 
internodes of which they are composed become elongated, usually to 
at least a considerable fraction of an inch in length. As a result of 
this elongation, the growing point from which new leaves form 
gradually becomes elevated above the surface of the soil, where it is 
likely to be cut off, if the turf of which the stem is a part is mowed 
at the usual height with a lawn mower. The newly mown turf of 
Canada bluegrass, because of the large number of stubble of stems 
and relatively few leaves, has an appearance somewhat suggestive of 
a scrubbing brush. The sparsely leafed Canada bluegrass turfs which 
are mowed at frequent intervals make a thin covering of the soil. 
Experience has shown that other grasses and weeds encroach into a 
Canada bluegrass lawn to a much greater extent than in lawns of 
grasses which maintain a more dense soil cover of leaves, such as 
there is in a good lawn of Kentucky bluegrass.

Figure 3.—Kentucky bluegrass (left), Canada bluegrass (right). The approxi­
mate positions of the growing points of the shoots are here shown with reference 
to height of cut and height of growing point.

The difference in the way in which the stems of Kentucky blue­
grass and Canada bluegrass grow in length is illustrated diagramat- 
ically in Figure 3. The lower horizontal line represents the surface 
of the soil, and the upper one represents the altitude at which grass 
leaves and stems are cut with a lawn mower. In the Kentucky blue­
grass plant at the left, which is composed of a single shoot with its 
leaves and'roots, the position of the growing point is somewhere 

October, 1933

143

near the surface of the soil. In the 
plant of Canada bluegrass at the 
right, likewise composed of a single 
shoot, the growing point is above 
the elevation where the stem would 
be cut off by a lawn mower, conse­
quently no further growth could 
take place from it after the lawn is 
mowed. In order that a shoot of 
this kind may resume its growth, 
enough time must elapse for buds 
near its base to expand and produce 
new branch shoots.

In figure 4, an actual specimen of 
a shoot of Kentucky bluegrass is
shown at the left, and one of Canada 
bluegrass at the right. If these 
specimens had been dissected, their 
growing points could have been 
found, probably at positions corre­
sponding approximately to those in­
dicated in the diagrams in figure 3. 
In a younger shoot of Canada blue­
grass the growing point might be 
lower, where it would not be cut off 
by the lawn mower. As the shoot would become older, however, the 
stem eventually would become longer, and the growing point would
become high enough to be cut off when the lawn is mow’ed at a later
time.

Figure 4.—The shoot at the left is 
from a plant of Kentucky blue­
grass, the one at the right from a 
plant of Canada bluegrass. The 
growing point of shoots of Ken­
tucky bluegrass usually are at or 
slightly beneath the surface of the 
soil; in the shoots of Canada blue­
grass the growing points gradually 
become elevated above the surface 
of the soil.

Some greenkeepers find that they can treat their greens more 
quickly by the dry method of applying fungicides, and the absence of 
any need for costly equipment is also an advantage. In this method 
the chemicals are diluted by mixing them writh dry soil or sand, to 
give them bulk so that they can be applied more easily and uniformly. 
Usually about 8 quarts of soil or sand is used for each 1,000 square 
feet of turf. The soil should be comparatively dry and finely-screened. 
It is necessary to obtain a uniform mixture of the chemical and soil 
and to pulverize all the lumps, for if any lumps are permitted to lie 
on the turf they are likely to cause severe burns. An efficient method 
of mixing the chemical with soil is to first mix it with dry, sharp 
sand; preferably about twice as much sand as chemical should be 
used. These are rolled together with a rolling pin or a piece of pipe. 
In rolling them together the lumps are broken by the grinding action 
of the sand. The rolling should be continued until a uniform mixture 
is obtained as indicated by the absence of streaks. This mixture of 
sand and chemical is then mixed with the soil and broadcast over the 
green. 

* h

Whether the fungicide is applied with a sprayer or by the dry 
method it is usually watered thoroughly immediately after the appli­
cation.

144

Vol. 13, No. 5

Buffalo Grass for Fairways in the Plains States
By David A. Savage,

Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture

The value of the native buffalo grass {Buchloe dactyloides) for 
fairways in the Plains States has long been recognized by those 
familiar with the grass. As seed of this grass has, however, never 
been available commercially, due to the difficulty encountered in 
gathering it and due also to its low germination, all efforts to estab­
lish stands of the grass have been confined to vegetative methods of 
propagation. These methods of propagation have been under study 
since 1929 at the Fort Hays Branch Experiment Station, Hays, Kans., 
by the United States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with 
the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, and have now reached 
a stage which seems to warrant the recommendation of methods of 
propagation to golf courses interested in the establishment of this 
valuable grass on fairways in the Plains States.1

Area over which buffalo grass occurs naturally.

Buffalo grass occurs naturally over the area shown in the accom­
panying map. This area embraces over 500,000 square miles of the 
Great Plains. Throughout this region of major distribution there 
are many areas in which it occurs sparingly or not at all. It is found 
in purest stands on the plains west of the 99th degree of longitude 
in Kansas and east of the 5,000-foot contour line in Colorado. Scat­
tered areas, varying in size from small patches to large meadows, 
occur east of the 99th meridian, but the principal grasses in this 
more humid section are the bluestems, which often give way to buffalo 
grass on the higher lands or when overgrazed. In the region where

1 A more complete account of these experiments will be published by the United States Depart­

ment of Agriculture, and in such form will be available to those interested. 

October, 1933

145

it is most widely distributed, buffalo grass will require very little 
care or attention when once established on fairways. It also grows 
well and spreads rapidly in the marginal areas when protected from 
invasion.

Buffalo grass is best adapted to the heavier types of well drained 
upland soil in the area referred to above. It will not thrive on pure 
sand or on soils high in sand content, but has been found to grow 
well on sandy loam soil containing some clay. This grass is espe­
cially well adapted to the class of soils regionally referred to as 
“hard lands,” which produce heavy yields of wheat and other crops 
when placed under cultivation and properly farmed.

The results of limited experiments conducted at this station indi­
cate that buffalo grass may be propagated by setting out rooted or 
unrooted stolons in moist soil. The stolons will take root and grow 
in much the same manner as strawberry plants under especially 
favorable moisture conditions. This is a rather slow, tedious method 
and will succeed only if the soil is kept moist for some time after 
the stolons are set out. This method of propagation is not con­
sistently successful on strictly dry land or practical on an extensive 
scale. Covering an entire area completely with sods is practical 
only for very small areas, such as lawns, where the chief considera­
tion is immediate results without regard to the costs involved.

Transplanting Pieces of Sod

Source of supply of sods.—The buffalo grass sods should be ob­
tained from a virgin stand of nearly pure buffalo grass. It is pos­
sible to find such areas in most localities throughout the central 
Great Plains. Most of these areas contain a small mixture of grama 
grass, which is not very objectionable. Under natural conditions 
buffalo grass occurs in mixtures containing about equal numbers of 
staminate and pistillate plants with occasional patches consisting 
of pure stands of one sex. Whenever it is feasible to do so the 
exclusive use of pistillate or so-called female plants for lawn or fair­
way purposes is preferred. A turf composed entirely of pistillate 
plants with leaves wholly covering the stems is much more attractive 
than a turf containing staminate or so-called male plants. The brown 
spikelets of the latter rise above the leaves and detract from the 
green appearance of the turf.

Cutting the sods.—For this purpose a sod cutter is preferred to 
a plow. The former disturbs the roots less and makes a smooth, 
clean cut which facilitates the handling and transplanting operations. 
A satisfactory sod cutter may be constructed with comparative ease 
and at little expense by bolting a sharpened U-shaped, flat steel blade 
on sled runners or frames similar to those on a walking plow. A 
series of holes bored in the vertical ends of the blade to which sliders 
are attached allows for adjusting the depth of the cut. The blade 
should be shaped so as to cut a strip of sod about 12 inches wide. 
When the soil is well moistened by heavy rains, a two-horse team 
can pull a 12-inch sod cutter. Where it is desired to cut the sods 
in strips narrowerer than 12 inches, vertical knives similar to the 
fins of a crowning plow may be fastened to the U-shaped blade, so 
that two or three strips, 4 to 6 inches in width, may be cut with one 
operation. These strips usually are cut with a sharp spade to the 
final size desired before loading them on a wagon or truck for 
transporting.

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Cutting the sods in alternate strips, leaving an uncut area be­
tween, allows the buffalo grass to spread and rapidly heal the scars 
or furrows left by the cutter. Strips of sod cut in this manner in 
the spring of the year usually have become re-covered with grass 
by the end of the first season at Hays. If it is desired to maintain 
the original smooth surface of the prairie, these furrows may be 
filled in with fresh soil, taking care to leave no heavy deposit of 
soil on the adjoining uncut areas. A few years after this is done, 
it is impossible to detect that any sods had been removed. If the 
native sod is from sloping land, it is important to cut the strips on 
the contour to control erosion. Observance of these precautions will 
encourage the owners of buffalo grass grazing land to provide sods 
to those who have none of the grass available.

Rate of transplanting.—The amount of sod material required to 
transplant a given area of land depends upon the manner in which 
the work is done. An acre of cultivated land when transplanted with 
4-inch cubes spaced 3 feet apart requires about 2 square rods of 
original sod material or a strip 12 inches wide and 538 feet long. 
Four and one-half times that amount or about 9 square rods are 
required when the cubes are spaced 2 feet apart, and 9 times the 
amount or 18 square rods when the sods are spaced 1 foot apart. 
Double broadcasting with a common manure spreader requires the 
use of sod material equivalent to the amount needed to space 12-inch 
squares of sod 3 feet apart. By this method 1/9 of an acre of sod, 
obtained by the alternate stripping of at least double that area of 
native grass, will cover an acre of cultivated land.

Optimum transplanting season.—Buffalo grass has been success­
fully transplanted at Hays every month from March to August, 
inclusive. The moisture content of the sods at transplanting time 
and the rainfall conditions afterwards determine the rapidity of 
spread to a greater extent than the particular month in which the 
work is done. The slight differences noted in the dates of trans­
planting indicate that the best time to move the sods is in March 
and April, preferably before spring growth has started and imme­
diately following a heavy rain.

Sizes of sods.—Twelve different sizes, ranging in surface area 
from 2 to 17 inches square and in depth from 2 to 4 inches, have 
been compared in annual transplantings at this station since 1929. 
According to the results of these studies, the 4-inch cubes were the 
most convenient size to transplant and the most efficient in spread. 
Larger sizes spread faster but not so rapidly in proportion to their 
original areas. Large pieces may be used to advantage if it is found 
convenient to do so and the source of supply is plentiful. Smaller 
sods, particularly those 2 inches square and 4 inches deep, spread 
much more slowly than the 4-inch cubes.

Small sods, ranging in surface area from 2 to 6 inches square, 
spread considerably faster when cut to a depth of 4 inches than when 
cut to a depth of 2 inches. The spread of sods larger in surface 
area was not noticeably affected by the difference in depth of cutting.
Width of spacing.—Experiments in spacing buffalo grass sods 
were started at this station in 1929 and repeated each year there­
after. The results of these studies indicate that 4-inch cubes or 
pieces 6 inches square and 4 inches deep, when alternately spaced 
1 foot apart, will spread to cover the intervening spaces in one year 

October, 1933

147

under local dry-land conditions. Similar sods spaced 3 feet apart 
required less than three years to make a complete cover of grass. 
At the end of five seasons the sods spaced 6 feet apart had spread 
to cover practically all of the intervening spaces, as shown in the 
accompanying illustration. Transplantings of the sod in solid rows 
6 inches wide and 3 feet apart spread much faster but less efficiently, 
considering the amount of original sod material used, than indi­
vidual sods spaced 3 feet apart. The alternate or off-set method of 
spacing the sods in rows resulted in more efficient spread and faster 
coverage of the intervening spaces than regular checked spacing.

Precautions in transplanting.—While buffalo grass may be trans­
planted with reasonable assurance of becoming established and 
spreading rapidly, considerable care is necessary when it is desired 
to obtain a smooth, even surface of grass. To accomplish this end, 
the land to be resodded should be leveled and graded well in advance. 
Imbedding the sods level with the surface of the ground, either in 
holes dug by hand or in carefully plowed furrows, is important if 
it is desired to use the resultant area for golf or lawn purposes. If 
the sods are set too deep, loose soil washes over them and retards 
the spread of the grass. If the sods are not set deep enough, the 
soil may erode from around them leaving the ultimate surface rather 
bumpy and unlevel. High winds also contribute towards a rough­
ened condition of a transplanted area by blowing soil particles from 
around the sods and depositing dust in the grass. While care in 
transplanting is helpful in obtaining a smooth surface of grass, 
proper treatment after transplanting may serve to correct a rough 
surface condition caused by careless transplanting or wind and 
water erosion.

Methods of resodding large areas.—Resodding large areas is con­
sidered to be a practical possibility from a study of all the results 
obtained at this station.

Pieces of sod, varying in surface area from 2 to 17 inches square, 
and cut to a depth of 1 or 2 inches, have been successfully trans­
planted by merely dropping them on freshly and deeply cultivated 
land and pressing them level with the surface of the ground with a 
heavily weighted surface packer. This eliminates the tedious labor 
involved in digging holes or plowing furrows and setting the sods 
out by hand.

This time-saving method of transplanting, which has been rather 
well tested and found to be both practical and successful, may be put 
into practice in several ways. One suggestion is to cut the sods at 
a depth of 1 to 2 inches, using a 12-inch sod cutter equipped with 
erect dividing blades so as to cut three strips 4 inches wide at one 
operation. Cutting the strips into sods of a convenient length, 4 to 
12 inches, may then be accomplished with rapidity, using a sharp 
spade. The sods are then loaded on a wagon or truck and hauled to 
the field, which has been disked or plowed to a depth of 4 inches and 
leveled.

A three-man crew can unload the sods in a comparatively short 
time. One man drives the truck or wagon and two men unload the 
sods. If the sods are thrown to the ground, they must be handled 
with reasonable care to prevent them from landing grass side down. 
To eliminate this possibility and save time, the sods may be unloaded 
in sheet-iron chutes fastened to the wagon and dragging on the 

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ground far enough in the rear to prevent the sods from overturning 
as they slide off the incline. In this manner the sods are rapidly 
transferred from the wagon to the surface of the cultivated land, 
where they are pressed into the ground with a heavily weighted 
packer. If the nature of the soil is such as to cause some difficulty 
in packing the sods level with the surface of the ground, shovel 
attachments may be fastened to the bottom of the sheet-iron chutes, 
thus providing a furrow for the sods.

The unloading operation may be further facilitated by using a 
manure spreader with the reel removed and platforms fastened to 
the sides of the rear end for the unloading men to stand on. The 
driver can then operate the apron-moving lever and keep the men 
supplied with sods at the rear, so that there need be no delay in 
unloading. Such work should be started on the higher elevations, 
so that, if it is not completed at once, seed washing down from the 
higher land will assist in resodding the lower areas.

Broadcasting the turf.—Broadcasting small pieces of buffalo 
grass turf on recently cultivated land and packing afterwards has 
been successful only under favorable rainfall conditions at this 
station.

In 1930 a manure spreader was successfully used in broadcasting 
the sods. At first the sods were cut into small pieces the same as 
for broadcasting by hand, loaded on the manure spreader, and scat­
tered with the machine. This distributed the sods rather evenly 
over the freshly cultivated ground but shook most of the soil off the 
roots, causing the grass to dry out rapidly. To overcome this diffi­
culty and eliminate the task of chopping the sods into small pieces, 
shallow strips of sod in sizes as large in surface area as could be 
handled conveniently with a shovel were used. The spreader reel 
not only unloaded the sods satisfactorily but broke them up into 
rather small pieces without shaking so much soil off the roots, and 
scattered them rather evenly over the ground. The manure spreader 
in full gear was passed over the ground twice, leaving an even 
covering of small sods on the cultivate soil, which was firmly packed 
immediately after broadcasting.

This work was followed immediately by favorable rains, which 
caused most of the pieces of grass to renew growth satisfactorily. 
The spread of the grass was just as fast as that of 4-inch cubes 
transplanted 3 feet apart, and the final surface was smoother than 
that of the sods set out by hand.

Successful reestablishment of the grass also resulted from similar 
work conducted in 1931. However, the broadcasting operations in 
1932 and 1933 were followed by periods of dry, windy weather, from 
which none of the grass survived, indicating that broadcasting is 
not a safe practice for all conditions.

Treatment After Transplanting or Broadcasting

Packing the land with a heavily weighted surface packer after 
the sods are set out or broadcast is altogether essential in securing 
a rapid start of the grass and assuring a smooth surface. Irrigating 
resodded areas is seldom necessary but may be helpful when the 
water is sparingly and judiciously applied. Too much water is decid­
edly detrimental to the growth, as it encourages the competitive 
development of weeds and less desirable grasses, but a few light 
and timely applications will be helpful in starting the grass. When 

October, 1933

149

set out on low, poorly drained areas, the grass soon succumbs to an 
excess of water and is replaced by the less desirable taller grasses.
Buffalo grass spreads almost entirely by surface runners, which 
should not be disturbed by hoeing or cultivating after the sods are 
set out. It is well to clip at intervals throughout the season to con­
trol other growth and admit sunlight essential to the spread of the 
grass. Clipping will not wholly destroy but will reduce competing 
growth and leave a stubble over the land sufficient to minimize the 
roughening effects of erosion and soil blowing. A mowing machine 
or a high-cut lawn mower, cutting at a height of 2 inches, will cut 
the taller grasses without unduly injuring the prostrate buffalo grass. 
Observations indicate that persistent and repeated close clippings of 
buffalo grass with an ordinary lawn mower weakens the grass and 
encourages the inroads of weeds.

The uneven surfaces caused by wind and water erosion or careless 
transplanting may be leveled by topdressing after the grass has 
become fully established on such areas as lawns, golf courses, or 
football fields, where a smooth surface is desired. Depressions in 
the turf may be filled by periodic applications of a fine layer of soil, 
being careful not to cover the leaves entirely.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

All questions sent to the Green Section will be answered in a letter to 
the writer as promptly as possible. The more interesting of these questions, 
with concise answers, will appear in this column. If your experience leads 
you to disagree with any answer here given it is your privilege and duty to 
write to the Green Section. While most of the answers are of general 
application, it must be borne in mind that each recommendation is intended 
specifically for the locality designated at the end of the question.

Use of peat in preparing sandy soil for putting green purposes.— 
How valuable is peat in preparing a sandy soil in the construction 
of putting greens? In what amount should it be used on a soil that 
is almost pure sand? (New Jersey)

Answer.—Peat would be very desirable in supplying organic 
matter in preparing a top soil for your putting greens. For best 
results about 20 cubic yards of peat would be required for a green of 
6,000 square feet. The peat should be disked in and thoroughly 
mixed with the top 4 inches of soil.

How can we get rid of annual bluegrass? (Ontario)
Answer.—It is practically impossible to get rid of annual blue­
grass (Poa annua) in putting greens, by ordinary methods, once it 
has been allowed to go to seed in the greens. It will produce seed 
even when kept closely cut. When it first appears in a green as scat­
tered individual plants it can be removed by hand weeding. If it 
has developed into more or less solid patches, these may be removed 
with a hole cutter or a turf plugger. When, however, it is fairly well 
dispersed through a green it is necessary to remove all the sod and 
replant the green, weeding out any annual bluegrass afterwards as 
fast as it appears. Much can be done to prevent the grass from get­

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ting into a putting green. In the first place, care must be taken not 
to use topdressing material which might contain seed of annual blue­
grass. A great many golf courses are unconsciously putting annual 
bluegrass seed on their greens through the medium of topdressing. 
In order to detect the presence of the seed in topdressing material, 
a sample of the material may be put in a greenhouse and kept watered 
until all seed contained germinates and the identity of the plants 
can be determined. In the second place, care must be taken to pro­
tect a green from overwash from surrounding higher areas in which 
annual bluegrass occurs. This can be done by placing swales or sand 
traps so as to intercept the overwash.

Steam sterilization of soil under growing turf.—An apparatus has 
been shown to us for forcing steam below the roots of grass and it 
is suggested that by its use insects in the soil will be killed and the 
nitrogen content of the soil increased. Could this apparatus be 
advantageously used on putting greens? (Ohio)

Answer.—Steam sterilization of soil for killing weed seeds be­
fore the soil is used for planting crops has been practiced for some 
time, and you will find the process described in the Bulletin of Sep­
tember, 1930. We doubt, however, that steam could be forced into 
soil under growing turf without a certain amount of the steam filter­
ing around the roots of the grass and thus killing it. No doubt the 
steam would kill the insects and worms in the soil and tend to make 
more nitrogen and other plant food available, but if at the same time 
it destroyed the turf the results would not be so favorable. We do 
not know of any work that has been attempted with a view to steriliz­
ing soil underneath turf and are therefore unable to say to what 
extent the turf might be injured. It might be well to have the 
machine tried out to ascertain its effect on soil insects and on the 
turf underneath which the test is made.

Fertilizers for rose bushes.—We have had excellent results in our 
rose gardens by fertilizing twice a year with a mixture of pulverized 
cow manure and bone meal. We are told, however, that a certain 
specially prepared fertilizer should be used on roses, since it contains 
necessary elements not found in the mixture we have been using. 
Have you any information on this matter? (New York)

Answer.—The United States Department of Agriculture informs 
us that it has found nothing better for roses than the mixture of 
pulverized cow manure and bone meal applied to the bushes twice 
a year.

Reseeding greens.—Within a few weeks we must entirely reseed 
one of our greens and patches on other greens. In what manner can 
this best be done? (New York)

Answer.—In reseeding a green we would rake the existing turf 
and cut it as close as possible, and then spike the green, seed, and 
apply topdressing and fertilizer. If convenient, the seed, topdress­
ing, and fertilizer may be mixed together. The turf should not be 
spiked too deep, since seed washed to the bottom of holes that are too 
deep, and then covered with topdressing, might not germinate.

October, 1933

151

Should putting greens be watered in daytime or at night? (New 

Jersey)

Answer.—We believe that, everything considered, it is best dur­
ing summer to water putting greens in the early morning. The rea­
son for this is that the fungi which cause common turf diseases depend 
upon sufficient moisture and heat to make growth on the turf. The 
surface of a dry putting green would be less humid on hot nights 
than one that had been sprinkled. For that reason there is less 
spread of disease on putting greens at night if the surface is dry. 
In the control of fungus diseases it is advisable to get the dew off 
the greens as early as possible in the morning so that the grass may 
dry quickly. It has been found that watering the greens breaks the 
surface tension of the drops of dew on the grass, so that it dries 
much more quickly in the morning after it has been watered. Water­
ing has the same effect on greens in this respect as poling and switch­
ing. It is true that there will usually be more moisture lost by 
evaporation from early morning watering than from night water­
ing, due to the influence of the sun; but if the greens are watered 
thoroughly in the morning sufficient water will be stored in the soil 
to carry the greens through the following night, as the roots will 
tend to get in contact with the water which has sunk below the sur­
face. Even though the surface is dry in the evening it will be fre­
quently found damp before morning because there is a gradual rise 
of water in the soil. It has frequently been proved that, contrary to 
common superstition, watering putting greens in the sunlight does 
no harm. Another argument in favor of early morning watering is 
that greens are usually more economically and thoroughly watered 
then, since it is easier to keep track of the men engaged in this work 
in daylight than after dark.

Utilizing local strains of Bermuda grass on tees.—While bluegrass 
is abundant in our section it is not sufficiently vigorous to withstand 
the hard usage occurring on our tees, especially those calling for an 
iron shot. We also have a wild Bermuda grass here, commonly 
known as wire grass, which, however, seems to be ideal for our tees, 
as we have tried some out on the tees and with excellent results. It 
is difficult to find a sufficient quantity of this Bermuda grass for our 
purposes. We are sending you a specimen of the grass and should be 
glad to know where we may obtain seed or stolons of it. The grass 
loses its green color and becomes brown with the first frost, but it 
leaves a heavy mat during the winter months and becomes green 
again the following May. (Virginia)

Answer.—Bermuda grass varies considerably and consequently 
there are a great many distinct strains. However these have not been 
isolated and therefore we cannot identify your sample with any par­
ticular strain. You could plant Bermuda seed, but the chances are 
that this strain which is growing under your conditions is more hardy 
and better adapted to your section than the majority of plants that 
would be produced from seed. Bermuda grass grows luxuriantly in 
nurseries, and it is therefore suggested'That you plant a nursery of 
such patches of the grass as you may find possessing the best appear­
ance. The stolons or the sod produced in this nursery could then be 
used for planting your tees.

When the interval between intellectual 
classes and the practical classes is too 
great, the former will possess no influence, 
the latter will reap no benefit.

—Henry Thomas Buckle.